View source for Camunni

{{Short description|Ancient population during the Iron Age}}
[[File:Rosa camuna e antropomorfi R24 - Foppe - Nadro (Foto Luca Giarelli).jpg|thumb|250px|[[Rock Drawings in Valcamonica]]: [[Camunian rose]] and two human figures (one in ''martellina'', the other in [[graffiti]])]]
The '''Camuni''' or '''Camunni''' were an ancient population located in [[Val Camonica]] during the [[Iron Age]] (1st millennium BC); the [[Latin]] name ''Camunni'' was attributed to them by the authors of the 1st century. They are also called '''ancient Camuni''', to distinguish them from the current inhabitants of the valley (the ''Camuni'' or ''Camunians''). The Camunni were among the greatest producers of [[rock art]] in [[Europe]]; their name is linked to the famous [[Rock Drawings in Valcamonica|rock engravings of Valcamonica]].

A people of obscure origin, they lived in a region, the [[Val Camonica]], that had already been the site of a cultural tradition dating back to the early [[Neolithic]]. The Camunni are mentioned by classical historiographical sources from the 1st century BC, corresponding to the Iron Age in [[Val Camonica]] (from the 12th century BC until about Romanization). In [[ancient Greek]], [[Strabo]] referred to them as {{lang|grc|Καμοῦνοι}} (''Kamounoi''), while [[Cassius Dio]] called them {{lang|grc|Καμούννιοι}} (''Kamounnioi'').

Conquered by [[Rome]] at the beginning of the 1st century AD, the Camunni were gradually incorporated into the political and social structures of the [[Roman Empire]] as a self-governing polity called the ''Res Publica Camunnorum''. They were granted Roman citizenship from the second half of the 1st century, with a rapid process of Latinization.

==History==
[[File:Gallia Cisalpina-en.svg|thumb|300px|right|Peoples of [[Cisalpine Gaul]] 391-192 BC.]]

===The Camunni in classical sources===
The Greek historian [[Strabo]] (63/64 BC–ca. 24 AD) described the Camunni as part of the [[Rhaeti]]an peoples and related to the [[Lepontii]] (who according to Strabo were of Rhaetic stock, though modern linguists generally regard the [[Lepontic]] language as Celtic):<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://linguistlist.org/forms/langs/LLDescription.cfm?code=xlp |title=LinguistList: Lepontic |access-date=2016-01-27 |archive-date=2011-12-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111222225335/http://linguistlist.org/forms/langs/LLDescription.cfm?code=xlp |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>John T. Koch (ed.) ''Celtic culture: a historical encyclopedia'' ABC-CLIO (2005) {{ISBN|978-1-85109-440-0}}</ref>

{{Quote|Ἑξῆς δὲ τὰ πρὸς ἕω μέρη τῶν ὀρῶν καὶ τὰ ἐπιστρέφοντα πρὸς νότον Ῥαιτοὶ καὶ Ὀυινδολικοὶ κατέχουσι, συνάπτοντες Ἐλουηττίοις καὶ Βοίοις· ἐπίκεινται γὰρ τοῖς ἐκείνων πεδίοις. Οἱ μὲν οὖν Ῥαιτοὶ μέχρι τῆς Ἰταλίας καθήκουσι τῆς ὑπὲρ Οὐήρωνος καὶ Κώμου. Καὶ ὅ γε Ῥαιτικὸς οἶνος, τῶν ἐν τοῖς Ἰταλικοῖς ἐπαινουμένων οὐκ ἀπολείπεσθαι δοκῶν, ἐν ταῖς τούτων ὑπωρείαις γίνεται· διατείνουσι δὲ καὶ μέχρι τῶν χωρίων, δι' ὧν ὁ Ῥῆνος φέρεται· τούτου δ' εἰσὶ τοῦ φύλου καὶ Ληπόντιοι καὶ Καμοῦνοι. Οἱ δὲ Ὀυινδολικοὶ καὶ Νωρικοὶ τὴν ἐκτὸς παρώρειαν κατέχουσι τὸ πλέον· μετὰ Βρεύνων καὶ Γεναύνων, ἤδη τούτων Ἰλλυριῶν. Ἅπαντες δ' οὗτοι καὶ τῆς Ἰταλίας τὰ γειτονεύοντα μέρη κατέτρεχον ἀεὶ καὶ τῆς Ἐλουηττίων καὶ Σηκοανῶν καὶ Βοίων καὶ Γερμανῶν. Ἰταμώτατοι δὲ τῶν μὲν Ὀυινδολικῶν ἐξητάζοντο Λικάττιοι καὶ Κλαυτηνάτιοι καὶ Ὀυέννωνες, τῶν δὲ Ῥαιτῶν Ῥουκάντιοι καὶ Κωτουάντιοι. |[[Strabo]]| Geography IV, 6.8}}
<br>
{{quote|''Next, in order, come those parts of the mountains that are towards the east, and those that bend round towards the south: the Rhaeti and the [[Vindelici]] occupy them, and their territories join those of the [[Helvetii|Elvetii]] and the [[Boii]]; for their territories overlook the plains of those peoples. Now the Rhaeti reach down as far as that part of Italy which is above Verona and [[Como|Comum]] (moreover, the "Rhaetic" wine, which has the repute of not being inferior to the approved wines of the Italic regions, is made in the foothills of the [[Rhaetia|Rhaetic Alps]]), and also extend as far as the districts through which the [[Rhine|Rhenus]] runs; the Lepontii, also, and Camuni, belong to this stock. But the Vindelici and [[Norici]] occupy the greater part of the outer side of the mountain, along with the Breuni and the Genauni, the two peoples last named being [[Illyrians]]. All these peoples used to overrun, from time to time, the neighbouring parts, not only of Italy, but also of the country of the Elvetii, the Sequani, the Boii, and the Germani. The Licattii, the Clautenatii, and the Vennones proved to be the boldest warriors of all the Vindelici, as did the Rucantii and the Cotuantii of all the Rhaeti.''}}

The Roman historian [[Pliny the Elder]] (23–79 AD), citing the [[Origines]] of [[Cato the Elder]] (234–149 BC), spoke instead of the Camunni as one of several tribes of the [[Euganei]]:
{{Quote |Verso deinde in Italiam pectore Alpium Latini iuris Euganeae gentes, quarum oppida XXXIIII enumerat Cato. ex iis Trumplini, venalis cum agris suis populus, dein Camunni conpluresque similes finitimis adtributi municipis|[[Pliny the Elder]]|''[[Naturalis Historia]]'', III.133-134.}}

{{quote|''Turning then to the side of the Alps which fronts Italy, we have the Euganean nations enjoying Latin rights, and of whom Cato enumerates thirty-four towns. Among these are the [[Triumplini]], a people who were sold with their territory; and then the Camuni, and several similar tribes, each of them in the jurisdiction of its neighbouring municipal town.''}}

[[File:Cernunnos - Naquane R 70 - Capo di Ponte.jpg|thumb|A [[rock drawings in Valcamonica|rock carving]] of [[Cernunnos]] in the National park of Naquane ([[Capo di Ponte]])<ref name=cernunnos>Umberto Sansoni-Silvana Gavaldo, ''L'arte rupestre del Pià d'Ort: la vicenda di un santuario preistorico alpino'', p. 156; {{cite web|url=http://www.voli.bs.it/Itinera/02/senza_itinerario/piancogno/des_piancogno.html|title=Ausilio Priuli, ''Piancogno'' su "Itinera"|accessdate=April 2, 2009|language=italian|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20060506110833/http://www.voli.bs.it/itinera/02/senza_itinerario/piancogno/des_piancogno.html|archivedate=2006-05-06}}.</ref>]]

===Contacts with the Etruscans and Celts===
The [[Etruscans]], already widespread in the Po Valley, had contacts with Alpine populations by the 5th century BC. Surviving traces of Etruscan cultural influence are recorded in the aforementioned rock art in over two hundred texts written in the [[Camunic language|Camunic alphabet]], which is a variant of the North Etruscan alphabet.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.comune.paspardo.bs.it/Paese/Conoscere/Storia_Arte_Cultura/Arte/Incisioni/incisioni.asp |title=''Incisioni rupestri'' on the page of the ''comune'' of Paspardo |accessdate=April 2, 2009 |language=italian |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090930090623/http://www.comune.paspardo.bs.it/Paese/Conoscere/Storia_Arte_Cultura/Arte/Incisioni/incisioni.asp |archivedate=September 30, 2009 }}.</ref> At the beginning of the 4th century BC, the Celtic [[Gauls]] arrived in Italy. Coming from [[Transalpine Gaul]], they settled in the [[Po plain]] and came in touch with the Camunian population. Some of the petroglyphs in Valcamonica with figures of Celtic deities such as [[Kernunnos]] attest this Gaulish presence.<ref name=cernunnos />

===The Roman conquest===
[[File:Shepherd-c-026-027.jpg|thumb|250px|left|Northern Italy according to [[William R. Shepherd]]'s ''Historical Atlas''; the ''Camunni'' are at the western end of Venetia]]
Val Camonica was subjected to Rome during the campaigns of [[Augustus]] to conquer [[Raetia]] and the Alpine arc, conducted by his generals [[Nero Claudius Drusus]] and [[Tiberius]] (the future emperor) against the mountain peoples in 16–15 BC. [[Publius Silius Nerva]], governor of [[Illyricum (Roman province)|Illyricum]], was to complete the conquest of the eastern Alpine front, which reached from the valley of Como to Lake Garda (therefore including the Valcamonica), in addition to the [[Vennoneti]] of [[Vinschgau]].

The Roman conquest is also mentioned by the Roman historian [[Cassius Dio]] writing in Greek:

{{Quote|Καὶ γὰρ Καμμούνιοι καὶ Οὐέννιοι, Ἀλπικὰ γένη, ὅπλα τε ἀντήραντο καὶ νικηθέντες ὑπὸ Πουπλίου Σιλίου ἐχειρώθησαν.|[[Cassius Dio]]| ''Historia Romana'', book 54}}
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''The Camunni and Vennoni, Alpine tribes, took up arms against the Romans, but were conquered and subdued by Publius Silius.''

This conquest was celebrated in the [[Trophy of the Alps]] (''Tropaeum Alpium''), a Roman monument erected in 7–6 BC and located in the French town of [[La Turbie]], whose frontal inscription named the conquered Alpine peoples:

{{Quote|· GENTES ALPINAE DEVICTAE TRVMPILINI · CAMVNNI · VENOSTES ·| [[Trophy of Augustus|Tropaeum Alpium]]|[[La Turbie]]}}

[[File:Inscription CIL V 4957 from Cividate Camuno - Capitolium Brescia (Foto Luca Giarelli).jpg|thumb|right|Inscription of the Roman period found in [[Cividate Camuno]], containing the terms: QUIR(ina), CAMUNNIS and RE P(ublica) CAMUNNOR(um)<ref>{{CIL|05|4957}}</ref>]]
After the Roman conquest, the Camunni were annexed to the nearest cities in a condition of semi-subjection through the practice of ''adtributio'', which allowed them to maintain their own tribal constitution while the dominant city became the administrative, judicial, and fiscal center.<ref name=unitn>{{cite web|url=http://alpiantiche.unitn.it/storia/roman/roman8.htm|title=L'adtributio e la Tabula clesiana|work=Le Alpi on line. Storia e archeologia della Alpi|publisher=Università di Trento)|accessdate=2009-03-20|language=italian|archive-date=2007-07-12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070712073559/http://alpiantiche.unitn.it/storia/roman/roman8.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref> The city that the Camunni were assigned to was probably [[Brescia|Brixia]]. At first they were assigned the status of ''[[peregrinus (Roman)|peregrinus]]'', and then they obtained [[Roman citizenship]]; in the [[Flavian dynasty|Flavian Age]] they were assigned to the [[Quirina]] [[Roman tribe#The Servian tribes|tribe]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cividatecamuno.com/guida/romanizzazione.htm|title=Guida turistica a Cividate Camuno - La romanizzazione|accessdate=2009-03-21|language=italian}}</ref> while they maintained a certain self-government; in fact, a ''Res Publica Camunnorum'' has been recorded.

Romanization proceeded from [[Civitas Camunnorum]] (Cividate Camuno), a city founded by the Romans around 23 BC, during the principate of [[Tiberius]]. Beginning in the 1st century, the Camunni were included in stable Roman political and social structures, as evidenced by the numerous [[legionaries]], artisans, and even [[gladiator]]s of Camunian origins in several areas of the [[Roman Empire]]. Camunian religion went through the process of [[interpretatio Romana]], forming a syncretic combination with [[Religion in ancient Rome|Roman religion]].<ref name=solano>{{cite web|url=http://www.voli.bs.it/itinera/05/05/romana/santuario/default.htm|archive-url=https://archive.today/20121218181438/http://www.voli.bs.it/itinera/05/05/romana/santuario/default.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=December 18, 2012|author=Serena Solano|title=Il santuario di Minerva|work=Itinera|accessdate=2009-03-13|language=italian}}</ref>

==Religion==
Camunian stone carvings, 70–80% of which date to the Bronze Age, are thought to have held value for celebratory, commemorative, initiatory, and propitiatory rituals.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.archeocamuni.it/eta_del_ferro_camuna.html |title=L'età del Ferro camuna |work=Archeocamuni |accessdate=July 28, 2011 |language=italian}}</ref> The [[Sanctuary of Minerva]], found at Spinera between [[Cividate Camuno]] and [[Breno, Lombardy|Breno]] in 1986, dates to the Roman period and was finely decorated with mosaics.

The beginning of the Middle Ages coincided with the arrival of the [[Christian religion]] among the Camunni. The 4th and 5th centuries witnessed the destruction of the ancient places of worship, with the destruction of [[statue menhir]]s in [[Ossimo]] and [[Cemmo]] and the burning of the [[Sanctuary of Minerva]].<ref name=solano />

==Language==
{{Main|Camunic language}}

Surviving traces of the language spoken by the Camunni are scarce and undeciphered. Among the [[Rock Drawings in Valcamonica]] there are some inscriptions written in the [[Camunic language]], written in a northern variant of the [[Etruscan alphabet]]. There is insufficient knowledge about Camunic to be able to determine whether it belongs to a broader [[language family]].

==References==
<references />
*{{SmithDGRG|title=Camuni}}

==Bibliography==

===Primary sources===
* [[Cassius Dio]], [[Roman History]]
* [[Pliny the Elder]], ''[[Natural History (Pliny)|Naturalis Historia]]''
* [[Strabo]], ''[[Geographica]]''
* [[Trophy of the Alps]]

===Historiographical literature ===
* Raffaele De Marinis, ''Le popolazioni alpine di stirpe retica'' in G. Pugliese Carratelli (a cura di) Italia omnium terrarum alumna, Milano, Garzanti-Scheiwiller, 1988. pp.&nbsp;95–155
* Lino Ertani, ''La Valle Camonica attraverso la storia'', Esine, Tipolitografia Valgrigna, 1996.
* Francesco Fedele, ''L'uomo, le Alpi, la Valcamonica - 20.000 anni di storia al Castello di Breno'', Boario Terme, La Cittadina, 1988.
* Valeria Mariotti, ''Il teatro e l'anfiteatro di Cividate Camuno'', Arti grafiche BMB, 2004. {{ISBN|88-7814-254-9}}
* Pietro Paolo Ormanico, ''Considerationi sopra alcvne memorie della Religione Antica dei Camvli, ò Camvni'', Bornato, Sardini Editrice [1639], 1983.
* Umberto Sansoni, Silvana Gavaldo, ''L'arte rupestre del Pià d'Ort: la vicenda di un santuario preistorico alpino'', Edizioni del Centro, 1995.
* Ronald Syme, "The Alps" in ''[[Cambridge Ancient History]]'', Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, Vol. VIII.

==See also==
*[[Ancient peoples of Italy]]
*[[Rock Drawings in Valcamonica]]
*[[Val Camonica]]

{{Rhaetian peoples}}
{{Wiktionary|camunian}}

[[Category:Ancient peoples of Italy]]
[[Category:Tribes conquered by Rome]]