View source for Catalan phonology

{{Short description|Sounds and pronunciation of Catalan}}
{{Self-reference|For assistance with IPA transcriptions of Catalan for Wikipedia articles, see [[Help:IPA/Catalan]].}}
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The '''Catalan phonology''' (or '''Valencian phonology''') has a certain degree of dialectal variation. Although there are two standard varieties, one based on [[Central Catalan|Central Eastern]] dialect and another one based on South-Western or [[Valencian language|Valencian]], this article deals with features of all or most dialects, as well as regional pronunciation differences.

Catalan is characterized by [[final-obstruent devoicing]], [[lenition]], and [[voicing assimilation]]; a [[vowel system|set]] of 7 to 8 [[phoneme|phonemic]] [[vowel]]s, vowel [[assimilation (phonology)|assimilations]] (including [[vowel harmony]]), many phonetic [[diphthong]]s, and [[vowel reduction]], whose precise details differ between dialects.

{{Catalan-Valencian cultural domain|image=}}

== Consonants ==
:{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Consonants of Catalan{{sfn|Recasens Vives|1996|pp=172-173}}{{sfn|Carbonell Costa|Llisterri Boix|1999|p=62}}
! colspan="2" |
! [[Labial consonant|Labial]]
! [[Dental consonant|Dental]] 
! [[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
! [[Palatal consonant|Palatal]]
! [[Velar consonant|Velar]]
! [[Uvular consonant|Uvular]]
! [[Glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|-
! colspan="2" | [[Nasal stop|Nasal]]
| {{IPA link|m}}
| colspan="2" | {{IPA link|n}}{{ref|n, l, r|3}}
| {{IPA link|ɲ}}{{ref|ll, ny|6}}
| ({{IPA link|ŋ}})
|
|
|-
! rowspan="2" | [[Plosive consonant|Plosive]]
! <small>[[voice (phonetics)|voiceless]]</small>
| {{IPA link|p}}
| colspan="2" | {{IPA link|t̪|t}}{{ref|td|1}}
| colspan="2" | {{IPA link|k}}{{ref|k, g|2}}
|
|
|-
! <small>[[Voice (phonetics)|voiced]]</small>
| {{IPA link|b}}
| colspan="2" | {{IPA link|d̪|d}}{{ref|t, d|1}}
| colspan="2" | {{IPA link|ɡ}}{{ref|k, g|2}}
|
|
|-
! rowspan="2" | [[Affricate consonant|Affricate]]
! <small>voiceless</small>
|
| colspan="2" | ({{IPA link|t͡s}}){{ref|ts, tz|5}}
| {{IPA link|t͡ɕ|t͡ʃ}}{{ref|x, j|7}}
|
|
|
|-
! <small>voiced</small>
|
| colspan="2" | {{IPA link|d͡z}}{{ref|ts, tz|5}}
| {{IPA link|d͡ʑ|d͡ʒ}}{{ref|x, j|7}}
|
|
|
|-
! rowspan="2" | [[Fricative consonant|Fricative]]
! <small>voiceless</small>
| {{IPA link|f}}
| ({{IPA link|θ}})
| {{IPA link|s}}{{ref|s, z, r|4}}
| {{IPA link|ɕ|ʃ}}{{ref|x, j|7}}
| ({{IPA link|x}})
|
| ({{IPA link|h}})
|-
! <small>voiced</small>
| ({{IPA link|v}})
|
| {{IPA link|z}}{{ref|s, z, r|4}}
| {{IPA link|ʑ|ʒ}}{{ref|x, j|7}}
|
| rowspan="2" | ({{IPA link|ʁ}})
|
|-
! rowspan="2" | [[Approximant consonant|Approximant]]
! <small>[[Central consonant|central]]</small>
|
|
|
| {{IPA link|j}}
| {{IPA link|w}}
|
|-
! <small>[[Lateral consonant|lateral]]</small>
|
| colspan="2" | {{IPA link|l}}{{ref|n, l, r|3}}
| {{IPA link|ʎ}}{{ref|ll, ny|6}}
|
|
|
|-
! colspan="2" | [[Trill consonant|Trill]]
|
|
| {{IPA link|r}}{{ref|s, z, r|4}}
|
|
| ({{IPA link|ʀ}})
|
|-
! colspan="2" | [[Flap consonant|Tap]]
|
|
| {{IPA link|ɾ}}{{ref|n, l, r|3}}
|
|
|
|
|}

Phonetic notes:
* {{note|t, d|1}} {{IPA|/t/}}, {{IPA|/d/}} are [[Laminal consonant|laminal]] [[Denti-alveolar consonant|denti-alveolar]] {{IPAblink|t̪}}, {{IPAblink|d̪}}.{{sfn|Recasens Vives|Pallarès Ramon|2001|p=288}}{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|pp=10–11}}{{efn|{{cite web|title=Voiceless dental plosive – Central |website=Els sons del català|url=http://www.ub.edu/sonscatala/en/sound/voiceless-dental-plosive-central}}<br />{{cite web|title=Voiceless dental plosive – North-Western |website=Els sons del català |url=http://www.ub.edu/sonscatala/en/sound/voiceless-dental-plosive-nord-occidental}}<br />{{cite web|title=Voiceless dental plosive – Valencian |website=Els sons del català|url=http://www.ub.edu/sonscatala/en/sound/voiceless-dental-plosive-valencia}}}}{{efn|{{cite web|title=Voiced dental plosive – Central |website=Els sons del català |url=http://www.ub.edu/sonscatala/en/sound/voiced-dental-plosive-central}}<br />{{cite web|title=Voiced dental plosive – North-Western |website=Els sons del català |url=http://www.ub.edu/sonscatala/en/sound/voiced-dental-plosive-nord-occidental}}<br />{{cite web|title=Voiced dental plosive – Valencian |website=Els sons del català |url=http://www.ub.edu/sonscatala/en/sound/voiced-dental-plosive-valencia}}}} After {{IPA|/s, z/}}, they are laminal [[Alveolar consonant|alveolar]] {{IPAblink|t|t̻}}, {{IPAblink|d|d̻}}.{{sfn|Rafel Fontanals|1999|p=14}}
* {{note|k, g|2}} {{IPA|/k/}}, {{IPA|/ɡ/}} are [[Velar consonant|velar]]{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|pp=10–11}}{{efn|{{cite web|title=Voiceless velar plosive – Central |website=Els sons del català |url=http://www.ub.edu/sonscatala/en/sound/voiceless-velar-plosive-central}}<br />{{cite web|title=Voiceless velar plosive – North-Western |website=Els sons del català |url=http://www.ub.edu/sonscatala/en/sound/voiceless-velar-plosive-nord-occidental}}<br />{{cite web|title=Voiceless velar plosive – Valencian |website=Els sons del català |url=http://www.ub.edu/sonscatala/en/sound/voiceless-velar-plosive-valencia}}}}{{efn|{{cite web|title=Voiced velar plosive – Central |website=Els sons del català |url=http://www.ub.edu/sonscatala/en/sound/voiced-velar-plosive-central}}<br />{{cite web|title=Voiced velar plosive – North-Western |website=Els sons del català |url=http://www.ub.edu/sonscatala/en/sound/voiced-velar-plosive-nord-occidental}}<br />{{cite web|title=Voiced velar plosive – Valencian |website=Els sons del català |url=http://www.ub.edu/sonscatala/en/sound/voiced-velar-plosive-valencia}}}} but fronted to pre-velar position before [[front vowel]]s.{{sfn|Rafel Fontanals|1999|p=14}} In some Majorcan dialects, the situation is reversed; the main realization is palatal {{IPAblink|c}}, {{IPAblink|ɟ}},{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=10}} but before [[Liquid consonant|liquids]] and [[Rounded vowel|rounded]] [[back vowel]]s they are velar {{IPAblink|k}}, {{IPAblink|ɡ}}.{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=10}}
* {{note|n, l, r|3}} {{IPA|/n/}}, {{IPA|/l/}}, {{IPA|/ɾ/}} are [[Apical consonant|apical]] front alveolar {{IPAblink|n|n̺}}, {{IPAblink|l|l̺}}, {{IPAblink|ɾ|ɾ̺}},{{sfn|Recasens Vives|Pallarès Ramon|2001|p=288}}{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|pp=10–11}}{{efn|{{cite web|title=Voiced alveolar nasal – Central |website=Els sons del català |url=http://www.ub.edu/sonscatala/en/sound/voiced-alveolar-nasal-central}}<br />{{cite web|title=Voiced alveolar nasal – North-Western |website=Els sons del català |url=http://www.ub.edu/sonscatala/en/sound/voiced-alveolar-nasal-nord-occidental}}<br />{{cite web|title=Voiced alveolar nasal – Valencian  |website=Els sons del català |url=http://www.ub.edu/sonscatala/en/sound/voiced-alveolar-nasal-valencia}}}}{{efn|{{cite web|title=Voiced alveolar lateral – Central |website=Els sons del català |url=http://www.ub.edu/sonscatala/en/sound/voiced-alveolar-lateral-central}}<br />{{cite web|title=Voiced alveolar lateral – North-Western |website=Els sons del català |url=http://www.ub.edu/sonscatala/en/sound/voiced-alveolar-lateral-nord-occidental}}<br />{{cite web|title=Voiced alveolar lateral – Valencian |website=Els sons del català |url=http://www.ub.edu/sonscatala/en/sound/voiced-alveolar-lateral-valencia}}}} {{efn|{{cite web|title=Voiced alveolar flap – Central |website=Els sons del català |url=http://www.ub.edu/sonscatala/en/sound/voiced-alveolar-flap-central}}<br />{{cite web|title=Voiced alveolar flap – North-Western |website=Els sons del català |url=http://www.ub.edu/sonscatala/en/sound/voiced-alveolar-flap-nord-occidental}}<br />{{cite web|title=Voiced alveolar flap – Valencian |website=Els sons del català |url=http://www.ub.edu/sonscatala/en/sound/voiced-alveolar-flap-valencia}}}} but the first two are laminal denti-alveolar {{IPAblink|n̪}}, {{IPAblink|l̪}} before {{IPA|/t/}}, {{IPA|/d/}}.{{sfn|Rafel Fontanals|1999|p=14}} In addition, {{IPA|/n/}} is [[Postalveolar consonant|postalveolar]] {{IPAblink|n̠}}{{sfn|Rafel Fontanals|1999|p=14}} or [[Alveolo-palatal consonant|alveolo-palatal]] {{IPAblink|ɲ̟}}{{sfn|Rafel Fontanals|1999|p=14}} before {{IPA|/ʃ/}}, {{IPA|/ʒ/}}, {{IPA|/t͡ʃ/}}, {{IPA|/d͡ʒ/}},{{sfn|Rafel Fontanals|1999|p=14}} velar {{IPAblink|ŋ}} before {{IPA|/k/}}, {{IPA|/ɡ/}} and [[Labiodental consonant|labiodental]] {{IPAblink|ɱ}} before {{IPA|/f/}}, ({{IPA|/v/}}), where it merges with {{IPA|/m/}}. It also merges with {{IPA|/m/}} (to {{IPAblink|m}}) before {{IPA|/p/}}, {{IPA|/b/}}.
* {{note|s, z, r|4}} {{IPA|/s/}}, {{IPA|/z/}}, {{IPA|/r/}} are apical back alveolar {{IPAblink|s̺}}, {{IPAblink|z̺}}, {{IPAblink|r|r̺}},{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|pp=10–11}}{{efn|{{cite web|title=Voiceless alveolar fricative – Central |website=Els sons del català |url=http://www.ub.edu/sonscatala/en/sound/voiceless-alveolar-fricative-central}}<br />{{cite web|title=Voiceless alveolar fricative – North-Western |website=Els sons del català |url=http://www.ub.edu/sonscatala/en/sound/voiceless-alveolar-fricative-nord-occidental}}<br />{{cite web|title=Voiceless alveolar fricative – Valencian |website=Els sons del català |url=http://www.ub.edu/sonscatala/en/sound/voiceless-alveolar-fricative-valencia}}}}{{efn|{{cite web|title=Voiced alveolar fricative – Central |website=Els sons del català |url=http://www.ub.edu/sonscatala/en/sound/voiced-alveolar-fricative-central}}<br />{{cite web|title=Voiced alveolar fricative – North-Western |website=Els sons del català |url=http://www.ub.edu/sonscatala/en/sound/voiced-alveolar-fricative-nord-occidental}}<br />{{cite web|title=Voiced alveolar fricative – Valencian |website=Els sons del català |url=http://www.ub.edu/sonscatala/en/sound/voiced-alveolar-fricative-valencia}}}}{{efn|{{cite web|title=Voiced alveolar trill – Central |website=Els sons del català |url=http://www.ub.edu/sonscatala/en/sound/voiced-alveolar-trill-central}}<br />{{cite web|title=Voiced alveolar trill – North-Western |website=Els sons del català |url=http://www.ub.edu/sonscatala/en/sound/voiced-alveolar-trill-nord-occidental}}<br />{{cite web|title=Voiced alveolar trill – Valencian |website=Els sons del català |url=http://www.ub.edu/sonscatala/en/sound/voiced-alveolar-trill-valencia}}}} also described as [[postalveolar consonant|postalveolar]].{{sfn|Recasens Vives|Pallarès Ramon|2001|p=288}}
* {{note|ts, tz|5}}{{IPA|/t͡s/}}, {{IPA|/d͡z/}} are apical alveolar {{IPA|[t͡s̺]}}, {{IPA|[d͡z̺]}}.{{efn|{{cite web|title=Voiceless alveolar affricate – Central |website=Els sons del català |url=http://www.ub.edu/sonscatala/en/sound/voiceless-alveolar-affricate-central}}<br />{{cite web|title=Voiceless alveolar affricate – North-Western |website=Els sons del català |url=http://www.ub.edu/sonscatala/en/sound/voiceless-alveolar-affricate-nord-occidental}}<br />{{cite web|title=Voiceless alveolar affricate – Valencian |website=Els sons del català |url=http://www.ub.edu/sonscatala/en/sound/voiceless-alveolar-affricate-valencia}}}}{{efn|{{cite web|title=Voiced alveolar affricate – Central |website=Els sons del català |url=http://www.ub.edu/sonscatala/en/sound/voiced-alveolar-affricate-central}}<br />{{cite web|title=Voiced alveolar affricate – North-Western |website=Els sons del català |url=http://www.ub.edu/sonscatala/en/sound/voiced-alveolar-affricate-nord-occidental}}<br />{{cite web|title=Voiced alveolar affricate – Valencian |website=Els sons del català |url=http://www.ub.edu/sonscatala/en/sound/voiced-alveolar-affricate-valencia}}}}{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=11}} They may be somewhat [[Relative articulation#Advanced and retracted|fronted]], so that the stop component is laminal denti-alveolar, while the fricative component is apical post-dental. {{IPA|/t͡s/}} is rare and may not be phonemic (see [[#Affricates|below]]).
* {{note|ll, ny|6}}{{IPA|/ʎ/}}, {{IPA|/ɲ/}} are laminal "front alveolo-palatal" {{IPAblink|ʎ̟}}, {{IPAblink|ɲ̟}}.{{sfn|Recasens Vives|Pallarès Ramon|2001|p=288}}{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|pp=10–11}}
* {{note|x, j|7}} There is some confusion in the literature about the precise phonetic characteristics of {{IPA|/ʃ/}}, {{IPA|/ʒ/}}, {{IPA|/tʃ/}}, and {{IPA|/dʒ/}}; while {{Harvcoltxt|Recasens Vives|Fontdevila|Pallarès Ramon|1995}} and {{Harvcoltxt|Recasens Vives|Espinosa|2007}} describe them as "back alveolo-palatal",{{sfn|Recasens Vives|Fontdevila|Pallarès Ramon|1995|p=288}}{{sfn|Recasens Vives|Espinosa|2007|p=145}} implying that the characters {{angbr IPA|ɕ ʑ tɕ dʑ}} would be more accurate, they (and all literature on Catalan) use the characters for [[palato-alveolar consonant|palato-alveolar]] affricates and fricatives while using {{angbr IPA|ɕ ʑ}} for alveolo-palatal sounds in examples in other languages like Polish or Chinese.{{sfn|Recasens Vives|1993}}<!-- Here Recasens labels these Catalan sounds as {{lang|ca|laminoalveolars palatalitzades}} "palatalized lamino-alveolars" -->{{sfn|Recasens Vives|Pallarès Ramon|2001}}<!-- Here the authors label these Catalan sounds as "laminal postalveolar" -->{{sfn|Recasens Vives|Espinosa|2007|p=145}} Otherwise, sources, like {{Harvcoltxt|Carbonell Costa|Llisterri Boix|1992}} generally describe them as "postalveolar".{{sfn|Carbonell Costa|Llisterri Boix|1992|p=53}}

=== Obstruents ===
[[Obstruent]]s [[assimilation (phonology)|assimilate]] to the voicing of the following consonant. Voiced obstruents undergo [[final-obstruent devoicing]] so that {{lang|ca|fre'''d'''}} ('cold', [[grammatical gender|m.]] [[grammatical number|s.]]) is pronounced with {{IPA|[t]}} ({{IPA|[ˈfɾɛt]}}, {{IPA|[ˈfɾət]}}, {{IPA|[ˈfɾet]}}) while {{lang|ca|fre'''d'''es}} ('cold', [[grammatical gender|f.]] [[grammatical number|pl.]]) is pronounced with {{IPA|[ð]}} ({{IPA|[ˈfɾɛðəs]}}, {{IPA|[ˈfɾəðəs]}}, {{IPA|[ˈfɾeðes]}}).{{sfn|Lloret-Romanyach|2003|p=278}}{{sfn|Carbonell Costa|Llisterri Boix|1999|p=63}}{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|pp=147–149}}

Table with minimal pairs:
:{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|-
! colspan="5" | Coda [[obstruent]]s [[minimal pair]]s
|-
! [[Help:IPA|IPA]]
! word
! gloss
! word
! gloss
|-
| {{IPA|[p]}} || {{lang|ca|cu'''b'''}} || 'cube' || {{lang|ca|cu'''p'''}} || 'winepress'
|-
| {{IPA|[t]}} || {{lang|ca|tor'''d'''}} || 'thrush' || {{lang|ca|tor'''t'''}} || 'crooked'
|-
| {{IPA|[k]}} || {{lang|ca|ma'''g'''}} || 'magician' || {{lang|ca|ma'''c'''}} || 'pebble'
|-
| {{IPA|[f]}} || {{lang|ca|sal'''v'''}} || 'exempt' || colspan="2" style="background-color:#f0f0f0;" | 
|-
| {{IPA|[s]}} || {{lang|ca|brun'''z'''}} || 'he or she buzzes' || {{lang|ca|brun'''s'''}} || 'dark browns'
|-
| {{IPA|[t͡ʃ]}} || {{lang|ca|ra'''ig'''}} || 'ray' || colspan="2" style="background-color:#f0f0f0;" | 
|}

==== Plosives ====
Voiced plosives (also called stops) become [[lenition|lenited]] to approximants in syllable onsets, after [[continuants]]:{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=10}} {{IPA|/b/}} → {{IPAblink|β}}, {{IPA|/d/}} → {{IPAblink|ð}}, {{IPA|/ɡ/}} → {{IPAblink|ɣ}}.

* Exceptions include {{IPA|/d/}} after [[lateral consonant]]s (e.g. {{lang|ca|ull '''d'''e bou}} {{IPA|[ˈuʎ də ˈβɔw]}} (E) / {{IPA|[ˈuʎ de ˈβɔw]}} (W) '[[oeil-de-boeuf]]') and {{IPA|/b/}} after [[labiodental consonant|labiodentals]] ({{IPA|/f/}}, {{IPA|[v]}}), e.g. {{lang|ca|bolígraf '''b'''oníssim}} {{IPA|[buˈliɣɾəv‿buˈnisim]}} (E) / {{IPA|[boˈliɣɾav‿boˈnisim]}} (W) ('really good pen').
* In non-betacist dialects (those who do not merge {{IPA|/b/}} with {{IPA|/v/}}), {{IPA|/b/}} remains unlenited ({{lang|ca|ull de '''b'''ou}} {{IPA|[ˈuʎ də ˈbɔw]}} (B) / {{IPA|[ˈuʎ de ˈbɔw]}} (V) 'oeil-de-boeuf').
* In some dialects, e.g. many Valencian accents, initial (that is, in all environments except after a nasal) {{IPA|/ɡ/}} can be lenited: {{lang|ca|'''g'''at}} {{IPA|[ˈɣat]}} ('cat').{{sfn|Saborit Vilar|2009|p=57}}
* In the coda position, these sounds are always realized as stops;{{sfn|Hualde|1992|p=368}} except in some Valencian dialects, where they might be lenited.{{sfn|Recasens Vives|Espinosa|2005|p=1}}

In Catalan and Balearic (not in Valencian), labial {{IPA|/b/}} and {{IPA|/p/}}, and velar stops {{IPA|/ɡ/}} and {{IPA|/k/}} may be [[gemination|geminated]] in intervocalic position before {{IPA|/l/}} (e.g. {{lang|ca|po'''b'''le}} {{IPA|[ˈpɔbːlə]}} 'village, people', {{lang|ca|re'''g'''la}} {{IPA|[ˈreɡːlə]}} 'rule').{{sfn|Carbonell Costa|Llisterri Boix|1992|pp=53–55}}{{sfn|Recasens Vives|1996|pp=190–191}}

Intervocalic {{IPA|/d/}} is dropped (particularly in [[participle]]s) in regular speech in Valencian, with [[compensatory lengthening]] of vowel {{IPA|/a/}}; e.g. {{lang|ca|vespra'''d'''a}} {{IPA|[vesˈpɾaː]}} ('afternoon').{{sfn|Recasens Vives|1996|pp=91–92}}

In Majorcan varieties, velar stops {{IPA|/k/}} and {{IPA|/ɡ/}} become {{IPAblink|c}} and {{IPAblink|ɟ}} word-finally and before front vowels,{{sfn|Recasens Vives|Espinosa|2005|p=1}} in some of these dialects, this has extended to all environments except before [[liquid consonant|liquids]] and [[back vowel]]s; e.g. {{lang|ca|san'''g'''}} {{IPA|[ˈsaɲc]}} ('blood').{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=10}}

* The dorso-palatal {{IPAblink|ʝ}} may occur in complementary distribution with {{IPAblink|ɟ}}, only in Majorcan varieties that have dorso-palatals rather than the velars found in most dialects: {{lang|ca|'''gu'''erra}} {{IPA|[ˈɟɛrə]}} ('war') vs. {{lang|ca|sa '''gu'''erra}} {{IPA|[sə ˈʝɛrə]}} ('the war').{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|pp=22–23}}

In the Valencian dialects final voiceless plosives ({{IPA|/p, t, k/}}) may be lenited before a vowel: {{lang|ca|to'''t''' açò}} {{IPA|[ˈtoð‿aˈsɔ]}} ('all this').{{sfn|Saborit Vilar|2009|p=53}}

The preposition ''amb'' ('with') in [[Central Catalan]] is usually pronounced {{IPA|[əm]}}, but in careful speech when it is before a vowel sound or an {{IPA|/l/}} is pronounced {{IPA|[əmb]}}.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://esadir.cat/gramatica/criteris/cons_amb | title=ésAdir > amb }}</ref>

==== Affricates ====
The phonemic status of [[affricate]]s is dubious; after other consonants, affricates are in free variation with fricatives, e.g. {{lang|ca|clen'''x'''a}} {{IPA|[ˈklɛɲʃə] ~ [ˈklɛɲt͡ʃə]}} (E) / {{IPA|[ˈklɛɲt͡ʃa]}} (W) ('hair parting'){{sfn|Wheeler|2005|pp=11–12}} and may be analyzed as either single phonemes or clusters of a stop and a fricative.

* Alveolar affricates, {{IPAblink|t͡s}} and {{IPAblink|d͡z}}, occur the least of all affricates.{{sfn|Recasens Vives|Espinosa|2007|p=144}}
** {{IPA|[d͡z]}} only occurs intervocalically: {{lang|ca|me'''tz'''ines}} {{IPA|[məˈd͡zinəs]}} (E) / {{IPA|[meˈd͡zines]}} (W) ('toxic substances').{{sfn|Hualde|1992|p=370}}
*** In Valencian, many instances of {{IPA|[d͡z]}} (especially the -''itzar'' suffix) are deaffricated to {{IPA|[z]}}: {{lang|ca-valencia|utili'''tz'''ar}} {{IPA|[utiliˈzaɾ]}} ('to use').
** Instances of {{IPA|[t͡s]}} arise mostly from compounding; the few lexical instances arise from historical compounding.{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|pp=11–12}} For instance, {{lang|ca|po'''ts'''er}} {{IPA|[puˈt͡se]}} (E) / {{IPA|[poˈt͡se(ɾ)]}} (W) ('maybe') comes from {{lang|ca|pot}} ('may') + {{lang|ca|ser}} ('be' [[infinitive|inf]]). As such, {{IPA|[t͡s]}} does not occur word-initially; other than some rare words of foreign origin (e.g. {{lang|ca|'''ts'''ar}} '[[tsar]]',{{efn|{{cite book |publisher=Diccionari de la llengua catalana |edition=2nd |title=Tsar |url=https://dlc.iec.cat/results.asp?txtEntrada=tsar |language=ca |author=[[Institut d'Estudis Catalans]] |location=Barcelona, Spain |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110814193449/http://dlc.iec.cat/results.asp?txtEntrada=tsar |archive-date=14 August 2011 |url-status=live}}}} {{lang|ca|'''ts'''uga}} '[[tsuga]]'{{efn|{{cite book |publisher=Diccionari de la llengua catalana |edition=2nd |title=Tsuga |url=https://dlc.iec.cat/results.asp?txtEntrada=tsuga |language=ca |author=[[Institut d'Estudis Catalans]] |location=Barcelona, Spain |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110814193449/http://dlc.iec.cat/results.asp?txtEntrada=tsuga |archive-date=14 August 2011 |url-status=live}}}}), but it may occur word-finally and quite often in cases of heteromorphemic (i.e. across a morpheme boundary) plural endings: {{lang|ca|to'''ts'''}} {{IPA|[ˈtot͡s]}} ('everybody').{{sfn|Recasens Vives|Espinosa|2007|p=144}} Several linguists claim {{IPA|[t͡s]}} is not a phoneme on its own, but a simple combination of {{IPA|[t]}} and {{IPA|[s]}}, in the same way that the {{IPA|[ts]}} in English 'cats' is not phonemic.{{sfn|Badia Cardús|1992–1993|pp=307–351}}
* The distribution of [[alveolo-palatal consonant|alveolo-palatal]] affricates, {{IPAblink|t͡ɕ|t͡ʃ}} and {{IPAblink|d͡ʑ|d͡ʒ}}, depends on dialect:
**In most of Valencian and southern Catalonia,{{sfn|Recasens Vives|Espinosa|2007|p=144}}{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|pp=13–14}} most occurrences of {{IPA|[d͡ʒ]}} correspond to the voiced fricative {{IPA|[ʒ]}} in Standard Eastern Catalan: {{lang|ca|'''g'''el}} {{IPA|[ˈd͡ʒɛl]}} ('ice').
** In Standard Eastern Catalan, word-initial {{IPA|[t͡ʃ]}} is found only in a few words of foreign origin (e.g. {{lang|ca|'''tx'''ec}} '[[Czechs|Czech]]',{{efn|{{cite book |publisher=Diccionari de la llengua catalana |edition=2nd |title=Txec|url=https://dlc.iec.cat/results.asp?txtEntrada=txec |language=ca |author=[[Institut d'Estudis Catalans]] |location=Barcelona, Spain |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110814193449/http://dlc.iec.cat/results.asp?txtEntrada=txec |archive-date=14 August 2011 |url-status=live}}}} {{lang|ca|'''Tx'''aikovski}} '[[Tchaikovsky]]') while being found freely intervocalically (e.g. {{lang|ca|fle'''tx'''a}} 'arrow') and word-finally: {{lang|ca|despa'''tx'''}} {{IPA|[dəsˈpat͡ʃ]}} (E) / {{IPA|[desˈpat͡ʃ]}} (W) ('office').
** Standard Eastern Catalan also only allows {{IPA|[d͡ʒ]}} in intervocalic position (e.g. {{lang|ca|me'''tg'''e}} 'medic'). Phonemic analyses show word-final occurrences of {{IPA|/d͡ʒ/}} (e.g. {{lang|ca|ra'''ig''' esbiaixat}} {{IPA|[ˈrad͡ʒ‿əzβiəˈʃat]}} (E) / {{IPA|[ˈrad͡ʒ‿ezβiajˈʃat]}} (W) 'skew ray'), but final devoicing eliminates this from the surface: {{lang|ca|ra'''ig'''}} {{IPA|[ˈrat͡ʃ]}} ('ray').
** In various other dialects (as well as in emphatic speech),{{sfn|Carbonell Costa|Llisterri Boix|1992|p=53}} including Valencian and its standard variety, {{IPA|[tʃ]}} occurs word-initially and after another consonant to the exclusion of {{IPA|[ʃ]}} (although there are exceptions). These instances of word-initial {{IPA|[t͡ʃ]}} seem to correspond to {{IPA|[ʃ]}} in other dialects, including the standard (Eastern Catalan) on which the orthography is based: {{lang|ca|'''x'''in'''x'''a}} ('bedbug'), pronounced {{IPA|[ˈʃiɲʃə]}} in Standard Catalan, is {{IPA|[ˈt͡ʃiɲt͡ʃa]}} in these varieties{{sfn|Hualde|1992|p=370}} (including Standard Valencian).

There is dialectal variation in regards to affricate length, with long affricates occurring in both Eastern and Western dialects such as in Majorca and few areas in Southern Valencia.{{sfn|Recasens Vives|Espinosa|2007|pp=148–149}} Also, intervocalic affricates are predominantly long, especially those that are voiced or occurring immediately after a stressed syllable (e.g. {{lang|ca|me'''tg'''e}} {{IPA|[ˈmed͡ːʒə]}} (E) / {{IPA|[ˈmed͡ːʒe]}} (W) 'medic').{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=12}} In Modern Valencian {{IPA|[d͡ʒ]}} and {{IPA|[d͡ːʒ]}} have merged into {{IPA|/d͡ʒ/}}, except in some parts of Southern Valencian. 

In [[La Franja|Aragonese Catalan]] (especially [[Ribagorçan]]) and Central Valencian (the so called {{lang|ca|apitxat}} accent), voiced fricatives and affricates are missing (i.e. {{IPA|/z/}} has merged with {{IPA|/s/}}, {{IPA|/d͡ʒ/}} has merged with {{IPA|/t͡ʃ/}}, with only voiceless realizations occurring).{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=23}}

==== Fricatives ====
The labiodental fricative ({{IPA|/v/}}) occurs in Balearic,{{sfn|Carbonell Costa|Llisterri Boix|1992|p=53}} as well as in [[Algherese dialect|Alguerese]], [[Valencian language|Standard Valencian]] and some areas in southern Catalonia.{{sfn|Veny Clar|2007|p=51}} Everywhere else (including parts of Valencian, like its central dialect),{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=23}} it has [[betacism|merged]] with historic {{IPA|/β/}} so that {{IPA|[b]}} and {{IPA|[β]}} occur in complementary distribution.{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=13}}
* In Valencian, {{IPA|/v/}} is realised as an approximant {{IPAblink|ʋ}} after continuants: {{lang|ca-valencia|a'''v'''anç}} {{IPA|[aˈʋans]}} ('advance').{{sfn|Saborit Vilar|2009|p=59-65}}
* In Majorcan, {{IPA|[v]}} and {{IPA|[w]}} are in complementary distribution, with {{IPAblink|v}} occurring before vowels (e.g. {{lang|ca|bla'''v'''a}} {{IPA|[ˈblavə]}} 'blue' [[grammatical gender|f.]] vs. {{lang|ca|bla'''u'''}} {{IPA|[ˈblaw]}} 'blue' [[grammatical gender|m.]]).
* In other varieties that have both sounds, they are in contrast before vowels, with neutralization in favor of {{IPAblink|w}} before consonants.{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=81}}

In Majorcan and Minorcan, {{IPA|/f/}} undergoes total assimilation to a following consonant (just as stops do): {{lang|ca|bu'''f''' gros}} {{IPA|[ˈbuɡ‿ˈɡɾɔs]}} ('large puff').{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=81}}

The dental fricative {{IPA|/θ/}} only appears in Ribagorçan and Lower Aragon, in contrast with {{IPA|/s/}}. Spanish loanwords with this sound may be replaced by {{IPA|/s/}} in both Catalan and Valencian.{{sfn|Recasens Vives|1996|pp=205-206}}

The velar fricative {{IPA|/x/}} is found in Spanish interferences, especially in Aragon and Southern Valencia.{{sfn|Recasens Vives|1996|pp=232-233}}

The glottal fricative {{IPA|/h/}} is found in loanwords and interjections,{{sfn|Ortografia catalana|2017|p=28}} although {{IPA|/h/}} is usually replaced by {{IPA|/x/}} in loanwords.{{sfn|Pons-Moll|pp=2-3}}

=== Sonorants ===

==== Laterals ====
[[Lateral consonants|Laterals]] assimilate the place of articulation of the following consonant (see "[[#Assimilations|Assimilations]]" below). The lateral {{IPA|/l/}} may be [[gemination|geminated]] in careful speech (e.g. {{lang|ca|i'''ŀl'''usió}} {{IPA|[ilːuziˈo]}} 'illusion'). A geminated {{IPA|/ʎː/}} may also occur (e.g. {{lang|ca|ra'''tll'''a}} {{IPA|[ˈraʎːə]}} (E) / {{IPA|[ˈraʎːa]}} (W) 'line').{{sfn|Carbonell Costa|Llisterri Boix|1992|p=53}}

* While "dark ([[velarization|velarized]]) l", {{IPAblink|ɫ}}, may be a positional allophone of {{IPA|/l/}} in most dialects (such as in the [[syllable coda]]; e.g. {{lang|ca|sò'''l'''}} {{IPA|[ˈsɔɫ]}} 'ground'),{{sfn|Recasens Vives|Espinosa|2005|p=20}} {{IPA|/l/}} is [[dark l|dark]] irrespective of position in Eastern dialects like Majorcan{{sfn|Recasens Vives|Espinosa|2005|p=3}} and standard Eastern Catalan (e.g. {{lang|ca|te'''l'''a}} {{IPA|[ˈtɛɫə]}}). For simplicity dark l is not transcribed in this article.
* In [[La Franja|Aragonese Catalan]] (including [[Ribagorçan]]), {{IPA|/l/}} is palatalized to {{IPAblink|ʎ}} in [[consonant cluster]]s; e.g. {{lang|ca|p'''l'''ou}} {{IPA|[ˈpʎɔw]}} 'it rains'.{{sfn|Recasens Vives|1996|pp=311–312}}
* In Alguerese and Ribagorçan word-final {{IPA|/ʎ/}} is depalatized to {{IPAblink|l}}: {{lang|ca|ga'''ll'''}} {{IPA|[ˈɡal]}} ('rooster').{{sfn|Recasens Vives|1996|p=266}}{{sfn|Recasens Vives|1996|p=321}}

==== Nasals ====
[[Nasal consonant|Nasals]] assimilate the place of articulation of the following consonant (see "[[#Assimilations|Assimilations]]" below). In careful speech, {{IPA|/n/}} and {{IPA|/m/}} may be [[gemination|geminated]] (e.g. {{lang|ca|i'''nn'''ecessari}} {{IPA|[inːəsəˈsaɾi]}} (E) / {{IPA|[inːeseˈsaɾi]}} (W) 'unnecessary', {{lang|ca|e'''mm'''agatzemar}} {{IPA|[əmːəɣəd͡zəˈma]}} (E) / {{IPA|[emːaɣa(d͡)zeˈma(ɾ)]}} (W) 'to store').{{sfn|Carbonell Costa|Llisterri Boix|1992|p=53}} 
* In Alguerese and Ribagorçan word-final {{IPA|/ɲ/}} is depalatized to {{IPAblink|n}}: {{lang|ca|a'''ny'''}} {{IPA|[ˈan]}} ('year').{{sfn|Recasens Vives|1996|p=266}}{{sfn|Recasens Vives|1996|p=321}}

==== Rhotics ====
The distribution of the two [[rhotic consonant|rhotics]] {{IPA|/r/}} and {{IPA|/ɾ/}} closely parallels [[Spanish phonology#Alternations|that of Spanish]]. Wheeler analyzes intervocalic {{IPA|[r]}} as the result of gemination of a single rhotic phoneme:{{sfn|Wheeler|1979}} {{lang|ca|se'''rr'''a}} {{IPA|/ˈsɛɾɾə/ → [ˈsɛrə]}} (E) / {{IPA|/ˈsɛɾɾa/ → [ˈsɛra]}} (W) 'saw, mountains' (this is similar to the common analysis of Spanish and [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] rhotics).{{sfn|Bonet Alsina|Mascaró Altimiras|1997}}
* Between vowels, the two contrast (e.g. {{lang|ca|mi'''rr'''a}} {{IPA|[ˈmirə]}} (E) / {{IPA|[ˈmira]}} (W) 'myrrh' vs. {{lang|ca|mi'''r'''a}} {{IPA|[ˈmiɾə]}} (E) / {{IPA|[ˈmiɾa]}} (W) 'he or she looks'), but they are otherwise in complementary distribution. {{IPAblink|ɾ}} appears in the onset, except in word-initial position ({{lang|ca|'''r'''uc}} 'donkey'), after {{IPA|/l/}}, {{IPA|/n/}}, and {{IPA|/s/}}  ({{lang|ca|fol'''r'''e}} 'lining', {{lang|ca|hon'''r'''a}} 'honour', {{lang|ca|Is'''r'''ael}} 'Israel'), and in [[compound (linguistics)|compounds]] ({{lang|ca|infra'''r'''oig}} 'infrared'), where {{IPAblink|r}} is used.
** Majorcan contrasts {{IPA|/r/}} and {{IPA|/ɾ/}} in word final position, e.g. {{lang|ca|xe'''rr'''}} {{IPA|[ˈt͡ʃɛr]}} ('I speak') vs. {{lang|ca|mo'''r'''}} {{IPA|[ˈmɔɾ]}} ('he or she dies').{{sfn|Dols|Wheeler|1995|p=61}}
** In Majorcan final {{IPA|/ɾ/}} + {{IPA|[n]}} can be assimilated to {{IPA|[nː]}} (e.g. ''ca'''rn''''' {{IPA|[ˈcanː]}} 'meat').{{sfn|Dols|Wheeler|1995|p=60}}
* Different dialects vary in regards to rhotics in the coda, with Western Catalan generally featuring {{IPAblink|ɾ}} and Central Catalan dialects like those of Barcelona or Girona featuring a weakly trilled {{IPAblink|r}} unless it precedes a vowel-initial word in the same [[prosodic unit]], in which case {{IPAblink|ɾ}} appears ({{lang|ca|pe'''r'''}} {{IPA|[peɾ]}} (W), {{IPA|[pər]}} (E) 'for', but (E) {{lang|ca|pe'''r''' a tu}} {{IPA|[pəɾ‿ə ˈtu]}} 'for you').{{sfn|Padgett|2009|p=432}}
* There is free variation in {{IPA|/r/}} word-initially, after {{IPA|/l/}}, {{IPA|/n/}}, and {{IPA|/s/}}, and in compounds (if {{IPA|/r/}} is preceded by consonant), wherein {{IPA|/r/}} is pronounced {{IPA|[r]}} or {{IPAblink|ɹ}}, the latter being similar to English '''''r'''ed'': {{lang|ca|ruc}} {{IPA|[ˈruk] ~ [ˈɹuk]}} ('donkey').
** In Northern Catalonia and in some accents of Majorcan (e.g. in the town of Sóller), a uvular trill {{IPAblink|ʀ}} or approximant {{IPAblink|ʁ}} can be heard instead of the alveolar trill; e.g. {{lang|ca|có'''rr'''er}} {{IPA|[ˈkoʀə] ~ [ˈkoʁə]}} ('to run').{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=24}}

== Vowels ==
:{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Vowels of Catalan{{sfn|Recasens Vives|1996|p=60}}{{sfn|Carbonell Costa|Llisterri Boix|1999|p=62}}
!
! [[Front vowel|Front]]
! [[Central vowel|Central]]
! [[Back vowel|Back]]
|-
! [[Close vowel|Close]] 
| {{IPA link|i}} &nbsp; ({{IPA link|y}}) 
|
| {{IPA link|u}}
|-
! [[Close-mid vowel|Close-mid]]
| {{IPA link|e}} &nbsp; ({{IPA link|ø}})
| rowspan="2" | ({{IPA link|ə}})
| {{IPA link|o}}
|-
! [[Open-mid vowel|Open-mid]]
| {{IPA link|ɛ}} &nbsp; ({{IPA link|œ}})
| {{IPA link|ɔ}}
|-
! [[Open vowel|Open]]
| colspan="3" | {{IPA link|a}} &nbsp; ({{IPA link|ɑ}})
|}

Phonetic notes:
* The vowel {{IPA|/a/}} ({{IPAblink|ä}} in General Catalan) is further back and open than the Castilian counterpart in North-Western and Central Catalan (i.e. it approaches {{IPAblink|ɑ̈|ɑ}} in isolation or in a neutral environment),{{sfn|Coromines|1976}} it is slightly fronted and closed in Valencian and Ribagorçan ({{IPA|[{{IPAplink|ä}} ~ {{IPAplink|ɐ}}]}}), and further fronted and closed ({{IPA|[{{IPAplink|a}} ~ {{IPAplink|æ}}]}}) in Majorcan.{{sfn|Recasens Vives|1996|pp=90–92}}
** Stressed {{IPA|/a/}} can be further retracted to {{IPAblink|ɑ}} in contact with velar consonants (including the velarised {{IPAblink|ɫ}}), and fronted to {{IPAblink|a}} in contact with palatals.{{sfn|Recasens Vives|1996|pp=90-104}} This is not transcribed in the article.
*** The palatal pronunciation of {{IPA|/a/}} may merge with {{IPA|/ɛ/}} by some speakers.{{sfn|Saborit Vilar|2009|pp=24-25}}
* The central vowel {{IPA|/ə/}} in stressed position is found in Majorcan and part of Minorcan, in the Balearic Islands.
** The realization of the reduced vowel {{IPA|/ə/}} varies from mid {{IPAblink|ə}} to near-open {{IPAblink|ɐ}}, with the latter variant being the most usual in the [[Barcelona metropolitan area]], where the distinction between {{IPA|/ə/}} and {{IPA|/a/}} is less pronounced than in other varieties that maintain the distinction.{{sfn|Rafel Fontanals|1999|p=14}}{{sfn|Harrison|1997|p=2}}
* The open-mid {{IPA|/ɛ/}} and {{IPA|/ɔ/}} are lower {{IPA|[{{IPAplink|æ}}, {{IPAplink|ɒ}}]}} in Majorcan, Minorcan and Valencian.{{sfn|Rafel Fontanals|1999|p=14}}{{sfn|Recasens Vives|1996|p=81}}{{sfn|Recasens Vives|1996|pp=130–131}}
** {{IPA|/ɛ/}} is slightly more open and centralised before liquids {{IPA|/l, ɾ, r/}} and in monosyllabics.{{sfn|Saborit Vilar|2009|p=27}}
** {{IPA|/ɔ/}} is most often a back vowel. In some dialects (like Majorcan and Southern Valencian) {{IPA|/ɔ/}} can be unrounded.{{sfn|Saborit Vilar|2009|p=29}}
* {{IPA|/e/}} and {{IPA|/o/}} can be realised as mid vowels {{IPA|[{{IPAplink|e̞}}, {{IPAplink|o̞}}]}} in some cases. This occurs more often with {{IPA|/o/}}.{{sfn|Recasens Vives|1996|pp=69-77, 135-140}}
** In [[Northern Catalan]] and some places bordering the [[Spanish language|Spanish-speaking areas]], open-mid and close-mid vowels may merge into mid vowels; {{IPAblink|e̞}} and {{IPAblink|o̞}}.{{sfn|Recasens Vives|1996|p=59}}
* The close vowels {{IPA|/i, u/}} are more open than in Castilian. Unstressed {{IPA|/i, u/}} are centralized.{{sfn|Recasens Vives|1996|pp=66, 141}}
** In Valencian and most Balearic dialects {{IPA|/i, u/}} are further open and centralized, especially in unstressed position {{IPA|[{{IPAplink|ɪ}}, {{IPAplink|ʊ}}]}}.{{sfn|Recasens Vives|1996|pp=66, 141}}
* Northern Catalan sometimes adds two loan [[rounded vowel]]s, {{IPAblink|y}} and {{IPAblink|ø̞|ø}}, from [[French language|French]] and [[Occitan language|Occitan]] (e.g. {{lang|ca|b'''u'''t}} {{IPA|[ˈbyt]}} 'aim', {{lang|ca|f'''u'''lles}} {{IPA|[ˈføjəs]}} 'leaves').{{sfn|Recasens Vives|1996|pp=69, 80–81}}
** Similarly French {{IPA|/y/}} and {{IPA|/œ/}} (and {{IPA|/ø/}}) are mostly adapted with {{IPA|[u ~ i]}} (e.g. {{lang|fr|déjà v'''u'''}}) and {{IPA|[e]}} ({{lang|fr|amat'''eu'''r}}), respectively .
* Phonetic nasalization occurs for vowels occurring between nasal consonants or when preceding a syllable-final nasal; e.g. {{lang|ca|dium'''e'''nge}} {{IPA|[diwˈmẽɲʒə]}} (E) / {{IPA|[diwˈmẽɲd͡ʒe]}} (W) ('Sunday').{{sfn|Recasens Vives|1996|p=70}}
* Vowels can be lengthened in some contexts.{{sfn|Recasens Vives|1996|pp=59-142}}

=== Stressed vowels ===
[[File:Catalan vowel chart.svg|thumb|upright=1.13|[[Vowel]]s of Standard Eastern Catalan{{sfn|Carbonell Costa|Llisterri Boix|1999|p=62}}]]
[[File:Valencian vowel chart.svg|thumb|upright=1.13|Vowels of Valencian{{sfn|Saborit Vilar|2009|p=23}}]]

Most varieties of Catalan contrast seven stressed vowel phonemes.{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=38}} However, some Balearic dialects have an additional stressed vowel phoneme ({{IPAslink|ə}}); e.g. {{lang|ca|s'''e'''c}} {{IPA|/ˈsək/}} ('dry, I sit').{{sfn|Recasens Vives|Espinosa|2005|p=1}} The stressed [[mid-central vowel|schwa]] of these dialects corresponds to {{IPA|/ɛ/}} in Central Catalan and {{IPA|/e/}} in Western Catalan varieties (that is, [[Central Catalan|Central]] and [[Western Catalan]] dialects differ in their incidence of {{IPA|/e/}} and {{IPA|/ɛ/}}, with {{IPA|/e/}} appearing more frequently in Western Catalan; e.g. [[Central Catalan]] {{lang|ca|s'''e'''c}} {{IPA|/ˈsɛk/}} vs. [[Western Catalan]] {{lang|ca|s'''e'''c}} {{IPA|/ˈsek/}} ('dry, I sit').{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=38}}

Contrasting series of the main Catalan dialects:
<div style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top; margin-right: 1em;">
:{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ class="nowrap" | Central Catalan{{sfn|Recasens Vives|Espinosa|2005|p=1}} <br /> [Eastern Catalan]
! {{abbr|LS|Lexical set}}
! {{abbr|IPA|International Phonetic Alphabet}}
! Gloss
|-
| {{lang|ca|s'''a'''c}}
| {{IPA link|a}}
| 'bag'
|-
| rowspan="2" | {{lang|ca|s'''e'''c}}
| {{IPA link|ɛ}}
| 'dry', 'I sit'
|-
| {{IPA link|e}}
| 'fold'
|-
| {{lang|ca|s'''i'''c}}
| {{IPA link|i}}
| 'sic'
|-
| rowspan="2" | {{lang|ca|s'''o'''c}}
| {{IPA link|ɔ}}
| 'clog'
|-
| {{IPA link|o}}
| 'I am'
|-
| {{lang|ca|s'''u'''c}}
| {{IPA link|u}}
| 'juice'
|-
! colspan="3" | Other contrast
|-
! {{abbr|LS|Lexical set}}
! {{abbr|IPA|International Phonetic Alphabet}}
! Gloss
|-
| rowspan="2" | *''set''
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA link|ɛ}}
| 'seven'
|-
| 'thirst'
|}
</div>
<div style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top; margin-right: 1em;">
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ class="nowrap" | Balearic{{sfn|Recasens Vives|Espinosa|2005|p=1}} <br /> [Eastern Catalan]
! {{abbr|LS|Lexical set}}
! {{abbr|IPA|International Phonetic Alphabet}}
! Gloss
|-
| {{lang|ca|s'''a'''c}}
| {{IPA link|a}}
| 'bag'
|-
| rowspan="2" | {{lang|ca|s'''e'''c}}
| {{IPA link|ə}}
| 'dry', 'I sit'
|-
| {{IPA link|e}}
| 'fold'
|-
| {{lang|ca|s'''i'''c}}
| {{IPA link|i}}
| 'sic'
|-
| rowspan="2" | {{lang|ca|s'''o'''c}}
| {{IPA link|ɔ}}
| 'clog'
|-
| {{IPA link|o}}
| 'I am'
|-
| {{lang|ca|s'''u'''c}}
| {{IPA link|u}}
| 'juice'
|-
! colspan="3" | Other contrast
|-
! {{abbr|LS|Lexical set}}
! {{abbr|IPA|International Phonetic Alphabet}}
! Gloss
|-
| rowspan="2" | *{{lang|ca|set}}
| {{IPA link|ɛ}}
| 'seven'
|-
| {{IPA link|ə}}
| 'thirst'
|}
</div>
<div style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top; margin-right: 1em;">
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ class="nowrap" | Western Catalan{{sfn|Recasens Vives|Espinosa|2005|p=1}} & <br /> Alguerese [Eastern]{{sfn|Francesc Ballone|2016}}
! {{abbr|LS|Lexical set}}
! {{abbr|IPA|International Phonetic Alphabet}}
! Gloss
|-
| {{lang|ca|s'''a'''c}}
| {{IPA link|a}}
| 'bag'
|-
| rowspan="2" | {{lang|ca|s'''e'''c}}
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA link|e}}
| 'dry', 'I sit'
|-
| 'fold'
|-
| {{lang|ca|s'''i'''c}}
| {{IPA link|i}}
| 'sic'
|-
| rowspan="2" | {{lang|ca|s'''o'''c}}
| {{IPA link|ɔ}}
| 'clog'
|-
| {{IPA link|o}}
| 'I am'
|-
| {{lang|ca|s'''u'''c}}
| {{IPA link|u}}
| 'juice'
|-
! colspan="3" | Other contrast
|-
! {{abbr|LS|Lexical set}}
! {{abbr|IPA|International Phonetic Alphabet}}
! Gloss
|-
| rowspan="2" | {{lang|ca|set}}
| {{IPA link|ɛ}}
| 'seven'
|-
| {{IPA link|e}}
| 'thirst'
|}
</div>
<div style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top; margin-right: 1em;">
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ class="nowrap" | Northern Catalan{{sfn|Bech}} & <br /> {{abbr|Mod.|Modern}} Alguerese <br /> [Eastern Catalan]
! {{abbr|LS|Lexical set}}
! {{abbr|IPA|International Phonetic Alphabet}}
! Gloss
|-
| {{lang|ca|s'''a'''c}}
| {{IPA link|a}}
| 'bag'
|-
| rowspan="2" | {{lang|ca|s'''e'''c}}
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA link|e̞|e}}
| 'dry', 'I sit'
|-
| 'fold'
|-
| {{lang|ca|s'''i'''c}}
| {{IPA link|i}}
| 'sic'
|-
| rowspan="2" | {{lang|ca|s'''o'''c}}
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA link|o̞|o}}{{efn-lr|In Northern, many instances of stressed {{IPA|/o/}} merges with {{IPA|/u/}}.}}
| 'clog'
|-
| 'I am'
|-
| {{lang|ca|s'''u'''c}}
| {{IPA link|u}}
| 'juice'
|-
! colspan="3" | Other contrast
|-
! {{abbr|LS|Lexical set}}
! {{abbr|IPA|International Phonetic Alphabet}}
! Gloss
|-
| rowspan="2" | *{{lang|ca|set}}
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA link|e}}
| 'seven'
|-
| 'thirst'
|}
</div>

{{Notelist-lr}}

=== Reduced vowels ===
In [[Eastern Catalan]], vowels in unstressed position [[vowel reduction|reduce]] to three : {{IPA|/a/}}, {{IPA|/e/}}, {{IPA|/ɛ/ → [ə]}} (phonetically {{IPA|[ɐ]}} in Barcelona); {{IPA|/o/}}, {{IPA|/ɔ/}}, {{IPA|/u/ → [u]}}; {{IPA|/i/}} remains unchanged. However there are some dialectal differences: [[Algherese dialect|Alguerese]] merges {{IPA|/a/}}, {{IPA|/e/}} and {{IPA|/ɛ/}} with {{IPA|/a/}}; and in most areas of Majorca, {{IPA|[o]}} can appear in unstressed position (that is, {{IPA|/o/}} and {{IPA|/ɔ/}} are usually reduced to {{IPA|[o]}}).{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=54}}

In [[Western Catalan]] (which includes Valencian and North-Western Catalan), vowels in unstressed position reduce to five: {{IPA|/e/}}, {{IPA|/ɛ/ → [e]}}; {{IPA|/o/}}, {{IPA|/ɔ/ → [o]}}; {{IPA|/a/, /u/, /i/}} remain unchanged.{{sfn|Carbonell Costa|Llisterri Boix|1992|pp=54–55}} However, in some Western dialects reduced vowels tend to merge into different realizations in some cases:

* Unstressed {{IPA|/e/}} may merge with {{IPA|/a/}} before a [[Nasal consonant|nasal]] or [[sibilant consonant]] (e.g. {{lang|ca|'''e'''nclusa}} {{IPA|[aŋˈkluza]}} 'anvil', {{lang|ca|'''e'''ixam}} {{IPA|[ajˈʃam]}} 'swarm'), in some environments before any [[consonant]] (e.g. {{lang|ca|t'''e'''rròs}} {{IPA|[taˈrɔs]}} 'earthy'), and in monosyllabic [[clitic]]s. This sounds almost the same as the Barcelonian open schwa {{IPAblink|ɐ}}.{{sfn|Recasens Vives|1996|pp=75–76}} Likewise, unstressed {{IPA|/e/}} may merge into {{IPA|/i/}} when in contact with [[alveolo-palatal consonant|palatal consonants]] (e.g. {{lang|ca|s'''e'''nyor}} {{IPA|[siˈɲo(ɾ)]}} 'lord').{{sfn|Recasens Vives|1996|pp=128–129}}
* Unstressed {{IPA|/o/}} may merge with {{IPA|/u/}} before a [[bilabial consonant]] (e.g. {{lang|ca|c'''o'''bert}} {{IPA|[kuˈβɛɾt]}} 'covered'), before a stressed syllable with a [[high vowel]] (e.g. {{lang|ca|c'''o'''nill}} {{IPA|[kuˈniʎ]}} 'rabbit'), in contact with [[alveolo-palatal consonants|palatal consonants]] (e.g. {{lang|ca|J'''o'''sep}} {{IPA|[d͡ʒuˈzɛp]}} 'Joseph'), and in monosyllabic clitics.{{sfn|Recasens Vives|1996|p=138}}
* Besides vowel harmony or vowel assimilation (see [[#Vowel harmony|below]]), unstressed {{IPA|[ɛ]}} and {{IPA|[ɔ]}} may be found sporadically in compounds like {{lang|ca|dèss'''e'''t}} ('seventeen') and {{lang|ca|dèn'''o'''u}} (or {{lang|ca|dèn'''e'''u}}) ('nineteen').

<div style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top; margin-right: 1em;">
:{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ class="nowrap" | General <br /> Eastern Catalan{{sfn|Recasens Vives|Espinosa|2005|p=1}}
! Term
! {{abbr|IPA|International Phonetic Alphabet}}
! Gloss
|-
| {{lang|ca|parl'''a'''}}
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA link|ə}}{{efn-lr|In Barcelona, it becomes near-open [ɐ].}}{{efn-lr|In Alguerese, it becomes open [a].}}
| 'speech'
|-
| {{lang|ca|rer'''e'''}}
| 'back'
|-
| {{lang|ca|llir'''i'''}}
| {{IPA link|i}}
| 'lily'
|-
| {{lang|ca|ferr'''o'''}}
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA link|u}}
| 'iron'
|-
| {{lang|ca|mut'''u'''}}
| 'mutual'
|}
</div>
<div style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top; margin-right: 1em;">
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ class="nowrap" | Majorcan Balearic{{sfn|Recasens Vives|Espinosa|2005|p=1}} <br /> [Eastern Catalan]
! Term
! {{abbr|IPA|International Phonetic Alphabet}}
! Gloss
|-
| {{lang|ca|parl'''a'''}}
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA link|ə}}
| 'speech'
|-
| {{lang|ca|rer'''e'''}}
| 'back'
|-
| {{lang|ca|llir'''i'''}}
| {{IPA link|i}}
| 'lily'
|-
| {{lang|ca|ferr'''o'''}}
| {{IPA link|o}}{{efn-lr|In Majorcan, pretonic {{IPA|/o/}} merges with {{IPA|/u/}} in words that contain a close tonic vowel.}}
| 'iron'
|-
| {{lang|ca|mut'''u'''}}
| {{IPA link|u}}
| 'mutual'
|}
</div>
<div style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top; margin-right: 1em;">
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ class="nowrap" | General <br /> Western Catalan{{sfn|Recasens Vives|Espinosa|2005|p=1}} 
! Term
! {{abbr|IPA|International Phonetic Alphabet}}
! Gloss
|-
| {{lang|ca|parl'''a'''}}
| {{IPA link|a}}
| 'speech'
|-
| {{lang|ca|rer'''e'''}}
| {{IPA link|e}}
| 'back'
|-
| {{lang|ca|llir'''i'''}}
| {{IPA link|i}}
| 'lily'
|-
| {{lang|ca|ferr'''o'''}}
| {{IPA link|o}}
| 'iron'
|-
| {{lang|ca|mut'''u'''}}
| {{IPA link|u}}
| 'mutual'
|}
</div>

{{Notelist-lr}}

==== Vowel harmony ====
The harmony of Valencian is a clear example of harmony conditioned by a strong element: in some Valencian dialects, word-final post-tonic {{IPA|/a/}} becomes {{IPA|[ɛ]}} and {{IPA|[ɔ]}} when the preceding syllable contains tonic open-mid (or near-open) vowels {{IPA|/ɛ/}} and {{IPA|/ɔ/}}; that is, {{IPA|/ɛ/}} and {{IPA|/ɔ/}} propagate the palatal and labial features, respectively, to the final vowel {{IPA|/a/}}, as the examples. The articulatory features extend from a phonologically privileged position—the stressed syllable—to a weak position—an unstressed syllable—a perceptual asymmetry emphasized by the fact that the harmony trigger belongs to the radical while the assimilated segment is normally an inflectional affix.

<div style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top; margin-right: 1em;">
:{| class="wikitable" 
|+ a)
|-
! Example !! IPA !! Translation
|-
| ''terra'' || {{IPA|[ˈt<u>'''ɛ'''</u>r'''ɛ''']}} || 'Earth, land'
|-
| ''tela'' || {{IPA|[ˈt<u>'''ɛ'''</u>l'''ɛ''']}} || 'fabric'
|-
| ''pela'' || {{IPA|[ˈp<u>'''ɛ'''</u>l'''ɛ''']}} || 'he or she peels'
|-
| ''perla'' || {{IPA|[ˈp<u>'''ɛ'''</u>ɾl'''ɛ''']}} || 'pearl'
|}
</div>
<div style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top; margin-right: 1em;">
:{| class="wikitable" 
|+ b)
|-
! Example !! IPA !! Translation
|-
| ''cosa'' || {{IPA|[ˈk<u>'''ɔ'''</u>z'''ɔ''']}} || 'thing'
|-
| ''mora'' || {{IPA|[ˈm<u>'''ɔ'''</u>ɾ'''ɔ''']}} || 'Moor', f.
|-
| ''tova'' || {{IPA|[ˈt<u>'''ɔ'''</u>v'''ɔ''']}} || 'soft', f.
|-
| ''vora'' || {{IPA|[ˈv<u>'''ɔ'''</u>ɾ'''ɔ''']}} || 'edge, shore'
|}
</div>

In the most widespread system of harmony, both open-mid vowels cause assimilation; in other systems, distributed over the harmonic territory quite randomly, only one of the vowels triggers the change. For example, in Cullera only the front vowel causes assimilation, while in Borriana the labial vowel is the only one that allows harmony. However, in both the broadest and the narrowest versions, and even in the sporadic cases of two-way harmony that are presented here, the pattern of strong → weak extension remains constant.

In the harmonic phenomenon just described, articulatory features spread from left to right. However, there is no shortage of assimilations in which the features spread to the left of the prominent position. This occurs in Majorcan when pretonic {{IPA|/o/}} is closed to {{IPA|[u]}} in words that contain a close tonic vowel, e.g. ''c''{{IPA|[u]}}''nill'', ''c''{{IPA|[u]}}''sí'', ''c''{{IPA|[u]}}''mú'' (cf. {{Harvcoltxt|Veny Clar|1982}}). The change involves the extension of the height feature again in the direction dictated by the strong → weak saliency relationship. Similar closures are documented in various Western languages; among these, Tortosan stands out, where the phenomenon, quite variable and often limited to the elderly, presents the peculiarity that height does not only propagate from tonic vowels, but can also do so from unstressed ones (cfr. {{Harvcoltxt|Morales}}). In general terms, and in accordance with the data collected by {{Harvcoltxt|Morales}} (in prep.), a pretonic mid vowel may become close under the influence of a close vowel with the same point of articulation—palatal or labial—in a following syllable; in this way, vowel sequences of the type ''e...i'' and ''o...u'' become ''i...i'' a) and u...u b), respectively. The assimilation of mid vowels to a high vowel of a different point of articulation is possible, but in the sequence ''e...u'' it is reduced to some words c), and in the sequence ''o...i'' it is usually limited to fossilized cases, so that the disharmonious alternatives in d) reflect only copied pronunciations of the orthography.{{sfn|Jiménez|Lloret-Romanyach|2009|pp=3-4}}

<div style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top; margin-right: 1em;">
:{| class="wikitable" 
|+ a)
|-
! Example !! IPA !! Translation
|-
| ''melic'' || {{IPA|[m'''i'''ˈl<u>'''i'''</u>k]}} || 'belly button'
|-
| ''delicat'' || {{IPA|[d'''i'''l<u>'''i'''</u>ˈkat]}} || 'delicate'
|}
</div>
<div style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top; margin-right: 1em;">
:{| class="wikitable" 
|+ b)
|-
! Example !! IPA !! Translation
|-
| ''absolut'' || {{IPA|[aps'''u'''ˈl<u>'''u'''</u>t]}} || 'absolute'
|-
| ''bromur'' || {{IPA|[bɾ'''u'''ˈm<u>'''u'''</u>r]}} || 'bromide'
|}
</div>
<div style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top; margin-right: 1em;">
:{| class="wikitable" 
|+ c)
|-
! Example !! IPA !! Translation
|-
| ''betum'' || {{IPA|[b'''i'''ˈt<u>'''u'''</u>m]}} || 'betumen'
|-
| ''menut'' || {{IPA|[m'''i'''ˈn<u>'''u'''</u>t]}} || 'small'
|}
</div>
<div style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top; margin-right: 1em;">
:{| class="wikitable" 
|+ d)
|-
! Example !! IPA !! Translation
|-
| ''avorrir'' || {{IPA|[aβ'''u'''ˈr<u>'''i'''</u>r]}} || 'to bore'
|-
| ''botiga'' || {{IPA|[b'''u'''ˈt<u>'''i'''</u>ɣa]}} || 'shop'
|}
</div>

Of the phenomena presented above, the most common and systematic is the change ''e...i'' → ''i...i''. As in the examples, {{IPA|/e/}} becomes {{IPA|[i]}} when it precedes a stressed {{IPA|/i/}} or unstressed {{IPA|/i/}}. Closure can even affect a series of two pretonic vowels. Assimilation never affects stressed vowels and there is also no harmony when {{IPA|/e/}} and {{IPA|/i/}} do not occupy adjacent syllables.

With certain restrictions, the phenomenon can modify the final vowel of the first element of a compound and proclitic elements such as numerals or unstressed pronouns. In the last case, when the vowel of the pronoun is not strictly adjacent to the syllable that triggers the harmony, there is no assimilation; according to {{Harvcoltxt|Morales}} (in prep.), the lack of spread is related to the fact that groups of pronouns generate a secondary accent, which would protect the original quality of the vowel.

{{Harvcoltxt|Morales}} also reports some examples of rightward (regressive) assimilation between weak elements; that is, cases where an unstressed sequence ''i...e'' becomes ''i...i''. Harmony to the right is documented only between vowels that are in pretonic position; therefore, the inflectional elements and the post-tonic vowels belonging to the radical are excluded from the change.

General Valencian is another variety in which the extension of features is limited to the main metric foot: in plain words, the final post-tonic, which is part of the main foot, is affected by harmony a); on the other hand, in proparoxytone words (''esdrúixoles'') the final does not belong to the main foot and is, therefore, beyond the scope of assimilation b). In Valencian from the south of Alicante, the harmony affects an intermediate layer between the main metrical foot and the clitic group: the prosodic word (PPr) (cfr. {{Harvcoltxt|Montoya|1989}}, {{Harvcoltxt|Segura|1996}}, {{Harvcoltxt|Beltran|2008}}).

Harmony in General Valencian:
<div style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top; margin-right: 1em;">
:{| class="wikitable" 
|+ a)
|-
! Example !! IPA !! Translation
|-
| ''afecta'' || {{IPA|[aˈf<u>'''ɛ'''</u>kt'''ɛ''']}} || 'affects'
|-
| ''granota'' || {{IPA|[ɡɾaˈn<u>'''ɔ'''</u>t'''ɔ''']}} || 'frog'
|}
</div>
<div style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top; margin-right: 1em;">
:{| class="wikitable" 
|+ b)
|-
! Example !! IPA !! Translation
|-
| ''mèdica'' || {{IPA|[ˈmɛðika]}} || 'medic', f.
|-
| ''ròtula'' || {{IPA|[ˈrɔtula]}} || 'kneecap'
|}
</div>

Harmony from Southern Valencian (Alicante):
:{| class="wikitable" 
|+ a)
|-
! Example !! IPA !! Translation
|-
| ''afecta'' || {{IPA|['''ɛ'''ˈf<u>'''ɛ'''</u>kt'''ɛ''']}} || 'affects'
|-
| ''granota'' || {{IPA|[ɡɾ'''ɔ'''ˈn<u>'''ɔ'''</u>t'''ɔ''']}} || 'frog'
|}

In the harmony of Valencian, Majorcan and, mostly, Tortosan, the features extend from a strong element to a weak element. In the other possible model, on the other hand, the features are spread in the reverse direction, that is, from positions that are not prominent to positions that are stronger from the perceptual point of view. The trigger for change is in this case a weak element (cf. {{Harvcoltxt|Walker|2005}}). Central Catalan provides an example of harmony—with considerable geographical and idiolectal variation—conditioned by segments located in weak positions. In this dialect, stressed mid vowels in words from other languages tend to be adapted as open mids, as in the paroxytones in example a), with regular reduction in the unstressed syllable, that is, with the vowels {{IPA|[ə]}}, {{IPA|[i]}} and {{IPA|[u]}} in this position. Borrowings also have the peculiarity that they tend to block the neutralization of the unstressed middle vowels e and o, which are realized as {{IPA|[e]}} and {{IPA|[o]}}, respectively. In principle, these two trends should not be mutually exclusive; however, if the post-tonic sound is close-mid, the tonic mids are usually also realized as close, as shown by the plain words in example b), in which the levelling between the two vowels is almost universal. Therefore, the quality of the most prominent vowel is determined by the features of the following vowel, since the appearance of close-mid vowels in tonic position depends on the presence of vowels of the same pitch in the post-tonic syllable.

<div style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top; margin-right: 1em;">
:{| class="wikitable" 
|+ a)
|-
! Example !! IPA !! Translation
|-
| ''Creta'' || {{IPA|[ˈkɾɛtə]}} || 'Crete'
|-
| ''euro'' || {{IPA|[ˈɛwɾu]}} || 'Euro'
|-
| ''Betty'' || {{IPA|[ˈbɛti]}} || 'Betty'
|-
| ''Rodes'' || {{IPA|[ˈrɔðəs]}} || 'Rhodes'
|-
| ''poli'' || {{IPA|[ˈpɔli]}} || 'cop'
|-
| ''gnosi'' || {{IPA|[ˈnɔzi]}} || 'gnosis'
|}
</div>
<div style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top; margin-right: 1em;">
:{| class="wikitable" 
|+ b)
|-
! Example !! IPA !! Translation
|-
| ''Lesbos'' || {{IPA|[ˈl'''e'''zβ<u>'''o'''</u>s]}} || 'Lesbos'
|-
| ''euro'' || {{IPA|[ˈ'''e'''wɾ<u>'''o'''</u>]}} || 'Euro'
|-
| ''Bette'' || {{IPA|[ˈb'''e'''t<u>'''e'''</u>]}} || 'Bette'
|-
| ''Rodos'' || {{IPA|[ˈr'''o'''ð<u>'''o'''</u>s]}} || 'Rodos'
|-
| ''polo'' || {{IPA|[ˈp'''o'''l<u>'''o'''</u>]}} || 'polo'
|-
| ''Cnossos'' || {{IPA|[ˈn'''o'''s<u>'''o'''</u>s]}} || 'Knossos'
|}
</div>

In proparoxytones there is greater variability. In the variety analyzed by {{Harvcoltxt|Cabré Castellví|2009}} ''esdrúixol'' words (i.e. words with stressed on the antepenultimate syllable) are generally subject to the same restrictions and the presence of a close mid in post-tonic position implies the presence of close mids in tonic position a); the syllabic adjacency between the two vowels is key to harmony, since words like ''Sòcrates'' {{IPA|[ˈsɔkɾətes]}} or ''Hèrcules'' {{IPA|[ɛrkules]}} are usually presented without assimilation despite the presence of an unreduced post-tonic e. In the variety described by {{Harvcoltxt|Bonet Alsina|Lloret-Romanyach|Mascaró Altimiras|2007}}, on the other hand, post-tonic vowels do not condition the realization of the tonic vowel in ''esdrúixols'' b). On the other hand, and in accordance with the interpretation of the aforementioned authors, the adaptation of tonic vowels as open mids is compatible in all varieties with the appearance of unreduced mid vowels in pre-tonic syllables.

<div style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top; margin-right: 1em;">
:{| class="wikitable" 
|+ a)
|-
! Example !! IPA !! Translation
|-
| ''Jespersen'' || {{IPA|[ˈʒ'''e'''sp<u>'''e'''</u>rsen]}} || 'Jespersen'
|-
| ''Penèlope'' || {{IPA|[peˈn'''e'''l<u>'''o'''</u>pe]}} || 'Penelope'
|-
| ''Hölderlin'' || {{IPA|[ˈx'''o'''ld<u>'''e'''</u>rlin]}} || 'Hölderlin'
|}
</div>
<div style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top; margin-right: 1em;">
{| class="wikitable" 
|+ b)
|-
! Example !! IPA !! Translation
|-
| ''Jespersen'' || {{IPA|[ˈʒɛspersen]}} || 'Jespersen'
|-
| ''Penèlope'' || {{IPA|[peˈnɛlope]}} || 'Penelope'
|-
| ''Sòfocles'' || {{IPA|[ˈsɔfokles]}} || 'Sophocles'
|}
</div>

Other harmony examples in Central Catalan:

<div style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top; margin-right: 1em;">
:{| class="wikitable" 
|+ 
|-
! Example !! IPA
|-
| ''Everest'' || {{IPA|[eβeˈɾɛst]}}
|-
| ''Interpol'' || {{IPA|[interˈpɔl]}}
|}
</div>
<div style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top; margin-right: 1em;">
:{| class="wikitable" 
|+ 
|-
! Example !! IPA
|-
| ''OPEC'' || {{IPA|[oˈpɛk]}}
|-
| ''Repsol'' || {{IPA|[repˈsɔl]}}
|}
</div>
<div style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top; margin-right: 1em;">
:{| class="wikitable" 
|+ 
|-
! Example !! IPA
|-
| ''Flaubert'' || {{IPA|[floˈβɛrt]}}
|-
| ''Montessori'' || {{IPA|[monteˈsɔɾi]}}
|}
</div>

==== Vowels in contact ====
One of the most unique features of Catalan and Valencian is the treatment of vowels that come into contact within the speech chain. When a word-final vowel meets an initial vowel there are two possible reactions: lengthening (if both vowels are the same){{sfn|Recasens Vives|1996|p=165}} or weakening/elision of one of the vowels (if they are different).{{sfn|Saborit Vilar|2009|pp=42-43}} In general terms, two consecutive vowels diphthongize more frequently in Valencian, North Western Catalan and Alguerese.{{sfn|Recasens Vives|1996|p=154}} Some examples (in Valencian):

;Lengthening
* Unstressed {{IPA|/i/}} followed by {{IPA|/i/}}, e.g. ''platges '''i''' illots'' {{IPA|[ˈpladʒez‿iːˈʎɔts]}} ('beaches and islets').
* Unstressed {{IPA|/o/}} followed by {{IPA|/o/}}, e.g. ''escrit '''o''' oral?'' {{IPA|[esˈkɾit oːˈɾal]}} ('written or oral?').

;Elision
* Unstressed {{IPA|/a/}} followed by stressed {{IPA|/ɔ/}} → {{IPA|[ɔ]}}, e.g. ''quin'''a''' hora és?'' {{IPA|[ˌkin‿ˈɔɾɔ ˈes]}} or {{IPA|[ˌkin‿ˈɔɾa ˈes]}} ('what time is it?').
* Stressed {{IPA|/a/}} followed by unstressed {{IPA|/e/}} → {{IPA|[a]}}, e.g. ''mà '''e'''squerra'' {{IPA|[ˈma ˈskɛrɛ]}} or {{IPA|[ˈma ˈskɛra]}} ('left hand').
* Unstressed {{IPA|/a/}} followed by unstressed {{IPA|/e/}} → {{IPA|[a]}}, e.g. ''agarra '''e'''l gos'' {{IPA|[aˈɣaral ˈɣos]}} ('take the dog').
* Stressed {{IPA|/e/}} followed by stressed {{IPA|/a/}} → {{IPA|[a]}}, e.g. ''què h'''a'''s fet?'' {{IPA|[ˈkas ˈfet]}} ('what have you done?').
* Unstressed {{IPA|/e/}} followed by {{IPA|/ɔ/}} → {{IPA|[ɔ]}}, e.g. ''est'''e''' home'' {{IPA|[ˌest‿ˈɔme]}} ('this man').
* Stressed {{IPA|/o/}} followed by unstressed {{IPA|/e/}} → {{IPA|[o]}}, e.g. ''no '''e'''ls volen'' {{IPA|[ˈnolz ˈvɔlen]}} ('they don't want them').

=== Diphthongs and triphthongs ===
There are also a number of phonetic [[diphthong]]s and [[triphthong]]s, all of which begin and/or end in {{IPAblink|j}} or {{IPAblink|w}}.{{sfn|Carbonell Costa|Llisterri Boix|1992|p=54}}

:{| class="wikitable"
! colspan="6" | [[Falling diphthong]]s
|-
! [[Help:IPA|IPA]]
! word
! gloss
! [[Help:IPA|IPA]]
! word
! gloss
|-
| {{IPA|[aj]}} || {{lang|ca|'''ai'''gua}} || 'water' || {{IPA|[aw]}} || {{lang|ca|t'''au'''la}} || 'table'
|-
| {{IPA|[əj]}} (E) / {{IPA|[aj]}} (W) || {{lang|ca|m'''ai'''nada}} || 'children' || {{IPA|[əw]}} (E) / {{IPA|[aw]}} (W)  || {{lang|ca|c'''au'''rem}} || 'we will fall'
|-
| {{IPA|[ɛj]}} || {{lang|ca|ol'''ei'''c}} || 'oleic' || {{IPA|[ɛw]}} || {{lang|ca|p'''eu'''}} || 'foot'
|-
| {{IPA|[ej]}} || {{lang|ca|r'''ei'''}} || 'king' || {{IPA|[ew]}} || {{lang|ca|s'''eu'''}} || 'his/her'
|-
| {{IPA|[əj]}} (E) / {{IPA|[ej]}} (W) || {{lang|ca|'''Ei'''vissa}} || '[[Ibiza]]' || {{IPA|[əw]}} (E) / {{IPA|[ew]}} (W)  || {{lang|ca|'''eu'''femisme}} || 'euphemism'
|-
| {{IPA|[ij]}}{{efn-lr|The diphthong [ij] is mainly found in Balearic.}} (B) || {{lang|ca|nov'''ii'''}} || 'bridegroom' || {{IPA|[iw]}} || {{lang|ca|n'''iu'''}} || 'nest'
|-
| {{IPA|[ɔj]}} || {{lang|ca|her'''oi'''}} || 'hero' || {{IPA|[ɔw]}}{{efn-lr|[ɔw] may merge with [aw] in Southern Valencian.}} || {{lang|ca|n'''ou'''}} || 'new'
|-
| {{IPA|[uj]}} (E) / {{IPA|[oj]}} (W) || {{lang|ca|M'''oi'''sès}} / {{lang|ca-ca-valencia|M'''oi'''sés}} || 'Moses' || {{IPA|[ow]}}{{efn-lr|Unstressed [ow] may merge with [əw] or [aw] in Eastern dialects.}} || {{lang|ca|s'''ou'''}}, {{lang|ca|m'''ou'''ré}} || 'you are', 'I will move'
|-
| {{IPA|[uj]}}{{efn-lr|Merges with [wi] in some dialects.}} || {{lang|ca|c'''ui'''t}} || 'cooked' || {{IPA|[uw]}} || {{lang|ca|d'''uu'''}} || 'he or she carries'
|-
| colspan="6" style="border-left: #fff solid 1px; border-right:  #fff solid 1px" | &nbsp;
|-
! colspan="6" | [[Rising diphthong]]s
|-
! [[Help:IPA|IPA]]
! word
! gloss
! [[Help:IPA|IPA]]
! word
! gloss
|-
| {{IPA|[ja]}} || {{lang|ca|'''ia'''io}} || 'grandpa' || {{IPA|[wa]}} || {{lang|ca|g'''ua'''nt}} || 'glove'
|-
| {{IPA|[jə]}} (E) / {{IPA|[ja]}} (W) || {{lang|ca|fe'''ia'''}} || 'he or she was doing' || {{IPA|[wə]}} (E) / {{IPA|[wa]}} (W) || {{lang|ca|aq'''ua'''reŀla}} || 'watercolour'
|-
| {{IPA|[jɛ]}} || {{lang|ca|A'''ie'''lo}} || '[[Aielo (disambiguation)|Aielo]]' || {{IPA|[wɛ]}} || {{lang|ca|seq'''üè'''ncia}} || 'sequence'
|-
| {{IPA|[je]}} || {{lang|ca|se'''ie'''nt}} || 'seat' || {{IPA|[we]}} || {{lang|ca|ung'''üe'''nt}} || 'ointment'
|-
| {{IPA|[jə]}} (E) / {{IPA|[je]}} (W) || {{lang|ca|la'''ie'''tans}} || '[[Laietani]]' || {{IPA|[wə]}} (E) / {{IPA|[we]}} (W) || {{lang|ca|q'''üe'''stió}} || 'question'
|-
| colspan="3" style="background-color:#f0f0f0;" | || {{IPA|[wi]}} || {{lang|ca|ping'''üí'''}} || 'penguin'
|-
| {{IPA|[jɔ]}} || {{lang|ca|'''io'''de}} || 'iodine' || {{IPA|[wɔ]}} || {{lang|ca|q'''uo'''ta}} || 'payment'
|-
| {{IPA|[ju]}} (E) / {{IPA|[jo]}} (W) || {{lang|ca|'''io'''gurt}} || 'yoghurt' || {{IPA|[wo]}} || {{lang|ca|se'''uó'''s}} || 'greasy'
|-
| {{IPA|[ju]}} || {{lang|ca|'''iu'''goslau}} || 'Yugoslav' || colspan="3" style="background-color:#f0f0f0;" | 
|-
| colspan="6" style="border-left: #fff solid 1px; border-right:  #fff solid 1px" | &nbsp;
|-
! colspan="6" | [[Triphthong]]s
|-
! [[Help:IPA|IPA]]
! word
! gloss
! [[Help:IPA|IPA]]
! word
! gloss
|-
| {{IPA|[jaj]}} || {{lang|ca|'''iai'''}} || 'old person' || {{IPA|[waj]}} || {{lang|ca|Alg'''uai'''re}} || '[[Alguaire]]'
|-
| colspan="3" style="background-color:#f0f0f0; | || {{IPA|[wəj]}} (E) / {{IPA|[waj]}} (W) || {{lang|ca|g'''uai'''tar}} || 'to observe, look'
|-
| {{IPA|[jɛw]}} (E) / {{IPA|[jew]}} (W) || {{lang|ca|ve'''ieu'''}} || 'you see' || {{IPA|[wɛw]}}{{efn-lr|[waw] in the Balearic dialects.}} (E) / {{IPA|[wew]}} (W) || {{lang|ca|adeq'''üeu'''}} || 'you adequate'
|-
| {{IPA|[jəw]}} (E) / {{IPA|[jew]}} (W) || {{lang|ca|dè'''ieu'''}} || 'you were saying' || colspan="3" style="background-color:#f0f0f0; |
|}

{{Notelist-lr}}

In Standard Eastern Catalan, rising diphthongs (that is, those starting with {{IPA|[j]}} or {{IPA|[w]}}) are only possible in the following contexts:{{sfn|Institut d'Estudis Catalans|2009}}
* {{IPA|[j]}} in word-initial position, e.g. {{lang|ca|'''i'''ogurt}} {{IPA|[juˈɣur]}} ('yoghurt').
* The semivowel ({{IPA|[j]}} or {{IPA|[w]}}) occurs between vowels as in {{lang|ca|fe'''i'''a}} {{IPA|[ˈfɛjə]}} ('he or she was doing') or {{lang|ca|di'''u'''en}} {{IPA|[ˈdiwən]}} ('they say').
* In the sequences {{IPA|[ɡw]}} or {{IPA|[kw]}} plus vowel, e.g. {{lang|ca|g'''u'''ant}} ('glove'), {{lang|ca|q'''u'''ota}} ('quota'), {{lang|ca|q'''ü'''estió}} ('question'), {{lang|ca|ping'''ü'''í}} ('penguin'); these exceptional cases even lead some scholars{{sfn|Lleó Pujol|1970}}{{sfn|Wheeler|1979}} to hypothesize the existence of rare labiovelar phonemes {{IPA|/ɡʷ/}} and {{IPA|/kʷ/}}.{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=101}}

== Processes ==
There are certain instances of ''compensatory diphthongization'' in Majorcan so that {{lang|ca|troncs}} {{IPA|/ˈtɾoncs/}} ('logs') (in addition to deleting the palatal stop) develops a compensating palatal glide and surfaces as {{IPA|[ˈtɾojns]}} (and contrasts with the unpluralized {{IPA|[ˈtɾoɲc]}}). Diphthongization compensates for the loss of the palatal stop (segment loss compensation). There are other cases where diphthongization compensates for the loss of point of articulation features (property loss compensation) as in {{IPA|[ˈaɲ]}} ('year') vs. {{IPA|[ˈajns]}} ('years').{{sfn|Mascaró Altimiras|2001|pp=580–581}}

The dialectal distribution of compensatory diphthongization is almost entirely dependent on the dorsal stop ({{IPA|/k~c/}}) and the extent of consonant assimilation (whether or not it is extended to palatals).{{sfn|Mascaró Altimiras|2001|p=581}}

Voiced affricates are devoiced after stressed vowels in dialects like Eastern Catalan where there may be a correlation between devoicing and lengthening ([[gemination]]) of voiced affricates: {{lang|ca|me'''tg'''e}} {{IPA|/ˈmed͡ːʒə/}} → {{IPA|[ˈmet͡ːʃə]}} ('medic').{{sfn|Recasens Vives|Espinosa|2007|p=145}} In Barcelona, voiced stops may be [[fortition|fortified]] (geminated and devoiced); e.g. {{lang|ca|po'''b'''le}} {{IPA|[ˈpɔpːlə]}} 'village, people').{{sfn|Carbonell Costa|Llisterri Boix|1992|p=53}}

<!-- In many languages that have "complicated codas", such as English, Arabic, Polish or Welsh, we can see any coda followed by an opening licensed by the "phonological word" domain. Gussmann (1992:38-39) about the syllabic structure of Polish: "every word-final consonant group should be reducible to a [consonant] that represents the rhyme and a complex opening that has been dissyllabled as a result of the deletion of a vowel". -->
In (Majorcan) Catalan is known the historical process of erasing the vowel (the nucleus) of unstressed final syllables. {{Harvcoltxt|Burzio|1988}} (cited by {{Harvcoltxt|Kenstowicz|1994}}) and {{Harvcoltxt|Kaye|1990}}, have proposed similar theories, in that one or more 'extrasyllabic' final consonants represent the opening of a syllable with null vowel (Burzio) or empty nucleus (Kaye). However, in the case of Catalan, such a structure is fundamentally the one that has been proposed (e.g. in {{Harvcoltxt|Mascaró Altimiras|1987}}) to trigger vowel epenthesis in cases such as the followings:{{sfn|Dols|Wheeler|1995|pp=54-55}}

* {{lang|ca|a'''mpl'''}} {{IPA|/ˈampl/}} → {{IPA|[ˈam.plə]}} ('I wide')
* {{lang|ca|se'''gl'''}} {{IPA|/ˈsɛɡl/}} → {{IPA|[ˈsɛɡ.ɡlə]}} ('I ?')
* {{lang|ca|as'''pr'''}} {{IPA|/ˈaspɾ/}} → {{IPA|[ˈas.pɾə]}} ('I stake', {{abbr|ag.|agriculture}})
* {{lang|ca|co'''rr'''}} {{IPA|/ˈkoɾɾ/}} → {{IPA|[ˈko(r).rə]}} ('I run')

=== Assimilations ===
:{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|-
! colspan="3" | [[nasal stop|Nasal]]
! colspan="3" | [[lateral consonant|Lateral]]
|-
! [[Help:IPA|IPA]]
! word
! gloss
! [[Help:IPA|IPA]]
! word
! gloss
|-
| {{IPA|[ɱ]}} || {{lang|ca|í'''n'''fim}} || 'lowest' || colspan="3" style="background-color:#f0f0f0;" |
|-
| {{IPA|[n̪]}} || {{lang|ca|a'''n'''terior}} || 'previous' || {{IPA|[l̪]}} ||{{lang|ca|a'''l'''tes}} || 'tall' ([[grammatical gender|f.]] [[plural|pl.]])
|-
| {{IPA|[ɲ]}} || {{lang|ca|e'''n'''gegar}} || 'to start (up)' || {{IPA|[ʎ]}} || {{lang|ca|à'''l'''gid}} || 'decisive'
|-
| {{IPA|[ŋ]}} || {{lang|ca|a'''n'''gle}} || 'angle' || colspan="3" rowspan="3" style="background-color:#f0f0f0;" |
|-
| {{IPA|[ŋn]}} || {{lang|ca|sa'''gn'''a}} || 'he or she bleeds'
|-
| {{IPA|[mː]}} || {{lang|ca|se'''tm'''ana}} || 'week'
|-
| {{IPA|[nː]}} || {{lang|ca|co'''tn'''a}} || 'rind' || {{IPA|[lː]}} || {{lang|ca|Be'''tl'''em}} || 'Bethlehem'
|-
| colspan="3" style="background-color:#f0f0f0;" | || {{IPA|[ʎː]}} || {{lang|ca|ro'''tll'''o}} || 'roll'
|}

Catalan denti-alveolar stops can fully [[assimilation (phonology)|assimilate]] to the following consonant, producing [[gemination]]; this is particularly evident before [[nasal consonant|nasal]] and [[lateral consonant]]s: e.g. {{lang|ca|se'''tm'''ana}} ('week'), {{lang|ca|co'''tn'''a}} ('rind'), {{lang|ca|Betlem}}, {{lang|ca|ro'''tll'''o}} ('roll'). Learned words can alternate between featuring and not featuring such assimilation (e.g. {{lang|ca|a'''tl'''es}} {{IPA|[ˈadləs] ~ [ˈalːəs]}} (E) / {{IPA|[ˈadlas] ~ [ˈalːas]}} (W) 'atlas', {{lang|ca|so'''tm'''etre}} {{IPA|[sudˈmɛtɾə] ~ [suˈmːɛtɾə]}} (E) /  {{IPA|[sodˈmetɾe] ~ [soˈmːetɾe]}} (W) 'to submit', {{lang|ca|è'''tn'''ic}} {{IPA|[ˈɛdnik]}} ~ {{IPA|[ˈɛnːik]}} 'ethnic').{{sfn|Fabra Poch|2006|p=24}}{{sfn|Lacreu Cuesta|2002|p=53}}

There is dialectal variation regarding words with {{angbr|tll}}. While Central and North-Western Catalan tend to innovate with a palatalised pronunciation {{IPA|[ʎː]}}, Valencian and Balearic maintain the traditional pronunciation without palatalisation {{IPA|[lː]}}, i.e. {{angbr|tl}}, in most cases (e.g. {{lang|ca|ame'''tll'''a}} vs {{lang|ca|ame'''tl'''a}} 'almond').

Valencian dialects (especially Central Valencian) features simple elision in many of these cases (e.g {{lang|ca|se'''tm'''ana}} {{IPA|[seˈmana]}} 'week', {{lang|ca|ro'''tll'''o}} {{IPA|[ˈroʎo]}} 'roll') and learned words might not exhibit either assimilation or elision: {{lang|ca|atles}} {{IPA|[ˈadles]}} and {{lang|ca|administrar}} {{IPA|[adminisˈtɾaɾ]}}.{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=36}}

== Prosody ==

=== Stress ===
[[Stress (linguistics)|Stress]] most often occurs on any of the last three syllables of a word (e.g. {{lang|ca|<u>brú</u>ixola}} {{IPA|[ˈbɾuʃulə]}} (E) / {{IPA|[ˈbɾujʃola]}} (W) 'compass', {{lang|ca|<u>càs</u>tig}} {{IPA|[ˈkastik]}} 'punishment', {{lang|ca|pa<u>llús</u>}} {{IPA|[pəˈʎus]}} (E) / {{IPA|[paˈʎus]}} (W) 'fool').

Compound words and adverbs formed with {{IPA|/ˈment/}} may have a syllable with secondary stress (e.g. {{lang|ca|<u>bo</u>na<u>ment</u>}} {{IPA|[ˌbɔnəˈmen]}} (E) {{IPA|[ˌbɔnaˈmen(t)]}} (W) 'willingly'; {{lang|ca|<u>pa</u>ra<u>llamps</u>}} {{IPA|[ˌpaɾəˈʎams]}} (E) {{IPA|[ˌpaɾaˈʎamps]}} (W) 'lightning conductor') but every lexical word has just one syllable with main stress.{{sfn|Carbonell Costa|Llisterri Boix|1999|p=63}}

=== Phonotactics ===
The structure of the [[syllable]] shows a mandatory [[nucleus (syllable)|nucleus]], and the optional presence of a margin before and/or behind the nucleus. Core and margin contrast articulatory due to the fact that the core is emitted with a higher degree of oral opening than the margin. In Catalan and Valencian, the core position is occupied by a vowel and the margin position by one or more consonants. Depending on the number of consonants that make up the margin and the location of the margin in relation to the core, syllabic structures of the type V, CV, VC, CVC, CCV, CCVC, CCVCC, VCC, VCCC, CVCC, CVCCC, etc. are possible. The margin that precedes the nucleus is called "explosive", and the one that follows it, "implosive", syllables can be classified as "open" or "closed" by virtue of the absence or presence of a margin postnuclear, respectively.{{sfn|Recasens Vives|1996|pp=49-50}}

Any consonant, as well as {{IPA|[j]}} and {{IPA|[w]}} may be an [[syllable onset|onset]]. [[Consonant cluster|Clusters]] may consist of a consonant plus a semivowel (C{{IPA|[j]}}, C{{IPA|[w]}}) or an obstruent plus a [[liquid consonant|liquid]]. Some speakers may have one of these obstruent-plus-liquid clusters preceding a semivowel, e.g. {{lang|ca|síndria}} {{IPA|[ˈsin.dɾjə]}} ('watermelon'); for other speakers, this is pronounced {{IPA|[ˈsin.dɾi.ə]}} (i.e. the semivowel must be syllabic in this context).{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=78}}

Word-medial codas are restricted to one consonant + {{IPA|[s]}} ({{lang|ca|extra}} {{IPA|[ˈɛks.tɾə]}} (E) / {{IPA|[ˈɛks.tɾa]}} (W)).{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=166}} In the coda position, voice contrasts among obstruents are neutralized.{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=145}} Although there are exceptions (such as {{lang|ca|futur}} {{IPA|[fuˈtuɾ]}} 'future'), syllable-final [[rhotic consonant|rhotics]] are often lost before a word boundary or before the plural morpheme of most words: {{lang|ca|colo'''r'''}} {{IPA|[kuˈlo]}} (E) / {{IPA|[koˈlo(ɾ)]}} (W) ('color') vs. {{lang|ca|colo'''r'''aina}} {{IPA|[kuluˈɾajnə]}} (E) / {{IPA|[koloˈɾajna]}} (W) ('bright color').{{sfn|Carbonell Costa|Llisterri Boix|1992|p=53}}

In Central Eastern (and North-Western Catalan), obstruents fail to surface word-finally when preceded by a [[homorganic]] consonant (e.g. {{IPA|/nt/ → [n̪]}}). Complex codas simplify only if the loss of the segment doesn't result in the loss of place specification.{{sfn|Herrick|2000|p=70}}

:{| class="wikitable"
|+Suffixation examples in Central Eastern and North-Western Catalan varieties
|-
!
! colspan="2" | Final
! gloss
! colspan="2" | Internal
! gloss
|-
! rowspan="6" | no cluster
| {{lang|ca|cam'''p'''}} || {{IPA|[ˈkam]}} || 'field' || {{lang|ca|cam'''p'''erol}} || {{IPA|[kəmpəˈɾɔl]}} (EC)<br>{{IPA|[kampeˈɾɔl]}} (NW) || 'peasant'
|-
| {{lang|ca|pun'''t'''}} || {{IPA|[ˈpun̪]}} || 'point' || {{lang|ca|pun'''t'''a}} || {{IPA|[ˈpun̪tə]}} (EC)<br>{{IPA|[ˈpun̪ta]}} (NW) || 'tip'
|-
| {{lang|ca|ban'''c'''}} || {{IPA|[ˈbaŋ]}} || 'bank' || {{lang|ca|ban'''c'''a}} || {{IPA|[ˈbaŋkə]}} (EC)<br>{{IPA|[ˈbaŋka]}} (NW) || 'banking'
|-
| {{lang|ca|malal'''t'''}} || {{IPA|[məˈlal̪]}} (EC) <br>{{IPA|[maˈlal̪]}} (NW) || 'ill' || {{lang|ca|malal'''t'''ia}} || {{IPA|[mələl̪ˈti.ə]}} (EC) <br>{{IPA|[malal̪ˈti.a]}} (NW) || 'illness'
|-
| {{lang|ca|hor'''t'''}} || {{IPA|[ˈɔr]}} || 'orchard' || {{lang|ca|hor'''t'''alissa}} || {{IPA|[uɾtəˈlisə]}}(EC) <br>{{IPA|[oɾtaˈlisa]}} (NW) || 'vegetable'
|-
| {{lang|ca|gus'''t'''}} || {{IPA|[ˈɡus]}} || 'taste' || {{lang|ca|gus'''t'''ar}} || {{IPA|[ɡusˈta]}} || 'to taste'
|-
! rowspan="3" | cluster
| {{lang|ca|ser'''p'''}} || {{IPA|[ˈserp]}} || 'snake' || {{lang|ca|ser'''p'''entí}} || {{IPA|[səɾpənˈti]}} (EC) <br>{{IPA|[seɾpenˈti]}} (NW) || 'snake-like'
|-
| {{lang|ca|dis'''c'''}} || {{IPA|[ˈdisk]}} || 'disk' || {{lang|ca|dis'''qu'''et}} || {{IPA|[disˈkɛt]}} (EC) <br>{{IPA|[disˈket]}} (NW) || 'diskette'
|-
| {{lang|ca|remol'''c'''}} || {{IPA|[rəˈmɔlk]}} (EC) <br>{{IPA|[reˈmɔlk]}} (NW) || 'trailer' || {{lang|ca|remol'''c'''ar}} || {{IPA|[rəmulˈka]}} (NE) <br>{{IPA|[remolˈka]}} (NW) || 'to tow'
|}

When the suffix {{lang|ca|-erol}} {{IPA|[əˈɾɔl]}} is added to {{lang|ca|camp}} {{IPA|[ˈkam]}} it makes {{IPA|[kəmpəˈɾɔl]}}, indicating that the underlying representation is {{IPA|/ˈkamp/}} (with subsequent cluster simplification), however when the copula {{IPA|[ˈes]}} is added it makes {{IPA|[ˈkam ˈes]}}. The resulting generalization is that this underlying {{IPA|/p/}} will only surface in a morphologically complex word.{{sfn|Herrick|2000|p=72}} Despite this, word-final codas are not usually simplified in most of Balearic and Valencian (e.g. {{lang|ca|cam'''p'''}} {{IPA|[ˈkamp]}}).{{sfn|Recasens Vives|1996|p=192}}

Word-initial clusters from Graeco-Latin learned words tend to drop the first phoneme: {{lang|ca|'''gn'''om}} {{IPA|[ˈnom]}} ('gnome'), {{lang|ca|'''mn'''emotècnia}} {{IPA|[nəmuˈtɛŋniə]}} (E) / {{IPA|[nemoˈtɛŋnia]}} (W) ('mnemotechnical'), {{lang|ca|'''pn'''eumàtic}} {{IPA|[nəwˈmatik]}} (E) / {{IPA|[newˈmatik]}} (W) ('pneumatic'), {{lang|ca|'''ps'''eudònim}} {{IPA|[səwˈðɔnim]}} (E) / {{IPA|[sewˈðɔnim]}} (W) ('pseudonym'), {{lang|ca|'''pt'''erodàctil}} {{IPA|[təɾuˈðaktil]}} (E) / {{IPA|[teɾoˈðaktil]}} (W) ('pterodactylus').{{sfn|Recasens Vives|1996|p=175}}

Word-final obstruents are devoiced; however, they assimilate voicing of the following consonant, e.g. {{lang|ca|cu'''c''' de seda}}  {{IPA|[ˈkuɡ‿də ˈsɛðə]}} (E) / {{IPA|[ˈkuɡ‿de ˈsɛða]}} (W) ('silkworm'). In regular and fast speech, stops often assimilate the place of articulation of the following consonant producing phonetic gemination: {{lang|ca|to'''t''' bé}} {{IPA|[ˈtod‿ˈbe] → [ˈtob‿ˈbe]}} ('all good').{{sfn|Badia i Margarit|1988|p=35}}

Word-final fricatives (except {{IPA|/f/}}) are voiced before a following vowel; e.g. {{lang|ca|bu'''s''' enorme}} {{IPA|[ˈbuz‿əˈnormə]}} (E) / {{IPA|[ˈbuz‿eˈnorme]}} (W) ('huge bus').{{sfn|Recasens Vives|Espinosa|2007}}

== Dialectal variation ==
[[File:Catalan dialects-en.png|thumb|right|upright=1.36|Dialectal Map of Catalan{{sfn|Wheeler|Yates|Dols Salas|1999|p=18}}
<br />'''Eastern dialects:'''
{{legend|#B67000|[[Northern Catalan]]}}
{{legend|#C24851|[[Central Catalan]]}}
{{legend|#A55DD3|[[Balearic dialect|Balearic]] and [[Algherese dialect|Alguerese]]}}
'''Western dialects:'''
{{legend|#6870FF|[[North-Western Catalan]]}}
{{legend|#3AC636|[[Valencian language|Valencian]]}}]]
The differences in the vocalic systems outlined above are the main criteria used to differentiate between the major dialects:
Wheeler distinguishes two major dialect groups, [[Western Catalan|western]] and [[Eastern Catalan|eastern dialects]]; the latter of which only allow {{IPAblink|i}}, {{IPAblink|ə}}, and {{IPAblink|u}} to appear in unstressed syllables and include [[Northern Catalan]], [[Central Catalan]], [[Balearic dialect|Balearic]], and [[Algherese dialect|Alguerese]]. [[Western Catalan|Western dialects]], which allow any vowel in unstressed syllables, include [[Valencian language|Valencian]] and [[North-Western Catalan]].{{sfn|Wheeler|2005}}

Regarding consonants, [[betacism]] and fricative–affricate alternations are the most prominent differences between dialects.

Other dialectal features are:

;Vowels
* In a number of dialects unstressed {{IPA|/i/}} can merge with {{IPA|/ə/}} (Eastern dialects) or {{IPA|/e, a/}} (Western dialects) according to the previous or following vowel (i.e. through assimilation when these vowels are high or dissimilation when they are mid or low). This merger is especially common in words with the prefix {{lang|ca|in-}} or {{lang|ca|im-}}.{{sfn|Recasens Vives|1996|p=68}}
* In Southern Valencian subvarieties, especially in Alicante Valencian, the diphthong {{IPA|/ɔw/}} (phonetically {{IPA|[ɒw]}} in Valencian) has become {{IPA|[ɑw]}}: {{lang|ca|b'''ou'''s}} {{IPA|[ˈbɑws]}} ('bulls').{{sfn|Recasens Vives|1996|pp=131–132}}
* In regular speech in both Eastern and Western Catalan dialects, word-initial unstressed {{IPA|/o/}}—{{IPA|[u]}} or {{IPA|[o]}}—may be diphthongized to {{IPA|[əw]}} (Eastern Catalan) or {{IPA|[aw]}} (Western Catalan): {{lang|ca|'''o'''fegar}} {{IPA|[əwfəˈɣa]}} (E) {{IPA|[awfeˈɣa(ɾ)]}} (W) 'to drown, suffocate'.{{sfn|Recasens Vives|1996|pp=138–139}}

;Consonants
* Varying degrees of ''L-velarization'' among dialects: {{IPA|/l/}} is [[dark l|dark]] irrespective of position in Balearic and Central Catalan and might tend to [[L-vocalization|vocalization]] in some cases. In Western varieties like Valencian, this dark l contrasts with a [[Clear L|clear l]] in intervocalic and word-initial position; while in other dialects, like Alguerese or Northern Catalan, {{IPA|/l/}} is never velarized in any instance.{{sfn|Recasens Vives|Espinosa|2005|p=20}}{{sfn|Recasens Vives|1996|p=307}}
* {{lang|ca|[[:ca:Iodització|Iodització]]}} (also known as {{lang|ca|iesme històric}} "historic {{lang|es|[[yeísmo]]}}") in regular speech in most of Majorcan, Northern Catalan and in the historic comarca of Vallès (Barcelona), Latin-derived words that had intervocalic {{IPA|/l/}} + [[Palatal approximant|yod]] (-{{Sc|li}}-, -{{Sc|le}}-) or velar + {{IPA|/l/}} (-{{Sc|cvl}}-, -{{Sc|gvl}}-) developed {{IPA|[j]}} (e.g. {{lang|ca|pa'''ll'''a}} {{IPA|[ˈpajə]}} 'straw') from  Latin {{Sc|palea}}), rather than {{IPA|/ʎ/}} as in the majority of other regions. Accents with traditional ''ieisme'' use {{IPA|/ʎ/}} only in words where this sound developed from Latin initial {{Sc|l}}- (as in {{lang|ca|'''ll'''una}} {{IPA|[ˈʎunə]}} 'moon') or intervocalic -{{Sc|ll}}- (as in  {{lang|ca|e'''ll'''a}} {{IPA|[ˈeʎə]}} 'she').{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|pp=34–35}}
* In northern and transitional Valencian, word-initial and postconsonantal {{IPA|/d͡ʒ/}} (Eastern Catalan {{IPA|/ʒ/}} and {{IPA|/d͡ʒ/}}) alternates with {{IPA|[jʒ]}} intervocalically; e.g. {{lang|ca|'''j'''oc}} {{IPA|[ˈd͡ʒɔk]}} 'game', but {{lang|ca|pi'''tj'''or}} {{IPA|[piˈʒo]}} 'worse', {{lang|ca|bo'''j'''a}} {{IPA|[ˈbɔjʒa]}} 'crazy' (Standard Valencian {{IPA|/ˈd͡ʒɔk/}}, {{IPA|/piˈd͡ʒoɾ/}}; {{IPA|/ˈbɔd͡ʒa/}}; Standard Catalan {{IPA|/ˈʒɔk/}}, {{IPA|/piˈd͡ʒo/}} and {{IPA|/ˈbɔʒə/}}).{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=15}}
* In northern Valencia and southern Catalonia {{IPA|/s/}} has merged with realizations of {{IPA|/ʃ/}} after a high front vocoid; e.g. {{lang|ca|terri'''ss'''a}} {{IPA|[teˈriʃa]}} ('pottery'), {{lang|ca|insi'''s'''ti'''s'''c}} {{IPA|[insiʃˈtiʃk]}} ('I insist') vs. {{lang|ca|pi'''x'''ar}} {{IPA|[piˈʃa ~ piˈʃaɾ]}} ('to pee'), {{lang|ca|de'''ix'''ar}} {{IPA|[deˈʃa ~ dejˈʃaɾ]}} ('to leave'). In these varieties {{IPA|/ʃ/}} is not found after other voiced consonants, and merges with {{IPA|/t͡ʃ/}} after consonants; e.g. {{lang|ca|pun'''x'''a}} {{IPA|[ˈpuɲt͡ʃa]}} ('thorn').{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=22}}
* In some Valencian dialects (e.g. Northern Valencian), {{IPA|/s/}} and {{IPA|/ʃ/}} are auditorily similar such that neutralization may occur in the future.{{sfn|Recasens Vives|Espinosa|2007|p=147}}<!-- {{sfn|Rafel Fontanals|1981}} --> That is the case of Northern Valencian where {{IPA|/ʃ/}} is depalatalized{{clarify|date=September 2017}} to {{IPA|[js̠ ~ jsʲ]}} as in {{lang|ca|ca'''ix'''a}} ('box'). Central Valencian words like {{lang|ca|m'''ig'''}} ('half') and {{lang|ca|lle'''ig'''}} ('ugly') have been transcribed with {{IPA|[t͡s]}} rather than the expected {{IPA|[t͡ʃ]}}, and Southern Valencian {{IPA|/t͡ʃ/}} "has been reported to undergo depalatalization without merging with {{IPA|[t͡s]}}",{{sfn|Recasens Vives|Espinosa|2007|p=147}} as in {{lang|ca|passe'''ts'''}} ('small steps') vs. {{lang|ca|passe'''ig'''}} ('stroll, avenue')

== Historical development ==
{{Main|Phonological history of Catalan}}

Catalan shares features with neighboring Romance languages ([[Occitan language|Occitan]], [[Italian language|Italian]], [[Sardinian language|Sardinian]], [[French language|French]], [[Spanish language|Spanish]]).{{sfn|Wheeler|2005|p=1}}

* Marked contrast of the vowel pairs {{IPA|/ɛ/ ~ /e/}} and {{IPA|/ɔ/ ~ /o/}}, as in other [[Western Romance]] languages, except Spanish and Sardinian.{{sfn|Ferrater Soler|1977|p=630}}
* Lenition of voiced stops {{IPA|[b] → [β], [d] → [ð], [ɡ] → [ɣ]}} as in Galician and Spanish.{{sfn|Ferrater Soler|1977|p=630}}
* Lack of [[diphthongization]] of [[Latin]] short {{lang|la|ĕ}}, {{lang|la|ŏ}}, as in [[Galician language|Galician]], Sardinian and Portuguese, and unlike French, Spanish and Italian.{{sfn|Ferrater Soler|1977|p=630}}
* Abundance of diphthongs containing {{IPA|/w/}}, as in Galician and Portuguese.{{sfn|Ferrater Soler|1977|p=630}}
* Abundance of {{IPA|/ʎ/}} and {{IPA|/ɲ/}} occurring at the end of words, as for instance {{wikt-lang|ca|moll}} ("wet") and {{wikt-lang|ca|any}} ("year"), unlike Spanish,{{sfn|Hall|2001|p=19}} Portuguese or Italian.

In contrast with other Romance languages, Catalan has many [[monosyllabic]] words; and those ending in a wide variety of consonants and some [[consonant cluster]]s.{{sfn|Ferrater Soler|1977|p=630}} Also, Catalan has [[final obstruent devoicing]], thus featuring many couplets like {{lang|ca|amic}} ('male friend') vs. {{lang|ca|amiga}} ('female friend').{{sfn|Ferrater Soler|1977|p=630}}

== Phonological sample ==
:{| class="wikitable"
|+ ''[[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]]'', Article 1
|-
! Original
| {{lang|ca|Tots els éssers humans neixen/naixen lliures i iguals en dignitat i en drets. <br /> Són dotats de raó i de consciència, i han de comportar-se fraternalment els uns amb els altres.}}
|-
! Majorcan (Balearic) Catalan IPA 
| {{IPA|[ˈtodz‿əlz‿ˈesərz‿uˈmanz ˈneʃən ˈʎiu̯ɾəz‿iːˈɣwalz‿ən diŋniˈtat‿j‿ən ˈdɾəts}} ‖ <br /> {{IPA|son dotadz‿ðə rəˈo‿i̯ ðə konsiˈɛ̞nsi}} | {{IPA|j‿an də kompoɾˈtaɾ.sə fɾətəɾnalˈment‿əlz‿ˈunz‿əmb‿əlz‿altɾəs]}}
|-
! Eastern Central Catalan IPA
| {{IPA|[ˈtodz‿əlz‿ˈesərz‿uˈmanz ˈneʃən ˈʎiu̯ɾəz‿iːˈɣwalz‿ən diŋniˈtat‿j‿ən ˈdɾɛts}} ‖ <br /> {{IPA|son dutadz‿ðə rəˈo‿i̯ ðə kunsiˈɛnsiə}} | {{IPA|j‿an də kumpurˈtaɾ.sə fɾətərnalˈmen‿əlz‿ˈunz‿əmb‿əlz‿altɾəs]}}
|-
! Northern Catalan IPA
| {{IPA|[ˈtudz‿əlz‿ˈe̞sərz‿uˈmanz ˈne̞ʃən ˈʎiu̯ɾəz‿iːˈgwalz‿ən diŋniˈtat‿j‿ən ˈdɾe̞ts}} ‖ <br /> {{IPA|sun dutadz‿ðə rəˈu‿i̯ də kunsiˈe̞nsi}} | {{IPA|j‿an də kumpurˈtaɾ.sə fɾətərnalˈme̞n‿əlz‿ˈunz‿əmb‿əlz‿altɾəs]}}
|-
! North-Western Catalan IPA
| {{IPA|[ˈtodz‿elz‿ˈeseɾz‿uˈmanz ˈnajʃen ˈʎiu̯ɾez‿iːˈɣwalz‿en diŋniˈtat‿j‿an ˈdɾets}} ‖ <br /> {{IPA|son dotadz‿ðe raˈo‿i̯ ðe konsiˈɛnsiɛ}} | {{IPA|j‿an de kompoɾˈtaɾ.se fɾateɾnalˈmen‿elz‿ˈunz‿amb‿elz‿a(l)tɾes]}}
|-
! Valencian IPA
| {{IPA|[ˈtodz‿elz‿ˈeseɾz‿uˈmanz ˈnajʃen ˈʎiu̯ɾez‿iːˈɣwalz‿en diŋniˈtat‿j‿en ˈdɾets}} ‖ <br /> {{IPA|son dotadz‿ðe raˈo‿i̯ ðe konsiˈɛ̞nsia}} | {{IPA|j‿an de kompoɾˈtaɾ.se fɾateɾnalˈment‿elz‿ˈunz‿amb‿elz‿a(l)tɾes]}}
|}

== See also ==
* [[Catalan dialects|Catalan dialects and varieties]]
** [[Algherese dialect#Phonology|Alguerese § Phonology]]
** [[Balearic Catalan#Phonology|Balearic § Phonology]]
** [[Valencian language#Phonology|Valencian § Phonology]]
* [[Occitan phonology]]
* [[Index of phonetics articles]]

== Notes ==
{{Notelist|30em}}

== References ==
{{Reflist|30em}}

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== External links ==
* [https://joaquimllisterri.cat/language_resources/SAMPA_Catalan.html A proposal for Catalan SAMPA]
* [http://www.ub.edu/sonscatala/ ''Els sons del català''] {{in lang|ca}}

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[[Category:Catalan language|Phonology, Catalan]]
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