View source for Cetiosauriscus

{{short description|Genus of reptiles (fossil)}}
{{distinguish|text=the related sauropod dinosaur [[Cetiosaurus]]}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2024}}
{{speciesbox
| fossil_range = [[Middle Jurassic]], {{fossil range|168|163}}
| image = Cetiosauriscus composite.jpg
| image_upright = 1.15
| image_caption = Composite photo of the mounted [[holotype]] skeleton shortly before display in [[1905 in paleontology|1905]]
| image_alt = Composite photograph showing Alfred Leeds standing next to the mounted arm and rear skeleton of Cetiosauriscus, from soon before 1905
| display_parents = 4
| genus = Cetiosauriscus
| parent_authority = [[Friedrich von Huene|von Huene]], [[1927 in paleontology|1927]]<ref name=huene1927/>
| species = stewarti
| authority = [[Alan J. Charig|Charig]], [[1980 in paleontology|1980]]<ref name=charig1980/>
}}

'''''Cetiosauriscus''''' ({{IPAc-en|ˌ|s|iː|t|i|oʊ|ˈ|s|ɔːr|ɪ|s|k|ə|s}} {{respell|SEE|tee|oh|SOR|iss|kəs}})<ref name=nhmsite/> is a [[genus]] of [[sauropod]] [[dinosaur]] that lived between 166 and 164&nbsp;million years ago during the [[Callovian]] ([[Middle Jurassic]] [[Period (geology)|Period]]) in what is now [[England]]. A [[herbivore]], ''Cetiosauriscus'' had – by sauropod standards – a moderately long [[tail]], and longer [[forelimb]]s, making them as long as its [[hindlimb]]s. It has been estimated as about {{convert|15|m|ft|abbr=on}} long and between {{convert|4|and|10|tonne|ton|abbr=on}} in weight.

The only known [[fossil]] includes most of the rear half of a skeleton as well as a forelimb (NHMUK PV R3078). Found in [[Cambridgeshire]] in the 1890s, it was described by [[Arthur Smith Woodward]] in 1905 as a new specimen of the [[species]] ''[[Cetiosaurus leedsi]]''. This was changed in 1927, when [[Friedrich von Huene]] found NHMUK PV R3078 and the ''C. leedsi'' [[type specimen]] to be too different from ''[[Cetiosaurus]]'', warranting its own genus, which he named ''Cetiosauriscus'', meaning "''Cetiosaurus''-like". ''Cetiosauriscus leedsi'' was referred to the sauropod [[family (biology)|family]] [[Diplodocidae]] because of similarities in the tail and foot, and had the dubious or indeterminate species "Cetiosauriscus" ''greppini'', "C." ''longus'', and "C." ''glymptonensis'' assigned to it. In 1980, Alan Charig named a new species of ''Cetiosauriscus'' for NHMUK PV R3078 because of the lack of comparable material to the type of ''C. leedsi''; this species was named '''''Cetiosauriscus stewarti'''''. Because of the poor state of preservation of the ''Cetiosauriscus leedsi'' fossil, Charig sent a petition to the [[International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature]] to instead make ''C. stewarti'' the type species. ''Cetiosauriscus stewarti'' became the oldest confirmed diplodocid until a [[phylogenetic analysis]] published in 2003 instead found the species to belong to [[Mamenchisauridae]], and followed by studies in 2005 and 2015 that found it outside [[Neosauropoda]], while not a mamenchisaurid proper.

''Cetiosauriscus'' was found in the marine deposits of the [[Oxford Clay Formation]] alongside many different [[invertebrate]] groups, marine [[ichthyosaurs]], [[plesiosaurs]] and [[crocodylians]], a single [[pterosaur]], and various dinosaurs: the [[ankylosaur]] ''[[Sarcolestes]]'', the [[stegosaur]]s ''[[Lexovisaurus]]'' and ''[[Loricatosaurus]]'', the [[ornithopod]] ''[[Callovosaurus]]'', as well as some unnamed [[taxon|taxa]]. The [[theropod]]s ''[[Eustreptospondylus]]'' and ''[[Metriacanthosaurus]]'' are known from the formation, although probably not from the same level as ''Cetiosauriscus''.

==History of discovery==

===Background===
[[File:Cetiosaurus fossils.jpg|thumb|left|alt=Photograph of bones in a glass display case with descriptive writing behind|Fossil limbs and vertebrae of ''[[Cetiosaurus oxoniensis]]'']]
The fossil later known as ''Cetiosauriscus'' was originally ascribed to the genus ''[[Cetiosaurus]]''—one of the first sauropods to be named, in [[1842 in paleontology|1842]] by [[palaeontologist]] [[Richard Owen]], and one with a complicated history due to many unfounded referrals of species and specimens, involving almost all English sauropod specimens. The [[type species]] of ''Cetiosaurus'' has changed throughout history because of incomplete remains and the taxon's significance, and many aspects of its anatomy and relationships are still uncertain. ''Cetiosaurus'' was originally named to include ''C. medius'', ''C. brevis'', ''C. brachyurus'' and ''C. longus'', which span from the [[Middle Jurassic]] to the [[Early Cretaceous]] of various localities across England. As none of these species are truly diagnostic, and ''Cetiosaurus'' is a historically and taxonomically important taxon, the more complete Middle Jurassic species ''C. oxoniensis'' named by [[geologist]] [[John Phillips (geologist)|John Phillips]] in [[1871 in paleontology|1871]] became the type species. ''C. glymptonensis'' was also named in the same publication by Phillips, but is less complete and of questionable validity.<ref name=upchurch2003/>
[[File:Ornithopsis hulkei lectotype.jpeg|thumb|right|alt=Photograph of the side of a bone|[[Lectotype]] [[dorsal vertebra]] of ''[[Ornithopsis hulkei]]'']]
Another English taxon, ''[[Ornithopsis hulkei]]'', was named in [[1870 in paleontology|1870]] by palaeontologist [[Harry Govier Seeley]] for vertebrae from the Early Cretaceous [[Wessex Formation]], younger than the existing species of ''Cetiosaurus''.<ref name=upchurch2003/><ref name=seeley1870/> Seeley considered ''Ornithopsis'' to be closely related to ''Cetiosaurus'', but different due to the internal bone structure.<ref name=seeley1870/> An additional species, ''[[Ornithopsis|Ornithopsis leedsii]]'' was named in [[1887 in paleontology|1887]] by [[John Hulke]] for a [[pelvis]], vertebrae and [[rib]]s collected by [[Alfred Nicholson Leeds]], an English farmer and amateur [[fossil collector]] who throughout his life compiled numerous collections of fossils from the Oxford Clay.<ref name=hulke1887/><ref name=noe2010/> ''O. leedsii'', from the [[Late Jurassic]], showed similarities to older ''[[Cetiosaurus oxoniensis]]'' as well as younger ''O. hulkei''.<ref name=hulke1887/> It was described in more detail by Seeley in [[1889 in paleontology|1889]], where he considered ''O. hulkei'', ''C. oxoniensis'' and ''O. leedsii'' to all be in the same genus, bearing the name ''Cetiosaurus''. But [[naturalist]] [[Richard Lydekker]] discussed with Seeley, before the publication of Seeley's 1889 paper, that ''Cetiosaurus'' and ''Ornithopsis'' were not the same taxon. Lydekker suggested that Wealden fossils (including ''O. hulkei'') belonged to ''Ornithopsis'' and the Jurassic remains (including ''O. leedsii'' and ''C. oxoniensis'') to ''Cetiosaurus''.<ref name=seeley1889/> Lydekker in [[1895 in paleontology|1895]] changed his mind and referred the species ''O. leedsii'' to ''[[Pelorosaurus]]'' (known already from the species ''P. brevis'', once named ''Cetiosaurus brevis'')—as ''P. leedsi''—and referred the genus to [[Atlantosauridae]].<ref name=lydekker1895/>{{efn-ua|This incorrect species spelling (removal of an "i" in the species name), would be followed by many later authors although it is simply a junior [[objective synonym]] of the original spelling.<ref name=charig1980/>}} Lydekker's classification of the species was not supported by later authors like palaeontologist [[Arthur Smith Woodward]] in [[1905 in paleontology|1905]], who followed Seeley's classification scheme.<ref name=woodward1905/>

===Discovery and naming===
{{Location map|United Kingdom Cambridgeshire
|width          = 200
|float          = left
|border         =
|caption        = Location of the fossil discovery: NPBCL pit No.{{spaces}}1 in [[Cambridgeshire]], [[England]]
|alt            = Map of Cambridgeshire, England showing the location of the fossil quarry Cetiosauriscus was found in, in the top left corner below Peterborough
|relief         =|AlternativeMap =
|overlay_image  =
|label          = '''NPBCL pit No. 1'''
|label_size     =
|position       =
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|lat_deg        = 52.552722
|lon_deg        = -0.241946
}}

The sauropod fossil today known as ''Cetiosauriscus stewarti'' was discovered in May [[1898 in paleontology|1898]] by clay workers in the area around [[Fletton]] to the south of [[Peterborough]] and east of the [[Great Northern Railway (Great Britain)|Great Northern Railway]] line. Pits in this region expose the fossil-rich [[sedimentary rock]]s of the [[ocean|marine]] [[Oxford Clay]], which is of middle [[Callovian]] age and today regarded as one of the classic [[geological formation]]s of British palaeontology.<ref name=oxford_clay>{{cite book |last=Smith |first=J.B. |editor1-last=Currie |editor1-first=P.J. |editor2-last=Padian |editor2-first=K. |year=1997 |title=Encyclopedia of Dinosaurs |chapter=Oxford Clay |isbn=978-0-12-226810-6 |pages=509–510}}</ref> The sauropod fossil possibly stems from NPBCL pit No.{{spaces}}1, which was the northernmost pit operated by the New Peterborough Brick Company Limited, and which produced the most vertebrate fossils. The discovery was brought to the attention of Leeds, who, after excavation, took the sauropod specimen to Eyebury, the Leeds' family home. In mid-August, after some cleaning and repairing of the specimen, geologist [[Henry Woodward (geologist)|Henry Woodward]] visited Eyebury and produced a life-sized drawing of the remains for presentation at the British Association for the Advancement of Science Meeting. Following this presentation, on 17 August 1898, Henry Woodward returned with American palaeontologist [[Othniel Charles Marsh]], who considered the sauropod to be closely related to the North American taxon ''[[Diplodocus]]''. Alfred Leeds offered the sauropod to the [[British Museum of Natural History]] (BMNH, now abbreviated as NHMUK) for £250, which would equate to about £30,529 in 2017.<ref name=noe2010/><ref name=pricecalculator/> The NHMUK had earlier in 1890 and 1892 bought the First and Second Collections of Alfred Leeds, respectively. Woodward, Keeper of Geology at the NHMUK, had "great pleasure" to recommend to the Trustees of the NHMUK the fossil be purchased. The purchase was sanctioned on 25 February 1899, along with the purchase of assorted other remains for just over £357 (~£43,596 in 2018<ref name=pricecalculator/>), where the Leeds sauropod gained the [[accession number (library science)|accession number]] BMNH R3078 (now NHMUK PV R3078).<ref name=noe2010/>
[[File:Cetiosauriscus composite skeletal.png|thumb|Known elements of ''Cetiosauriscus'']]
The amount of material made NHMUK PV R3078 the most complete sauropod specimen from the [[United Kingdom]], comparable only later to the "[[Rutland Dinosaur]]" (referred to ''Cetiosaurus'') discovered in 1967.<ref name=noe2010/><ref name=woodward1905/><ref name=heathcote2003/> Known regions of the specimen include the [[forelimb]], [[hindlimb]] and [[vertebral column]]. The forelimb lacks the [[manus (anatomy)|manus]] (hand) and part of the [[radius (bone)|radius]] and [[ulna]], although the hindlimb lacks only a few bones in the [[Pes (anatomy)|pes]] (foot) and fragments of the [[tibia]], [[fibula]] and [[ilium (bone)|ilium]]. The vertebrae known are four parts of dorsal vertebrae, the neural spines of the [[sacrum]], multiple [[anatomical terms of location#anterior and posterior|anterior]] [[caudal vertebrae]] (tail bones), and a series of 27 nearly complete vertebrae from the middle of the tail with associated or articulated [[Chevron (anatomy)|chevrons]] (ribs along the underside of the tail), although the vertebral series is not continuous.<ref name=noe2010/><ref name=woodward1905/> A tail tip (NHMUK PV R1967) from the same locality, but a different individual was thought by palaeontologist [[Alan Charig]] in 1980 to belong to ''Cetiosauriscus''. The assignment of NHMUK PV R1967 to ''Cetiosauriscus'' was considered unlikely in alternate studies by palaeontologists [[Friedrich von Huene]], Paul Upchurch and [[Darren Naish]] because of the lack of overlap and uncertain phylogenetic positions.<ref name=charig1993/><ref name=weishampel2004/><ref name=naish2007/><ref name=huene1927/> In [[1903 in paleontology|1903]], the skeleton was mounted as preserved in the British Museum, so it could be more easily compared with other mounted sauropods from [[North America]].<ref name=noe2010/><ref name=woodward1905/> The mount of ''Cetiosauriscus'' was put on display just prior to the cast skeleton of ''Diplodocus'', and was displayed with the dorsal vertebrae NHMUK PV R1984 and some isolated teeth from a [[camarasaurid]] (possibly referable to ''Cetiosauriscus''<ref name=martill1991/>), making it the first sauropod skeleton mounted in the United Kingdom.<ref name=noe2010/>

NHMUK PV R3078 was referred in 1905 by Arthur Woodward to the species ''Cetiosaurus leedsii'', as it was from the same geologic formation as other specimens that were assigned to ''C. leedsii''.<ref name=woodward1905/> Woodward also referred the dorsal vertebrae NHMUK PV R1984 and the tail tip NHMUK PV R1967 to the species.<ref name=noe2010/><ref name=woodward1905/> In [[1927 in paleontology|1927]], Huene briefly described the anatomy of the species ''C. leedsii'', where he noted that it shared many similarities with ''[[Haplocanthosaurus]]'' and was most likely between ''Cetiosaurus'' proper and the former genus. For this reason, Huene proposed the new genus name ''Cetiosauriscus'' for the species.<ref name=huene1927/> To the genus he referred the specimens NHMUK PV R1984–R1988 and NHMUK PV R3078.<ref name=charig1993/>

===Misassigned species===
[[File:Cetiosaurus longus.jpg|thumb|right|upright|alt=Drawing of a tail bone|Caudal vertebra of "Cetiosauriscus" ''longus'' (now Eusauropoda indet.) seen from in front, above, the side, and cross section]]
Huene (1927) assigned ''"Ornithopsis" greppini'', which he had named in [[1922 in paleontology|1922]], to the genus ''Cetiosauriscus''. The known material, discovered in Late Jurassic ([[Kimmeridgian]]) deposits in the [[Reuchenette Formation]] of [[Switzerland]], includes dorsal and caudal vertebrae, forelimb bones, and a hindlimb and partial pes, from at least two individuals.<ref name=meyer2003/> The {{convert|53|cm|in|abbr=on}} long humerus was built like ''Cetiosauriscus stewarti'' (''C. leedsi'' of von Huene's 1927 usage), and the two species were originally distinguished from ''Cetiosaurus'' by having shorter dorsal vertebrae, a shorter forelimb, and a longer lower leg.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Huene |first=F. V. |date=1927 |title=Short review of the present knowledge of the Sauropoda |journal=Memoirs of the Queensland Museum |volume=9 |pages=121–126}}</ref> Similarities such as the anatomy of the caudal vertebrae were suggested by Christian Meyer and Basil Thüring in 2003 to support the referral of ''greppini'' to ''Cetiosauriscus''.<ref name=meyer2003/> However, Weishampel et al. (2004) and Whitlock (2011) considered ''"Cetiosauriscus" greppini'' to be [[Eusauropoda]] ''[[incertae sedis]]'', while Hofer (2005) and Schwarz et al. (2007) concluded that ''"Cetiosauriscus" greppini'' represents an unnamed genus of basal eusauropod.<ref name=weishampel2004/><ref name=whitlock2011/><ref>Hofer, C. (2005). Osteologie und Taxonomie von Cetiosauriscus greppini (Huene 1927a, b) aus dem späten Jura von Moutier (Reuchenette Formation) [Osteology and taxonomy of Cetiosauriscus greppini (Huene 1927a, b) from the Late Jurassic of Moutier (Reuchenette Formation)]. Unpublished Diploma thesis, University of Basel, p. 70.</ref><ref>Schwarz, D., Wings, O., & Meyer, C. A. (2007). Taxonomische und systematische Revision von Cetiosauriscus greppini (Sauropoda). In O. Elicki & J. W. Schneider (Eds.), Fossile Ökosysteme (Vol. 36, p. 147). Wissenschaftliche Mitteilungen, Institut für Geologie: Freiberg.</ref> ''"Ornithopsis" greppini'' was finally named as the new genus ''[[Amanzia]]'' in 2020.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Schwarz |first1=D. |last2=Mannion |first2=P. D. |last3=Wings |first3=O. |last4=Meyer |first4=C. A. |date=2020 |title=Re-description of the sauropod dinosaur Amanzia ("Ornithopsis/Cetiosauriscus") greppini n. gen. and other vertebrate remains from the Kimmeridgian (Late Jurassic) Reuchenette Formation of Moutier, Switzerland |journal=[[Swiss Journal of Geosciences]] |doi=10.1186/s00015-020-00355-5 |volume=113 |issue=1 |pages=2|s2cid=211265622 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

The species ''Cetiosaurus longus'', named in 1842 by Owen, was referred to the genus ''Cetiosauriscus'' without comment by sauropod palaeontologist John Stanton McIntosh in 1990.<ref name=mcintosh1990/> The species was named for a dorsal and caudal vertebrae from the [[Portland stone]] of [[Garsington]], [[Oxfordshire]] (both now missing) and two other caudal vertebrae from the same deposit of nearby [[Thame]]. Owen also referred a single vertebra and some [[metatarsals]] originally named ''[[Cetiosaurus epioolithicus]]'' (an invalid ''[[nomen nudum]]'') to the species. One of the vertebrae (OUMNH J13871) may instead be a [[cervical vertebrae|cervical]], as it has one mildly convex and one concave articular face. Characterised as having uniquely elongate vertebral [[vertebral centrum|centra]] (body of the vertebra), ''C. longus'' is not a [[autapomorphy|diagnostic]] taxon. As it lacks any diagnostic features of ''Cetiosauriscus'', the species should be referred to by its original designation, ''Cetiosaurus longus''.<ref name=upchurch2003/>

''Cetiosaurus glymptonensis'', named on the basis of nine middle-distal caudal centra from the [[Forest Marble Formation]] of Oxfordshire, England, was referred to ''Cetiosauriscus'' by McIntosh in 1990. These caudal vertebrae were considered to be more elongate than those of ''Cetiosaurus oxoniensis'', but caudal length proportions vary significantly throughout the tail and in different taxa, ''[[Apatosaurus]]'', ''Diplodocus'' and ''Cetiosauriscus'' having similarly elongate caudal vertebrae.<ref name=upchurch2003/> The more anterior caudals have a large ridge two-thirds up the centrum and a smaller ridge one-third up. These ridges are similar to the middle caudals of ''Cetiosauriscus''. Still, they are absent in caudals of the same size and proportions, and because of this difference the species was concluded to be separate from ''Cetiosauriscus'' by Upchurch and Martin in 2003.<ref name=upchurch2003/> "Cetiosaurus" ''glymptonensis'' is considered to be Eusauropoda ''incertae sedis'' by Upchurch and Martin (2003), Weishampel and colleagues (2004) and Whitlock (2011), and is in need of a new genus name because it has a single diagnostic feature, the lateral ridges.<ref name=upchurch2003/><ref name=weishampel2004/><ref name=whitlock2011/>
[[File:Cetiosauriscus forelimb.png|thumb|left|alt=Drawing of arm bones|Forelimb of ''Cetiosauriscus'' in front and top views]]
In [[1980 in paleontology|1980]], Charig described a specimen of indeterminate diplodocid from the Early Cretaceous of England, and re-examined the holotype of ''Cetiosauriscus leedsii'' to compare its characteristics. In this publication he confirmed that the ilium of the holotype of ''C. leedsii'', NHMUK PV R1988, was too incomplete to be compared to the also incomplete ilium of the referred specimen NHMUK PV R3078. Because of the lack of overlap the referral of NHMUK PV R3078 to ''Cetiosauriscus leedsii'' was no longer verifiable, so Charig named the new species ''Cetiosauriscus stewarti'' for NHMUK PV R3078. The specific name was chosen to honour Sir Ronald Stewart, the chairman of the London Brick Company that owned the clay pit the fossils had been found in. Furthermore, Charig considered ''Cetiosauriscus leedsii'' and ''Cetiosauriscus greppini'' to be [[nomen dubium|dubious]] taxa, making ''C. stewarti'' the only valid species within ''Cetiosauriscus''.<ref name=charig1980/> Because of the invalidity of the type species ''C. leedsii'', Charig made a petition to the [[International Code of Zoological Nomenclature]] (ICZN) in [[1993 in paleontology|1993]] to designate ''Cetiosauriscus stewarti'' as the type species of its genus, being the taxon containing the specimen Huene had originally named the genus for and distinguished from ''Cetiosaurus'', and also a taxonomically more stable name.<ref name=charig1993/> This was accepted by the ICZN in [[1995 in paleontology|1995]], making ''Cetiosauriscus stewarti'' the type species of ''Cetiosauriscus''.<ref name=iczn1995/> The only specimen that can confidently be assigned to ''C. stewarti'' is the holotype NHMUK PV R3078, although it is possible that isolated teeth from the Oxford Clay could be from the taxon.<ref name=noe2010/><ref name=martill1991/>

==Description==
[[File:Cetiosauriscus-Scale-Diagram-SVG-Steveoc86.svg|thumb|alt=Light brown sauropod silhouette with a medium length neck, long tail and long limbs, shown beside two humans|A diagram showing the possible size of ''Cetiosauriscus'' compared to humans]]
''Cetiosauriscus'' was a moderately sized, quadrupedal eusauropod. It had a moderately long tail, and relatively long arms making the shoulders level with the hips. ''Cetiosauriscus'' was approximately {{convert|15|m|ft|abbr=on}} long based on the known skeleton, comparable to possible relatives like {{convert|16|m|ft|abbr=on}} long ''Cetiosaurus'', and {{convert|16.5|m|ft|abbr=on}} long ''[[Patagosaurus]]''.<ref name=paul2016/> The weight of ''Cetiosauriscus'' is less certain, depending on its phylogenetic placement. Restored as a diplodocid, ''Cetiosauriscus'' was estimated by Paul (2010<ref name=paul2010/>) as {{convert|4|tonne|ton|abbr=on}}, but restored as a cetiosaur it was estimated by Paul (2016<ref name=paul2016/>) as {{convert|10|tonne|ton|abbr=on}}.<ref name=paul2016/><ref name=paul2010/>

===Vertebrae===
[[File:Cetiosauriscus dorsal.png|thumb|left|upright|alt=Drawing of a back bone|Posterior dorsal vertebra in rear and side views]]
The dorsal vertebrae of NHMUK PV R3078 are incomplete or fragmentary. A partial anterior dorsal is known from a single centrum, which is about as long as wide, with a strong anterior articular ball (an [[wikt:opisthocoelous|opisthocoelous]] condition).<ref name=woodward1905/> On the [[anatomical terms of location#lateral and medial|lateral]] surfaces (sides) of the centrum there are deep but small [[wikt:pleurocoel|pleurocoels]] (depressions in the sides of vertebrae for [[air sac]]s).<ref name=huene1927/><ref name=weishampel2004/> A single middle dorsal centrum is preserved, slightly smaller than the anterior dorsal. The pleurocoel is more elongate, but like the anterior dorsal there is no [[anatomical terms of location#dorsal and ventral|ventral]] (underside) concavity. A posterior dorsal is also known and is probably the last dorsal before the sacrum (vertebrae between the pelves). It preserves the entire centrum and most of the neural arch, and is significantly shortened in length compared to the other dorsals, although it is about as wide across as tall. A shallow pleurocoel is also present, but is placed higher on the side of the centrum and disappears into the [[neural arch]]. Unlike the anterior dorsal, the posterior dorsal is only very slightly opisthocoelous. A tall and narrow [[hyposphene]] (thin vertical ridge below the anterior processes of the arch, providing additional vertebral articulation<ref name=weishampel2004/>) is present and well expanded off the arch. A single dorsal [[neural spine]] is also preserved. It is flattened and not tall, with a narrowed tip, and the only noticeable laminae present are the spinopostzygapophyseal laminae running down the rear corners of the spine to the [[zygapophyses|postzygapophyses]].<ref name=woodward1905/> This is unlike most diplodocoids where there are many laminar running along the length of the spines.<ref name=tschopp2015/> Four neural spines of the sacrum are preserved, three of which form a single plate and the fourth of which is separate, like in ''Diplodocus''.<ref name=woodward1905/><ref name=huene1927/>
[[File:Cetiosauriscus anterior caudal.png|thumb|right|upright|alt=Drawing of a tail bone|Fourth caudal vertebra in front and side views]]
Of the anterior four caudal vertebrae, the anteriormost two are highly incomplete. Both the short, but wider-than-tall, centra preserve traces of the sideways projections ([[transverse process]]es) found in other vertebrae, which are very low on the sides compared to following caudals. The neural spines are very thin, thinning to a single ridge in front (the prespinal lamina), but having two spinopostzygapophyseal laminae like the dorsals. The fourth caudal is the most complete anterior caudal. The centrum is concave in front, but flat behind ([[wikt:amphiplatyan|amphiplatyan]]). There are no pleurocoels unlike the dorsals, and the transverse processes begin in the top half of the centrum. The centrum is {{convert|10|cm|in|abbr=on}} long, {{convert|27|cm|in|abbr=on}} tall and {{convert|28|cm|in|abbr=on}} wide, with the total vertebra being {{convert|66|cm|in|abbr=on}} tall. Anterior caudals of the ''Cetiosaurus leedsi'' specimen NHMUK PV R1984 are very similar to those of ''Cetiosauriscus'', but the neural arches are not as tall in ''C. leedsi'', and the transverse processes lack a prominent ridge along the top of them. Middle and posterior caudals from a nearly continuous series of 27 bones are well preserved in ''Cetiosauriscus''. The later vertebrae are slightly more elongate than those in front, and slightly less concave in their anterior face. Moving towards the end of the tail the centra reduce in size and the transverse processes shrink until they are completely absent, with the neural spines becoming shorter, thinner, and more slanted. The seventh vertebrae of the series, at {{convert|45|cm|in|abbr=on}} tall, is {{convert|18|cm|in|abbr=on}} long, only one cm longer than the 21st of the same series that is {{convert|22.5|cm|in|abbr=on}} tall.<ref name=woodward1905/> A distinguishing characteristic of ''Cetiosauriscus'' is the presence of a front-to-back concavity on the top of the anterior and middle caudal neural spines.<ref name=weishampel2004/>

===Appendicular skeleton===
[[File:Cetiosauriscus femur.png|thumb|left|upright|alt=Drawing of a large limb bone|Femur of ''Cetiosauriscus'' in rear, top, and bottom views and cross sections]]
''Cetiosauriscus'' preserves a single right scapula (shoulder blade), which is elongate and slender. The scapula is {{convert|96.5|cm|in|abbr=on}} long and {{convert|17.5|cm|in|abbr=on}} wide at the middle, making it very narrow.<ref name=woodward1905/><ref name=huene1932/> The inner face is flat across, while the outer face is gently convex. There is no expansion of the far end of the blade. The bone thickens close to the humerus joint, where it also articulates with the coracoid. The coracoid is incomplete, but enough is preserved to show it is rectangular, and longer, at {{convert|35|cm|in|abbr=on}}, than it is wide—{{convert|38|cm|in|abbr=on}}. A {{convert|94|cm|in|abbr=on}} long humerus is known, and complete with minimal crushing. The bone is short and stout, with a robust [[deltoid tuberosity|crest for the deltoid muscle]] along the upper half of the bone.<ref name=woodward1905/> The shape of the humerus is similar to the shortness of ''[[Neuquensaurus]]'', although overall the forelimb is long, as in ''Diplodocus'' and ''Cetiosaurus'', being 69% of the femur length.<ref name=huene1932/><ref name=weishampel2004/> The distal end is [[wikt:rugose|roughened]] for a large [[cartilage]] cap as found in some other eusauropods like "Cetiosauriscus" ''greppini''.<ref name=meyer2003/> The radius and ulna are broken, but complete they would have been {{convert|76|cm|in|abbr=on}} long.<ref name=woodward1905/>

The hindlimb of ''Cetiosauriscus'' is about {{frac|3|2}} the length of the forelimb. Both ilia are very fragmentary, but the two sides supplement each other to give a reasonable idea of the proportions of the complete bone. The ilium is {{convert|1.02|m|ft|abbr=on}} long, and has a long and slender pubic [[Peduncle (anatomy)|peduncle]].<ref name=woodward1905/> It is proportionally lower than in ''Cetiosaurus'', being similar in proportions to ''Haplocanthosaurus'' and the later "[[Titanosauridae]]".<ref name=huene1927/><ref name=huene1932/> The left femur is complete, but part of the shaft is eroded away. It is very slender, being {{convert|1.36|m|ft|abbr=on}} tall but only {{convert|19.5|cm|in|abbr=on}} wide at the middle.<ref name=woodward1905/> This very [[gracile]] femoral morphology is shared with ''[[Amphicoelias]]'', ''[[Shunosaurus]]'', ''[[Ligabuesaurus]]'' and a specimen of ''Diplodocus'', being more gracile than ''Cetiosaurus'' and most other eusauropods.<ref name=huene1927/><ref name=tschopp2015/> A prominent fourth trochanter is present, but the remaining shaft is very compressed. The tibia, fibula and pes are also preserved, but are fragmentary and disarticulated making comparisons difficult, the lower hindlimb being about {{convert|80|cm|in|abbr=on}} upright.<ref name=woodward1905/><ref name=huene1932/> The foot is similar to ''Diplodocus'' and ''[[Brontosaurus]]'', where the first toes are large and clawed, and the outer ones are small and clawless. Metatarsal III is the longest, followed by metatarsal IV, II, V and I. Metatarsal I is the widest, and the width of the bones decreases numerically.<ref name=woodward1905/>

==Classification==
[[File:Cetiosauriscus life restoration.png|thumb|Speculative [[paleoart|life restoration]]]]
''Cetiosauriscus'' was originally classified by Huene as a genus in the [[family (biology)|family]] [[Cetiosauridae]], within the [[subfamily (biology)|subfamily]] [[Cardiodontidae]]. The subfamily, including the other taxa ''Cetiosaurus'', ''Haplocanthosaurus'', ''[[Dystrophaeus]]'', ''[[Elosaurus]]'' and ''[[Rhoetosaurus]]'', was founded upon the general [[basal (phylogenetics)|basal]] features of elongate cervicals and shortened dorsals—both opisthocoelous, [[wikt:amphicoelous|amphicoelous]] caudals that are rod-shaped distally, paired [[sternum|sternal plates]], an ilium lacking the postacetabular process (region of the ilium behind the ischium joint and [[acetabulum]]), a very wide [[pubis (bone)|pubis]], wide distal ischium, significantly shorter forelimb than hindlimb, fibula lacking the middle muscle attachment, and long [[metacarpal]]s and short [[metatarsal]]s.<ref name=huene1927/> This classification was amended in 1932 when Huene concluded ''Cetiosauriscus'' was closer to ''Haplocanthosaurus'' than ''Cetiosaurus'' in the family, because of forelimb and hindlimb proportions.<ref name=huene1932/> Conversely, in [[1956 in paleontology|1956]], [[Alfred Romer]] synonymised ''Cetiosauriscus'' and ''Cetiosaurus'', a position that has not been followed by subsequent studies on the taxon.<ref name=charig1980/><ref name=romer1956/>

David S. Berman and McIntosh in [[1978 in paleontology|1978]] referred ''Cetiosauriscus'' to the family [[Diplodocidae]] along with multiple other genera; ''Diplodocus'', ''Apatosaurus'', ''Barosaurus'', ''Mamenchisaurus'' ''[[Dicraeosaurus]]'' and ''[[Nemegtosaurus]]''. Like other members of the family, ''Cetiosauriscus'' possesses wing-like transverse processes, divided chevrons with forward and backward projections, the tail is "whiplash"-like, the humerus is 2/3 the length of the femur, the [[calcaneum]] is absent, metatarsal III and IV are the longest, and metatarsal I has a process on the bottom back corner.<ref name=berman1978/> This referral would make ''Cetiosauriscus'', known from the Callovian, the oldest diplodocid, millions of years older than ''Diplodocus'', ''Barosaurus'' or ''Apatosaurus''. In the paper naming ''Cetiosauriscus stewarti'', Charig also described the chevrons of a new specimen and created the term "diplodociform" to describe them. This meant they were robust and double-beamed, as in ''Diplodocus'' and its relatives like ''Mamenchisaurus''. Because of the similarly "diplodociform" chevrons, Charig referred ''Cetiosauriscus'' to the Diplodocidae along with the new specimen.<ref name=charig1980/> Elaborating upon his earlier paper, McIntosh (1990<ref name=mcintosh1990/>) weakly referred ''Cetiosauriscus'' to the subfamily [[Diplodocinae]], characterised by more cervicals and fewer dorsals, tall sacrum neural spines, short forelimbs, no calcaneum, metatarsals III and IV being the longest, and a small process on the distal end of metatarsal I. The subfamily also included ''Diplodocus'', ''[[Barosaurus]]'' and ''Apatosaurus''.<ref name=mcintosh1990/> In [[2004 in paleontology|2004]] this placement was followed by Weishampel ''et al.'' without comment.<ref name=weishampel2004/>

A [[phylogenetics|phylogenetic analysis]] of ''Cetiosauriscus'' was conducted in 2003 by Julia Heathcote and Upchurch, based upon the two most inclusive matrices of the time, those of [[Jeffrey A. Wilson]] (2002<ref name=wilson2002/>) and Upchurch (1995<ref name=upchurch1995/>), neither of which had included the taxon in the past. Added to the analysis of Upchurch, ''Cetiosauriscus'' placed as the sister taxon of ''[[Tehuelchesaurus]]'', in a group including ''[[Mamenchisaurus]]'', ''[[Omeisaurus]]'' and ''[[Euhelopus]]'', and a placement within a group of ''Omeisaurus'' and ''Mamenchisaurus'' was also found by using the Wilson matrix. Based on these two results, Heathcote and Upchurch concluded ''Cetiosauriscus'' was not a diplodocid or even within [[Diplodocoidea]], instead being a more basal sauropod outside [[Neosauropoda]].<ref name=heathcote2003/> The phylogenetic analysis of Rauhut ''et al.'' (2005<ref name=rauhut2005/>) resolved ''Cetiosauriscus'' in a clade with ''Omeisaurus'', itself in a group with ''[[Losillasaurus]]'' and ''Mamenchisaurus'', outside of Neosauropoda.<ref name=rauhut2005/> The phylogenetic relationships of ''Cetiosauriscus'' were also tested in [[2015 in paleontology|2015]] by Tschopp ''et al.'', as a potential diplodocid. Although the genus was found to be within [[Diplodocimorpha]] with one analysis method, it was also found outside Neosauropoda. In both, ''Cetiosauriscus stewarti'' was found to be in a clade alone with ''[[Barosaurus affinis]]'', a dubious species known only from foot bones. Tschopp ''et al.'' concluded that ''Cetiosauriscus'' was not a diplodocid or a diplodocoid, as forcing it to be outside Neosauropoda was more [[maximum parsimony (phylogenetics)|parsimonious]] than forcing it to be within Diplodocoidea in all analyses. As the paper was only to test relationships within Diplodocidae, more solid conclusions regarding the position of ''Cetiosauriscus'' could not be made. The results of the favoured [[cladogram]] of Tschopp ''et al.'' is shown below:<ref name=tschopp2015/>
[[File:Cetiosauriscus skeleton drawing.png|thumb|right|alt=Drawing of the known skeleton in a life pose|1905 drawing of the mounted skeleton of ''Cetiosauriscus'']]
{{clade| style=font-size: 85%; line-height: 85%;
|label1=[[Eusauropoda]]
|1={{clade
 |1=''[[Shunosaurus lii]]''
 |2={{clade
  |1=''[[Spinophorosaurus nigerensis]]''
  |2={{clade
   |1=''[[Omeisaurus]]''
   |2={{clade
    |1=''[[Mamenchisaurus]]''
    |2={{clade
     |1={{clade
      |1='''''Cetiosauriscus stewarti'''''
      |2=''[[Barosaurus affinis]]'' }}
     |2={{clade
      |1=''[[Jobaria tiguidensis]]''
      |2={{clade
       |1={{clade
        |1=''[[Amphicoelias latus]]''
        |2={{clade
         |1=''[[Lourinhasaurus alenquerensis]]''
         |2={{clade
          |1=''[[Camarasaurus]]''
          |2={{clade
           |1=''[[Turiasaurus riodevensis]]''
           |2=''[[Losillasaurus giganteus]]'' }} }} }} }}
       |2={{clade
        |1=''[[Brachiosaurus]]'' sp.
        |2={{clade
         |1=[[Diplodocoidea]]
         |label2=[[Macronaria]]
         |2={{clade
          |1={{clade
           |1=''[[Giraffatitan brancai]]''
           |2=''[[Brachiosaurus altithorax]]'' }}
          |2={{clade
           |1=''[[Ligabuesaurus leanzai]]''
           |2=''[[Isisaurus colberti]]'' }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }}

==Palaeobiology==
[[File:Cetiosauriscus distal caudal.png|thumb|alt=Drawing of a very long and thin tail bone|Unpathologic distal caudal of ''Cetiosauriscus''? specimen NHMUK PV R1967]]

===Palaeopathology===
The series of distal caudal vertebrae NHMUK PV R1967, once referred to ''Cetiosauriscus'', is similar to the caudals of ''Diplodocus'', with two convex ends ([[wikt:biconvex|biconvex]]) and a long and thin centrum. These caudals display signs of injury at two points along the series of ten vertebrae, where there are signs of breakage that was later healed.<ref name=woodward1905/> These lesions were identified as the same form of pathologies as found on the tail of ''Diplodocus''.<ref name=moodie1917/> It has been suggested that the biconvex distal caudal vertebrae in sauropods were used for making whip-like cracking noise, being thin and delicate and not intended for impact, as the joints would be very vulnerable to damage rendering them useless.<ref name=myhrvold1997/>

===Palaeoecology===
[[File:Eustreptospondylus attacking Lexovisaurus.jpg|thumb|left|alt=Illustration of a theropod running towards a group of stegosaurs with spikes along their backs surrounded by forest|Life restoration of ''[[Eustreptospondylus]]'' facing ''[[Lexovisaurus]]'' in a forested environment. After death, the carcasses of these dinosaurs were deposited in marine sediments of the [[Oxford Clay Formation]].]]
[[File:Callovian Europe map.png|thumb|Map of Europe during the Callovian period when ''Cetiosauriscus'' lived]]
''Cetiosauriscus'' lived during the Callovian, an [[epoch (geology)|epoch]] in the Middle Jurassic, about 166 to 164 mya.<ref name=holtz2011/>
The single specimen is known from the Lower Member of the Oxford Clay Formation, along with multiple other dinosaur genera and many other groups of animals, in the [[biozone]] of the [[index fossil]] ''[[Kosmoceras jason]]''.<ref name=noe2010/><ref name=martill1991/> The Oxford Clay Formation is a marine deposit of southern and middle England, known for the high-quality preservation of some fossils and the large diversity of taxa.<ref name=martill1991/> Sediments are generally brownish-grey [[mudstone]], organic-rich with plentiful crushed [[ammonite]]s and [[bivalve]]s, at most {{convert|65|m|ft|abbr=on}} thick.<ref name=bgsPET/> A large diversity of [[flora]] can be seen, preserved in the form of pollen and spores. [[Gymnosperms]] are present, along with [[pteridophyte]]s, unidentifiable wood fragments, other intermediate pollen, and miscellaneous organic plant material.<ref name=riding2004/>

The intermediate sauropod ''[[Ornithopsis leedsi]]'' is known from the same section of the formation as ''Cetiosauriscus'', along with the [[stegosauridae|stegosaurids]] ''[[Lexovisaurus durobrivensis]]'' and ''[[Loricatosaurus priscus]]'' (which are possibly synonyms), the basal [[ankylosaur]] ''[[Sarcolestes leedsi]]'', the [[ornithopod]] ''[[Callovosaurus leedsi]]'', and a second unnamed ornithopod taxon. Dinosaur eggs that have not yet been assigned to a taxon are also known from the Lower Oxford Clay. The [[theropod]]s ''[[Eustreptospondylus]]'' and possibly ''[[Megalosaurus]]'' are also known from the Oxford Clay Formation, but slightly younger deposits (the Middle Member).<ref name=weishampel2004/> In addition, the theropod ''[[Metriacanthosaurus]]'' is from an unknown level and age in the formation.<ref name=martill1991/>

Hundreds of [[invertebrate]]s are known from the marine deposits, including bivalves, [[gastropod]]s, [[scaphopod]]s, ammonites, [[teuthoidea|teuthoids]], a [[nautiloid]], [[foraminifera]], [[coelenterate]]s, [[bryozoa]]ns, [[brachiopod]]s, [[annelid]]s, [[crustacean]]s, [[ostracod]]s, [[cirripede]]s and [[echinoderm]]s. Fish are known from the clades [[Elasmobranchii]], [[Chimaera]], and [[Actinopterygii]], and the [[Ichthyosauria|ichthyosaur]] ''[[Ophthalmosaurus]]'', the [[plesiosaur]]s ''[[Cryptoclidus]]'', ''[[Muraenosaurus]]'', ''[[Tricleidus]]'', ''[[Liopleurodon]]'', ''[[Peloneustes]]'', ''[[Pliosaurus]]'' and ''[[Simolestes]]'', the [[crocodilia]]ns ''[[Metriorhynchus]]'' and ''[[Steneosaurus]]'', and the [[pterosaur]] ''[[Rhamphorhynchus]]'' were all present.<ref name=martill1991/>
{{clear}}

==Notes==
{{notelist-ua}}

==References==
<references><!--CAUTION!~ AutoEd tries to make this read "<references />" which causes big citation error-->
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<ref name=charig1993>{{cite journal |last=Charig |first=A.J. |year=1993 |title=Case 2876. ''Cetiosauriscus'' von Huene, 1927 (Reptilia, Sauropodomorpha): designation of ''C. stewarti'' Charig, 1980 as the type species |journal=Bulletin of Zoological Nomenclature |doi=10.5962/bhl.part.1874 |doi-access=free |volume=50 |issue=4 |pages=282–283 }}</ref>

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<ref name=iczn1995>{{cite journal |author=International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature |year=1995 |title=Opinion 1801. ''Cetiosauriscus'' Huene, 1927 (Reptilia, Sauropodomorpha): ''Cetiosauriscus stewarti'' Charig, 1980 designated as type species |journal=The Bulletin of Zoological Nomenclature |volume=52 |page=113 |url=https://biodiversitylibrary.org/page/12338034 |archive-date=18 July 2019 |access-date=30 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190718063329/https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/12338034 |url-status=live }}</ref>

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==Further reading==
*{{cite journal |last1=Schwartz |first1=D. |last2=Wings |first2=O. |last3=Meyer |first3=C.A. |year=2007 |title=Super sizing the giants: the first cartilage preservation at a sauropod limb joint |journal=Journal of the Geological Society |doi=10.1144/0016-76492006-019 |citeseerx=10.1.1.515.8943 |volume=164 |pages=61–65 |s2cid=53397766 |url=http://jgs.lyellcollection.org/content/164/1/61}}

==External links==
*{{cite web |title=''Cetiosauriscus'' |website=Fossilworks—Gateway to the Paleobiology Database |url=https://paleobiodb.org/classic/checkTaxonInfo?taxon_no=38667}}
*{{cite web |title=''Cetiosauriscus stewarti'' |website=Fossilworks—Gateway to the Paleobiology Database |url=https://paleobiodb.org/classic/checkTaxonInfo?taxon_no=67741}}

{{Sauropodomorpha|B.}}
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{{featured article}}

[[Category:Sauropoda]]
[[Category:Dinosaur genera]]
[[Category:Callovian dinosaurs]]
[[Category:Oxford Clay]]
[[Category:Fossil taxa described in 1927]]
[[Category:Taxa named by Friedrich von Huene]]
[[Category:Dinosaurs of the United Kingdom]]