View source for Chagatai language

{{Short description|Extinct Karluk Turkic language of Central Asia}}
{{Redirect|Turki}}
{{Infobox language
| name             = Chagatai
| nativename       = {{Nastaliq|{{lang|chg|چغتای}}}}<br/>{{lang|chg|Čaġatāy}}
| region           = [[Central Asia]]
| era              = 15th to early 20th century
| familycolor      = Altaic
| fam1             = [[Turkic languages|Turkic]]
| fam2             = [[Common Turkic languages|Common Turkic]]
| fam3             = [[Karluk languages|Karluk]]
| ancestor         = [[Karakhanid language|Karakhanid]]
| ancestor2        = [[Khorezmian Turkic]]
| iso2             = chg
| iso3             = chg
| glotto           = chag1247
| glottorefname    = Chagatai
| linglist         = chg
| extinct          = {{circa|1921}} Developed into [[Uyghur language|Uyghur]] and [[Uzbek language|Uzbek]]
| script           = [[Perso-Arabic script]] ([[Nastaliq]])
| nation           = {{plainlist|
*[[Chagatai Khanate]]
**[[Moghulistan]]
*[[Yarkand Khanate]]
*[[Timurid Empire]]
*[[Mughal Empire]] 
*[[Khanate of Khiva]]<ref>{{cite book |last1=Grenoble |first1=Lenore |title=Language Policy of the Soviet Union |date=2003 |publisher=Kluwer Academic Publishers |isbn=1-4020-1298-5 |page=143}}</ref>
*[[Bukhara Khanate]] 
*[[Kokand Khanate]]
*[[Crimean Khanate]]<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://iranicaonline.org/articles/chaghatay-language-and-literature|quote=Ebn Mohannā (Jamāl-al-Dīn, fl. early 8th/14th century, probably in Khorasan), for instance, characterized it as the purest of all Turkish languages (Doerfer, 1976, p. 243), and the khans of the Golden Horde (Radloff, 1870; Kurat; Bodrogligeti, 1962) and of the Crimea (Kurat), as well as the Kazan Tatars (Akhmetgaleeva; Yusupov), wrote in Chaghatay much of the time. |title=Chaghatay Language and Literature|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Iranica}}</ref>
*[[Ottoman Empire]]<ref>{{Cite book |first=Ayşe Gül |last=Sertkaya |title=Archivum Ottomanicum |date=2002 |editor-first=György |editor-last=Hazai |volume=20 |pages=114–115 |chapter=Şeyhzade Abdurrezak Bahşı |quote=As a result, we can claim that {{lang|chg-Latn|Şeyhzade Abdürrezak Bahşı}} was a scribe lived in the palaces of Sultan Mehmed the Conqueror and his son Bayezid-i Veli in the 15th century, wrote letters ({{lang|chg-Latn|bitig}}) and firmans ({{lang|chg-Latn|yarlığ}}) sent to Eastern Turks by Mehmed II and Bayezid II in both Uighur and Arabic scripts and in East Turkestan (Chagatai) language.}}</ref>}}
| image            = [[File:Chagatai in Nastaliq.png|200px]]
| imagecaption     = Chagatai ({{Nastaliq|{{lang|chg|چغتای}}}}) written in [[Nastaliq]] script
}}
'''Chagatai'''{{efn|Also spelled '''Chagatay''', '''Chaghatai''', '''Jaghatai''' or '''Chaghatay'''}} ({{lang|chg|چغتای}}, {{lang|chg-Latn|Čaġatāy}}), also known as '''Turki''',{{efn|''Türk tili'', ''türk alfāzï'', ''türkī tili'', ''türkī lafẓï'', ''türkčä til'' or simply ''türkī'', ''türkčä''<ref name=page4 />}}<ref name="Bergne2007" /> '''Eastern Turkic''',<ref name=page6>{{cite encyclopedia|publisher=Indiana University Publications|series=Uralic and Altaic Series|editor-first=Thomas A.|editor-last=Sebeok|volume=60|title=Chagatay Manual|first=János |last=Eckmann|page=6|year=1966}}</ref> or '''Chagatai Turkic''' ({{lang|chg-Latn|Čaġatāy türkīsi}}),<ref name=page4>{{cite encyclopedia|publisher=Indiana University Publications|series=Uralic and Altaic Series|editor-first=Thomas A.|editor-last=Sebeok|volume=60|title=Chagatay Manual|first=János|last=Eckmann|page=4|year=1966}}</ref> is an [[Extinct language|extinct]] [[Turkic languages|Turkic language]] that was once widely spoken across [[Central Asia]]. It remained the shared [[literary language]] in the region until the early 20th century. It was used across a wide geographic area including [[Western Turkestan|western]] or [[Russian Turkestan]] (i.e. parts of modern-day [[Uzbekistan]], [[Turkmenistan]], [[Kazakhstan]], [[Kyrgyzstan]]), [[East Turkestan|Eastern Turkestan]] (where a dialect, known as Kaşğar tılı, developed), [[Crimea]], the [[Volga region]] (such as [[Tatarstan]] and [[Bashkortostan]]), etc.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Chagatai literature|url=https://www.britannica.com/art/Chagatai-literature|access-date=2021-09-19|website=Encyclopedia Britannica}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ei_nBQAAQBAJ&dq=western+turkistan+eastern+turkistan+the+volga+region+chaghatay&pg=PA292|title=Contact Languages|page=292|isbn=9781614513711 |last1=Bakker |first1=Peter |last2=Matras |first2=Yaron |date=26 June 2013 |publisher=Walter de Gruyter }}</ref> Chagatai is the ancestor of the [[Uzbek language|Uzbek]] and [[Uyghur language|Uyghur]] languages.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Chaghatay |url=https://ealc.fas.harvard.edu/chaghatay |access-date=2024-09-30 |website=ealc.fas.harvard.edu |language=en}}</ref> [[Kazakh language|Kazakh]] and [[Turkmen language|Turkmen]], which are not within the Karluk branch but are in the [[Kipchak languages|Kipchak]] and [[Oghuz languages|Oghuz]] branches of the Turkic languages respectively, were nonetheless heavily influenced by Chagatai for centuries.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Vaidyanath |first1=R. |title=The Formation of the Soviet Central Asian Republics: A Study in Soviet Nationalities Policy, 1917–1936 |date=1967 |publisher=People's Publishing House |page=24}}</ref>

[[Ali-Shir Nava'i]] was the greatest representative of Chagatai literature.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |  editor-first = Robert |editor-last=McHenry | encyclopedia = [[Encyclopædia Britannica]] | title = Navā'ī, (Mir) 'Alī Shīr | edition = 15th | year = 1993 | publisher = Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. | volume = 8 | location = [[Chicago]] | page = 563 }}</ref>

[[File:Chengde summer palace writings.jpg |thumb|right|300px|Lizheng Gate at the [[Chengde Mountain Resort]]. The second column from the left is the Chagatai language written in [[Persian alphabet|Perso-Arabic]] [[Nastaʿlīq]] script which reads ''Rawshan Otturādaqi Darwāza''.]]

Chagatai literature is still studied in modern [[Uzbekistan]], where the language is seen as the predecessor and the direct ancestor of modern [[Uzbek language|Uzbek]], and the literature is regarded as part of the national heritage of Uzbekistan.{{citation needed|date=May 2024}}

== Etymology ==
The word ''Chagatai'' relates to the [[Chagatai Khanate]] (1225–1680s), a descendant empire of the [[Mongol Empire]] left to [[Genghis Khan]]'s second son, [[Chagatai Khan]].<ref name="BabakVaisman2004">{{cite book|author1-first=Vladimir |author1-last=Babak|author2-first=Demian |author2-last=Vaisman|author3-first=Aryeh |author3-last=Wasserman|title=Political Organization in Central Asia and Azerbaijan: Sources and Documents|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=a9SPAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA343|date=23 November 2004|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-135-77681-7|pages=343–}}</ref> Many of the [[Turkic peoples]], 
who spoke this language claimed political descent from the Chagatai Khanate.

As part of the preparation for the 1924 establishment of the [[Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic|Soviet Republic of Uzbekistan]], Chagatai was officially renamed "Old Uzbek",<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tdEyAQAAQBAJ&q=Chagatai+%22Old+Uzbek%22+official&pg=PA179|title=Language Policy and Language Conflict in Afghanistan and Its Neighbors: The Changing Politics of Language Choice|last=Schiffman|first=Harold|publisher=Brill Academic|year=2011|isbn=978-9004201453|pages=178–179}}</ref><ref name="Newton2014">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3JWLBQAAQBAJ&q=Chagatai+%22Old+Uzbek%22+official&pg=PA232|title=Law and the Making of the Soviet World: The Red Demiurge|first=Scott |last=Newton|date=20 November 2014|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-317-92978-9|pages=232–}}</ref><ref name="Grenoble2006">{{cite book |last=Grenoble |first=L. A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WUeWBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA149 |title=Language Policy in the Soviet Union |date=11 April 2006 |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |isbn=978-0-306-48083-6}}</ref><ref name="Dalby1998">{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/dictionaryoflang00dalb|url-access=registration|quote=Chagatai Old Uzbek official.|title=Dictionary of Languages: The Definitive Reference to More Than 400 Languages|first=Andrew |last=Dalby|publisher=Columbia University Press|year=1998|isbn=978-0-231-11568-1|pages=[https://archive.org/details/dictionaryoflang00dalb/page/665 665]–}}</ref><ref name="Bergne2007">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oioBAwAAQBAJ&q=Chagatai+%22Old+Uzbek%22+official&pg=PA137|title=Birth of Tajikistan: National Identity and the Origins of the Republic|author=Paul Bergne|date=29 June 2007|publisher=I.B.Tauris|isbn=978-0-85771-091-8|pages=24, 137}}</ref> which [[Edward A. Allworth]] argued "badly distorted the literary history of the region" and was used to give authors such as [[Ali-Shir Nava'i]] an [[Uzbeks|Uzbek]] identity.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=beCoAAAAQBAJ&q=Chagatai+%22Old+Uzbek%22+official&pg=PT202|title=The Modern Uzbeks: From the Fourteenth Century to the Present: A Cultural History|last=Allworth|first=Edward A.|publisher=Hoover Institution Press|year=1990|isbn=978-0817987329|pages=229–230}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TPESAQAAMAAJ&q=Chagatai+%22Old+Uzbek%22+official|title=Aramco World Magazine|publisher=Arabian American Oil Company|year=1985|page=27}}</ref> It was also referred to as "Turki" or "Sart" in Russian colonial sources.<ref name="Bergne2007" /> In China, it is sometimes called "ancient [[Uyghur language|Uyghur]]".<ref name="LiuSu2013">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7kq6BQAAQBAJ&pg=PA448|title=Chinese Lexical Semantics: 14th Workshop, CLSW 2013, Zhengzhou, China, May 10–12, 2013. Revised Selected Papers|author-first1=Pengyuan |author-last1=Liu|author2-first=Qi |author2-last=Su|date=12 December 2013|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-3-642-45185-0|pages=448–}}</ref>

==History==
[[File:Folio from an album, Mir Ali Shir Nawa I, calligrapher, Afghanistan, Herat, late 15th century AD, Chagatai Turkish text in Nastaliq script, ink, gold, color on paper, decoupage - Cincinnati Art Museum - DSC04236.JPG|thumb|right|Late 15th century Chagatai Turkic text in Nastaliq script.]]
In the twentieth century, the study of Chaghatay suffered from nationalist bias. In the former Chaghatay area, separate republics have been claiming Chaghatay as the ancestor of their own brand of Turkic. Thus, Old Uzbek, Old Uyghur, [[Old Tatar]], Old Turkmen, and a Chaghatay-influenced layer in sixteenth-century [[Azerbaijani language|Azerbaijanian]] have been studied separately from each other. There has been a tendency to disregard certain characteristics of Chaghatay itself, e.g. its complex syntax copied from [[Persian language|Persian]].
Chagatai developed in the late 15th century.<ref name="Grenoble2006"/>{{rp|143}} It belongs to the [[Karluk languages|Karluk branch]] of the Turkic language family. It is descended from [[Middle Turkic languages|Middle Turkic]], which served as a [[lingua franca]] in Central Asia, with a strong infusion of [[Arabic]] and Persian words and turns of phrase.

[[Mehmet Fuat Köprülü]] divides Chagatay into the following periods:<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|publisher=Indiana University Publications|series=Uralic and Altaic Series|editor-first=Thomas A. |editor-last=Sebeok|volume=60|title=Chagatay Manual|first=János |last=Eckmann|page=7|year=1966}}</ref>
# Early Chagatay (13th–14th centuries)
# Pre-classical Chagatay (the first half of the 15th century)
# Classical Chagatay (the second half of the 15th century)
# Continuation of Classical Chagatay (16th century)
# Decline (17th–19th centuries)

The first period is a transitional phase characterized by the retention of archaic forms; the second phase began with the publication of [[Ali-Shir Nava'i]]'s first ''[[Diwan (poetry)|divan]]'' and is the highpoint of Chagatai literature, followed by the third phase, which is characterized by two bifurcating developments. One is preservation of the classical Chagatai language of Nava'i, the other the increasing influence of dialects of the local spoken languages.{{Citation needed|date=April 2023}}

==Influence on later Turkic languages==
[[Uzbek language|Uzbek]] and [[Uyghur language|Uyghur]], two modern languages descended from Chagatai, are the closest to it. Uzbeks regard Chagatai as the origin of their language and Chagatai literature as part of their heritage. In 1921 in [[Uzbekistan]], then a part of the [[Soviet Union]], Chagatai was initially intended to be the national and governmental language of the [[Uzbek SSR]]. However, when it became evident that the language was too archaic for that purpose, it was replaced by a new literary language based on a series of Uzbek dialects.

''[[Ethnologue]]'' records the use of the word "Chagatai" in [[Afghanistan]] to describe the "Tekke" dialect of [[Turkmen language|Turkmen]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Turkmen language |url=http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=tuk |website=Ethnologue}}</ref> Up to and including the eighteenth century, Chagatai was the main literary language in [[Turkmenistan]] and most of Central Asia.<ref name="Clark, Larry p. 318">Clark, Larry, Michael Thurman, and David Tyson. "Turkmenistan." Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan: Country Studies. p. 318. Comp. Glenn E. Curtis. Washington, D.C.: Division, 1997</ref> While it had some influence on Turkmen, the two languages belong to different branches of the Turkic language family.

==Literature==
===15th and 16th centuries===
The most famous of Chagatai poets, Ali-Shir Nava'i, among other works wrote ''[[Muhakamat al-Lughatayn]]'', a detailed comparison of the Chagatai and Persian languages. Here, Nava’i argued for the superiority of the former for literary purposes. His fame is attested by the fact that Chagatai is sometimes called "Nava'i's language". Among prose works, [[Timur]]'s biography is written in Chagatai, as is the famous ''[[Baburnama]]'' (or ''Tuska Babure'') of [[Babur]], the Timurid founder of the [[Mughal Empire]]. A [https://www.fihrist.org.uk/catalog/manuscript_8630 ''Divan''] attributed to [[Kamran Mirza]] is written in Persian and Chagatai, and one of [[Bairam Khan]]'s [https://archive.org/details/ThePersianAndTurkishDivansOfBayramKhan ''Divans''] was written in Chagatai.

The following is a prime example of the 16th-century literary Chagatai Turkic, employed by Babur in one of his [[Rubaʿi|ruba'is]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Balabanlilar |first1=Lisa |title=Imperial Identity in the Mughal Empire. Memory and Dynastic Politics in Early Modern South and Central Asia |date=2015 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |isbn=978-0-857-72081-8 |pages=42–43}}</ref>
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
<poem>
{{lang|chg|Islam ichin avara-i yazi buldim,
Kuffar u hind harbsazi buldim
Jazm aylab idim uzni shahid olmaqqa,
Amminna' lillahi ki gazi buldim}}</poem>
{{col-break}}
<poem>
I am become a desert wanderer for Islam,
Having joined battle with infidels and Hindus
I readied myself to become a martyr,
God be thanked I am become a ghazi.</poem>
{{col-end}}
Uzbek ruler [[Muhammad Shaybani]] Khan wrote a prose essay called ''Risale-yi maarif-i Shaybāni'' in  Chagatai in 1507, shortly after his capture of [[Greater Khorasan]], and dedicated it to his son, Muhammad Timur. {{ref|The manuscript is kept in Istanbul}} <ref>{{cite journal |last=Bodrogligeti |first=A.J.E. |title=Muḥammad Shaybānī Khan's Apology to the Muslim Clergy |journal=Archivum Ottomanicum |volume=13 |date=1993–1994 |page=98}}</ref> The manuscript of his philosophical and religious work, "Bahr ul-Khuda", written in 1508, is located in London <ref>{{cite journal |last=Bodrogligeti |first=A.J.E. |title=Muhammad Shaybanî's Bahru'l-huda : An Early Sixteenth Century Didactic Qasida in Chagatay |journal=Ural-Altaische Jahrbücher |volume=54 |year=1982 |pages=1 and n.4}}</ref>

Ötemish Hajji wrote a history of the [[Golden Horde]] entitled the ''[[Tarikh-i Dost Sultan]]'' in [[Khwarazm]].

===17th and 18th centuries===
In terms of literary production, the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries are often seen as a period of decay. It is a period in which Chagatai lost ground to Persian. Important writings in Chagatai from the period between the 17th and 18th centuries include those of [[Abu al-Ghazi Bahadur]]: ''[[Shajara-i Tarākima]]'' (Genealogy of the Turkmens) and ''Shajara-i Turk'' (Genealogy of the Turks). Abu al-Ghāzī is motivated by functional considerations and describes his choice of language and style in the sentence ‘I did not use one word of Chaghatay (!), Persian or Arabic’. As is clear from his actual language use, he aims at making himself understood to a broader readership by avoiding too ornate a style, notably [[Saj'|saj’]], rhymed prose. In the second half of the 18th century, [[Turkmen people|Turkmen]] poet [[Magtymguly Pyragy]] also introduced the use of classical Chagatai into Turkmen literature as a literary language, incorporating many [[Turkmen language|Turkmen linguistic features]].<ref name="Clark, Larry p. 318"/>

[[Khanate of Bukhara|Bukharan]] ruler [[Subhan Quli Khan]] (1680–1702) was the author of a work on medicine,  "Subkhankuli's revival of medicine" ("Ihya at-tibb Subhani") which was written in the Central Asian Turkic language (Chaghatay) and is devoted to the description of diseases, their recognition and treatment. One of the manuscript lists is kept in the library in [[Budapest]].<ref>A Turkic Medical Treatise from Islamic Central Asia: A Critical Edition of a Seventeenth-Century Chagatay Work by Subḥān Qulï Khan. Edited, Translated and Annotated by László KÁROLY. Brill’s Inner Asian Library. Volume 32. Editors: Michael DROMPP; Devin DEWEESE; Mark C. ELLIOTT. Leiden. 2015</ref>

===19th and 20th centuries===
Prominent 19th-century [[Khanate of Khiva|Khivan]] writers include Shermuhammad Munis and his nephew Muhammad Riza Agahi.<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/art/Uzbek-literature]; Qahhar, Tahir, and William Dirks. “Uzbek Literature.” World Literature Today, vol. 70, no. 3, 1996, pp. 611–618. {{JSTOR|40042097}}.</ref> [[Muhammad Rahim Khan II of Khiva]] also wrote [[ghazal]]s. [[Musa Sayrami]]'s ''Tārīkh-i amniyya'', completed in 1903, and its revised version ''Tārīkh-i ḥamīdi'', completed in 1908, represent the best sources on the [[Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)]] in [[Xinjiang]].<ref name=pref>[http://www.vostlit.info/Texts/Dokumenty/M.Asien/XX/1900-1920/Sairami/pred.htm МОЛЛА МУСА САЙРАМИ: ТА'РИХ-И АМНИЙА] (Mulla Musa Sayrami's ''Tarikh-i amniyya'': Preface), in: "Материалы по истории казахских ханств XV–XVIII веков (Извлечения из персидских и тюркских сочинений)" (''Materials for the history of the Kazakh Khanates of the 15–18th&nbsp;cc. (Extracts from Persian and Turkic literary works)''), [[Almaty|Alma Ata]], Nauka Publishers,  1969. {{in lang|ru}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author-link=Kim Ho-dong|first=Ho-dong|last=Kim|publisher=Stanford University Press |year=2004|isbn=0-8047-4884-5|title=Holy war in China: the Muslim rebellion and state in Chinese Central Asia, 1864–1877|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AtduqAtBzegC|page=xvi}}</ref>

===Dictionaries and grammars===
The following are books written on the Chagatai language by natives and westerners:<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Brill |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cBJPaxyb2UQC&dq=abushqa+old&pg=PA300 |title=Oriens , Volume 36 Volume 36 |last2=Sellheim |first2=R. |last3=Endress |first3=G. |date=2001-06-01 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-04-12135-5 |pages=299–300 |language=en}}</ref>

* ''Vocabularium Linguae Giagataicae Sive Igureae'' (''Lexico Ćiagataico'')<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Onur |first=Samet |date=2020 |title=EASTERN TURKISH - LATIN DICTIONARY: VOCABULARIUM LINGUAE GIAGATAICAE SIVE IGUREAE (LEXICO ĆIAGATAICO) |url=https://www.academia.edu/43438090 |journal=Çukurova Üniversitesi Türkoloji Araştırmaları Dergisi |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=136 |doi=10.32321/cutad.701451 |issn=2587-1900|doi-access=free }}</ref>
* Muḥammad Mahdī Khān, ''Sanglakh''.
* [[Abel Pavet de Courteille]], ''Dictionnaire turk-oriental'' (1870).
* [[Ármin Vámbéry]] 1832–1913, ''Ćagataische Sprachstudien, enthaltend grammatikalischen Umriss, Chrestomathie, und Wörterbuch der ćagataischen Sprache''; (1867).
* Sheykh Süleymān Efendi, ''Čagataj-Osmanisches Wörterbuch: Verkürzte und mit deutscher Übersetzung versehene Ausgabe'' (1902).
* Sheykh Süleymān Efendi, ''Lughat-ï chaghatay ve turkī-yi 'othmānī'' (Dictionary of Chagatai and Ottoman Turkish).
* Mirza Muhammad Mehdi Khan Astarabadi, ''Mabaniul Lughat: Yani Sarf o Nahv e Lughat e Chughatai''.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://archive.org/details/MabaniulLughatYaniSarfONahvELughatEChughatai-MirzaMuhammadMehdiKhanAstarabadiFarsi|title=Mabaniul Lughat: Yani Sarf o Nahv e Lughat e Chughatai – Mirza Muhammad Mehdi Khan Astarabadi (Farsi)|via=Internet Archive}}</ref>
* Abel Pavet de Courteille, ''Mirâdj-nâmeh : récit de l'ascension de Mahomet au ciel, composé a.h. 840 (1436/1437), texte turk-oriental, publié pour la première fois d'après le manuscript ouïgour de la Bibliothèque nationale et traduit en français, avec une préf. analytique et historique, des notes, et des extraits du Makhzeni Mir Haïder''.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://archive.org/details/mirdjnmehpublip00navogoog|title=Mirâdj-nâmeh : récit de l'ascension de Mahomet au ciel, composé a.h. 840 (1436/1437), texte turk-oriental, publié pour la première fois d'après le manuscript ouïgour de la Bibliothèque nationale et traduit en français, avec une préf. analytique et historique, des notes, et des extraits du Makhzeni Mir Haïder|first1=Mir|last1=Haïder|first2=Abel|last2=Pavet de Courteille|date=1 January 1975|publisher=Amsterdam : Philo Press|via=Internet Archive}}</ref>

==Phonology==

=== Consonants ===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
! colspan="2" |
![[Labial consonant|Labial]]
! colspan="2" |[[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
![[Palatal consonant|Palatal]]
![[Velar consonant|Velar]]
![[Uvular consonant|Uvular]]
![[Glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|-
! rowspan="2" |[[Plosive]]/<br>[[Affricate]]
!{{small|voiceless}}
|{{IPA link|p}}
| colspan="2" |{{IPA link|t}}
|{{IPA link|t͡ʃ}}
|{{IPA link|k}}
|{{IPA link|q}}
|{{IPA link|ʔ}}
|-
!{{small|voiced}}
|{{IPA link|b}}
| colspan="2" |{{IPA link|d}}
|{{IPA link|d͡ʒ}}
|{{IPA link|ɡ}}
|
|
|-
! rowspan="2" |[[Fricative consonant|Fricative]]
!{{small|voiceless}}
|{{IPA link|f}}
| colspan="2" |{{IPA link|s}}
|{{IPA link|ʃ}}
|
|{{IPA link|χ}}
|{{IPA link|h}}
|-
!{{small|voiced}}
|{{IPA link|v}}
| colspan="2" |{{IPA link|z}}
|{{IPA link|ʒ}}
|
|{{IPA link|ʁ}}
|
|-
! colspan="2" |[[Nasal consonant|Nasal]]
|{{IPA link|m}}
| colspan="2" |{{IPA link|n}}
|
|{{IPA link|ŋ}}
|
|
|-
! colspan="2" |[[Tap and flap consonants|Tap]]/[[Trill consonant|Trill]]
|
| colspan="2" |{{IPA link|ɾ}}~{{IPA link|r}}
|
|
|
|
|-
! colspan="2" |[[Approximant]]
|{{IPA link|w}}
|{{IPA link|l}}
|{{IPA link|ɫ}}
|{{IPA link|j}}
|
|
|
|}
Sounds /f, ʃ, χ, v, z, ɡ, ʁ, d͡ʒ, ʔ, l/ do not occur in initial position of words of Turkic origin.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Bodrogligeti |first=András J. E. |title=A Grammar of Chagatay |publisher=Munich: München: Lincom |year=2001}}</ref>

===Vowels===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"

|+ Vowels
! rowspan="2" |
! colspan="2" | [[Front vowel|Front]]
! colspan="2" | [[Back vowel|Back]]
|-
! {{small|[[Roundedness|unrounded]]}} || {{small|rounded}}
! {{small|unrounded}} || {{small|rounded}}
|-
! [[Close vowel|Close]]
| {{IPA link|i iː}}
| {{IPA link|y}}
| {{IPA link|ɯ}}
| {{IPA link|u uː}}
|-
! [[Mid vowel|Mid]]
| {{IPA link|e eː}}
| {{IPA link|ø̞|ø}}
|
| {{IPA link|o oː}}
|-
! [[Open vowel|Open]]
| {{IPA link|æ}}
|
| {{IPA link|ɑ ɑː}}
|
|}
Vowel length is distributed among five vowels /iː, eː, ɑː, oː, uː/.<ref name=":0" />

== Orthography ==
Chagatai has been a literary language and is written with a variation of the [[Perso-Arabic alphabet]]. This variation is known as Kona Yëziq, ({{Translation|old script}}). It saw usage for [[Kazakh alphabets|Kazakh]], [[Kyrgyz alphabets|Kyrgyz]], [[Uyghur alphabets|Uyghur]], and [[Uzbek alphabet|Uzbek]].

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
! Isolated !! Final !! Medial !! Initial !! Uzbek Letter name
![[Uzbek alphabet|Uzbek Latin]]
!Kazakh
!Kyrgyz
!Uyghur
!Bashkir
!Kazan Tatar
![[Common Turkic Alphabet]]
|-
| style="font-size:150%" | ﺀ|| colspan="3" | — || Hamza
|'
|∅
|∅
|ئ
|∅
|∅
|∅
|-
| style="font-size:150%" | ﺍ|| colspan="2" | ﺎ|| ﺍ|| alif
|О о
А а
|А а
Ә ә
|А а
|ئا
|А а
|А а
|Aa
|-
| style="font-size:150%" | ﺏ|| ﺐ|| ﺒ|| ﺑ|| be
|B b
|Б б
|Б б
|ﺏ
|Б б
|Б б
|Bb
|-
| style="font-size:150%" | ﭖ|| ﭗ|| ﭙ|| ﭘ|| pe
|P p
|П п
|П п
|ﭖ
|П п
|П п
|Pp
|-
| style="font-size:150%" | ﺕ|| ﺖ|| ﺘ|| ﺗ|| te
|T t
|Т т
|Т т
|ﺕ
|Т т
|Т т
|Tt
|-
| style="font-size:150%" | ﺙ|| ﺚ|| ﺜ|| ﺛ|| se
|S s
|С с
|С с
|س
|Ҫ ҫ
|С с
|Ss (Śś)
|-
| style="font-size:150%" | ﺝ|| ﺞ|| ﺠ|| ﺟ|| jim
|J j
|Ж ж
|Ж ж
|ﺝ
|Й й
|Җ җ
|Cc
|-
| style="font-size:150%" | ﭺ|| ﭻ|| ﭽ|| ﭼ|| chim
|Ch ch
|Ш ш
|Ч ч
|ﭺ
|С с
|Ч ч
|Çç
|-
| style="font-size:150%" | ﺡ|| ﺢ|| ﺤ|| ﺣ|| hoy-i hutti
|H h
|X x
|X x
|ھ
|Х х
|Х х
|Hh
|-
| style="font-size:150%" | ﺥ|| ﺦ|| ﺨ|| ﺧ|| xe
|X x
|Қ қ (Х х)
|К к (Х х)
|ﺥ
|Х х
|Х х
|Xx
|-
| style="font-size:150%" | ﺩ|| colspan="2" | ﺪ|| ﺩ|| dol
|D d
|Д д
|Д д
|ﺩ
|Д д
|Д д
|Dd
|-
| style="font-size:150%" | ﺫ|| colspan="2" | ﺬ|| ﺫ|| zol
|Z z
|З з
|З з
|ذ
|Ҙ ҙ
|З з
|Zz (Źź)
|-
| style="font-size:150%" | ﺭ|| colspan="2" | ﺮ|| ﺭ|| re
|R r
|Р р
|Р р
|ﺭ
|Р р
|Р р
|Rr
|-
| style="font-size:150%" | ﺯ|| colspan="2" | ﺰ|| ﺯ|| ze
|Z z
|З з
|З з
|ﺯ
|З з
|З з
|Zz
|-
| style="font-size:150%" | ﮊ|| colspan="2" | ﮋ|| ﮊ|| je (zhe)
|J j
|Ж ж
|Ж ж
|ﮊ
|Ж ж
|Ж ж
|Jj
|-
| style="font-size:150%" | ﺱ|| ﺲ|| ﺴ|| ﺳ|| sin
|S s
|С с
|С с
|ﺱ
|С с
|С с
|Ss
|-
| style="font-size:150%" | ﺵ|| ﺶ|| ﺸ|| ﺷ|| shin
|Sh sh
|С с 
|Ш ш
|ﺵ
|Ш ш
|Ш ш
|Şş
|-
| style="font-size:150%" | ﺹ|| ﺺ|| ﺼ|| ﺻ|| sod
|S s
|С с
|С с
|س
|С с
|С с
|Ss
|-
| style="font-size:150%" | ﺽ|| ﺾ|| ﻀ|| ﺿ|| dod
|Z z
|З з
|З з
|ز
|Ҙ ҙ
|З з
|Zz
|-
| style="font-size:150%" | ﻁ|| ﻂ|| ﻄ|| ﻃ|| to (itqi)
|T t
|Т т
|Т т
|ت
|Т т
|Т т
|Tt
|-
| style="font-size:150%" | ﻅ|| ﻆ|| ﻈ|| ﻇ|| zo (izgʻi)
|Z z
|З з
|З з
|ز
|Ҙ ҙ
|З з
|Zz (Źź)
|-
| style="font-size:150%" | ﻉ|| ﻊ|| ﻌ|| ﻋ|| ayn
|'
|Ғ ғ
|∅
|ئ
|Ғ ғ
|Г г
|Ğğ
|-
| style="font-size:150%" | ﻍ|| ﻎ|| ﻐ|| ﻏ|| ğayn
|Gʻ gʻ
|Ғ ғ
|Г г
|ﻍ
|Ғ ғ
|Г г
|Ğğ
|-
| style="font-size:150%" | ﻑ|| ﻒ|| ﻔ|| ﻓ|| fe
|F f
|П п 
|П п/Б б
|ﻑ
|Ф ф
|Ф ф
|Ff
|-
| style="font-size:150%" | ﻕ|| ﻖ|| ﻘ|| ﻗ|| qof
|Q q
|Қ қ
|К к
|ﻕ
|Ҡ ҡ
|К к
|Qq
|-
| style="font-size:150%" | ک|| ک|| ﻜ|| ﻛ|| kof
|K k
|К к
|К к
|ك
|К к
|К к
|Kk
|-
| style="font-size:150%" | ﮒ|| ﮓ|| ﮕ|| ﮔ|| gof
|G g
|Г г
|Г г
|ﮒ
|Г г
|Г г
|Gg
|-
| style="font-size:150%" | نگ/ݣ||  ـنگ/ـݣ|| ـنگـ/ـݣـ||  نگـ/ݣـ|| nungof
|Ng ng
|Ң ң
|Ң ң
|ڭ
|Ң ң
|Ң ң
|Ññ
|-
| style="font-size:150%" | ﻝ|| ﻞ|| ﻠ|| ﻟ|| lam
|L l
|Л л
|Л л
|ﻝ
|Л л
|Л л
|Ll
|-
| style="font-size:150%" | ﻡ|| ﻢ|| ﻤ|| ﻣ|| mim
|M m
|М м
|М м
|ﻡ
|М м
|М м
|Mm
|-
| style="font-size:150%" | ﻥ|| ﻦ|| ﻨ|| ﻧ|| nun
|N n
|Н н
|Н н
|ﻥ
|Н н
|Н н
|Nn
|-
| style="font-size:150%" | ﻭ|| colspan="2" | ﻮ|| ﻭ|| vav
|V v
U u,
Oʻ oʻ
|У у
Ұ ұ, Ү ү
О о, Ө ө
|У у, Ү ү
О о, Ө ө
|ۋ
ئۆ/ئو,
ئۈ/ئۇ
|О о, 
Ө ө,
У у, 
Ү ү
|О о, 
Ө ө,
У у, 
Ү ү
|Oo, Öö, Uu, Üü, Vv, Ww
|-
| style="font-size:150%" | ﻩ|| ﻪ|| ﻬ|| ﻫ|| hoy-i havvaz
|H h
A a
|Һ һ
Э э, е
|∅
Э э, е
|ھ
ئە/ئا
|Һ һ,
Ә ә
|Һ һ,
Ә ә
|Hh, Ää
|-
|ﻯ
|ﻰ
|ﻴ
|ﻳ
|ye
|Y y
Е e, I i
|Й й, И и
Ы ы, І і
|Й й
Ы ы, И и
|ي
ئى، ئې
|Й й, И и, Ы ы, Э э
|Й й, И и, Ы ы, Э э
|Yy, İi, Iı, Ee
|}

===Notes===
The letters  ف، ع، ظ، ط، ض، ص، ژ، ذ، خ، ح، ث، ء  are only used in loanwords and do not represent any additional phonemes.

For Kazakh and Kyrgyz, letters in parentheses () indicate a modern borrowed pronunciation from Tatar that is not consistent with historic Kazakh and Kyrgyz treatments of these letters

===Influence===
Many orthographies, particularly that of Turkic languages, are based on Kona Yëziq. Examples include the alphabets of [[Azerbaijani alphabet#Arabic script of Azerbaijani|South Azerbaijani]], [[Qashqai language|Qashqai]], [[Chaharmahali Turkic|Chaharmahali]], [[Khorasani Turkic|Khorasani]], [[Uyghur Arabic alphabet|Uyghur]], [[Äynu language#Orthography|Äynu]], and [[Khalaj language|Khalaj]]. <br/>Virtually all other Turkic languages have a history of being written with an alphabet descended from Kona Yëziq, however, due to various writing reforms conducted by Turkey and the [[Soviet Union]], many of these languages now are written in either the [[Latin script]] or the [[Cyrillic script]].

The [[Qing dynasty]] commissioned dictionaries on the major languages of China which included Chagatai Turki, such as the [[Pentaglot Dictionary]].

== Grammar ==
=== Word order ===
The basic word order of Chagatai is SOV. Chagatai is a head-final language where the adjectives come before nouns. Other words such as those denoting location, time, etc. usually appear in the order of emphasis put on them.

=== Vowel and consonant harmony ===
Like other [[Turkic languages]], Chagatai has [[vowel harmony]] (though [[Uzbek language|Uzbek]], despite being a direct descendant of Chaghatai, notably doesn't ever since the spelling changes under USSR; vowel harmony being present in the orthography of the Uzbek perso-arabic script). There are mainly eight vowels, and vowel harmony system works upon [[vowel backness]].

{| class="wikitable"
|+
|-
!Back vowels
|[[a]] 
|[[u]] 
|[[o]]
|rowspan=2|[[i]], [[e]]
|-
!Front vowels  
|[[ä]] 
|[[ü]] 
|[[ö]]
|}

The vowels [i] and [e] are central or front-central/back-central and therefore are considered both. Usually these will follow two rules in [[inflection]]: [i] and [e] almost always follow the front vowel inflections; and, if the stem contains [q] or [ǧ], which are formed in the back of the mouth, back vowels are more likely in the inflection.

These affect the suffixes that are applied to words.

[[Consonant harmony]] is relatively less common and only appears in a few suffixes such as the genitive.

=== Number ===
Plural is formed by adding the suffix -لار (-lar/lär). There are two pronunciations which exist due vowel harmony rules. If the vowel of the last syllable is a front syllable ([a], [o], [u]) -lar is used. If the vowel is a back vowel ([ä], [ö], [ü]) or [i] and [e], -lär is used. In rare circumstances -lar is sometimes written as -لر, though generally the suffix -لار is used for both the pronunciations /-lär/ and /-lar/. Or in the case of Kazakh and Kyrgyz /-ler/ and /-lar/.

=== Cases ===
Chagatai has six different cases. The nominative and sometimes the accusative does not have any special making.

{|class="wikitable"
!
!Affix
!{{fs interlinear|lang=ar|اوتون|otun|firewood}}
!{{fs interlinear|lang=ar|اينك |inäk|cow}}
!Notes
|-
![[Nominative case|Nominative]]
| -
| {{fs interlinear|lang=ar|اوتون|otun|A/The firewood...}}
| {{fs interlinear|lang=ar|اينك|inäk|A/The cow...}}
| Nominative is unmarked and usually comes first in a sentence.
|-
![[Genitive case|Genitive]]
|{{fs interlinear|lang=ar|-نينک|-niŋ|}}
|{{fs interlinear|lang=ar|اوتوننينک|otun'''niŋ'''|...a/the firewood’s...}}
|{{fs interlinear|lang=ar|اينكنينک|inäk'''niŋ'''|...a/the cow’s...}}
|The possessed object must be inflected with third person possessive pronouns ‘ى/سى’ (si/i).
|-
![[Accusative case|Accusative]]
|{{fs interlinear|lang=ar|-نى|-ni|}}
|{{fs interlinear|lang=ar|اوتوننى|otun'''ni'''|...the firewood.}}
|{{fs interlinear|lang=ar|اينكنى|inäk'''ni'''|...the cow.}}
|Accusative case only takes effect in the case that the direct object is “definite”. So ‘a road’ is <yol> but ‘the road’ is <yolni>.
|-
![[Dative case|Dative]]
|{{fs interlinear|lang=ar|-غه/كه|-ka/ǧa|}}
|{{fs interlinear|lang=ar|اوتونغه|otun'''ǧa'''|...to the firewood...}}
|{{fs interlinear|lang=ar|اينككه|inäk'''ka'''|...to the cow...}}
|To be noted is that the ending varies from word to word due to [[consonant harmony]], which changes may be included in writing or not, so <inäk> + <ǧa> = <inäkka> but may be written as <inäkǧa>. [[Vowel harmony]] is taken into effect if the vowel of the last syllable is a front vowel the suffix attains pronunciation of -ä instead of -a.
|-
![[Ablative case|Ablative]]
|{{fs interlinear|lang=ar|-دين|-din|c2=(/dan/dän)|}}
|{{fs interlinear|lang=ar|اوتوندين|otun'''din'''|...from the firewood...}}
|{{fs interlinear|lang=ar|اينكدين/اينكتين|inäk'''din'''/inäk'''tin'''|...from the cow...}}
|The case marking for ablative is occasionally rendered as -دهن or -دان (dan/dän), and can become -تين (tin) before a voiceless consonants.
|-
![[Locative case|Locative]]
|{{fs interlinear|lang=ar|-ده|-da/dä|}}
|{{fs interlinear|lang=ar|اوتونده|otun'''da'''|...in/on the firewood...}}
|{{fs interlinear|lang=ar|اينكده|inäk'''dä'''|...in/on the cow...}}
|Like the dative the locative works through [[vowel harmony]]; of the vowel of the final syllable is a front syllable the suffix turns to -dä.
|}

=== Pronouns ===
==== Personal Pronouns ====
There are seven Chagatai [[personal pronouns]], as there are formal and informal forms of the second person singular form. Unlike other languages these pronouns do not differ between genders. Each of these pronouns have [[suffix]]es added to end of [[verbs]] as conjugation.

{|class="wikitable"
|+
|-
!Number
!Singular
!Conjugational suffix
!Plural
!Conjugational suffix
|-
!First person
|{{lang|ar|من}} ''   män''||{{lang|ar|-من}} ''   -män''||{{lang|ar|بيز}} ''   biz''||  {{lang|ar|-ميز}} ''   -miz''
|-
!rowspan=2|Second person
|{{lang|ar|سيز}} ''   siz'' [informal]||{{lang|ar|-سيز}} ''   -siz'' ||rowspan=2|{{lang|ar|سيزلار}} ''   sizlär''||rowspan=2|{{lang|ar|-سيزلار}} ''   -sizlär''
|-
|{{lang|ar|سن}} ''   sän'' [formal]||{{lang|ar|سن}} ''   -sän''
|-
!Third person
|{{lang|ar|او/اول}} ''   ul/u''||-||{{lang|ar|اولار}} ''   ular''||{{lang|ar|-لار}} ''   -lar''
|}

== Punctuation ==
Below are some punctuation marks associated with Chagatai.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Chaghatay manuscripts transcription handbook|url=https://uyghur.ittc.ku.edu/manuals/ManuscriptsTranscription.xhtml#Paleography|access-date=2021-11-13|website=uyghur.ittc.ku.edu}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
!Symbol/
Graphemes
!Name
!English name
!Function
|- style="text-align:center;"
|⁘
|
|Four-dot mark
|The four-dot mark indicates a verse break. It is used at the beginning and end of a verse, especially to separate verse from prose. It may occur at the beginning or end of lines, or in the middle of a page.
|- style="text-align:center;"
|❊
|
|Eight teardrop-spoked propeller asterisk
|The eight teardrop-spoked propeller asterisk indicates a decoration for title. This mark occurs end of the title. This mark also occurs end of a poem. This mark occurs end of a prayer in Jarring texts. However this mark did not occur consistently. 
|- style="text-align:center;"
|.
|
|Period (full stop)
|The period is a punctuation mark placed at the end of a sentence. However, this mark did not occur consistently in Chaghatay manuscripts until the later period (e.g. manuscripts on Russian paper).
|- style="text-align:center;"
|" "
|
|Quotation mark
|Dialogue was wrapped in quotation marks, rarely used for certain words with emphasis
|- style="text-align:center;"
|___
|
|Underscore
|Dash: mostly with red ink, occurs on the top of names, prayers, and highlighted questions, answers, and important outline numbers. 
|- style="text-align:center;"
|
|
|Whitespace
|Can indicate a stanza break in verse, and a new paragraph in brows. 
|- style="text-align:center;"
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|
|Dash
|Rare punctuation: used for number ranges (e.g. 2–5)
|- style="text-align:center;"
|<nowiki>--</nowiki>
|
|Double dash
|Rare punctuation: sets off following information like a colon, it is used to list a table of contents
|- style="text-align:center;"
|( )
|
|Parentheses
|Marks a tangential or contextual remark, word or phrase. 
|- style="text-align:center;"
|:
|
|colon
|Colons appear extremely rarely preceding a direct quote. Colons can also mark beginning of dialogue
|- style="text-align:center;"
|...
|
|Ellipsis:
|Ellipsis: a series of dots (typically 3) that indicate missing text. 
|}

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Bibliography==
*{{cite book |last=Bodrogligeti |first=András J. E. |title=A Grammar of Chagatay |series=Languages of the World: Materials |volume=155 |location=München |publisher=LINCOM Europa |orig-date=2001 |date=2007 |isbn=978-3-89586-563-3}}
* {{cite journal |last=Cakan |first=Varis |year=2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161219215155/http://ir.library.osaka-u.ac.jp/dspace/bitstream/11094/12239/1/riwl_006_143.pdf |url=http://ir.library.osaka-u.ac.jp/dspace/bitstream/11094/12239/1/riwl_006_143.pdf |archive-date=2016-12-19 |title=Chagatai Turkish and Its Effects on Central Asian Culture |pages=143–158 |journal=大阪大学世界言語研究センター論集 |volume=6 |hdl=11094/12239}}
*{{cite book |isbn=978-0-7007-0860-4 |title=Chagatay Manual |last1=Eckmann |first1=Janos |date=1997 |publisher=Taylor & Francis }}
*{{cite journal |last=Erkinov |first=Aftandil |title=Persian-Chaghatay Bilingualism in the Intellectual Circles of Central Asia during the 15th–18th Centuries (the case of poetical anthologies, bayāz) |journal=International Journal of Central Asian Studies |editor-first=C.H. |editor-last=Woo |volume=12 |year=2008 |pages=57–82 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200711060828/http://www.iacd.or.kr/pdf/journal/12/3.PDF |url=http://www.iacd.or.kr/pdf/journal/12/3.PDF |archive-date=2020-07-11}}
*{{cite book |last=Pavet de Courteille |first=Abel |title=Dictionnaire Turk-Oriental: Destinée principalement à faciliter la lecture des ouvrages de Bâber, d'Aboul-Gâzi, de Mir Ali-Chir Nevâï, et d'autres ouvrages en langues touraniennes |trans-title=Eastern Turkish Dictionary: Intended Primarily to Facilitate the Reading of the Works of Babur, Abu'l Ghazi, Mir ʿAli Shir Navaʾi, and Other Works in Turanian Languages |orig-date=1870 |location=Amsterdam |publisher=Philo Press |year=1972 |isbn=90-6022-113-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=d6UCAAAAQAAJ&pg=PP9}}

==External links==
{{Wiktionary category}}
{{commonscat|Chagatai language}}
{{incubator|code=chg}}
*''[http://vlib.iue.it/carrie/texts/carrie_books/paksoy-1/ Russian imperial policies in Central Asia] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201109034048/http://vlib.iue.it/carrie/texts/carrie_books/paksoy-1/ |date=2020-11-09 }}'' 
*[http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/turkic-iranian-contacts-ii-chaghatay Chagatai language] at [[Encyclopædia Iranica]]
*[https://quod.lib.umich.edu/m/maize/images/mpub10110094.pdf An introduction to Chaghatay] by Eric Schluessel, Maize Books; University of Michigan Publishing 2018 (A self study, open access textbook with graded lessons)

{{Turkic languages}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Chagatai Language}}
[[Category:Agglutinative languages]]
[[Category:Vowel-harmony languages]]
[[Category:Karluk languages]]
[[Category:Nomadic groups in Eurasia]]
[[Category:Timurid dynasty]]
[[Category:Chagatai Khanate]]
[[Category:Extinct languages of Asia]]
[[Category:Languages attested from the 15th century]]
[[Category:Languages extinct in the 20th century]]
[[Category:Turkic languages]]
[[Category:Lingua francas]]