View source for Caucasus Mountains

{{Short description|Mountain system at the intersection of Europe and Asia}}
{{For|the lunar mountain range|Montes Caucasus}}
{{more citations needed|date=April 2023}}

{{Infobox mountain
| fetchwikidata = ALL
| name = Caucasus Mountains
| photo = [[File:Elbrus view on the mountains.jpg|350px]]
| photo_caption = 
| highest = [[Mount Elbrus]]
| elevation_m = 5642
| elevation_ref = <ref name=otm>{{cite opentopomap|Mount Elbrus|43.352|42.438|2023-04-14}}</ref>
| coordinates = {{Coord|43|21|18|N|42|26|31|E|type:mountain_region:GE|format=dms|display=inline}}
| coordinates_ref = <!-- no source on Elbrus page -->
| listing = [[Seven Summits]]
| country = {{hlist|[[Russia]]|[[Georgia (country)|Georgia]]|[[Azerbaijan]]|[[Armenia]]}}
| subdivision2_type = Continent
| subdivision2 = [[Eurasia]]
| length_km = 1200
| length_orientation = 
| length_ref = 
| width_km = 160
| width_orientation = 
| width_ref = 
| range_coordinates = {{Coord|42.5|N|45|E|type:mountain_region:GE|format=dms|display=inline,title}}
| range_coordinates_ref = 
| geology = 
| orogeny = 
| map_image = Caucasus topographic map-en.svg
| map_caption = Topographic map
}}

[[File:Kaukasus.jpg|thumb|upright=1.27|Satellite image of the Caucasus Mountains]]

The '''Caucasus Mountains'''{{efn|1=Native names:

* {{lang-ka|კავკასიონი|tr}} {{IPA|ka|kʼafkʼasioni|}}
* {{langx|hy|Կովկասյան լեռներ|Kovkasyan leṙner}} {{IPA|hy|kɔvkɑsjɑn lɛrˈnɛɾ|}}
* [[Azerbaijani language|Azerbaijani]]: {{lang|az-Cyrl|Гафгаз дағлары}}, {{lang|az|Qafqaz dağları}} {{IPA|az|qɑfqɑz dɑʁlɑrɯ|}}<!-- verification and word stresses needed; probably final? -->
* {{langx|ru|Кавка́зские го́ры|Kavkázskiye góry}} {{IPA|ru|kɐfˈkasːkʲɪje ˈɡorɨ|}}
* {{langx|av|Кавказалъул мугӀрул|Kavkazaļul muⱨrul}}
* {{langx|lez|Кавказдин дагъ|Kavkazdin dagh}}
* {{langx|kum|Кавказны тёбе|Kavkaznı töbe}}
* {{langx|ce|Кавказан лаьмнаш|Kavkazan lämnaş}}
* {{langx|inh|Кавказа лоамаш|Kavkaza loamash}}
* {{langx|krc|Кавказ таула|Kavkaz tawla}}
* {{langx|ab|Акавказтә ашьха|Akavkazṭ° ašʹxa}}
* {{langx|os|Кавказы хӕхтӕ|Kavkazy hæhtæ}}
* {{langx|tr|Kafkas Dağları}} {{IPA|tr|kafkas daːɫaɾɯ|}}<!-- word stresses needed; probably final? -->
* {{langx|fa|كوه‌هاى قفقاز}}{{R needed|date=June 2024}}}} is a [[mountain range]] at the intersection of Asia and Europe. Stretching between the [[Black Sea]] and the [[Caspian Sea]], they are surrounded by the [[Caucasus]] region and are home to [[Mount Elbrus]], the [[list of elevation extremes by region|highest peak]] in Europe at {{convert|5642|m}} above sea level.

The Caucasus Mountains include the [[Greater Caucasus]] in the north and the [[Lesser Caucasus]] in the south. The Greater Caucasus runs west-northwest to east-southeast, from the [[Western Caucasus]] on the northeastern shore of the Black Sea to close to [[Baku]] on the Caspian Sea, in [[Azerbaijan (country)|Azerbaijan]]. The Lesser Caucasus runs parallel to the Greater about {{convert|100|km|abbr=on}} south.<ref name="Encyc-Snow-Ice-CaucusMtn">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mKKtQR4T-1MC&pg=PA127|title=Encyclopedia of Snow, Ice and Glaciers|last1=Stokes|first1=Chris R.|date=2011|publisher=Spring Science & Business Media|isbn=978-90-481-2641-5|editor1-last=Singh|editor1-first=Vijay P.|page=127|editor2-last=Haritashya|editor2-first=Umesh K.}}</ref> The Greater and Lesser Caucasus ranges are connected by the [[Likhi Range]], and to the west and east of the Likhi Range lie the [[Colchis]] Plain and the [[Kur-Araz Lowland]] respectively. The [[Meskheti Range]] is a part of the Lesser Caucasus system. In the southeast, the [[Aras River]] separates the Lesser Caucasus from the [[Talysh Mountains]] which runs through the [[Greater Azerbaijan]] region. The Lesser Caucasus and the [[Armenian Highland]] constitute the [[Transcaucasia]]n Highland, which at their western end converges with the highland plateau of Eastern [[Anatolia]]. The Caucasus Mountains were part of the [[Silk Road]].

==Geology==
Geologically, the Caucasus Mountains belong to the [[Alpide belt]] system that extends from southeastern [[Europe]] into [[Asia]]<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2015-07-01|title=The Caucasian-Arabian segment of the Alpine-Himalayan collisional belt: Geology, volcanism and neotectonics|journal=Geoscience Frontiers|language=en|volume=6|issue=4|pages=513–522|doi=10.1016/j.gsf.2014.07.001|issn=1674-9871|doi-access=free|last1=Sharkov|first1=E.|last2=Lebedev|first2=V.|last3=Chugaev|first3=A.|last4=Zabarinskaya|first4=L.|last5=Rodnikov|first5=A.|last6=Sergeeva|first6=N.|last7=Safonova|first7=I.|bibcode=2015GeoFr...6..513S }}</ref> and is considered a border between the two continents.<ref name=":0">{{Citation|last=National Geographic Maps (Firm)|title=Atlas of the world|date=2011|place=Washington, D.C.|publisher=National Geographic Society|isbn=978-1-4262-0632-0|oclc=671359683}}</ref> The [[Greater Caucasus|Greater Caucasus Mountains]] are mainly composed of [[Cretaceous]] and [[Jurassic]] rocks with the [[Paleozoic]] and [[Precambrian]] rocks in the higher regions. Some volcanic formations are found throughout the range. On the other hand, the [[Lesser Caucasus|Lesser Caucasus Mountains]] are formed predominantly of the [[Paleogene]] rocks with a much smaller portion of Jurassic and Cretaceous rocks. The evolution of the Caucasus began from the [[Late Triassic]] to the [[Late Jurassic]] during the [[Cimmerian orogeny]] at the active margin of the [[Tethys Ocean]] while the uplift of the Greater Caucasus is dated to the [[Miocene]] during the [[Alpine orogeny]].

The Caucasus Mountains formed largely as the result of a [[tectonic plate]] collision between the [[Arabian plate]] moving northwards with respect to the [[Eurasian plate]]. As the [[Tethys Sea]] was closed and the Arabian plate collided with the [[Iranian plate]] and was pushed against it, and with the clockwise movement of the Eurasian plate towards the Iranian plate and their final collision, the Iranian plate was pressed against the Eurasian plate. As this happened, the rocks that had been deposited in this basin from the Jurassic to the Miocene were [[Fold mountains|folded]] to form the Greater Caucasus Mountains. This collision also caused the uplift and the [[Cenozoic]] volcanic activity in the Lesser Caucasus Mountains.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Adamia|last2=Zakariadze|last3=Chkhotua|last4=Sadradze |last5=Tsereteli|last6=Chabukiani|last7=Gventsadze|first1=Shota|first2=Guram|first3=Tamar|first4=Nino|first5=Nino|first6=Aleksandre |first7=Aleksandre|date=January 2011|title=Geology of the Caucasus: A Review|url=https://instruct.uwo.ca/earth-sci/fieldlog/Caucasus/yer-20-5-1-1005-11.pdf|journal=Turkish J. Earth Sci.|volume=20|pages=489–544|via=}}</ref>

The entire region is regularly subjected to strong [[earthquake]]s from this activity.<ref name="Reilinger2012">{{cite journal|last1=Reilinger|first1=R. E.|last2=McClusky|first2=S. C.|last3=Oral|first3=M. B.|last4=King|first4=R. W.|last5=Toksoz|first5=M. N.|last6=Barka|first6=A. A.|last7=Kinik|first7=I.|last8=Lenk|first8=O.|last9=Sanli|first9=I.|date=January 1997|title=Global Positioning System measurements of present-day crustal movements in the Arabia–Africa–Eurasia plate collision zone|journal=[[Journal of Geophysical Research]]|volume=102|issue=B5|pages=9983–9999|bibcode=1997JGR...102.9983R|doi=10.1029/96JB03736}}</ref> While the Greater Caucasus Mountains have a mainly folded sedimentary structure, the Lesser Caucasus Mountains are largely of [[volcano|volcanic]] origin.<ref name = "Philip1989">{{cite journal|title = The Caucasus|last1 = Philip|first1 = H.|last2 = Cisternas|first2 = A.|last3 = Gvishiani|first3 = A.|last4 = Gorshkov|first4 = A.|journal = Tectonophysics|issue = 1–2|date = 1 April 1989|pages = 1–21|volume = 161|doi = 10.1016/0040-1951(89)90297-7|bibcode = 1989Tectp.161....1P}}</ref>

The [[Javakheti Volcanic Plateau]] in [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] and the surrounding volcanic ranges which extend well into central [[Armenia]] are some of the youngest features of the region. Only recently was the Caucasus a scene for intense volcanic activity: the Armenian highland was flooded by calc-alkaline [[basalt]]s and [[andesite]]s in the [[Pliocene]] and the highest summits of the Caucasus, the [[Elbrus]], and the [[Kazbek]], formed as [[Pleistocene]]-[[Pliocene]] volcanoes. The Kazbek is no longer active, but the Elbrus erupted in postglacial times and [[fumarole]] activity is registered near its summit. Contemporary seismic activity is a prominent feature of the region, reflecting active faulting and crustal shortening. Clusters of seismicity occur in [[Dagestan]] and in northern [[Armenia]]. Many devastating earthquakes have been documented in historical times, including the [[Spitak]] earthquake in December 1988 which destroyed the [[Gyumri]]-[[Vanadzor]] region of Armenia.

==Notable peaks==
[[Mount Elbrus]], at {{convert|5642|m|ft|abbr=on}}, in the Caucasus Mountains, is sometimes cited as the highest peak in Europe. Mount Elbrus is {{convert|832|m|abbr=on}} higher than [[Mont Blanc]], the highest peak in the [[Alps]] and Western Europe at {{convert|4810|m|ft|abbr=on}}. However, there are some technical disagreements over whether Mount Elbrus is in Europe.<ref>{{cite web |date=7 July 2003 |title=Mt. Elbrus |website=[[NASA Earth Observatory]] |publisher=[[NASA]] |url=https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/3603/mt-elbrus |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181215203743/https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/3603/mt-elbrus |archive-date=15 December 2018 |access-date=16 February 2015}}</ref> The crest of the Greater Caucasus Mountains is usually taken to [[Boundaries between the continents of Earth#Modern definition|define]] the [[Greater Caucasus#Watershed|Greater Caucasus Watershed]] which marks the continental boundary between Asia and Europe for the region between the Black and Caspian seas. This classification would place Mount Elbrus at the junction with Asia.<ref name=":0"/>

The table below lists some of the highest peaks of the Caucasus. With the exception of [[Shkhara]], the heights are taken from Soviet 1:50,000 mapping. The list includes the ten [[ultra-prominent peak|ultras]] (mountains of more than 1,500 m prominence) and all mountains over 4,500 m height with 300 m [[topographic prominence|prominence]]. [[Mount Ağrı]] (5,137 m) in [[Turkey]] is just south of the Lesser Caucasus.

:{| class="wikitable sortable" 3
 |+ Some of the Highest peaks in the Caucasus Mountains
 |- 
 ! Peak name
 ! Elevation<br />{{small|(metres)}}
 ! [[Topographic prominence|Prominence]]<br />{{small|(metres)}}
 ! Country
 |-
 | [[Elbrus]] || {{center|5,642}} || {{right|4,741  }}
 | [[Russia]] 
 |-
 | [[Dykh-Tau]] || {{center|5,205}} || {{right|2,002  }}
 | [[Russia]]
 |-
 | [[Shkhara]] || {{center|{{spaces|3}}5,193{{efn|
name=height|The elevation and coordinates given here are taken from a [[Differential GPS|DGPS]] survey by Peter Schoen and Boris Avdeev, in association with {{cite web |url=http://www.geoat.at |title=GeoAT}}. It was carried out in July 2010 and {{cite web |url=http://viewfinderpanoramas.org/Z/Shkhara_DGPS_PFO.jpg |title=made available |date=November 2010}} in November&nbsp;2010.
:
Some sources, including the [[Great Soviet Encyclopedia]], give the estimation of only 5,068&nbsp;metres (16,627&nbsp;feet), but this is the correct height of the lower western summit. Soviet era 1:50,000 mapping shows a 5,158&nbsp;metre [[spot height]] to the east, and this can be verified using a {{cite web |title=panoramic photograph |url=http://www.ii.uib.no/~petter/mountains/5000mtn/Elbrus/ElbrusA/142-150_annotate.jpg}} taken from [[Elbrus]]. The true [maximum] elevation is on higher ground, still further east along the Shkhara ridge.
}} }} || {{right|1,365  }}
 | [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] / [[Russia]] 
 |-
 | [[Koshtan-Tau]] || {{center|5,152}} || {{right|822  }} || [[Russia]] 
 |-
 | [[Pushkin peak]]|| {{center|5,100}} || {{right|110  }} ||[[Russia]]
 |-
 | [[Janga (mountain)|Janga]] {{small|<br/>(Dzhangi-Tau)}}
 | {{center|5,085}} || {{right|300  }} || [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] / [[Russia]]
 |-
 | [[Mizhirgi]]|| {{center|5,047}} || {{right|10  }}
 | [[Russia]]
 |-
 | [[Kazbek]] || {{center|5,034}} || {{right|2,353  }} 
 | [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] / [[Russia]]
 |-
 | [[Katyn-Tau]] || {{center|4,979}} || {{right|240  }}
 | [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] / [[Russia]]
 |-
 | [[Kukurtlu Dome]]|| {{center|4,978}} || {{right|18  }}
 | [[Russia]]
 |-
 | [[Gistola]] || {{center|4,860}} || {{right|320  }}
 | [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] / [[Russia]]
 |-
 | [[Shota Rustaveli Peak|Shota Rustaveli]] || {{center|4,860}} || {{right| {{circa|50}}  }} 
 | [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] / [[Russia]]
 |-
 | [[Tetnuldi]] || {{center|4,858}} || {{right|672  }}
 | [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]]
 |-
 | [[Mount Jimara|Jimara]] {{small|<br/>(Jimari)}}
 | {{center|4,780}} || {{right|840  }} || [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] / [[Russia]]
 |-
 | [[Ushba]] || {{center|4,710}} || {{right|1,143  }}
 | [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]]
 |-
 | [[Dumala-Tau]]||{{center|4,682}} || {{right|332  }}
 | [[Russia]]
 |-		
 | [[Gora Uilpata]]|| {{center|4,649}} || {{right|1300  }}
 | [[Russia]]
 |-
 | [[Tikhtengen]]|| {{center|4,618}} || {{right|768  }}
 | [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] / [[Russia]]
 |-
 | [[Ailama]] || {{center|4,547}} || {{right|1,067  }}
 | [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] / [[Russia]]
 |-
 | Tiutiun-Tau || {{center|4,540}} || {{right|380  }}
 | [[Russia]]
 |-
 | Jailik || {{center|4,533}} || {{right|926  }}
 | [[Russia]]
 |-
 | Salinan || {{center|4,508}} || {{right|621  }}
 | [[Russia]]	
 |-
 | [[Tebulosmta]] || {{center|4,499}} || {{right|2,145  }}
 | [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] / [[Russia]]
 |-
 | [[Mount Bazardüzü]] || {{center|4,466}} || {{right|2,454  }}
 | [[Azerbaijan]] / [[Russia]]
 |-
 | [[Gora Shan|Mount Shan]] || {{center|4,451}} ||{{right|1,775  }}
 | [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] / [[Russia]]
 |-
 | Tepli || {{center|4,431}}  || {{right|1,144  }}
 | [[Russia]]
 |-
 | [[Diklosmta|Diklo]] || {{center|4,285}} || {{right|843  }}
 | [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] / [[Russia]]
 |-
 | [[Mount Shahdagh]] || {{center|4,243}} || {{right|1,102  }}
 | [[Azerbaijan]]
 |-
 | [[Gora Addala Shukgelmezr|Gora Addala<br/>Shukgelmezr]]
 | {{center|4,152}} || {{right|1,792  }} || [[Russia]]
 |-
 | [[Gora Dyultydag]] || {{center|4,127}} || {{right|1,834  }}
 | [[Russia]]
 |-
 | [[Aragats]] || {{center|4,090}} || {{right|2,143  }}
 | [[Armenia]]
 |-
 | [[Deavgay]] || {{center|4,016}} || {{right|1,251  }}
 | [[Russia]]
|}

==Climate==
[[File:Перевал Аишхо 1.jpg|thumb|upright=1.13|Aishkho Pass, [[Caucasus Nature Reserve]]]]
The climate of the Caucasus varies both vertically (according to elevation) and horizontally (by latitude and location). Temperature generally decreases as elevation rises. Average annual temperature in [[Sokhumi]], [[Abkhazia]] at sea level is {{convert|15|C|F}} while on the slopes of Mt.[[Kazbek]] at an elevation of {{convert|3700|m|ft}}, average annual temperature falls to {{convert|-6.1|C|F}}. The northern slopes of the Greater Caucasus Mountain Range are 3&nbsp;°C (5.4&nbsp;°F) colder than the southern slopes. The highlands of the Lesser Caucasus Mountains in [[Armenia]], [[Azerbaijan]], and [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] are marked by sharp temperature contrasts between the summer and winter months due to a more continental climate.

Precipitation increases from east to west in most areas. Elevation plays an important role in the Caucasus and mountains generally receive higher amounts of precipitation than low-lying areas. The north-eastern regions ([[Dagestan]]) and the southern portions of the Lesser Caucasus Mountains are the driest. The absolute minimum annual precipitation is {{convert|250|mm|2|abbr=on}} in the northeastern [[Caspian Depression]]. Western parts of the Caucasus Mountains are marked by high amounts of precipitation. The southern slopes of the Greater Caucasus Mountain Range receive higher amounts of precipitation than the northern slopes. Annual precipitation in the Western Caucasus ranges from {{convert|1000|to(-)|4000|mm|2|abbr=on|lk=out}} while in the Eastern and Northern Caucasus ([[Chechnya]], [[Ingushetia]], [[Kabardino-Balkaria]], [[Ossetia]], [[Kakheti]], [[Kartli]], etc.) precipitation ranges from {{convert|600|to(-)|1800|mm|2|abbr=on|lk=out}}. The absolute maximum annual precipitation is {{convert|4100|mm|2|abbr=on}} around the Mt. Mtirala area which lies on the [[Meskheti Range]] in [[Adjara]]. The precipitation of the Lesser Caucasus Mountain Range (Southern [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]], [[Armenia]], western [[Azerbaijan]]), not including the [[Meskheti Range]], varies from 300-{{convert|800|mm|2|abbr=on}} annually.

The Caucasus Mountains are known for the high amount of snowfall, although many regions which are not located along the windward slopes do not receive nearly as much snow. This is especially true for the Lesser Caucasus Mountains which are somewhat isolated from the moist influences coming in from the [[Black Sea]] and receive considerably less precipitation (in the form of snow) than the Greater Caucasus Mountains. The average winter snow cover of the Lesser Caucasus Mountains ranges from {{convert|10|to(-)|30|cm|2|abbr=on|lk=out}}. The Greater Caucasus Mountains (especially the southwestern slopes) are marked by heavy snowfall. [[Avalanches]] are common from November to April.

Snow cover in several regions ([[Svaneti]] and northern [[Abkhazia]]) may reach {{convert|5|m|0}}. The Mt. [[Achishkho]] region, which is the snowiest place in the Caucasus, often records snow depths of {{convert|7|m|0|abbr=on}}.

==Landscape==

[[File:Chaukhi Mountain & Tina Lake, Juta Valley, Mtskheta-Mtianeti, Georgia.jpg|thumb|upright=1.36|Juta Valley in [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]], on the southern slopes of Greater Caucasus]]

The Caucasus Mountains have a varied landscape which changes according to elevation and distance from large bodies of water. The region contains [[biomes]] ranging from subtropical lowland marshes and forests to [[glacier]]s (Western and Central Caucasus), and highland [[semidesert]]s, [[steppe]]s, and [[alpine meadow]]s in the south (mainly in [[Armenia]] and [[Azerbaijan]]).

[[Image:Falls.jpg|thumb|upright|Waterfall in Georgia, part of [[Dariali Gorge]]]] 

The northern slopes of the Greater Caucasus Mountains are covered by [[oak]], [[hornbeam]], [[maple]], and [[ash tree|ash]] forests at lower elevations while [[birch]] and [[pine]] forests take over at higher elevations. Some of the lowest areas of the region are covered by [[steppes]] and [[grasslands]]. The slopes of the North-western Greater Caucasus ([[Kabardino-Balkaria]], [[Cherkessia]], etc.) also contain [[spruce]] and [[fir]] forests. The [[alpine climate|alpine]] zone replaces the forest at around {{convert|2000|m|ft}} above sea level. The [[permafrost]]/[[glacier]] line generally starts around {{convert|2800|-|3000|m|ft}}. The southeastern slopes of the Greater Caucasus Mountains are covered by [[beech]], [[oak]], [[maple]], [[hornbeam]], and ash forests. [[Beech]] forests tend to dominate in higher locations. The south-western slopes of the Greater Caucasus are covered by [[Colchis|Colchian]] forests ([[oak]], [[buxus]], [[beech]], [[chestnut]], [[hornbeam]], [[elm]]) at lower elevations with [[coniferous]] and mixed forests ([[spruce]], [[fir]] and [[beech]]) taking over at higher elevations. The alpine zone on the southern slopes may extend up to {{convert|2800|m|ft}} above sea level while the [[glacier]]/snow line starts at {{convert|3000|-|3500|m|ft}}.

The northern and western slopes of the Lesser Caucasus Mountains are characterized both by [[Colchis|Colchian]] and other [[deciduous]] forests at lower elevations while mixed and [[coniferous]] forests (mainly [[spruce]] and [[fir]]) dominate at higher elevations. [[Beech]] forests are also common at higher elevations. The southern slopes of the Lesser Caucasus Mountains are largely covered by [[grasslands]] and [[steppes]] up to an elevation of {{convert|2500|m|ft}}. The highest areas of the region too contains alpine grasslands. [[Volcanic]] and other rock formations are common throughout the region. The volcanic zone extends over a large area from southern [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] into [[Armenia]] and southwestern [[Azerbaijan]]. Some of the prominent peaks of the region include Mt. [[Aragats]], [[Didi Abuli]], [[Samsari]], and others. The area is characterized by [[volcanic plateau]]s, [[lava flows]], [[volcanic lake]]s, [[volcanic cone]]s and other features. The Lesser Caucasus Mountains lack the type of glaciers and glacial features that are common on the Greater Caucasus Mountain Range.

==History==
{{further|History of the Caucasus|Russian conquest of the Caucasus}}
Crossing the Caucasus Mountain range was an important section of the northern arm of the [[Silk Route]]. Tusheti shepherds of Georgia have been herding livestock to seasonal grazing grounds, a practice known as [[transhumance]]<ref>{{Cite web |last=Durn |first=Sarah |date=2023-03-02 |title=The Stark Beauty of Tushetian Shepherds' Journey Across Georgia's Caucasus Mountains |url=http://www.atlasobscura.com/articles/transhumance-tusheti-georgia-shepherds |access-date=2023-03-08 |website=Atlas Obscura |language=en}}</ref> for over 10,000 years. There was one pass on the southeast end in [[Derbent]] (known as the Caspian Gates or [[Gates of Alexander]]), and multiple passes throughout the range: [[Jvari Pass]] at 2379&nbsp;m and above the [[Darial Gorge]] on the [[Georgian Military Road]], [[Mamison Pass]] on the [[Ossetian Military Road]] at 2911&nbsp;m, and [[Roki Tunnel]] at 2310&nbsp;m.

==Image gallery==
<gallery mode="packed">
Mt Elbrus Caucasus.jpg|[[Mount Elbrus]] viewed from the south in [[Kabardino-Balkaria]]
Comito.jpg|Komito Mountain in [[Chechnya]]
VittfarneGeorgien 155.jpg|Caucasus Mountains in [[Svaneti]], [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]]
Chaukhi mountain (ჭაუხი).jpg|Chaukhi mountain in [[Khevi]], Georgia
Салтинское ущелье. Дагестан.jpg|A gorge in [[Dagestan]], [[Russia]]
Ushba 1879.jpg|Twin-peaked [[Ushba]] in Georgia
Mt_Shkhara_as_seen_from_Khalde_(Photo_A._Muhranoff,_2011).jpg|Mount [[Shkhara]] in [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]]
Closeup_of_large_peak_of_Mount_Ararat.jpg|[[Mount Ararat]] in [[Turkey]], as viewed from [[Yerevan]], [[Armenia]]
File:Asbestnaya Mount, Adygea, Гора Асбестная, виды с вершины, Адыгея, Западный Кавказ.jpg|Asbestnaya Mount and Acheshbok Mount, Russia
File:Bolshoy Tkhach nature park, Национальный парк Тхач, драматичные погодные условия, Западный Кавказ.jpg|Bolshoy Tkhach Park, Russia
</gallery>

==See also==
* [[Zagros Mountains]]
* [[Black Mountains (Caucasus)|Black Mountains]]

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{reflist|25em}}

* ''Parts of this article are from the [[NASA Earth Observatory]]'': {{cite web
 |title=Mt. Elbrus
 |date=12 September 2000
 |type=image & text
 |series=newsroom / new images
 |website=Earth Observatory
 |publisher=[[NASA]]
 |url=http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Newsroom/NewImages/images.php3?img_id=15340
 |url-status=dead <!-- presumed -->
 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051028180323/http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Newsroom/NewImages/images.php3?img_id=15340
 |archive-date=2005-10-28
}}

==Further reading==
* {{Cite EB1911|wstitle= Caucasus | volume= 5 |last1= Kropotkin |first1= Peter Alexeivitch |author1-link= Peter Kropotkin| last2= Bealby |first2= John Thomas| pages = 550&ndash;555 |short= 1}}
* {{cite book |first=Svante E. |last=Cornell |date=1 December 2000 |title=Small Nations and Great Powers: A study of ethnopolitical conflict in the Caucasus |edition=1st |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-070071162-8 |quote=Sets out a synthesis of the Caucasian conflicts and a conclusion on the place of the Caucasus in world affairs.}}
* {{cite book |last=Redfern |first=Nick |title=The World's Weirdest Places |year= 2012 |publisher=The Career Press |isbn=978-1-60163-237-1}}

==External links==
{{commons category}}
* {{cite web |title=Caucasus Mountains |website=[[NASA Earth Observatory]]  |date=7 November 2001 |url=https://visibleearth.nasa.gov/view.php?id=57190}}
* {{cite peakbagger |rid=38 |name=Highest Peaks of the Caucasus from peakbagger.com}}
* {{cite web |title=List of the most prominent mountains in the Caucasus |website=Peaklist.org |url=http://www.peaklist.org/WWlists/ultras/CaucasusP1500m.html}}
* {{cite web |title=What to see in Caucasus Mountains |type=tourism promotion / commercial <!-- presumed --> |url=https://caucasusmountains.info/ |url-status=dead |access-date=2021-09-20 |archive-date=2020-10-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201024001057/https://caucasusmountains.info/ }}

{{Russia topics}}
{{Soviet Union topics}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Caucasus]]
[[Category:Mountain ranges of the Caucasus|*01]]
[[Category:Geography of the Caucasus|*01]]
[[Category:Eastern Europe|Caucasus04]]
[[Category:West Asia|Caucasus04]]
[[Category:Mountain ranges of Asia]]
[[Category:Mountain ranges of Europe]]
[[Category:Mountain ranges of Armenia]]
[[Category:Mountain ranges of Azerbaijan]]
[[Category:Mountain ranges of Georgia (country)]]
[[Category:Mountain ranges of Iran]]
[[Category:Mountain ranges of Russia]]
[[Category:Mountain ranges of Turkey]]
[[Category:Geology of the Caucasus| 01]]
[[Category:Landforms of the Caucasus| 01]]
[[Category:Physiographic provinces]]
[[Category:Landforms of Kabardino-Balkaria]]
[[Category:Landforms of Karachay-Cherkessia]]