View source for Cerrado

{{Short description|Tropical savanna ecoregion of Brazil}}
{{use dmy dates|date=October 2022}}
{{Infobox ecoregion
|name           = Cerrado
|image          = Morro cabeludo - Parque dos Pireneus - Pirenópolis - Goiás 01.jpg
|image_size     = 
|image_alt      = 
|caption        = Vegetation in [[Pirineus State Park]], [[Goiás]]
|map            = Ecoregion NT0704.svg
|map_size       = 
|map_alt        = 
|map_caption    = Map of the Cerrado ecoregion as delineated by the [[World Wide Fund for Nature]].
|ecozone        = [[Neotropical realm|Neotropical]]
|biome          = [[tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas, and shrublands]]
|animals        = 
|bird_species   = 
|mammal_species = 
|border1        = [[Alto Paraná Atlantic forests]]
|border2        = [[Araucaria moist forests]]
|border3        = [[Bahia interior forests]]
|border4        = [[Atlantic dry forests]]
|border5        = [[Caatinga]]
|border6        = [[Chiquitano dry forests]]
|border7        = [[Humid Chaco]]
|border8        = [[Maranhão Babaçu forests]]
|border9        = [[Mato Grosso tropical dry forests]]
|border10       = [[Pantanal]]
|area           = 1,910,037
|country1       = [[Brazil]]
|country2       = [[Bolivia]]
|country3       = [[Paraguay]]
|state          = 
|region_type    = 
|elevation      = 
|geology        = 
|seas           =
|rivers         = 
|climate        = 
|soil           =
|conservation   = Vulnerable
|global200      = Cerrado woodlands and savannas
|habitat_loss   = 
|habitat_loss_ref =
|protected      = 433,581&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup> (23
|protected_ref  = )<ref name =Dinerstein>{{cite journal |first1=Eric |last1=Dinerstein |first2=David |last2=Olson |name-list-style=amp |display-authors=etal |date=June 2017 |title=An ecoregion-based approach to protecting half the terrestrial realm |journal=BioScience |volume=67 |issue=6 |pages=534–545; Supplemental material 2 table S1b |doi=10.1093/biosci/bix014|pmid=28608869 |pmc=5451287 }}</ref>
|embedded       = 
}}

The '''Cerrado''' ({{IPA|pt|seˈʁadu}}) is a vast [[ecoregion]] of [[Tropics|tropical]] [[savanna]] in central [[Brazil]], being present in the states of [[Goiás]], [[Mato Grosso do Sul]], [[Mato Grosso]], [[Tocantins]], [[Maranhão]], [[Piauí]], [[Bahia]], [[Minas Gerais]], [[São Paulo (state)|São Paulo]], [[Paraná (state)|Paraná]] and the [[Federal District (Brazil)|Federal District]]. The core areas of the Cerrado [[biome]] are the [[Brazilian highlands]] – the ''Planalto''. The main habitat types of the Cerrado consist of forest savanna, wooded savanna, park savanna and [[grass|gramineous]]-woody savanna. The Cerrado also includes savanna wetlands and [[gallery forest]]s.<ref>{{cite report |author1=Vasconcelos, Vitor Vieira |author2=Vasconcelos, Caio Vieira |author3=Vasconcelos, Davi Mourão |name-list-style=amp |year=2010 |title=Phyto-Environmental Characterization of Brazilian Savanna (Cerrado) and Brazilian Atlantic Forest, with the Research of Stone Lines and Paleosols |series=Geografia |place=Brazil |publisher=Ensino & Pesquisa (UFSM) |volume=14 |page=3 |lang=en |translator=Vasconcelos, Vitor Vieira |url=http://pt.scribd.com/doc/104063737/Phyto-environmental-characterization-of-Brazilian-Savanna-Cerrado-and-Brazilian-Atlantic-Forest-with-the-research-of-stone-lines-and-paleosols |via=pt.scribd.com |access-date=2022-10-06 }}
:The report, above, is a translation of the original publication:<br/>
{{cite report |author1=Vasconcelos, Vitor Vieira |author2=Vasconcelos, Caio Vieira |author3=Vasconcelos, Davi Mourão |name-list-style=amp |year=2010 |title=Caracterização de Fito-Ambientes de Cerrado e de Mata Atlântica por meio de estudo de Linhas de Pedra e Paleossolos |series=Geografia |place=Brazil |publisher=Ensino & Pesquisa (UFSM) |volume=14 |page=3 |lang=pt |url=http://cascavel.ufsm.br/revistageografia/index.php/revistageografia/article/viewFile/150/135 |via=cascavel.ufsm.br }}{{Dead link|date=November 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

The second largest of [[Biomes in Brazil|Brazil's major habitat types]], after the [[Amazon rainforest|Amazonian rainforest]], the Cerrado accounts for a full 21&nbsp;percent of the country's land area (extending marginally into Paraguay and Bolivia).<ref name="conservation">{{cite web |series=Cerrado |title=Overview |website=BiodiversityHotspots.org |publisher=Conservation International |url=http://www.biodiversityhotspots.org/xp/hotspots/cerrado/Pages/default.aspx |access-date=2008-05-09 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080506090731/http://www.biodiversityhotspots.org/xp/Hotspots/cerrado/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=2008-05-06 }}</ref> About 75% of the Cerrado’s 2 million km<sup>2</sup> is privately owned.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Machado |first1=Ricardo B. |last2=Aguiar |first2=Ludmilla M. S. |date=2023-04-21 |title=Could you spare an acre for conservation? |url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adh1840 |journal=Science |language=en |volume=380 |issue=6642 |pages=238–239 |doi=10.1126/science.adh1840 |pmid=37079692 |bibcode=2023Sci...380..238M |s2cid=258258769 |issn=0036-8075|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

Vast amounts of research have shown that the Cerrado is one of the richest of all tropical savanna regions and has high levels of [[endemism]]. Characterizing it by its enormous ranges of plant and animal biodiversity, [[World Wide Fund for Nature]] named the Cerrado the biologically richest savanna in the world, with about 10,000&nbsp;plant species and 10&nbsp;endemic bird species.<ref name="conservation" /> There are nearly 200 species of mammal in the Cerrado, though only 14 are endemic.<ref name="conservation" /> The large fraction of private ownership makes protection difficult, however.<ref name=":0" />

==Climate==
The Cerrado's climate is typical of the wetter [[savanna]] regions of the world, with a semi-humid [[tropical climate]]. The Cerrado is limited to two dominant seasons throughout the year: Wet and dry. Annual temperatures for the Cerrado average between 22 and 27&nbsp;°C and average precipitation between 80–200&nbsp;cm for over 90% of the area.<ref name=ratter>{{cite journal |author1=Ratter, J.A. |author2=Ribeiro, J.F. |author3=Bridgewater, S. |name-list-style=amp |year=1997 |title=The Brazilian cerrado vegetation and threats to its biodiversity |journal=Annals of Botany |volume=80 |issue=3 |pages=223–230|doi=10.1006/anbo.1997.0469 |doi-access=free }}</ref> This [[ecoregion]] has a very strong dry season during the southern winter (approx. April–September).<ref name=ratter/>
[[File:Chapada dos Veadeiros 18.jpg|thumb|257x257px|Green vegetation during the summer, Chapada dos Veadeiros, Goiás, Brazil]]

==Flora==
{{see also|List of plants of Cerrado vegetation of Brazil}}
{{category see also|Flora of the Cerrado}}

[[File:Cerrado - Parque Nacional Chapada dos veadeiros 2.jpg|left|thumb|250x250px|Fields of flowers in bloom during spring, [[Chapada dos Veadeiros National Park|Chapada dos Veadeiros]], Goiás, Brazil]]

The Cerrado is characterized by unique vegetation types.<ref name=ratter/> It is composed of a shifting mosaic of habitats, with the savanna-like ''cerrado'' itself on well-drained areas between strips of gallery forest (closed canopy tall forest) which occur along streams.<ref name=vierra>{{cite journal |author1=Vierra, E.M. |author2=Marinho-Filho, J. |name-list-style=amp |year=1998 |title=Pre- and post-fire habitat utilization by rodents of [the] Cerrado from central Brazil |journal=Biotropica |volume=30 |pages=491–496|doi=10.1111/j.1744-7429.1998.tb00086.x |s2cid=84400619 }}</ref><ref name=ratter/> Between the ''cerrado'' and the gallery forest is an area of vegetation known as the wet ''campo'' with distinct up- and downslope borders where tree growth is inhibited due to wide seasonal fluctuations in the water table.<ref name=ratter/><ref name=vierra/>

The savanna portion of the Cerrado is heterogeneous in terms of canopy cover. Goodland (1971)<ref name=goodland/> divided the Cerrado into four categories ranging from least to most canopy cover: ''campo sujo'' ([[herbaceous layer]] with occasional small trees about 3&nbsp;m tall), ''campo cerrado'' (slightly higher density of trees about 4&nbsp;m tall on average), ''cerrado sensu stricto'' (orchard-like vegetation with trees about 6&nbsp;m high) and ''[[cerradao|cerradão]]'' (canopy cover near 50% with general height 9&nbsp;m).<ref name=goodland>{{cite journal |author=Goodland, R. |year=1971 |title=A physiognomic analysis of the cerrado vegetation of central Brazil |journal=Journal of Ecology |volume=59 |issue=2 |pages=411–419|doi=10.2307/2258321 |jstor=2258321 }}</ref>

Probably around 800 species of trees are found in the Cerrado.<ref name=ratter/> Among the most diverse families of trees in the Cerrado are the [[Leguminosae]]&nbsp;(153 spp.), [[Malpighiaceae]]&nbsp;(46), [[Myrtaceae]]&nbsp;(43), [[Melastomataceae]]&nbsp;(32), and [[Rubiaceae]]&nbsp;(30).<ref name=herringer>{{cite conference |author1=Herringer, E.P. |author2=Barroso, G.M. |author3=Rizzo, J.A. |author4=Rizzini, C.T. |name-list-style=amp |year=1977 |title=A Flora do Cerrado |lang=pt |trans-title=On the plants of the Cerrado |editor=Ferri, M.G. |conference=IV SimpoUsio sobre o cerrado |place=São Paulo, BR |pages=211–232}}</ref> Much of the Cerrado is dominated by the [[Vochysiaceae]] (23&nbsp;species in the Cerrado) due to the abundance of three species in the genus ''[[Qualea]]''.<ref name=ratter/> The herbaceous layer usually reaches about 60&nbsp;cm in height and is composed mainly of the [[Poaceae]], [[Cyperaceae]], [[Leguminosae]], [[Compositae]], [[Myrtaceae]] and [[Rubiaceae]].<ref name=ratter/> Much of the vegetation in the gallery forests is similar to nearby rainforest; however, there are some endemic species found only in the Cerrado gallery forests.<ref name=ratter/>

Soil fertility, fire regime and hydrology are thought to be most influential in determining Cerrado vegetation. Cerrado soils are always well-drained and most are [[oxisol]]s with low pH and low calcium and magnesium.<ref name=ratter/><ref name=furley>{{cite journal |author1=Furley, P.A. |author2=Ratter, J.A. |name-list-style=amp |year=1988 |title=Soil resources and plant communities of the Central Brazilian cerrado and their development |journal=Journal of Biogeography |volume=15 |issue=1 |pages=97–108|doi=10.2307/2845050 |jstor=2845050 }}</ref> The amount of potassium, nitrogen and phosphorus has been found to be positively correlated with tree trunk basal area in Cerrado habitats.<ref name=goodland2>{{cite journal |author1=Goodland, R |author2=Pollard, R. |name-list-style=amp |year=1973 |title=The Brazilian cerrado vegetation: A fertility gradient |journal=Journal of Ecology |volume=61 |issue=1 |pages=219–224|doi=10.2307/2258929 |jstor=2258929 }}</ref> Much as in other grasslands and savannas, fire is important in maintaining and shaping the Cerrado's landscape; many plants in the Cerrado are fire-adapted, exhibiting characters like thick corky bark to withstand the heat.<ref name=ratter/>

Cerrado vegetation is believed to be ancient, stretching back perhaps as far in a prototypic form as the [[Cretaceous]], before Africa and South America separated.<ref name="ratter2">{{cite conference |author1=Ratter, J.A. |author2=Ribeiro, J.F. |name-list-style=amp |year=1996 |title=Biodiversity of the flora of the Cerrado |editor1=Pereira, R.C. |editor2=Nasser, L.C.B. |book-title=Anais/Proceedings of the ... |conference=VIII Simpósio sobre o cerrado 1st Internet. Symposium on Tropical Savannas |place=Planaltina, DF, Brazil |publisher=EMBRAPA/CPAC |pages=3–6}}</ref> A dynamic expansion and contraction between cerrado and Amazonian rainforest has probably occurred historically, with expansion of the Cerrado during glacial periods like the [[Pleistocene]].<ref name=mayle>{{cite journal |author1=Mayle, F.E. |author2=Burbridge, R. |author3=Killeen, T.J. |name-list-style=amp |year=2000 |title=Millennial-scale dynamics of southern Amazonian rain forests |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |volume=290 |issue=5500 |pages=2291–2294|doi=10.1126/science.290.5500.2291 |pmid=11125139 |bibcode=2000Sci...290.2291M |hdl=2027.42/149336 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> These processes and the resulting fragmentation in multiple [[Refugium (population biology)|refugia]] have probably contributed to the high [[species richness]] both of the Cerrado and of the Amazonian rainforest.<ref name=ratter/>

==Fauna==
{{category see also|Fauna of the Cerrado}}

[[File:Physalaemus nattereri in deimatic behavior.jpg|thumb|The frog species ''[[Physalaemus nattereri]]'' (posterior view shown) is found in the open ''cerrado'', but not in adjacent gallery forests<ref name=brasileiro />]]

The Cerrado has a high diversity of vertebrates, with 150&nbsp;amphibian species, 120&nbsp;reptile species, 837&nbsp;bird species, and 161&nbsp;mammal species recorded.<ref name=myers>{{cite journal |author1=Myers, N. |author2=Mittermeier, R.A. |author3=Mittermeier, C.G. |author4=da&nbsp;Fonesca, G.A.B. |author5=Kent, J. |name-list-style=amp |year=2000 |title=Biodiversity hotspots for conservation priorities |journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] |volume=403 |issue=6772 |pages=853–858|doi=10.1038/35002501 |pmid=10706275 |bibcode=2000Natur.403..853M |s2cid=4414279 }}</ref> Lizard diversity is generally thought to be relatively low in the Cerrado compared to other areas like ''[[caatinga]]'' or lowland rainforest,<ref name=vitt>{{cite journal |author=Vitt, L. |year=1991 |title=An Introduction to the ecology of cerrado lizards |journal=[[Journal of Herpetology]] |volume=25 |issue=1 |pages=79–90|doi=10.2307/1564798 |jstor=1564798 }}</ref> although one recent study found 57&nbsp;species in one cerrado area with the high diversity driven by the availability of open habitat.<ref name=nogueira>{{cite journal |author1=Nogueira, C. |author2=Colli, G.R. |author3=Martins, M. |name-list-style=amp |year=2009 |title=Local richness and distribution of the lizard fauna in natural habitat mosaics of the Brazilian cerrado |journal=[[Austral Ecology]] |volume=34 |pages=83–96|doi=10.1111/j.1442-9993.2008.01887.x }}</ref> ''[[Ameiva ameiva]]'' is among the largest lizards found in the Cerrado and is the most important lizard predator where it is found in the Cerrado.<ref name=vitt/> There is a relatively high diversity of snakes in the Cerrado (22–61&nbsp;species, depending on site) with [[Colubridae]] being the richest family.<ref name=franc>{{cite journal |author1=Franc, F.G.R. |author2=Mesquita, D.O. |author3=Nogueira, C.C. |author4=Araujo, A.F. |name-list-style=amp |year=2008 |title=Phylogeny and ecology determine morphological structure in a snake assemblage in the central Brazilian Cerrado |journal=Copeia |volume=1 |pages=23–38|doi=10.1643/CH-05-034 |s2cid=84292266 }}</ref> The open nature of the ''cerrado'' vegetation most likely contributes to the high diversity of snakes.<ref name=franc /> Information about Cerrado amphibians is extremely limited, although the Cerrado probably has a unique assemblage of species with some endemic to the region.<ref name=brasileiro>{{cite journal |author1=Brasileiro, C.A. |author2=Sawaya, R.J. |author3=Kiefer, M.C. |author4=Martins, M. |name-list-style=amp |year=2005 |title=Amphibians of an open cerrado fragment in southeastern Brazil |journal=Biota Neotropica |volume=5|issue=2 |pages=93–109 |doi=10.1590/S1676-06032005000300006 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

Most birds found in the Cerrado breed there although there are some Austral migrants (breed in temperate South America and winter in the Amazon basin) and Nearctic migrants (breed in temperate North America and winter in the Neotropics) that pass through.<ref name=dasilva>{{cite journal |author=da&nbsp;Silva, J.S.C. |year=1997 |title=Endemic birds species and conservation in the Cerrado region, South America |journal=Biodiversity and Conservation |volume=6 |issue=3 |pages=435–450|doi=10.1023/A:1018368809116 |s2cid=31487530 }}</ref> Most breeding birds in the Cerrado are found in more closed canopy areas like gallery forests although 27% of the birds breed only in open habitats and 21% breed in either open or closed habitats.<ref name=dasilva/> Many of the birds in the Cerrado, especially those found in closed forest, are related to species from the Atlantic rainforest and also the Amazon rainforest.<ref name=dasilva2>{{cite journal |author=da&nbsp;Silva, J.S.C. |year=1996 |title=Distribution of Amazonian and Atlantic birds in gallery forests of the cerrado region, South America |journal=Ornitologia Neotropical |volume=7 |pages=1–18}}</ref> The [[crowned solitary eagle]], [[hyacinth macaw]], [[toco toucan]], [[buff-necked ibis]], [[dwarf tinamou]], and [[Brazilian merganser]] are examples of birds found in the Cerrado.

Gallery forests serve as primary habitat for most of the mammals in the Cerrado, having more water, being protected from fires that sweep the landscape and having a more highly structured habitat.<ref name=redford>{{cite journal |author=Redford, K.H. |year=1986 |title=The role of gallery forests in the zoogeography of the Cerrado's non-volant mammalian fauna |journal=Biotropica |volume=18 |issue=2 |pages=126–135|doi=10.2307/2388755 |jstor=2388755 }}</ref> Eleven mammal species are endemic to the Cerrado.<ref name=redford/> Notable species include large herbivores like the [[Brazilian tapir]] and [[Pampas deer]] and large predators like the [[maned wolf]], [[cougar]], [[jaguar]], [[giant otter]], [[ocelot]] and [[jaguarundi]]. Although the diversity is much lower than in the adjacent Amazon and Atlantic Forest, several species of monkeys are present, including [[black-striped capuchin]], [[black howler monkey]] and [[black-tufted marmoset]].<ref name=henriques>{{cite journal |author1=Henriques, R.P.B. |author2=Cavalcante, R.J. |name-list-style=amp |year=2004 |title=Survey of a gallery forest orimate community in the cerrado of the Distrito Federal, central Brazil |journal=Neotropical Primates|volume=12 |pages=78–83}}</ref>

The insects of the Cerrado are relatively understudied.<ref name=pinheiro>{{cite journal |author1=Pinheiro, F. |author2=Diniz, I.R. |author3=Coelho, D. |author4=Bandeira, M.P.S. |name-list-style=amp |year=2002 |title=Seasonal pattern of insect abundance in the Brazilian cerrado |journal=Austral Ecology |volume=27 |issue=2 |pages=132–136|doi=10.1046/j.1442-9993.2002.01165.x }}</ref> A yearlong survey of the Cerrado at one reserve in Brazil found that the orders [[Coleoptera]], [[Hymenoptera]], [[Diptera]] and [[Isoptera]] accounted for 89.5% of all captures.<ref name=pinheiro/> The Cerrado also supports a high density (up to 4000 per hectare) of the nests of leaf cutter ants (''saúvas''), which are also very diverse.<ref name=leal>{{cite journal |author1=Leal, I.R. |author2=Oliveira, P.S. |name-list-style=amp |year=2000 |title=Foraging ecology of attine ants in a Neotropical savanna: Seasonal use of fungal substrate in the cerrado vegetation of Brazil |journal=Insectes Sociaux |volume=47 |issue=4 |pages=376–382|doi=10.1007/PL00001734 |s2cid=44692368 }}</ref> Along with termites, leaf cutter ants are the primary herbivores of the Cerrado and play an important role in consuming and decomposing organic matter, as well as constituting an important food source to many other animal species.<ref name="oliveira freitas">{{cite journal |author1=Oliveira, P.S. |author2=Freitas, A.V.L. |name-list-style=amp |year=2004 |title=Ant-plant-herbivore interactions in the neotropical cerrado savanna |journal=Naturwissenschaften |volume=91 |issue=12 |pages=557–570|doi=10.1007/s00114-004-0585-x |pmid=15551026 |bibcode=2004NW.....91..557O |s2cid=27544195 }}</ref> The highest diversity of galling insects (insects that build [[gall]]s) in the world is also found in the Cerrado, with the most species (46) found at the base of the [[Serra do Cipó National Park|Serra do Cipó]] in southeast Brazil.<ref name=lara>{{cite journal |author1=Lara, A.C.F. |author2=Fernandes, G.W. |name-list-style=amp |year=1996 |title=The highest diversity of galling insects: Serra dó Cipo, Brazil |journal=Biodiversity Letters |volume=3 |issue=3 |pages=111–114|doi=10.2307/2999724 |jstor=2999724 }}</ref>


<gallery class="center" widths="220" heights="220">
File:Red Brocket (Mazama americana) male (28091090800).jpg| {{center|[[Red brocket]]}}
File:Tamanduá-bandeira no Parque Nacional da Serra da Canastra.jpg| {{center|[[Giant anteater]]}}
File:Maned Wolf 6, Beardsley Zoo, 2009-11-06.jpg| {{center|[[Maned wolf]]}}
File:Seriema (Cariama cristata).jpg| {{center|[[Seriema]]}}
</gallery>

==History and human population==

The first detailed European account of the Brazilian cerrados was provided by Danish botanist [[Eugenius Warming]] (1892) in the book Lagoa Santa,<ref name="warming">{{cite journal |author=Warming, E. |author-link=Eugenius Warming |year=1892 |title=Lagoa Santa: Et Bidrag til den biologiske Plantegeografi med en Fortegnelse over Lagoa Santas Hvirveldyr |trans-title=A contribution to the biological plant geography and a list of the vertebrates of Lagoa Santa |journal=Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes Selskabs Skrifter – Naturvidenskabelig og Mathematisk Afdeling [Publications of the Royal Danish Academy of Science - Division of Natural Sciences and Mathematics] |volume=6 |issue=3 |pages=153–488 |lang=da}}

: The above is the original. There are other, later French and Portuguese translations not listed here.
</ref> in which he describes the main features of the cerrado vegetation in the state of [[Minas Gerais]].<ref name="oliveira">{{cite book |last1=Oliveira S. |first1=Paulo |title=The Cerrados of Brazil: Ecology and natural history of a neotropical savanna |last2=Marquis J. |first2=Robert |publisher=Columbia University Press |year=2002 |edition=e‑Book |name-list-style=amp}}</ref>

Taking advantage of the sprouting of the herbaceous stratum that follows a burning in the Cerrado, the aboriginal inhabitants of these regions learned to use fire as a tool, to increase the fodder to offer to their domesticated animals.

[[Xavante|Xavantes]], {{ill|Tapuias|pt}}, [[Karajá|Karajás]], Avá-[[Canoeiros]], [[Krahô|Krahôs]], [[Xerente|Xerentes]], [[Xakriabá|Xacriabás]] were some of the first indigenous peoples occupying different regions in the Cerrado. Many groups among the indigenous were nomads and explored the Cerrado by hunting and collecting. Others practiced ''coivara'' agriculture, an itinerant type of [[slash-and-burn agriculture]]. The mixing of indigenous, ''quilombola'' maroon communities, extractivists, ''geraizeiros'' (living in the drier regions), riverbank dwellers and ''vazanteiros'' (living on floodplains) shaped a diverse local population that relies heavily on the resources of their environment.<ref>{{cite web |title=Brazilian mix |series=Peoples of the Cerrado |website=www.ispn.org.br |lang=en |publisher=Instituto Sociedade, População, e Natureza (ISPN) [Institute for Society, Population, and Nature] |place=Brasília, DF, BR |url=http://www.ispn.org.br/english/peoples-of-the-cerrado/brazilian-mix/ |access-date=2017-07-27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170817231130/http://www.ispn.org.br/english/peoples-of-the-cerrado/brazilian-mix/ |archive-date=2017-08-17}}</ref>

Until the mid-1960s, [[agriculture|agricultural]] activities in the Cerrado were very limited, since natural cerrado soils are not fertile enough for crop production, directed mainly at the extensive production of [[beef cattle]] for subsistence of the local market.<ref name=ratter/> After this period, however, the urban and industrial development of the Southeast Region has forced agriculture to the Central-West Region. The transfer of the country's capital to [[Brasília]] has been another focus of attraction of population to the central region: From 1975 until the beginning of the 1980s, many governmental subsidy programs were launched to promote agriculture, with the intent of stimulating the development of the Cerrado region.<ref name=jenson/> As a result, there has been a significant increase in agricultural and cattle production.

On the other hand, the urban pressure and the rapid establishment of agricultural activities in the region have been rapidly reducing the biodiversity of the ecosystems, and the population in the Cerrado region more than doubled from 1970 to 2010, going from 35.8 to 76&nbsp;million.<ref>{{cite book |author1=Alves, Elseu |author2=Wagner, Elmar |author3=Wenceslau, J. |author4=Edson, Goedert |author5=Sano, Eyji |author6=Rodriguez, Roberto |author7=Pereira Botelho, Emiliano |name-list-style=amp |date=16 Jan 2016 |editor1=Hosono, Akio |editor2=Magno, Carlos |editor3=da&nbsp;Rocha, Campos |editor4=Hongo, Yutaka |title=Development for Sustainable Agriculture: The Brazilian Cerrado |edition=e‑Book |publisher=Springer |doi=10.1057/9781137431356 |oclc=927961804 |isbn=9781137431356 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HVzeCgAAQBAJ&dq=cerrado+population&pg=PA100 |via=Google Books, Canada}} {{isbn|9781349558391}}</ref>

==Agriculture==

The Cerrado was thought challenging for agriculture until researchers at Brazil's agricultural and livestock research agency, [[Embrapa]], discovered that it could be made fit for industrial crops by appropriate additions of phosphorus and lime. In the late 1990s, between 14&nbsp;million and 16&nbsp;million tons of lime were being poured on Brazilian fields each year. The quantity rose to 25&nbsp;million tons in 2003 and 2004, equaling around five tons of lime per hectare. This manipulation of the soil allowed for industrial agriculture to grow exponentially in the area. Researchers also developed tropical varieties of [[soybean]]s, until then a temperate crop, and currently, Brazil is the world's main [[soybean|soyabeans]] exporter due to the boom in animal feed production caused by the global rise in meat demand.<ref>{{cite magazine |title=Brazilian agriculture: The miracle of the Cerrado |date=August 26, 2010 |magazine=[[The Economist]] |url=http://www.economist.com/node/16886442}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title={{grey|[no title cited]}} |website=[[Observatory of Economic Complexity]] |publisher=[[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]] |series=[[MIT Media Lab]] |place=Cambridge, MA |url=http://atlas.media.mit.edu/en/profile/hs92/1201/ |url-status=dead |access-date=27 July 2017 |archive-date=9 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190509005825/https://atlas.media.mit.edu/en/profile/hs92/1201/ }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Rohter |first=Larry |date=October 2, 2007 |title=Scientists are making Brazil's savannah bloom |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/10/02/science/02tropic.html |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |access-date=December 7, 2015}}</ref>

Today the Cerrado region provides more than 70% of the beef cattle production in the country, being also a major production center of grains, mainly soya, beans, maize, and rice.<ref>{{cite news |last=Spring |first=Jake |date=28 Aug 2018 |title=Appetite for destruction: Brazil's soy boom devours tropical savanna |agency=[[Reuters]] |department=Reuters investigates / Brazilian deforestation |type=special report |website=Reuters.com |lang=en |url=https://www.reuters.com/investigates/special-report/brazil-deforestation/ |access-date=2018-08-28}}</ref> Large extensions of the Cerrado are also used for the production of cellulose pulp for the paper industry, with the cultivation of several species of ''[[eucalyptus]]'' and ''[[Pinus|pines]]'', but as a secondary activity. Coffee produced in the Cerrado is now a major export.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Lopes, A. Scheid |year=1996 |title=Soils under cerrado: A success story in soil management |journal=Better Crops International |volume=10 |issue=2 |page=—}}</ref>

==Charcoal production==

[[Charcoal]] production for Brazil's steel industry comes in second to agriculture in the Cerrado.<ref name=herringer /> They actually are quite intertwined. When land is being cleared to make more land for agriculture, the tree's trunks and roots are often used in the production of charcoal, helping to make money for the clearing. The Brazilian steel industry has traditionally always used the trunks and roots from the Cerrado for charcoal but now that the steel mills in the state of Minas Gerais are among the world's largest, it has taken a much higher toll on the Cerrado.<ref name=herringer/> However, recently because of the conservation efforts and the diminishing vegetation in the Cerrado, they now are receiving some charcoal from the [[eucalyptus]] plantations and these efforts are growing.<ref name=herringer/>

==Rivers==
The Cerrado biome is strategic for the water resources of Brazil. The biome contains the headwaters and the largest portion of South American watersheds (the Paraná-Paraguay, Araguaia-Tocantins, and São Francisco river basins) and the upper catchments of large Amazon tributaries, such as the [[Xingu River|Xingu]] and [[Tapajós]]. During the last four decades, the Cerrado’s river basins have been highly impacted by extreme deforestation, expansion of the agricultural and cattle ranching frontier, construction of dams, and extraction of water for irrigation.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Latrubesse |first=Edgardo |year=2019 |title=Fostering water resource governance and conservation in the Brazilian Cerrado biome |journal=Conservation Science and Practice |volume=1 |issue=9 |doi=10.1111/csp2.77 |doi-access=free |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/335021962 |access-date=15 February 2020|hdl=10356/137219 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>{{Primary source inline|date=July 2020}}

==Conservation==
The Cerrado is the second largest biome in South America and the most biodiverse savanna in the world. However, it is not currently recognized by the [[Constitution of Brazil|Brazilian Constitution]] as a National Heritage.<ref name=ratter/> It is also home to the [[Guarani Aquifer]], stores the largest fresh water underground reservoirs in South America, and supplies water to a third of the Amazon river and the largest basins in the continent.<ref name="e360.yale.edu">{{cite news |title=The Cerrado: Brazil's other biodiverse region loses ground |website=e360.yale.edu |publisher=[[Yale University]] |place=New Haven, CT |url=http://e360.yale.edu/features/the_cerrado_brazils_other_biodiversity_hotspot_loses_ground }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |author=Pontes, Nadia |date=10 January 2017 |title=Secrets of the Brazilian Cerrado |department=Environment / Global Ideas |lang=en |publisher=[[Deutsche Welle]] (DW) |url=http://www.dw.com/en/secrets-of-the-brazilian-cerrado/a-37066253}}</ref>

Brazilian agriculturalists and ministers regard it as having no conservation value, and the government has protected merely 1.5% of the Cerrado biome in Federal Reserves.<ref name=conservation /> By 1994, an estimated 695,000&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup><ref name=jenson /> of the Cerrado (representing 35% of its area) had been converted to 'anthropic [sic] landscape'.<ref name=oliveira /> In total, 37.3% of the Cerrado has already been totally converted to human use, while an additional 41.4% is used for pasture and charcoal production. The gallery forests in the region have been among the most heavily affected. It is estimated that only about 432,814 km<sup>2</sup>, or 21.3% of the original vegetation, remains intact today.<ref>Conservation International. [https://web.archive.org/web/20070714013055/http://www.biodiversityhotspots.org/xp/hotspots/cerrado/Pages/impacts.aspx] Access date: 31/08/2011</ref> Devegetation continues to occur throughout the biome at an alarming rate, and projections indicate that if this continues, another 31–34% of the remaining biome will be cleared by 2050.<ref name=":1">Strassburg, B.B.N., Brooks, T., et al. 2017. Moment of truth for the Cerrado hotspot. ''Nature Ecology & Evolution.''1: 1-3.</ref>

During the last 25 years this biome has been increasingly threatened by industrial [[monoculture]] farming, particularly soybeans, the unregulated expansion of industrial agriculture, the burning of vegetation for charcoal and the development of dams to provide irrigation are drawing criticisms and have been identified as potential threats to several Brazilian rivers.<ref name=jenson>{{cite journal |first=Wendy |last=Jepson |date=June 2005 |title=A disappearing biome? Reconsidering land-cover change in the Brazilian savanna |journal=The Geographical Journal |volume=171 |issue=2 |pages=99–111|doi=10.1111/j.1475-4959.2005.00153.x }}</ref>

This industrial farming of the Cerrado, with the clearing of land for eucalyptus and soy plantations, has grown so much because of various forms of subsidy, including very generous tax incentives and low interest loans. This has resulted in the establishment of a highly mechanized, capital intensive system of agriculture.<ref name=klink>{{cite journal |first1=Carlos |last1=Klink |first2=Ricardo |last2=Machado |name-list-style=amp |year=2005 |title=Conservation of the Brazilian Cerrado |journal=Conservation Biology |volume=19 |issue=3 |page=—|doi=10.1111/j.1523-1739.2005.00702.x |s2cid=59369320 }}</ref> There is also a strong [[agribusiness]] lobby in Brazil and in particular, the production of soybeans in the Cerrado is influenced by large corporations such as ADM, Cargill and Bunge, these latter two directly associated with the mass deforestation of this biome.<ref>{{cite web |title=Mystery meat |website=Mighty Earth |url=http://www.mightyearth.org/mysterymeat/ |url-status=dead <!-- presumed --> |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201111195237/http://www.mightyearth.org/mysterymeat/ |archive-date=2020-11-11}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |title=Amazon deforestation, once tamed, comes roaring back |date=2017-02-24 |department=Business / Energy & environment |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/02/24/business/energy-environment/deforestation-brazil-bolivia-so-uth-america.html |access-date=2022-10-06}}{{dead link|date=September 2023}}</ref><ref name="e360.yale.edu"/>
 
One issue with expanding this reserve is that research needs to be done to choose the location of these reserves because the Cerrado biome is floristically very heterogeneous and constitutes a biological mosaic.<ref name=jenson/> Teams from the [[University of Brasília]], CPAC and the [[Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh]] have been collaborating on this project for a number of years supported by Brazilian, European Community and British funds. The project has recently been expanded into a major Anglo-Brazilian initiative, Conservation and Management of the Biodiversity of the Cerrado Biome, with UK Overseas Development Administration funding. Its aim is to survey the floristic patterns of Cerrado vegetation and to discover representative areas and biodiversity "hot-spots".<ref name=ratter/>

===Protected areas===
[[File:Parque Estadual do Cerrado.6.jpg|thumb|A State Park in the Cerrado - Protected Area]]
According to Brazil's National Registry of Conservation Units (Portuguese: ''Castrado Nacional de Unidades de Conservação''), there are, as of November 2024, 560 protected areas within the Cerrado biome.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |title=CNUC 1.0 |url=https://cnuc.mma.gov.br/powerbi |access-date=2024-12-13 |website=cnuc.mma.gov.br}}</ref> In Brazil, protected areas are known as [[Protected areas of Brazil|conservation units]], and those in the Cerrado account for 19% of all units in the country. While a 2017 assessment found that 433,581&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup>, or 23%, of the ecoregion is in protected areas, in total, these registered conservation units make up roughly 17.96 Mha of land, which represents about 9% of the total area of the Cerrado.<ref name="Dinerstein" /><ref name=":2" />  

==== History of Protected Areas ====
The first protected area in the Brazilian Cerrado was the Paraobepa [[National forest (Brazil)|National Forest]] which was established in 1950.<ref name=":2" /> Until the early 1990’s, the progression of the network was slow, with only a handful of protected areas established each year. During the late 1990’s and early 2000’s there was a boom of new protected areas, which coincides with the passing of Law No. 9.985, of July 18, 2000.<ref>{{Cite web |title=L9985 |url=https://www.planalto.gov.br/ccivil_03/leis/l9985.htm |access-date=2024-12-13 |website=www.planalto.gov.br}}</ref> This law established the [[National System of Nature Conservation Units|National System of Nature Conservation Units (SNUC)]] and defines the concepts for the creation and management of conservation units in Brazil, marking the beginning of their legal regulation. Between 1997 and 2006, a total of 179 conservation units were established in the Cerrado, accounting for almost one third of the entire current network.<ref name=":2" /> Since this boom, the rate at which new conservation units are created each year has slowed down but varies considerably from year to year.

==== Types of Protected Areas ====
Protected areas in Brazil are called conservation units (UC) and are governed by the [https://www.gov.br/mma/pt-br/assuntos/biodiversidade-e-biomas/areas-protegidas/sistema-nacional-de-unidades-de-conservacao-da-natureza-snuc National System of Nature Conservation Units (SNUC)]. The SNUC itself is under the jurisdiction of the [[Ministry of Environment and Climate Change (Brazil)|Ministry of Environment and Climate Change]].

There are two groups of conservation units in Brazil, namely Integral Protection (IP) and Sustainable Protection (SP). Integral protection units exist to protect nature, and use of their resources is limited to recreation and tourism.<ref name=":3">"[https://www.gov.br/mma/pt-br/assuntos/biodiversidade-e-biomas/areas-protegidas/categorias-de-ucs UCs Categories]". ''www.gov.br''. Retrieved 2024-11-17.</ref> Sustainable protection units aim to reconcile the conservation of nature with the sustainable use of its natural resources.<ref name=":3" /> Out of the 560 conservation units in the Cerrado, there are 176 integral protection units and 384 sustainable protection units.<ref name=":2" /> Within each type of conservation unit, there exist several categories, which are each associated with a category of the [[IUCN protected area categories|IUCN protected area classification system]]. 

All categories of conservation units can exist at the federal, state, or municipal level. Federal conservation units are managed by the [[Chico Mendes Institute for Biodiversity Conservation|Chico Mendes Institute for Biodiversity Conservation (ICMBio)]].<ref>"[https://www.gov.br/mma/pt-br/assuntos/biodiversidade-e-biomas/areas-protegidas Protected Areas]". ''www.gov.br''. Retrieved 2024-11-17.</ref> In the Cerrado biome, there are currently 241 federally managed conservation units, which make up 6.41 Mha of land.<ref name=":2" /> State conservation units are managed by state environmental agencies. There are currently 210 conservation units managed at the state level in the Cerrado, which make up 10.15 Mha of land.<ref name=":2" /> Municipal conservation units are managed by the municipal environmental secretariats. There are currently 109 conservation units managed at the municipal level in the Cerrado, spanning roughly 1.41 Mha of land.<ref name=":2" />

===== Integral Protection Units =====

====== ''[[Ecological station (Brazil)|Ecological Station]]'' ======
'''IUCN Category Ia'''<ref name=":4">Dudley, N. (Editor). 2008. Guidelines for Applying Protected Area Management Categories. Gland, Switzerland: IUCN. x + 86pp. https://portals.iucn.org/library/sites/library/files/documents/pag-021.pdf</ref>

An area where scientific research and the preservation of nature are the main goals. Visitation by the public is restricted to educational purposes.<ref name=":3" /> As of 2024, there are 24 ecological stations in the Cerrado biome, covering 916.4 kha of land. An example of an ecological station in the Cerrado is the [[Serra Geral do Tocantins Ecological Station]], which is the largest in the biome.<ref name=":2" />

====== ''[[Biological reserve (Brazil)|Biological Reserve]]'' ======
'''IUCN Category Ia'''<ref name=":4" />

The main goal of biological reserves is to preserve biodiversity. The only interventions allowed are actions to recover ecosystems, restore balance and preserve biodiversity. Visitation is allowed only for education purposes.<ref name=":3" /> As of 2024, there are 6 biological reserves in the Cerrado, covering 8,196 ha of land. An example is the [[Culuene Biological Reserve]], which is the largest in the biome.<ref name=":2" />

====== ''[[National park (Brazil)|National Park (including State and Municipal Parks)]]'' ======
'''IUCN Category II'''<ref name=":4" />

National Parks exist to preserve ecosystems that are ecologically significant and their beauty. Visitation is less restricted, as recreational, educational, and environmental interpretation activities take place within National Parks. Scientific research is also active within these areas.<ref name=":3" /> As of 2024, there are 116 National Parks in the Cerrado, covering 4.37 Mha of land. An example is the [[Araguaia National Park]], which is the oldest in the biome having been created in 1959.<ref name=":2" />

====== ''[[Natural monument (Brazil)|Natural Monument]]'' ======
'''IUCN Category III'''<ref name=":4" />

Unique, rare and scenic natural sites are preserved here. Visitors are allowed in natural monument areas, as long as the activity aligns with the objectives of the unit.<ref name=":3" /> As of 2024, there are 18 Natural Monuments in the Cerrado, making up 46 kha of land. An example of a Natural Monument is the [[Tocantins Fossil Trees Natural Monument]], which is the largest in the biome.<ref name=":2" />

====== ''[[Wildlife refuge (Brazil)|Wildlife Refuge]]'' ======
'''IUCN Category III'''<ref name=":4" />

Wildlife refuges protect natural environments to ensure the persistence and reproduction of species or communities of local flora and fauna. Visitors are allowed for various activities.<ref name=":3" /> As of 2024, there are 12 Wildlife Refuges in the Cerrado, making up 261 kha of land. An example is the [[Corixão de Mata Azul Wildlife Refuge]], which is the oldest in the biome having been created in 2001.<ref name=":2" />

===== Sustainable Protection Units =====

====== ''[[Environmental protection area (Brazil)|Environmental Protection Area]]'' ======
'''IUCN Category V'''<ref name=":4" />

APAs have particular natural, aesthetic, and cultural qualities that are important to the human population. These areas are usually extensive and aim to protect biodiversity, manage the occupation of humans and promote the sustainable use of the area’s natural resources.<ref name=":3" /> As of 2024, there are 114 Environmental Protection Areas in the Cerrado, making up 11.9 Mha of land. An example is the [[Baixada Maranhense Environmental Protection Area]], which is the largest in the biome.<ref name=":2" />

====== ''[[Area of relevant ecological interest (Brazil)|Area of Relevant Ecological Interest]]'' ======
'''IUCN Category IV'''<ref name=":4" />

Generally consisting of a small area, these units aim to preserve regionally or locally important ecosystems that have unique characteristics. These areas usually have little to no human occupation and can exist on public or private land.<ref name=":3" /> As of 2024, there are 22 Areas of Relevant Ecological Interest in the Cerrado, making up 11.4 kha of land. An example is the [[Cerrado Pé de Gigante Area of Relevant Ecological Interest]].<ref name=":2" />

====== ''[[National forest (Brazil)|National Forest (including State/District and Municipal)]]'' ======
'''IUCN Category VI'''<ref name=":4" />

National Forests are areas with natural forest cover that consist mainly of native species. The sustainable and multiple use of resources as well as scientific research are the primary goals of these units. Traditional populations are permitted to retain their permanence in National Forests.<ref name=":3" /> As of 2024, there are 11 National Forests in the Cerrado, making up 51.6 kha of land. An example is the [[Cristópolis National Forest]], which is the second largest in the biome.<ref name=":2" />

====== ''[[Extractive reserve|Extractive Reserve]]'' ======
'''IUCN Category VI'''<ref name=":4" />

While publicly owned, traditional populations may occupy extractive reserves to support their lifestyle based on extractivism, subsistence farming and small animal husbandry. These areas prioritize the sustainable use of their resources as well as the protection of the culture of these populations. Scientific research can also occur here, and visitors are permitted.<ref name=":3" /> As of 2024, there are 7 extractive reserves in the Cerrado, making up 100 kha of land. An example is the [[Chapada Limpa Extractive Reserve]].<ref name=":2" />

====== ''[[Sustainable development reserve (Brazil)|Sustainable Development Reserve]]'' ======
'''IUCN Category VI'''<ref name=":4" />

Similar to extractive reserves, traditional populations occupy these areas. The sustainable systems of exploitation these populations have developed over generations are the main focus of sustainable development reserves.Scientific research may also occur in these units, and visitors are permitted.<ref name=":3" /> As of 2024, there are 2 sustainable development reserves in the Cerrado, making up 97.3 kha of land. These are the [[Nascentes Geraizeiras Sustainable Development Reserve|Nascentes Geraizeiras]] and the [[Veredas do Acari Sustainable Development Reserves.]]<ref name=":2" />

====== ''[[Private natural heritage reserve (Brazil)|Private Natural Heritage Reserve]]'' ======
'''IUCN Category IV'''<ref name=":4" />

These are privately-owned areas that aim to conserve biodiversity. A number of activities are permitted in these units, namely scientific research, tourism, recreation and education.<ref name=":3" /> As of 2024, there are 228 private natural heritage reserves in the Cerrado, making up 111.1 kha of land. An example is the [[Buraco das Araras Private Natural Heritage Reserve]].<ref name=":2" />

Protected areas in Brazil include:
{{div col begin |colwidth=18em}}
* [[Chapada das Mesas National Park]]
* [[Emas National Park]]
* [[Grande Sertão Veredas National Park]]
* [[Nascentes do Rio Parnaíba National Park]]
* [[Serra do Cipó National Park]]
* [[Nascentes Geraizeiras Sustainable Development Reserve]]
* [[Cavernas do Peruaçu Environmental Protection Area]]
* [[Iquê Ecological Station]]
* [[Serra Geral do Tocantins Ecological Station]]
* [[Jalapão State Park]]
* [[Serra de Santa Bárbara State Park]]
* [[Pirineus State Park|Pireneus State Park]]
* [[Terra Ronca State Park]]
{{div col end}}
as well as [[Noel Kempff Mercado National Park]] in Bolivia.
[[File:Cerrado - Parque Nacional Chapada dos veadeiros.jpg|thumb|341x341px|Chapada dos Veadeiros National Park - UNESCO World Heritage Site]]

==== UNESCO World Heritage Sites ====
Two conservation units in the Cerrado biome have been designated together as a UNESCO World Heritage Site: [[Chapada dos Veadeiros National Park|Chapada dos Veadeiros]] and [[Emas National Park|Emas National Parks]]. Together they are known by UNESCO as the [https://www.protectedplanet.net/900630 Cerrado Protected Areas], making up 38.14 kha of land.<ref name=":5">"[https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1035/ Cerrado Protected Areas: Chapada dos Veadeiros and Emas National Parks]". ''whc.unesco.org''. Retrieved 2024-11-17.</ref> These conservation units were inscribed by UNESCO in 2001 for two main reasons. Firstly, the units are centrally localized and have varying altitudes, making them robust areas of refuge for species. Secondly, the units excellently represent the biodiversity of the Cerrado biome, with more than 60% of all plant species and almost 80% of all vertebrate species that exist in the region. Many endangered species occur in these units, making them important targets for conservation.<ref name=":5" />

Both Chapada dos Veadeiros and Emas are National Parks that are federally managed. As National Parks, they are registered as integral protection units and benefit from strict regulations preventing the direct use of their resources. Chapada dos Veadeiros National Park was established in 1961 and comprises 240 kha of land. Its area overlaps with the Environmental Protection Area of Pouso Alto, which is a sustainable protection conservation unit that was established in 2001.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":5" /> Emas National Park was established in 1961, and it makes up 132 kha of land.<ref name=":2" /> Its management focuses on preventing the negative effects of the agricultural area that almost completely surrounds it.<ref name=":5" />

==== Effectiveness of Protected Areas ====
Concerns have been raised about the effectiveness of protected areas in the Cerrado given the small proportion of land they cover and their varying degrees of strictness. Overlapping conservation units is an area of particular interest given the redundancy of the same area being protected and the possibility of management conflicts. In 2020, almost 40% of all conservation units in the Cerrado had some overlap with other units.<ref name=":6">Gonçalves, T.V., Gomes, M.A.A., and Nabout, J.C. 2020. The historical geography, bioclimatic, and informetric conditions of protected areas in the Brazilian Cerrado. ''Journal for Nature Conservation,'' 58: 125905.</ref> A total of 64 conservation units were completely within other units.<ref name=":6" /> Most of these were areas of ecological interest within environmental protection areas, which are both sustainable protection units.

When they are created, each conservation unit in Brazil should be assigned a management plan which outlines the conservation practices that will take place within the unit as well as a management council to guide its conservation.<ref name=":7">"[https://www.gov.br/mma/pt-br/assuntos/biodiversidade-e-biomas/areas-protegidas/gestaodeucs UC Management]". ''www.gov.br''. Retrieved 2024-11-17.</ref> The management plan establishes a number of guidelines and rules necessary for the management of the conservation unit. This includes the zoning of the area, in which the conservation unit is divided into different sections categorized by their required degrees of protection.<ref name=":7" /> The management council is responsible for monitoring the implementation of the management plan and acts as a link between local populations and stakeholders with economic or environmental priorities. As of 2024, almost 40% of all conservation units registered in the Cerrado do not have a management plan and about 60% do not have a management council.<ref name=":2" />

Some studies have evaluated the effectiveness of protected areas in the Cerrado depending on their strictness. Sustainable protection units, which are less strict as biodiversity conservation is not their primary goal, have been found to be ineffective against deforestation.<ref name=":8">Françoso, R.D., Brandão, R., et al. 2015. Habitat loss and the effectiveness of protected areas in the Cerrado Biodiversity Hotspot. ''Natureza & Conservação,''13: 35-40.</ref> In 2015, 85% of all protected areas in the Cerrado, excluding private natural heritage reserves, were environmental protected areas, which are sustainable protection units.<ref name=":8" /> Integral protection units in the Cerrado are the most efficient in biodiversity protection in terms of reducing deforestation and maintaining species richness.<ref name=":8" /><ref>Ferreira, G.B., Collen, B., et al. 2020. Strict protected areas are essential for the conservation of larger and threatened mammals in a priority region of the Brazilian Cerrado. ''Biological Conservation,'' 251: 108762.</ref>

Conservation units should be representative of the biome they protect. In 2015, only two thirds of protected areas corresponded to remaining native vegetation in the Cerrado, with the other one third representing deforested areas within different conservation units.<ref name=":8" /> Despite this, protected areas have been found to be effective in representing both ecosystem services and biodiversity of the Cerrado.<ref name=":9">Resende, F.M., Cimon-Morin, J., et al. 2021. The importance of protected areas and Indigenous lands in securing ecosystem services and biodiversity in the Cerrado. ''Ecosystem Services,'' 49: 101282.</ref>

==== Privately Owned Land ====
Privately owned land is essential for conservation efforts as the majority of remaining native vegetation in the Cerrado occurs in private properties and farms. In 2019, private lands held 57.9% of the remaining native vegetation in the Cerrado.<ref name=":10">Pompeu, J., Assis, T.O., and Ometto, J.P. 2024. Landscape changes in the Cerrado: Challenges of land clearing, fragmentation and land tenure for biological conservation. ''Science of the Total Environment,'' 906: 167581.</ref> Brazil’s Forest Code requires land owners to retain 20% of native vegetation as Legal Reserves on their properties in all biomes except the Amazon, where the number is 80%.<ref name=":11">Soares-Filho, B., Rajão, R., et al. 2014. Cracking Brazil's Forest Code. ''Science,'' 344: 363-364.</ref> Legal Reserves in the Cerrado are essential for biodiversity protection, as about 13% of the distribution range of threatened species exist within them.<ref>De Marco, P., de Souza, R.A., et al. 2023. The value of private properties for the conservation of biodiversity in the Brazilian Cerrado. ''Science,'' 380: 298-301.</ref> Changes made to the Forest Code in 2012 legally allow almost 40 Mha of extra native vegetation to be cleared on top of the original allowance.<ref name=":11" /> In 2017, this amounted to 40% of remaining native vegetation in the biome legally able to be converted.<ref name=":1" />

Compliance with the Forest Code by landowners is an issue in the Cerrado as some consider the legislation to be a roadblock for agricultural development.<ref name=":11" /><ref>Stefanes, M., Roque, F.O., et al. 2018. Property size drives differences in forest code compliance in the Brazilian Cerrado. ''Land Use Policy,'' 75: 43-49.</ref> There are measures in place to increase compliance, such as the Rural Environmental Registry System (CAR), which is a documentation system of environmental information of millions of rural properties that facilitates their monitoring and management.<ref name=":11" /> Monetary incentives are also offered by the Brazilian government in the form of the Low-Carbon Agriculture (ABC) program to promote sustainable agriculture and forest restoration.<ref name=":11" />

==== Indigenous Land ====
Indigenous lands (IL) remain an important sector for biodiversity conservation in the Cerrado. The government of Brazil has recognized 4.8% of the Cerrado’s area as IL.<ref name=":9" /> In 2019, 6.72% of remaining native vegetation occurred within IL, compared to the 2.27% that was preserved within conservation units.<ref name=":10" /> Indigenous lands also effectively represent the ecosystem services and biodiversity characteristic of the Cerrado biome and are efficient in reducing habitat conversion and deforestation.<ref name=":9" /><ref>Carranza, T., Balmford, A., et al. 2014. Protected Area Effectiveness in reducing Conversion in a Rapidly Vanishing Ecosystem: The Brazilian Cerrado. ''Conservation Letters,'' 7: 216-223.</ref>

==References==
{{reflist|colwidth=25em}}

{{----}}

{{refbegin|colwidth=25em}}
* {{cite book |author1=Oliveira, Paulo S. |author2=Marquis, Robert J. |name-list-style=amp |year=2002 |title=The Cerrados of Brazil: Ecology and natural history of a neotropical savanna |place=New York, NY |publisher=[[Columbia University Press]] |isbn=0-231-12043-5}}
* BRANDÃO, M.; GAVILANES, M. L. (1992). ''Espécies árboreas padronizadoras do Cerrado mineiro e sua distribuição no Estado.'' [https://web.archive.org/web/20050310232753/http://www.epamig.br/produtos/publicacoes/IA/IA173.htm Informe Agropecuário] 16 (173): 5–11. {{in lang|pt}}
* BRANDÃO, M.; CARVALHO, P. G. S.; JESUÉ, G. (1992). ''Guia Ilustrado de Plantas do Cerrado.'' {{in lang|pt}} [http://www.cemig.com.br CEMIG].
* CASTRO, A. A. J. F., MARTINS F. R., TAMASHIRO, J. Y., SHEPHERD G. J. (1999). ''How rich is the flora of Brazilian Cerrados?'' [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2666220 Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden] 86 (1): 192–224.
* {{cite web |author=Coutinho, L.M. |date=c. 2000 |title=Cerrado |website=eco.ib.usp.br |place=[[São Paulo (state)|São Paulo]] |publisher=[[University of São Paulo]] |lang=pt |url=http://eco.ib.usp.br/cerrado/index.htm |url-status=dead <!-- presumed --> |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190525131117/http://eco.ib.usp.br/cerrado/index.htm |archive-date=2019-05-25}}
* RATTER, J.A.; RIBEIRO, J.F. & BRIDGEWATER, S. (1997) ''The Brazilian Cerrado vegetation and Threats to its Biodiversity.'' [https://web.archive.org/web/20051029105637/http://aob.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/reprint/80/3/223.pdf Annals of Botany], 80: pp.&nbsp;223–230.
* LEITÃO FILHO, H.F. (1992). ''A flora arbórea dos Cerrados do Estado de São Paulo''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20060827041913/http://www.ibot.sp.gov.br/HOEHNEA/hoehnea.htm Hoehnea] 19 (1/2): 151–163. {{in lang|pt}}
* MENDONÇA, R. C.; FELFILI, J. M.; WALTER, B. M. T.; SILVA, M. C.; REZENDE, FILGUEIRAS, T. S.; NOGUEIRA, P. E. ''Flora vascular do bioma Cerrado''. ("Vascular flora of Cerrado biome") {{in lang|pt}} [ftp://geoftp.ibge.gov.br/documentos/recursosnaturais/levantamento/floravascular.pdf IBGE]{{dead link|date=May 2025|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}
* {{cite book |author1=Gottsberger, G. |author2=Silberbauer-Gottsberger, I. |name-list-style=amp |year=2006 |url=http://www.cerrado.eu |title=Life in the Cerrado |publisher=Reta Verlag |place=Ulm, DE}}
** {{ISBN|3-00-017928-3}} Volume&nbsp;1
** {{ISBN|3-00-017929-1}} Volume&nbsp;2
{{refend}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite web |title=Cerrado biodiversity hotspot |website=BiodiversityHotspots.org |publisher=[[Conservation International]] |url=http://www.biodiversityhotspots.org/xp/Hotspots/cerrado |url-status=dead <!-- presumed --> |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070305035232/http://www.biodiversityhotspots.org/xp/Hotspots/cerrado |archive-date=2007-03-05}}
* {{cite web |title=The Chapada dos Veadeiros, Cerrado de Altitude |website=guiadachapada.com.br |url=http://www.guiadachapada.com.br/ |url-status=dead <!-- presumed --> |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090130062647/http://www.guiadachapada.com.br/ |archive-date=2009-01-30}}
* {{cite web |title=Bioma Cerrado |lang=pt |website=www.agencia.cnptia.embrapa.br |publisher=Brazilian Government |series=EMBRAPA |url=http://www.agencia.cnptia.embrapa.br/Agencia16/AG01/Abertura.html |access-date=30 April 2007 |archive-date=15 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200615071031/http://www.agencia.cnptia.embrapa.br/Agencia16/AG01/Abertura.html |url-status=dead }} 

==External links==
{{commons category|Cerrado}}
* {{cite web |title=The Cerrado |publisher=[[Nature Conservancy]] in Brazil |url=http://www.nature.org/wherewework/southamerica/brazil/work/art5082.html |url-status=dead <!-- presumed --> |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100703052622/http://www.nature.org/wherewework/southamerica/brazil/work/art5082.html |archive-date=2010-07-03}}
* {{cite web |title=The Biodiversity of the Brazilian Cerrado |url=http://www.rbge.org.uk/rbge/web/science/research/tropdivers/cerrado.jsp |url-status=dead <!-- presumed --> |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071111084348/http://www.rbge.org.uk/rbge/web/science/research/tropdivers/cerrado.jsp |archive-date=2007-11-11}}
* {{cite web |title=Cerrado |publisher=Brazilian Government |url=http://www.mre.gov.br/cdbrasil/itamaraty/web/ingles/meioamb/ecossist/cerrado/ |url-status=dead <!-- presumed --> |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051224180007/http://www.mre.gov.br/cdbrasil/itamaraty/web/ingles/meioamb/ecossist/cerrado/ |archive-date=2005-12-24}}
* {{WWF ecoregion|id=nt0704|name=Cerrado}}
* {{cite AV media |first=Peter |last=Caton |others=Aoki, Chris (contrib.); do&nbsp;Vale, João (music) |date=1 June 2011 |title=Guardians of the Cerrado |medium=photo story |website=petercaton.co.uk |via=foto8.com |url=http://www.foto8.com/new/online/photo-stories/1425-cerrado |url-status=dead <!-- presumed --> |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110902043022/http://www.foto8.com/new/online/photo-stories/1425-cerrado |archive-date=2011-09-02}}

{{Clear}}
{{States_of_Brazil}}

[[Category:Cerrado|01]]
[[Category:Ecoregions of Brazil]]
[[Category:Ecoregions of Bolivia]]
[[Category:Ecoregions of Paraguay]]
[[Category:Ecoregions of South America]]
[[Category:Grasslands of Brazil]]
[[Category:Grasslands of Bolivia]]
[[Category:Grasslands of Paraguay]]
[[Category:Natural regions of South America]]
[[Category:Biosphere reserves of Brazil]]
[[Category:Environment of Goiás]]
[[Category:Environment of Mato Grosso]]
[[Category:Environment of Mato Grosso do Sul]]
[[Category:Environment of Minas Gerais]]
[[Category:Environment of Tocantins]]
[[Category:Regions of Brazil]]
[[Category:Regions of Bolivia]]
[[Category:Regions of Paraguay]]
[[Category:Regions of South America]]
[[Category:Neotropical ecoregions]]
[[Category:Tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas, and shrublands]]