View source for Chagatai Khanate

{{Short description|1226–1347 Turkicized Mongol khanate in Central Asia}}
{{Infobox country
| conventional_long_name = Chagatai Khanate
| common_name            = Chagatai Khanate
| status_text            = {{plainlist|
* [[Administrative region]] of [[Mongol Empire]] (1227–1266)
*Independent [[Khanate]] (1266–1347)}}
| era                    = [[Late Middle Ages]]
| status                 = empire
| life_span              = {{plainlist|
*1227–1347 {{small|(whole)}}
*1347–1403 {{small|([[Western Chagatai Khanate|western]])}}
*1347–1462 {{small|([[Moghulistan|eastern]])}}}}
| year_start             = 
| event_start            = [[Chagatai Khan]] inherited part of [[Mongol Empire]]
| date_start             = 1227{{sfn|Grousset|1970|p=328}}
| event1                 = Death of Chagatai
| date_event1            = 1242
| event2                 = Chagatai Khanate split between west and east ([[Moghulistan]])
| date_event2            = 1340s
| event3                 = Western portion annexed by [[Timurid Empire]]
| date_event3            = 1363
| event4                 = Moghulistan split into the [[Yarkent Khanate]] in the west and the [[Turpan Khanate]] in the east
| date_event4            = 1487
| event5                 = Turpan Khanate disappeared
| date_event5            = 1660s
| event6                 = Yarkent Khanate conquered by [[Dzungar Khanate]]
| date_event6            = 1705
| year_end               = 1347
| event_end              = 
| p1                     = Mongol Empire
| s1                     = Moghulistan
| s2                     = Western Chagatai Khanate
| s3                     = Timurid Empire
<!-- Don't add speculative flags -->| image_map              = {{Continental Asia in 1300 CE|center|||Map of the Chagatai Khanate circa 1300 CE.png}}
| image_map_size         = 300px
| image_map_caption      = {{center|The Chagatai Khanate, with contemporary polities circa 1300, before the expansion of the [[Timurid Empire]] into [[Transoxiana]] from 1363.<ref name="New York : McGraw-Hill">{{cite book |last1=Bentley |first1=Jerry H. |title=Traditions & encounters : a global perspective on the past |date=2008 |publisher=New York : McGraw-Hill |isbn=978-0-07-340693-0 |page=471, map 18.2 |url=https://archive.org/details/traditionsencoun0000bent_t4r1/page/471/mode/1up}}</ref>}}
| image_map2             = Chagatai_Khanate_map_en.svg
| image_map2_size        = 300px
| image_map2_caption     = The Chagatai Khanate and its neighbors in the late 13th century
| capital                = [[Almaliq, Xinjiang|Almaliq]], [[Qarshi]]
| common_languages       = {{plainlist|
* [[Persian language|Persian]] {{small|([[lingua franca]], administration, bureaucracy and literature)<ref>{{cite book |last1=Black |first1=Edwin |title=The Modernization of Inner Asia |date=1991 |publisher=M.E. Sharpe |pages=32–33 |quote=The administrative and bureaucratic language of towns and khanates was Persian. Whereas Persian was the dominant literary language of the area, Chagatai shared its distinction by being the only Turkic literary language in Central Asia from the fourteenth to the early twentieth century.}}</ref>}} 
* [[Chagatai Turkic]] {{small|(dynastic, literary, spoken)<ref name="Gulácsi2015">{{cite book|last=Gulácsi|first=Zsuzsanna|author-link=Zsuzsanna Gulácsi|title=Mani's Pictures: The Didactic Images of the Manichaeans from Sasanian Mesopotamia to Uygur Central Asia and Tang-Ming China|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rUUpCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA156|year=2015|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-90-04-30894-7|page=156}}</ref><ref name="Kim2013">{{cite book|last=Kim|first=Hyun Jin|title=The Huns, Rome and the Birth of Europe|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fX8YAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA29|access-date=20 November 2016|year=2013|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-06722-6|page=29}}</ref>}}
* [[Middle Mongol]] {{small|(dynastic)<ref>Roemer, p.43</ref>}}
* [[Arabic language|Arabic]] {{small|(religion and jurisprudence){{sfn|Black|1991|p=33}}}}
}}
| religion               = {{Indented plainlist|
* [[Buddhism]] {{nwr|(until 1326)}}
* [[Tengrism]] {{nwr|(until 1326)}}
* [[Sunni Islam]] {{nwr|(from 1326)}}
}}
| currency               = [[Coin]]s ([[dirham]]s, [[Kebek]], and [[Pul (coin)|pūl]])
| government_type        = [[Elective monarchy|Semi-elective monarchy]], later [[hereditary monarchy]]
| leader1                = [[Chagatai Khan]]
| year_leader1           = 1225–1242
| leader2                = 
| year_leader2           = 
| leader3                = 
| year_leader3           = 
| title_leader           = [[Chagatai khans|Khan]]
| legislature            = [[Kurultai]]
| stat_year1             = 1310 or 1350 est.<ref name="Turchin222">{{cite journal|format=PDF|last1=Turchin|first1=Peter|last2=Adams|first2=Jonathan M.|last3=Hall|first3=Thomas D.|date=December 2006|title=East-West Orientation of Historical Empires|url=http://jwsr.pitt.edu/ojs/index.php/jwsr/article/view/369/381|journal=Journal of World-Systems Research|volume=12|issue=2|page=222|issn=1076-156X|access-date=20 November 2016}}</ref><ref name="Taagepera499">{{cite journal|first=Rein|last=Taagepera|author-link=Rein Taagepera|date=September 1997|title=Expansion and Contraction Patterns of Large Polities: Context for Russia|jstor=2600793|journal=[[International Studies Quarterly]]|volume=41|issue=3|page=499|doi=10.1111/0020-8833.00053|url=http://www.escholarship.org/uc/item/3cn68807|url-access=subscription}}</ref>
| stat_area1             = 3400000
}}

The '''Chagatai Khanate''', also known as the '''Chagatai Ulus''',<ref>{{cite book |last1=Frederik Coene |title=The Caucasus - An Introduction |url=https://archive.org/details/caucasusintroduc00coen |url-access=limited |date=2009 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1135203023 |page=[https://archive.org/details/caucasusintroduc00coen/page/n130 114]}}</ref> was a [[Mongol]] and later [[Turkification|Turkicized]] [[khanate]]<ref name="BlackDupree2016">{{cite book|last1=Black|first1=Cyril E.|last2=Dupree|first2=Louis|author-link2=Louis Dupree (professor)|last3=Endicott-West|first3=Elizabeth|last4=Matuszewski|first4=Daniel C.|last5=Naby|first5=Eden|author-link5=Eden Naby|last6=Waldron|first6=Arthur N.|author-link6=Arthur Waldron|title=The Modernization of Inner Asia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TMoYDQAAQBAJ&pg=PT57|access-date=20 November 2016|date=1991|publisher=M.E. Sharpe|location=Armonk, N.Y.|isbn=978-1-315-48899-8|page=57}}</ref><ref name="UpshurTerry2011">{{cite book|last1=Upshur|first1=Jiu-Hwa L.|last2=Terry|first2=Janice J.|last3=Holoka|first3=Jim|last4=Cassar|first4=George H.|last5=Goff|first5=Richard D.|title=Cengage Advantage Books: World History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6RgJAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA433|access-date=20 November 2016|edition=5th|year=2011|publisher=Cengage Learning|isbn=978-1-133-38707-7|page=433}}</ref> that comprised the lands ruled by [[Chagatai Khan]],<ref>Alternative spellings of ''Chagatai'' include ''Chagata'', ''Chugta'', ''Chagta'', ''Djagatai'', ''Jagatai'', ''Chaghtai'' etc.</ref> second son of [[Genghis Khan]], and his descendants and successors. With the [[division of the Mongol Empire]] after 1259, it became a functionally separate khanate. At its height in the late 13th century, the khanate extended from the [[Amu Darya]] south of the [[Aral Sea]] to the [[Altai Mountains]] on the border of modern-day [[Mongolia]] and [[China]], roughly corresponding to the area once ruled by the [[Qara Khitai]] (Western Liao dynasty).<ref>See Barnes, Parekh and Hudson, p. 87; Barraclough, p. 127; ''Historical Maps on File'', p. 2.27; and LACMA for differing versions of the boundaries of the khanate.</ref>

Initially, the rulers of the Chagatai Khanate recognized the supremacy of the [[Great Khan]],<ref>Dai Matsui – A Mongolian Decree from the Chaghataid Khanate Discovered at Dunhuang. Aspects of Research into Central Asian Buddhism, 2008, pp. 159–178</ref> but by the reign of [[Kublai Khan]], [[Ghiyas-ud-din Baraq]] no longer obeyed the emperor's orders. From 1363, the Chagatais progressively lost [[Transoxiana]] to the [[Timurids]]. The reduced realm came to be known as [[Moghulistan]], which lasted until the late 15th century, when it broke off into the [[Yarkent Khanate]] and [[Turpan Khanate]]. In 1680, the remaining Chagatai domains lost their independence to the [[Dzungar Khanate]]. Finally, the [[Kumul Khanate]], an autonomous division of China established during the [[Qing dynasty]] in 1696 and governed by descendants of Chagatai Khan, was abolished during the [[Republic of China (1912–1949)|Republic of China]] in 1930, ending the dynasty.

==Name==
The Chagatai Khanate was also known as the '''Dumdadu Mongγol Ulus'''<!-- modern Mongolian: Дундаду Монгол Улс --> (the Middle Mongolian Empire).{{sfn|Matsui|2009|p=111}} For example, [[Giovanni de' Marignolli]], who visited Yuan dynasty in the [[1340s]], referred to Almaliq (the capital of the Chagatai Khanate) as "Almalek of the Middle Empire (Imperium Medium)". In addition, the [[Catalan Atlas]] of 1375 refers to the area corresponding to Chagatai Khanate as "Imperium Medorum", a possible alternate name of "Imperium Medium".{{sfn|Matsui|2009|pp=114–115}} In addition to the Latin sources mentioned above, [[Ibn Battuta]] records in Arabic that "His country [is in] the middle between the four of the powerful kings on the earth, i.e., King of China, King of India, King of Iraq and King Özbeg". This description suggests that the Chagatai Khanate was called the "Middle Empire" because it was located exactly in the middle of Eurasia.{{sfn|Matsui|2009|p=115}}

Matsui Dai introduced the expression "[missing] -dadu mongγo[l] u(l)us" in a [[Old Uyghur alphabet|Uighur script]] document excavated from [[Turfan]], and based on the example of "Middle Empire (Imperium Medium)," argued that this should be read as "Dumdadu Mongγol Ulus". Matsui proposed that "it seems probable that Dua or his descendants took the brand-new official state name Dumdadu Mongol Ulus in order to affirm that their polity was renewed, as did the emperor Qubilai, who in 1271 adopted the official state name Dai Ön Yeke Mongol Ulus.{{sfn|Matsui|2009|p=116}}

==History==
{{See also|Timeline of the Chagatai Khanate}}

===Vassal of the Great Khan (1227–1266)===
When [[Genghis Khan]] died in 1227, his son [[Chagatai Khan]] inherited the regions roughly corresponding to the defunct [[Qara Khitai]] Empire: [[Issyk-Kul]], [[Ili River]], [[Chu River]], [[Talas River]], [[Transoxania]], and the [[Tarim Basin]]. Chagatai was not fully independent in his khanate however and still received orders from [[Karakorum]]. When he dismissed the governor of Transoxania, [[Mahmud Yalavach]], [[Ögedei Khan]] reinstated Mahmud, whose dynasty continued to administer the region even after the death of Chagatai. In 1238 there was a Muslim uprising in [[Bukhara]], but Mahmud's son Mas'ud crushed it the next year before Mongol troops were able to arrive, thereby saving the populace from Mongol vengeance.{{sfn|Grousset|1970|p=328}}

[[File:Chagatay Khan and His Consort, Jāmiʿ al-tavārīkh of Rashid al-Din, Iran, late 14th century.jpg|thumb|The Chagatay Khan and His Consort, ''[[Jāmiʿ al-tavārīkh]]'' of [[Rashid al-Din Hamadani|Rashid al-Din]], Iran, late 14th century.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Diez albums: contexts and contents |date=2017 |publisher=Brill |location=Leiden ; Boston |isbn=978-90-04-32155-7 |page=262}}</ref>]]
Chagatai Khan died in 1242 and was succeeded by his grandson [[Qara Hülegü]]. He was too young to rule independently so the widowed khatun [[Ebuskun]] ruled as regent in his place. In 1246, [[Güyük Khan]] replaced him with one of his uncles, [[Yesü Möngke]].{{sfn|Grousset|1970|p=329}}

Yesü Möngke came to power because he was a personal friend of Güyük Khan. He was a drunkard who left the affairs of the state to his wife and minister Beha ad-Din Marghinani. In 1252 he was deposed by [[Möngke Khan]], who installed Qara Hülegü again.{{sfn|Grousset|1970|p=329}}

Qara Hülegü died on his way home and was succeeded by his son [[Mubarak Shah (Chagatai Khan)|Mubarak Shah]].{{sfn|Grousset|1970|p=329}}

Mubarak Shah was too young to rule and state affairs were managed by his mother [[Orghana]].{{sfn|Grousset|1970|p=329}} In 1260, [[Ariq Böke]] replaced Mubarak Shah with [[Alghu]], a grandson of [[Chagatai Khan]].{{sfn|Grousset|1970|p=331}} Alghu rebelled against [[Ariq Böke]] upon securing power and defected to [[Kublai Khan]]'s side in the [[Toluid Civil War]]. Ariq Böke attacked him and while Alghu experienced initial success in fending off Ariq Böke's army, was forced to flee to [[Samarkand]] in 1263. Ariq Böke devastated the [[Ili River|Ili]] region in his absence. Alghu was able to recruit a new army with the aid of Orghana and Mas'ud Yalavach. He then went on to defeat an invasion by [[Kaidu]] and drive out Ariq Böke, who surrendered to Kublai in 1264. Alghu died in 1265 and Orghana placed her son, Mubarak Shah, on the throne once again.{{sfn|Grousset|1970|p=332}}

Mubarak Shah was the first Chagatai khan to be converted to Islam.<ref name="Çinar">{{cite journal |last1=Çinar |first1=Orhan |title=The First Ruler of the East Çağatay Khanate: A Study on Tuğluk Timur Han and her Period |journal=Journal of Academic Social Science |pages=201–208 |doi=10.29228/ASOS.43231}}</ref> His rule was cut short by his cousin [[Ghiyas-ud-din Baraq]], who deposed him with the support of Kublai Khan.{{sfn|Grousset|1970|p=332}}

===Reign of Kaidu (1266–1301)===
[[Ghiyas-ud-din Baraq]] came into conflict with [[Kublai Khan]] on the administration of the [[Tarim Basin]]. Baraq drove out an agent sent by Kublai to govern the region and when Kublai sent a detachment of 6,000 horsemen, Baraq met them with 30,000 men, forcing them to retreat. Baraq also came into conflict with [[Kaidu]], who enlisted the [[Golden Horde]] khan [[Mengu-Timur]] in attacking Baraq. With a Golden Horde army of 50,000 at his back, Kaidu forced Baraq to flee to [[Transoxania]]. In 1267, Baraq accepted peace with Kaidu, and relinquished the territory east of Transoxania. Kaidu then coerced Baraq into invading the [[Ilkhanate]].{{sfn|Grousset|1970|p=334}} Baraq attacked first, defeating Prince Buchin, the governor of [[Greater Khorasan|Khorasan]], and brother of [[Abaqa Khan]]. Abaqa rushed from [[Azerbaijan]] and defeated Baraq near [[Herat]] on 22 July 1270, forcing him to retreat. On the way back he fell from his horse and was crippled so he spent the winter in Bukhara where he died not long after. He converted to Islam before his death.{{sfn|Biran|1997|pp=30–32}}

[[File:Chaghatayid Khans. temp. Qaidu. Circa AH 668-701 AD 1268-1301. Samarqand mint. Dated AH 685 (AD 1285).jpg|thumb|left|Coinage of the Chaghatai Khans at the time of Qaidu. [[Samarqand]] mint. Dated AH 685 (AD 1285).]]
Baraq's four sons and two sons of [[Alghu]] rebelled against Kaidu in the wake of Baraq's death, but they were continually defeated. Kaidu enthroned [[Negübei]] as the khan in Transoxania. When Negübei rebelled, he was killed and replaced with another khan, [[Buqa Temür]] in 1274. It is uncertain when Buqa Temür died, but after that, Baraq's son [[Duwa]] was enthroned as khan. Meanwhile, Abaqa invaded Transoxania in 1272 and sacked Bukhara, carrying off 50,000 captives.{{sfn|Grousset|1970|p=335}}

In 1275, Duwa joined Kaidu in the [[Kaidu–Kublai war|war against the Yuan dynasty]] but were repelled. In 1297, Duwa invaded the [[Punjab]] and devastated the region, but was defeated. Several invasions of the [[Delhi Sultanate]] also occurred but none were able to make any headway.{{sfn|Grousset|1970|p=339}} In September 1298, Duwa captured [[Temür Khan]]'s son-in-law, Korguz, and put him to death, but immediately after that suffered a disastrous defeat by Yuan forces. In 1301 they were defeated again in an attack on [[Karakorum]] and Kaidu died during the retreat.{{sfn|Grousset|1970|p=336}}

===Foreign wars (1301–1325)===
{{Mongol Empire in 1300|right}}
After Kaidu's death in 1301, both [[Duwa]] and [[Kaidu]]'s son Chapar recognized Yuan authority in 1303. However Duwa threw off his allegiance to Chapar. Both the [[Yuan dynasty]] and [[Duwa]] attacked Chapar, forcing him to surrender  his territory to Duwa in 1306. Meanwhile, Prince Turghai invaded the [[Delhi Sultanate]] in 1303 and looted the [[Delhi]] region. In 1304 they invaded again but suffered a crushing defeat. Duwa died soon after and was succeeded by his son [[Könchek]], who ruled only for a year and a half before he died. One of [[Buqa Temür]]'s brothers, [[Taliqu]], seized power, but Duwa's family rebelled and killed him at a banquet. Duwa's younger son [[Kebek]] became khan. Kebek invaded the Delhi Sutunate again in 1305, looting the [[Multan]] region, but suffered a defeat on the way back. Chapar took advantage of the political turmoil to attack Kebek but was defeated and fled to the Yuan dynasty. Another [[kuriltai]] was held in the Chagatai Khanate, which elected another of Duwa's sons, [[Esen Buqa I]], who took the throne ceded by Kebek. In 1315, Esen Buqa [[Esen Buqa–Ayurbarwada war|invaded the Ilkhanate]] in support of Duwa's grandson, Dawud Khoja, who had set himself up in eastern [[Afghanistan]]. He defeated an Ilkhanate army on the [[Murghab River|Murgab]] and reached as far as [[Herat]], but was forced to retreat when the Yuan dynasty attacked him from the east. The Yuan army devastated the [[Issyk-Kul]] region. In 1315 the Chagatayid prince [[Yasa'ur]] defected to the Ilkhanate, only to rebel, taking [[Greater Khorasan|Khorasan]]. Both Chagatai and Ilkhanate forces attacked Yasa'ur. He was killed as he fled. Esen Buqa I died in 1318, at which point Kebek returned to power. He made peace with the Ilkhanate and the Yuan dynasty and reigned until 1325.{{sfn|Grousset|1970|p=340}}

===Religious conflict (1325–1338)===
[[File:Ambrogio_Lorenzetti,_Martirio_di_cinque_frati_francescani,_1336-37_circa,_dalla_sala_capitolare_(detail).jpg|thumb|''The Martyrdom of the Franciscans'', painted in 1342 by [[Ambrogio Lorenzetti]], took place in [[Almaliq, Xinjiang|Almaliq]], capital of the Chagatai Khanate, in 1339. The central ruler who ordered the killing was the Chagatai usurper [['Ali-Sultan]] (r.1339-1342).<ref name="RP">{{cite book |last1=Prazniak |first1=Roxann |title=Sudden Appearances: The Mongol Turn in Commerce, Belief, and Art |date=31 March 2019 |publisher=University of Hawaii Press |isbn=978-0-8248-7808-5 |page=98 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mVnGDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA98 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Camps |first1=Arnulf |title=Studies in Asian Mission History, 1956-1998 |date=15 February 2000 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-474-0031-8 |page=187 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h-HzDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA187 |language=en}}</ref>]]
[[Kebek]] was succeeded by his three brothers in succession. [[Eljigidey]] and [[Duwa Temür]] each reigned for only a few months. [[Tarmashirin]] (1326–1334) converted to [[Islam]] and raided the [[Delhi Sultanate]], reaching as far as [[Delhi]]. Tarmashirin was brought down by an anti-Muslim rebellion of the eastern tribes. A son of [[Duwa]], [[Changshi]], was enthroned in 1335. One of his sons was baptized.

[[Pope Benedict XII]] appointed the [[Franciscan]] bishop Richard of Burgundy to [[Almaliq, Xinjiang|Almalik]] in 1339. But during the reign of [['Ali-Sultan]], Islam fully absorbed the Chagatai [[Mongols]] and 'Ali persecuted non-Muslim religions. He is the one who ordered the extermination of the Franciscan congregation at Almaliq, and the killing of six Franciscan monks in 1339 (including bishop Richard of Burgundy, Pascal of Spain, Raymond of Provence and three others),<ref>{{cite book |title=Journal asiatique |date=1896 |publisher=Société asiatique |page=421 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v94EagQ1YXgC&pg=PA421 |language=fr}}</ref> as depicted in the 1342 painting ''The Martyrdom of the Franciscans'', by [[Ambrogio Lorenzetti]].<ref name="RP"/>

[[Giovanni de' Marignolli]], a papal legate, arrived in the Ili valley the following year on his way to the [[Yuan dynasty]]. He built a church and baptized some people during his stay, and the presence of [[Christianity]] lasted until the end of the Mongol era.<ref name="RP"/>{{sfn|Grousset|1970|pp=341–2}}

<gallery widths="200px" heights="200px" perrow="4">
File:The Martyrdom of the Franciscans (1342) Ali Sultan.jpg|[['Ali-Sultan]] (r.1339-1342), in ''The Martyrdom of the Franciscans'' (1342).<ref name="REM151">{{cite book |last1=Mack |first1=Rosamond E. |title=Bazaar to Piazza: Islamic Trade and Italian Art, 1300-1600 |date=2002 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-22131-4 |page=151 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=09sA4SNG2dYC&pg=PA151 |language=en}}</ref>
File:The Martyrdom of the Franciscans (1342) Mongol officer.jpg|Mongol officer in ''The Martyrdom of the Franciscans'' (1342).<ref name="REM151"/>
File:Alimali Nestorian steles, Yuan dynasty (1206-1368).jpg|[[Almaliq, Xinjiang|Almaliq]] [[Nestorian]] steles (1206-1368)
</gallery>

===Fragmentation and expansion (1338–1363)===
{{Continental Asia in 1300 CE|right|{{center|The Chagatai Khanate, with contemporary polities circa 1300, before the expansion of the [[Timurid Empire]] into [[Transoxonia]] from 1363.<ref name="New York : McGraw-Hill">{{cite book |last1=Bentley |first1=Jerry H. |title=Traditions & encounters : a global perspective on the past |date=2008 |publisher=New York : McGraw-Hill |isbn=978-0-07-340693-0 |page=471, map 18.2 |url=https://archive.org/details/traditionsencoun0000bent_t4r1/page/471/mode/1up}}</ref>}}||Map of the Chagatai Khanate circa 1300 CE.png||0}}
The khanate became increasingly unstable in the following years and split in two during the 1340s. [[Transoxania]] was ruled by [[Qazan Khan ibn Yasaur]]. In 1346 a tribal chief, [[Amir Qazaghan]], killed Qazan and set up [[Danishmendji]] as puppet khan. Danishmendji was killed off a year later and replaced with [[Bayan Qulï]]. Qazaghan made [[Herat]] a tributary in 1351. He was assassinated in 1357 and was succeeded by his son [[Abdullah (Chagatai Khanate)|Abdullah]], who killed Bayan Qulï in 1358. This aroused the anger of local lords such as [[Hajji Beg]], the uncle of [[Tamerlane]]. Hajji drove out Abdullah to the [[Hindu Kush]], where he died. From then on the Chagatayid khans of Transoxania served as nothing more but figureheads until it was annexed by the [[Timurid Empire]].{{sfn|Grousset|1970|pp=341–343}} The Timurids likewise continued to portray descendants of Chaghatai khans as khans (i.e. rulers) but in reality they were confined in their castles with no authority. They were political prisoners in [[Samarkand]].{{sfn|Grousset|1970|p=416}}

In the east, the powerful [[Dughlats]] enthroned a son of [[Esen Buqa I]], [[Tughlugh Timur]] as khan of [[Moghulistan]] in 1347. In 1350, Tughlugh converted to [[Islam]]. Hajji split Transoxania with Bayan Selduz but they were unable to stabilize the realm and it fell into disarray. In 1360, Tughlugh invaded Transoxania and conquered it. Hajji Beg fled in the face of overwhelming power. The future conqueror [[Timur]] entered Tughlugh's service and was appointed ruler of [[Shahr-i Sebz]]. After Tughlugh left Transoxania, Hajji Beg returned in force, only to be driven away again by Tughlugh. Hajji Beg was killed near [[Sebzewar]]. Tughlugh expanded his territory into [[Afghanistan]] by defeating Amir Husayn. Thus the Chagatai Khanate was restored under Tughlugh.{{sfn|Grousset|1970|p=409-410}}{{sfn|Grousset|1970|p=343-346}}

Following Tughlugh's death in 1363, [[Timur]] and [[Amir Husayn]] took over Transoxiana. Timur and Amir Husayn forced Tughlugh's successor [[Ilyas Khoja]] out of Transoxania, and then Timur eliminated Amir Husayn as well, gaining mastery over Transoxiana (1369–1405). Like his predecessors, Timur maintained a puppet khan ([[Soyurgatmish]]) on the throne to legitimize his rule, but his khans were members of the house of Ögedei rather than descendants of Chagatai.{{sfn|Grousset|1970|p=411-416}}

<gallery widths="200px" heights="200px" perrow="4">
File:Tughlugh Timur Mausoleum - exterior.jpg|[[Tughlugh Timur]] (r.1347–1360) mausoleum, [[Almaliq, Xinjiang]]. A rare example of Chagatai architecture.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=O'Kane |first1=Bernard |title=Chaghatai Architecture and the Tomb of Tughluq Temür at Almaliq |journal=Muqarnas |date=2004 |volume=21 |pages=277–287 |doi=10.1163/22118993-90000072 |jstor=1523362 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1523362 |issn=0732-2992}}</ref>
File:Мавзолей Буян-Кули-хана.jpg|Mausoleum of [[Bayan Qulï]] Khan (r.1348-1358), in [[Bukhara]]
File:Gorskii 21747u.jpg|Decorative detail of the mausoleum of [[Bayan Qulï]] Khan, 1358
File:Piece of Buyan Kuli Khan Frieze, MKG1908.472+4.jpg|Piece of Buyan Kuli Khan mausoleum frieze
</gallery>

===Moghulistan (1363–1487)===
{{main|Moghulistan}}
[[File:Eastern Chagatai 1372.jpg|thumb|350px|[[Moghulistan]] in 1372]]
[[File:Kingdom of Chagatai in the Catalan Atlas (1375).jpg|thumb|Kingdom of Chagatai in the [[Catalan Atlas]] (1375). The Khan [[Kebek]] (r. 1309–1325) is depicted with the caption: ''Here reigns the King Chabech ([[Kebek]]), lord of the Medeja [Media] Empire. He resides at Emalech ([[Almaliq, Xinjiang|Almaliq]]).''<ref>''Açi senyoreya lo rey Chabech, seynior qui es dit del imperi de Medeia. Aquest esta en Emalech.'' in {{cite book |last1=Buchon |first1=Jean Alexandre |title=Notice D'un Atlas En Langue Catalane, Manuscrit de L'An 1375 Conservé Parmi Les Manuscrits de La Bibliothèque Royale Sous Le Numéro 6816, Fonds Ancien |date=2011 |isbn=978-1271741458 |page=135 |publisher=Nabu Press |url=https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/33/Notices_et_extraits_des_manuscrits_de_la_Biblioth%C3%A8que_du_Roi_-_Vol._XIV%2C_no_1_%281839%29.pdf}}</ref> His cities appear with the Chagatai flag ([[File:Flag of the Chagatai Khanate.svg|20px]]).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Massing |first1=Jean Michel |title=Circa 1492: Art in the Age of Exploration |date=1 January 1991 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0-300-05167-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wMK-Ba0-RG4C&pg=PA30 |language=en|page=30}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=The Cresques Project - Panel VI |url=https://www.cresquesproject.net/catalan-atlas-legends/panel-vi |website=www.cresquesproject.net}}</ref>]]
[[Ilyas Khoja]] attacked [[Timur]] in 1364 and defeated him on the north bank of the [[Syr Darya]]. He then besieged [[Samarkand]] but suffered harsh attrition due to an epidemic so that by the next year he was forced to retreat from Transoxania.{{sfn|Grousset|1970|p=412}} The [[Dughlat]] [[Qamar-ud-din Khan Dughlat]] rebelled and killed Ilyas Khoja in 1368, taking the throne for himself. Ilyas Khoja's brother [[Khizr Khoja]] fled to [[Turpan]] where he set up his own independent realm and converted the last [[Uyghurs]] there to [[Islam]]. In 1375, Timur invaded [[Moghulistan]], looting the [[Ili River|Ili region]]. Qamar retaliated by raiding [[Fergana]] until Timur put him to flight. Timur fell into an ambush and barely escaped, retreating to [[Samarkand]]. Timur attacked again in 1376 and 1383 but both times failed to capture the Moghul khan. In 1389 Timur attacked Khizr Khoja instead and forced him to flee into the [[Gobi Desert]]. In 1390 Timur invaded Moghulistan and once again failed to find Qamar, but Qamar, having fled, was never heard of again. Khizr Khoja returned to Moghulistan and assumed power once more. He gave his daughter in marriage to Timur and made peace with him in 1397. Khizr Khoja died in 1399 and was succeeded by his three sons in succession: [[Shams-i-Jahan]] (1399–1408), [[Muhammad Khan (Khan of Moghulistan)|Muhammad Khan]] (1408–1415), and [[Naqsh-i-Jahan]] (1415–1418). Upon Khizr Khoja's death, Timur took the opportunity to send another army to pillage Moghul lands.{{sfn|Grousset|1970|p=422-426}}

[[Uwais Khan]] came to power in 1418. During his reign he waged war on the [[Oirats]] and was taken prisoner by their leader [[Esen Taishi]]. Due to Uwais' royal lineage, Esen Taishi treated him with respect and released him. Uwais suffered two more defeats against the Oirats and was captured a second time. He was let go after sending his sister as hostage to Esen Taishi's family. Uwais died in 1429. Two factions supporting his two sons [[Yunus Khan]] and [[Esen Buqa II]] quarreled over the throne with Esen Buqa II emerging as the victor. Yunus fled to Samarkand. Under Esen Buqa II, the powerful Dughlat Sayyid Ali, who had helped him to the throne, became very influential and held both [[Kucha]] and [[Kashgar]]. In 1451, Esen Buqa II raided the northern border of the [[Timurid Empire]].{{sfn|Grousset|1970|p=491-492}}

The Timurid ruler [[Abu Sa'id Mirza]] schemed to split the Moghuls in two, so he summoned Yunus in 1456 and supported his authority in the Ili region. Yunus tried to conquer Kashgar but was repelled by Sayyid Ali and Esen Buqa II. Esen Buqa II died in 1462. His son [[Dost Muhammad (Moghul Khan)|Dost Muhammad]] was an inexperienced 17 year old. He plundered the territory of the Dughlats. By the time he died in 1469, his realm was in general revolt. Yunus took advantage of the situation to capture the Moghul capital [[Aksu City|Aksu]]. Dost Muhammad's young son [[Kebek Sultan]] was taken to [[Turpan]], where he was proclaimed khan. Four years later, he was put to death by his followers and brought to Yunus. Yunus thus became the sole ruler of Moghulistan in 1472.{{sfn|Grousset|1970|p=492-493}}

Yunus' reign began with a raid by the Oirats under Esen Taishi's son Amasanj, who forced Yunus to flee to the Syr Darya. Yunus returned after the Oirats left with their pillage. In 1465, Yunus faced a rebellion by [[Mirza Abu Bakr Dughlat]], who seized [[Yarkant County|Yarkand]] and [[Khotan]]. Yunus attempted twice to remove to Abu Bakr but was defeated both times in 1479 and 1480, after which Abu Bakr also seized Kashgar. In the east, Yunus captured [[Hami]] from [[Kara Del]], which was then a tributary of the [[Ming dynasty]]. A Ming army evicted the Moghuls from the city but failed to catch them, and they soon returned to Hami afterwards. Yunus also took advantage of political infighting in the west to vassalize [[Umar Shaikh Mirza II]]'s realm in [[Fergana]]. Yunus moved to [[Tashkent]] in 1484 and settled down, giving up the nomadic way of life. His nomadic followers became alarmed by this action and departed for the steppes, taking with them Yunus' second son [[Ahmad Alaq]]. When Yunus died in 1486, his realm was divided between Western Moghulistan, ruled by [[Mahmud Khan (Moghul Khan)|Mahmud Khan]], and Eastern Moghulistan, ruled by Ahmad Alaq in the northeast.{{sfn|Grousset|1970|pp=495-496}}

===Western and Eastern Moghulistan (1487–1508)===
[[File:Mahmud_Khan_on_horse_in_1502_near_Tashkent._Baburnama_of_1589.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|[[Mahmud Khan (Moghul Khan)|Mahmud Khan]] (r.1487-1508) ruled from [[Tashkent]] over Western Moghulistan. ''[[Baburnama]]'' (1589)]]
Following the death of their father Yunus Khan, [[Mahmud Khan (Moghul Khan)|Mahmud Khan]] ruled over the western part of Moghulistan from [[Tashkent]], while his brother [[Ahmad Alaq]] ruled over the eastern part.{{sfn|Grousset|1970|pp=495-496}} In 1488, the [[Timurids]] of [[Samarkand]] tried to recover Tashkent but were defeated by Mahmud. In 1487, Mahmud gave refuge to [[Muhammad Shaybani]], who then seized [[Bukhara]] and Samarkand from the Timurids in 1500, making himself ruler of [[Transoxania]]. Shaybani immediately turned against Mahmud, who called his brother [[Ahmad Alaq]] for help, and defeated both Moghul khans and took them prisoner. Shaybani released them soon after, but kept Tashkent and [[Sayram (city)|Sairam]]. Ahmad died soon after. Mahmud was captured again in 1508 and put to death by Shaybani, marking the last time the Chagatayids were ejected from Transoxania.{{sfn|Grousset|1970|p=496}}

===Yarkent and Turpan Khanates (1514–1705)===
====Yarkent Khanate (1514–1705)====
{{main|Yarkent Khanate}}
In 1514, [[Mansur Khan (Moghul Khan)|Mansur Khan]]'s brother [[Sultan Said Khan]] captured Kashgar, [[Yarkant County|Yarkand]], and [[Khotan]] from [[Mirza Abu Bakr Dughlat]], who had ruled in Mahmud's absence, and forced him to flee to [[Ladakh]]. This marked the final separation of Moghulistan into two realms, with Said situated in Kashgar where he founded the [[Yarkent Khanate]], and Mansur remained Turpan in the [[Turpan Khanate]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ercilasun |first1=Güljanat Kurmangaliyeva |last2=Ercilasun |first2=Konuralp |title=The Uyghur Community: Diaspora, Identity and Geopolitics |date=1 November 2017 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1-137-52297-9 |page=8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JLg8DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA8 |language=en}}</ref> In 1529, Said attacked [[Badakhshan]], and in 1531, he invaded Ladakh. During the campaign, Said fell ill from altitude sickness and died in July 1533 on the homeward journey. He was succeeded by his son [[Abdurashid Khan]]. Abdurashid came into conflict with the [[Dughlats]] and persecuted one of their leaders, Sayyid Muhammad-mirza. Abdurashid spent his reign fighting the [[Kyrgyz people]] and the [[Kazakhs]], who made incursions on the [[Ili River|Ili region]] and [[Issyk Kul]]. He was ultimately unsuccessful in preventing the Kyrgyz-Kazakhs from seizing the Ili region. Abdurashid was succeeded in 1565 by his son [[Abdul Karim Khan (Yarkand)|Abdul Karim Khan]], who shifted the capital to Yarkand. Abdul was succeeded in 1590 by his brother [[Muhammad Sultan]], who repelled an invasion by the [[Khanate of Bukhara]] under [[Abdullah Khan II]].{{sfn|Grousset|1970|p=497-499}} Muhammad died in 1610 and was succeeded by his son [[Shudja ad Din Ahmad Khan]], who was assassinated in 1619, and replaced by Abd al-Latif (Afak) Khan. Abd al-Latif (Afak) Khan was succeeded by his nephew Sultan Ahmad Khan (Pulat Khan) in 1631. Pulat was overthrown by Abdallah (Moghul Khan) in 1636. Abdallah stabilized the court and exiled a number of old nobles to [[India]]. He repelled Oirat inroads in the Khotan and [[Aksu City|Aksu]] regions, and entered a tributary relationship with the [[Qing dynasty]] in 1655. Friendly relations were also established with [[Bukhara]] and the [[Mughal Empire]]. In 1667, Abdallah's son Yulbars Khan removed his father from power.{{sfn|Adle|2003|p=185}}

[[File:1517 Yarkent and Turpan.png|thumb|left|Yarkent and Turpan in 1517]]
From the late 16th century onward, the Yarkent Khanate fell under the influence of the [[Khoja (Turkestan)|Khojas]]. The Khojas were [[Muslims]] who claimed descent from [[Muhammad]] or from the first four Arab [[caliphs]]. By the reign of Said in the early 16th century, the Khojas already had a strong influence in court and over the khan. In 1533, an especially influential Khoja named Makhdum-i Azam arrived in Kashgar, where he settled and had two sons. These two sons hated each other and they passed down their mutual hatred down to their children. The two lineages came to dominate large parts of the khanate, splitting it between two factions: the Aq Taghliq (White Mountain) in Kashgar and the Qara Taghliq (Black Mountain) in Yarkand. Yulbars patronized the Aq Taghliqs and suppressed the Qara Taghliqs, which caused much resentment, and resulted in his assassination in 1670. He was succeeded by his son who ruled for only a brief period before [[Ismail Khan (Moghul khan)|Ismail Khan]] was enthroned. Ismail reversed the power struggle between the two Muslim factions and drove out the Aq Taghliq leader, [[Afaq Khoja]]. Afaq fled to [[Tibet]], where the [[5th Dalai Lama]] aided him in enlisting the help of [[Galdan Boshugtu Khan]], ruler of the [[Dzungar Khanate]].{{sfn|Grousset|1970|p=501}}

In 1680, Galdan led 120,000 [[Dzungars]] into the Yarkent Khanate. They were aided by the Aq Taghliqs and [[Hami]] and [[Turpan]], which had already submitted to the Dzungars. Ismail's son Babak Sultan died in the resistance against them in the battle for Kashgar. The general Iwaz Beg died in the defense of Yarkand. The Dzungars defeated the Moghul forces without much difficulty and took Ismail and his family prisoner. Galdan installed [[Abd ar-Rashid Khan II]], son of Babak, as puppet khan. The new khan forced [[Afaq Khoja]] to flee again, but Abd ar-Rashid's reign was also ended unceremoniously two years later when riots erupted in Yarkand. He was replaced by his brother Muhammad Imin Khan. Muhammad sought help from the [[Qing dynasty]], [[Khanate of Bukhara]], and the [[Mughal Empire]] in combating the Dzungars. In 1693, Muhammad conducted a successful attack on the Dzungar Khanate, taking 30,000 captives. Unfortunately Afaq Khoja appeared again and overthrew Muhammad in a revolt led by his followers. Afaq's son Yahiya Khoja was enthroned but his reign was cut short in 1695 when both he and his father were killed while suppressing local rebellions. In 1696, [[Akbash Khan]] was placed on the throne, but the [[Bey|begs]] of Kashgar refused to recognize him, and instead allied with the [[Kyrgyz people|Kyrgyz]] to attack Yarkand, taking Akbash prisoner. The begs of Yarkand went to the Dzungars, who sent troops and ousted the Kyrgyz in 1705. The Dzungars installed a non-Chagatayid ruler Mirza Alim Shah Beg, thereby ending the rule of Chagatai khans forever.{{sfn|Adle|2003|p=193}}

<gallery widths="200px" heights="200px" perrow="4">
File:2015-09-12-123007 - Moschee beim Grabmal der Amann Shahan Isa Khan.jpg|[[Altyn Mosque]] in [[Yarkand County|Yarkand]]
File:Yarkand-tumbas-reyes-d06.jpg|Royal tombs of the Yarkent Khanate at the [[Altyn Mosque]] in [[Yarkand County|Yarkand]], with tomb of [[Sultan Said Khan]] (1533) in the central pavilion
File:Kashgar-apakh-hoja-d04.jpg|[[Afaq Khoja Mausoleum]], 1640 tomb of [[Afaq Khoja]] near [[Kashgar]]
File:Kashgar-apakh-hoja-d02.jpg|The entrance of Afaq Khoja Mausoleum
</gallery>

====Turpan Khanate (1487–1570)====
{{main|Turpan Khanate}}
{{see also|Ming–Turpan conflict}}
[[Ahmad Alaq]]'s reduced nomadic realm (known as the [[Turpan Khanate]]) came into frequent conflict with the [[Oirats]], [[Kyrgyz people]], and [[Kazakhs]]. According to the ''Tarikh-i Rashidi'', the Oirats called him ''Alasha'', "the Killer". In 1482, [[Hami]] was restored to [[Kara Del]] under Qanšin, but in 1488, Ahmad killed Qanšin and retook the city. The next year Ahmad was driven out of Hami. In 1493, Ahmad captured Kara Del's ruler Šamba and held him prisoner. Šamba received support from the [[Ming dynasty]], which closed its borders to [[Turpan]] and expelled its traders from their markets, which eventually forced Ahmad to give up his ambitions in Hami due to unrest in his realm. In 1499 Ahmad retook [[Kashgar]] and [[Yengisar County|Yengisar]] from [[Mirza Abu Bakr Dughlat]].{{sfn|Grousset|1970|p=495-496}}

[[File:Nieuhof-p-189-Mogolsche-gezant-Lach-van-Kley-plate-315.jpg|thumb|left|A "Moghol Embassy", as seen by the [[Dutch East India Company|VOC]] [[An Embassy from the East-India Company|embassy]] to Beijing in October 1656. The emissaries portrayed had probably come from [[Turpan]], rather than all the way from the [[Mughal Empire|Moghul India]]. They wore dresses of blue silk, decorated with dragons.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Lach |first1=Donald F. (Donald Frederick) |title=Asia in the making of Europe |date=1965 |publisher=Chicago : University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-46733-7 |page=238 |url=https://archive.org/details/asiainmakingofeu0003lach_w4t0-c1/page/n237/mode/2up|quote="We can find no other record of a Mughul embassy of 1656 to Pekin (...) Nieuhof’s report of a Mughul embassy to Peking was taken at face value by C. B. K. Roa Sahib, “Shah Jehan’s Embassy to China, 1656 a.d.,” Quarterly Journal of the Mythic Society, Silver Jubilee Number XXV (1934-35), 117-21. By examination of the Chinese sources, Luciano Petech concluded that Nieuhof was mistaken in this identification. He argues, quite convincingly, that these were probably emissaries from Turfan in central Asia. See Petech, “La pretesa ambascita di Shah Jahan alia Cina,” Rivista degli studi orientali, XXVI (1951), 124-27."}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Nieuhof |first1=Johan |translator=Georg Horn |translator-link=Georgius Hornius |title=Legatio Batavica ad Magnum Tartariae Chamum Sungteium... |language=la |trans-title=The Dutch Embassy to Ijishun Dasan the Great Khan of Tartary... |date=1668 |page=153 |publisher=[[Jacob van Meurs]] |location=Amsterdam |url=https://archive.org/details/Legatio-Batavica-ad-magnum-Tartariae-Chamum-Sungteium-modernum-Sinae-imperatorem-PHAIDRA_o_360495/page/153/mode/1up}}</ref>]]
Around 1500, [[Muhammad Shaybani]] attacked Ahmad's brother [[Mahmud Khan (Moghul Khan)|Mahmud Khan]], who appealed to Ahmad for help. Muhammad defeated both Ahmad and Mahmud, seizing [[Tashkent]] and [[Sayram (city)|Sairam]]. Ahmad was captured but released soon after. He died of paralysis in [[Aksu City|Aksu]] a year later.{{sfn|Grousset|1970|p=496}} His brother [[Mansur Khan (Moghul Khan)|Mansur Khan]] succeeded him. His reign began with difficulties with the powerful [[Dughlat]] of Kashgar, [[Mirza Abu Bakr Dughlat]], plundering the cities of [[Kucha]] and Aksu. In 1514, Mansur's brother [[Sultan Said Khan]] captured Kashgar, [[Yarkant County|Yarkand]], and [[Khotan]] from Abu Bakr and forced him to flee to [[Ladakh]]. This marked the final separation of Moghulistan into two realms, with Said situated in Kashgar, and Mansur in Turpan, otherwise known as [[Turpan_Khanate|Uyghuristan]].{{sfn|Grousset|1970|p=497}}

[[File:万国来朝图 Yarkent dignitaries (葉爾奇木) in Peking in 1761.jpg|thumb|300px|Yarkent dignitaries (葉爾奇木) in [[Beijing]] in 1761. ''[[万国来朝图 ]]'']]
In 1513, Kara Del submitted to Mansur and in 1517 Mansur moved to Hami permanently, where he launched raids against the Ming dynasty. Mansur was succeeded in 1545 by his son [[Shah Khan]]. Shah fought with his brother Muhammad, who seized part of Hami and allied with the Oirats. Shah died in 1560 and Muhammad succeeded him. Muhammad had to fight against a third brother, Sufi Sultan, who tried to enlist the Ming in support of his claim to the throne. After Muhammad's death in 1570, the Turpan Khanate faded from historical texts. The last thing heard of them are embassies sent from Turpan to [[Beijing]] in 1647 and 1657. The [[Qing dynasty]] regarded them as embassies from a genuine Chagatayid.{{sfn|Grousset|1970|p=[https://archive.org/details/empireofsteppes00grou/page/498/mode/2up 499]}}<ref>{{cite book |last1=Amiot |first1=Joseph Marie |title=Mémoires concernant l'histoire, les sciences, les arts, les mœurs, les usages, &c. des Chinois |date=1776 |publisher=Paris : Nyon |pages=15–16 |url=https://archive.org/details/mmoiresconcerna03sacygoog/page/14/mode/2up}}</ref>

==Government==
{{Division of the Mongol Empire}}
The Chagatai Mongols remained mostly nomadic in their mode of government and did not settle down in urban centers until the late 15th century. The Mongols of the Chagatai Khanate treated the urban dwellers of Transoxiana and the Tarim Basin as dependencies.{{sfn|Grousset|1970|p=327}}

==Family tree==
{{Chagatai Khanate family tree}}

==See also==
*[[List of Chagatai khans]]
*[[List of Mongol states]]
*[[Division of the Mongol Empire]]
{{clear}}

== References ==
=== Citations ===
{{sfn whitelist|CITEREFKhvand_Mir1994|CITEREFDughlat2008}}
{{Reflist}}

=== Sources ===
{{refbegin}}
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* {{cite book |last = Atwood |first = Christopher P. |year=2004 |title = Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire |publisher = Facts On File }}
* Barnes, Ian, Bhikhu Parekh and Robert Hudson. ''The History Atlas of Asia.'' Macmillan, p.&nbsp;87. Macmillan, 1998. {{ISBN|0-02-862581-1}}
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* ---. "Dughlat." ''The Encyclopedia of Islam, Volume 2.'' (New Ed.) Leiden, South Holland: E. J. Brill, 1965.
* {{cite book |last = Biran |first = Michal |title = Qaidu and the Rise of the Independent Mongol State in Central Asia |publisher=Curzon |location=Surrey |year=1997 |isbn=0-7007-0631-3 }}
* "[https://web.archive.org/web/20050211100417/http://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/islam/mongols/chagatai.html The Chagatai Khanate]". ''The Islamic World to 1600''. 1998. The Applied History Research Group, University of Calgary. Retrieved 19 May 2005.
* Elias, N. Commentary. ''The Tarikh-i-Rashidi (A History of the Moghuls of Central Asia)''. By Mirza Muhammad Haidar. Translated by Edward Denison Ross, edited by N. Elias. London, 1895.
* {{cite book |last = Grousset |first = René |author-link = René Grousset |title = The Empire of the Steppes: A History of Central Asia |url = https://archive.org/details/empireofsteppes00grou |url-access = registration |access-date = 20 November 2016 |year = 1970 |publisher = Rutgers University Press |location = New Brunswick, NJ |isbn = 978-0-8135-1304-1 }}
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* {{Cite book | last = Matsui | first = Dai（松井太）| chapter = Dumdadu Mongγol Ulus, The Middle Mongolian Empire | editor-last1 = Rybatzki | editor-first1 = Volker | editor-last2 = Pozzi | editor-first2 = Alessandra | editor-last3 = Geier | editor-first3 = Peter W. | editor-last4 = Krueger | editor-first4 = John R. | title = The Early Mongols: Language, Culture and History: Studies in Honor of Igor de Rachewiltz on the Occasion of His 80th Birthday | publisher = Bloomington, Indiana University | date = 2009 | pages = 111–119}}
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* Mirza Muhammad Haidar. ''The Tarikh-i-Rashidi (A History of the Moghuls of Central Asia)''. Translated by Edward Denison Ross, edited by N.Elias. London, 1895.
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* Roemer, H. R. "Timur in Iran." ''The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 6: The Timurid and Safavid Periods''. Ed. Peter Jackson and Lawrence Lockhart. London: Cambridge University Press, 1986. {{ISBN|0-521-20094-6}}.
* Xinjiang: China's Muslim Borderland, S. Frederick Starr
* {{Google books |id = jCpncXFzoFgC |page = 29 |title = The Huns, Rome and the Birth of Europe }}
{{refend}}

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