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{{short description|Roman castrum where Colchester, England, now stands}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2015}}
{{Infobox ancient site
  |name = Camulodunum
  |alternate_name = Camulodunon, Colonia Claudia Victricensis, Colonia Victricensis
  |image = The Roman Town Wall, Head Street to the Balkerne Gate 3.JPG
  |alt = 
  |caption = Colchester's Roman town walls, with distinctive bands of Roman red bricks
  |map_type = England
  |coordinates = {{coord|51|53|31|N|0|53|53|E|display=inline,title}}
  |location = [[Colchester]], [[Essex]], [[England]]
  |region = [[Roman Britain|Britannia]]
  |type = [[Colonia (Roman)|Colonia]]
  |built = Late 1st century BC
  |epochs = [[British Iron Age]] to [[Roman Empire]]
  |website = <!-- {{URL|example.com}} -->
  |notes = [[Ordnance Survey National Grid|OS grid reference]]: [http://toolserver.org/~rhaworth/os/coor_g.php?pagename=Camulodunum&params=TL995255_region%3AGB_scale%3A25000 TL995255]
}}

'''Camulodunum''' ({{IPAc-en|ˌ|k|æ|m|(|j|)|ʊ|l|əʊ|ˈ|dj|uː|n|ə|m}} {{respell|KAM|(y)uu|loh|DEW|nəm}};<ref name="Collins3">{{cite web|url=http://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/camulodunum?showCookiePolicy=true|title=Camulodunum |access-date=26 September 2014|publisher=Collins Dictionary|date=n.d.}}</ref> {{langx|la|{{sc|camvlodvnvm}}}}), the [[Roman Empire|Ancient Roman]] name for what is now [[Colchester]] in [[Essex]], was an important<ref name="Todd, M 1981"/><ref name="Wilson, Roger J 2002"/> [[Castra|castrum]] and city in [[Roman Britain]], and the first capital of the province. A temporary "[[wikt:strapline|strapline]]" in the 1960s identifying it as the "oldest recorded town in Britain" has become popular with residents and is still used on heritage roadsigns on trunk road approaches.<ref name="McWhirr, Alan 1988">McWhirr, Alan (1988) Roman Crafts and Industries. Published by Shire Publications LTD. ({{ISBN|0 85263 594 X}})</ref> Originally the site of the Brythonic-[[Celt]]ic [[oppidum]] of '''Camulodunon''' (meaning "stronghold of [[Camulos]]"), capital of the [[Trinovantes]] and later the [[Catuvellauni]] tribes, it was first mentioned by name on coinage minted by the chieftain [[Tasciovanus]] some time between 20 and 10 BC.<ref name="Crummy, Philip 1997"/> The Roman town began life as a [[Castra|Roman legionary base]] constructed in the AD 40s on the site of the Brythonic-Celtic fortress following its conquest by the Emperor [[Claudius]].<ref name="Crummy, Philip 1997"/> After the early town was destroyed during the [[Boudica|Iceni rebellion]] in AD 60/61, it was rebuilt, reaching its zenith in the 2nd and 3rd centuries.<ref name="Crummy, Philip 1997"/> During this time it was known by its official name '''Colonia&nbsp;Claudia Victricensis''' (''{{lang|la|{{sc|colonia clavdia victricensis}}}}''),<ref name="BBC">{{cite web |title=Roman Colchester: Britain's First City |author=Mike Ibeji |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/romans/colchester_01.shtml |publisher=BBC Online |access-date=20 May 2008}}</ref> often shortened to '''Colonia Victricensis''', and as ''Camulodunum'', a Latinised version of its original Brythonic name.<ref name="cooper"/> The town was home to a large classical [[Temple of Claudius, Colchester|temple]], two theatres (including Britain's largest), several Romano-British temples, Britain's only known chariot circus, Britain's first town walls, several large cemeteries and over 50 known mosaics and tessellated pavements.<ref name="Todd, M 1981"/><ref name="Wilson, Roger J 2002"/><ref name="Crummy, Philip 1997"/><ref>Hull, M.R. (1958). Roman Colchester. The Society of Antiquaries of London</ref> It may have reached a population of 30,000 at its height.<ref name="google">{{cite book|title=Discovering Roman Britain|author1=McCloy, A.|author2=Midgley, A.|date=2008|publisher=New Holland|isbn=9781847731289|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mswynZFMtqgC|page=60|access-date=25 October 2014}}</ref>

==Ptolemy names Camulodunum as being near Eboracum/York ==
In the second century AD, [[Ptolemy]], in his famous treatise [[Geographia]], identified the base of the Sixth Legion—who governed the [[Brigantes]], a tribe in Northern [[Roman Britain]]—as being near [[Eboracum]], which would eventually become [[York]]. He referred to the legion's base as Camulodunum.
<ref>[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_i_JfAAAAMAAJ/page/98/mode/2up ''Geography, II.3''], Ptolemy's Greek text as edited by Karl Müller, with Latin translation.</ref>
<ref>{{cite web | url=https://southmanchesternews.co.uk/pennine-dragon-extract-from-simon-keegans-book | title=Pennine Dragon - extract from Simon Keegan's book | date=2 March 2016 }}</ref>

==Camulodunon==
Colchester is said to be the [[Oldest town in Britain|oldest recorded town]] in Britain on the grounds that it was mentioned by [[Pliny the Elder]], who died in AD 79,<ref>Pliny, ''Naturalis Historia'', II, 187</ref> although the Celtic name of the town, ''Camulodunon'', appears on coins minted by tribal chieftain [[Tasciovanus]] in the period 20{{ndash}}10 BC.<ref name="Crummy, Philip 1997"/> Before the Roman conquest of Britain it was already a centre of power for [[Cunobelin]]{{snd}} known to Shakespeare as [[Cymbeline]]{{snd}} king of the [[Catuvellauni]] (c. 5 BC{{snd}}AD 40), who minted coins there.<ref>P. Salway, ''Roman Britain'' (Oxford University Press: Oxford, 1981), pp. 55–6</ref> Its [[Celt]]ic name, Camulodunon, variously represented as CA, CAM, CAMV, CAMVL and CAMVLODVNO on the coins of Cunobelinus, means 'the fortress of [the war god] [[Camulos]]'.<ref>V. Watts, ''The Cambridge Dictionary of English Place-Names'' (Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, 2004), p. 113; T. W. Potter, 'The Transformation of Britain', in P. Salway, ed., ''The Roman Era'' (Oxford University Press: Oxford, 2002), p. 21</ref> During the 30s AD Camulodunon controlled a large swathe of Southern and Eastern Britain, with Cunobelin called "''King of the Britons''" by Roman writers.<ref name="Crummy, Philip 1997"/> Camulodunon is sometimes popularly considered one of many possible sites around Britain for the legendary (perhaps [[mythology|mythical]]) [[Camelot]] of King Arthur,<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/travel/destinations/europe/uk/8561756/Camelot-discovering-the-legend-of-King-Arthur-around-Britain.html?image=5 |title=Camelot: discovering the legend of King Arthur around Britain |work=[[The Daily Telegraph]] |date=8 June 2011 |access-date=15 August 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150926075557/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/travel/destinations/europe/uk/8561756/Camelot-discovering-the-legend-of-King-Arthur-around-Britain.html?image=5 |archive-date=26 September 2015 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> though the name ''Camelot'' (first mentioned by the 12th-century French Arthurian storyteller [[Chrétien de Troyes]]) is most likely a corruption of ''[[Battle of Camlann|Camlann]]'', a now unknown location first mentioned in the 10th-century Welsh annalistic text [[Annales Cambriae]], identified as the place where Arthur was slain in battle.<ref>Brugger, Ernst "Beiträge zur Erklärung der arthurischen Geographie II: Gorre", in: Zeitschrift für französische Sprache und Literatur, Volume 28, Berlin, 1905, pp. 1–71 (p. 22-23).</ref>

==Iron Age ''Camulodunon''==
[[File:Camulodunon001.png|right|thumb|The Iron Age site of Camulodunon]]
The earliest [[Iron Age Britain|Iron Age]] defensive site at Colchester is the Pitchbury Ramparts earthwork north of the town between [[West Bergholt]] and [[Great Horkesley]].<ref name="Crummy, Philip 1997"/> The main earthwork defences of the Brythonic Celtic [[oppidum]] of ''Camulodunon'' were built later, beginning in the 1st century BC but most date from the 1st century AD.<ref name="Crummy, Philip 1997"/> They are considered the most extensive of their kind in Britain.<ref name="Crummy, Philip 1997"/><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.thecolchesterarchaeologist.co.uk/?p=967 |title=Britain's biggest Iron Age dyke system gets even bigger |website=www.thecolchesterarchaeologist.co.uk |date= March 2011|access-date=25 July 2014}}</ref> The defences consist of lines of ditches and ramparts, possibly palisaded with gateways, that mostly run parallel to each other in a north–south direction. The Iron Age settlement was protected by rivers on three sides, with the [[River Colne, Essex|River Colne]] bounding the site to the north and east, and the Roman River valley forming the southern boundary; the earthworks were mostly designed to close off the western gap between these two river valleys.<ref name="Crummy, Philip 1997"/><ref name="Denney, Patrick 2004">Denney, Patrick (2004) Colchester. Published by Tempus Publishing ({{ISBN|978-0-7524-3214-4}})</ref> Other earthworks close off eastern parts of the settlement. These earthworks gave the oppidum its Brythonic Celtic name – ''Camulodunon'' meant "the stronghold of [[Camulus]]", the British god of war.<ref name="Crummy, Philip 1997"/> Together they enclose an area of {{cvt|1,000|ha|mi2}}, much larger than the area enclosed by the [[Devil's Dyke, Hertfordshire|Iron Age defences]] at [[Wheathampstead]] ({{cvt|35|ha|mi2|disp=comma}}).<ref name="ColchArch2009">The Colchester Archaeologist. Issue no. 22. (2009). (ISSN 0952-0988)</ref>

The main sites within the bounds of these defences are the Gosbecks farmstead, the Sheepen industrial area and the Lexden burials. The Gosbecks site consists of a large, high-status farmstead,<ref name="cooper"/> believed to be the home of the tribal chieftains of Camulodunon.<ref name="Crummy, Philip 1997"/> Part of the Gosbecks complex is a large, square enclosure surrounded by a deep, wide ditch. This has been interpreted as part of a possible religious site, as during the Roman period a large temple was built in the middle of this enclosure.<ref name="Crummy, Philip 1997"/> The Sheepen site, located around what is now [[St Helena School, Colchester|St Helena School]] on the banks of the River Colne, was a large industrial and port zone, where extensive iron and leather working activity was carried out,<ref name="Crummy, Philip 1997"/><ref name="Denney, Patrick 2004"/><ref name="roman-britain.co.uk">{{Cite web|url=http://www.roman-britain.co.uk/places/camulodunum/|title = Colonia Camulodunum (Colchester)}}</ref> as well as an important coin mint.<ref name="Crummy, Philip 1997"/> Two coins minted at Sheepen, one found in Colchester in 1980 and another found at [[Canterbury]] in 1978, depict boats, and are the only known depictions of sailing vessels from [[Iron Age Britain]].<ref name="Denney, Patrick 2004"/> [[Amphorae]] containing imported goods from the continent have been found at Sheepen,<ref>Sealy, P.R. (1985) Amphoras from the 1970 excavations of Colchester Sheepen. Oxford, British Archaeological Report 142</ref> as have pieces of imported Samian pottery.<ref>Begley, Vimala and Daniel de Puma, Richard (eds.) (1991) ''Rome and India. The Ancient Sea Trade''. University of Wisconsin Press ({{ISBN|0-299-12640-4}})</ref>

[[File:Cunobelin coin 2.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.1|Coin of the [[Catuvellauni]] king [[Cunobelinus]] minted at [[Camulodunon]].]]
Just inside the earthworks, at Lexden, are located the burial mounds of the rulers of Camulodunon, which contain large amounts of grave goods including imported Roman material from Europe;<ref name="Crummy, Philip 1997"/> the largest of these mounds is the [[Lexden#History|Lexden tumulus]].<ref>{{PastScape|mnumber=384037|access-date=22 July 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://unlockingessex.essexcc.gov.uk/uep/custom_pages/monument_detail.asp?content_page_id=89&monument_id=34083&content_parents=48 |title=Seax Archaeology |website=unlockingessex.essexcc.gov.uk |access-date=22 July 2014 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140728203414/http://unlockingessex.essexcc.gov.uk/uep/custom_pages/monument_detail.asp?content_page_id=89&monument_id=34083&content_parents=48| archive-date=28 July 2014}}</ref> The Lexden area around the mounds contains several Iron Age cremation burial groups, including one containing the "Mirror burial", with other burials located around the Camulodunon site.<ref name="Crummy, Philip 1997"/> A large cluster of cremations from St. Clare road and Fitzwalter Road close to the Lexden Tumulus date to 50–10 BC.<ref name="ColchArch2009"/>

Aside from these main activity areas, the 1,000&nbsp;ha area enclosed by the defensive earthworks and rivers mainly consisted of a network of droveways, [[hollow way]]s, pastures and fields associated with cattle herding.<ref name="ColchArch2009"/> Scattered [[Roundhouse (dwelling)#British Isles|roundhouses]] and burials have been discovered amongst these droveways.<ref name="ColchArch2009"/> The defences were designed to protect the high status and industrial areas as well as prevent [[cattle rustling]] of valuable herds.<ref name="ColchArch2009"/> Camulodunon was surrounded by farmsteads like those at Abbotstone near [[Colchester Zoo]] and at [[Birch, Essex|Birch Quarry]], many of which continued to exist on into the Roman period until at least the 2nd and 3rd centuries AD.<ref name="ColchArch2009"/>

Iron Age salt works (known as [[Red Hill (salt making)|red hills]]) have been found in large numbers around the Essex coast, including several large concentrations located in the [[salt marshes]] close to Camulodunon in the Colne Estuary, on the Roman River near [[Fingringhoe]], in [[Alresford, Essex|Alresford Creek]], on [[Mersea Island]], the Pyefleet Channel, the [[River Blackwater, Essex|Blackwater River]] and around the [[Tendring District|Tendring]] Peninsula.<ref name="Fawn, A 1990"/> Two large groups existed at [[Peldon]] and [[Tolleshunt D'Arcy]].<ref name="Strachan, David 1998">Strachan, David (1998) Essex from the Air, Archaeology and history from aerial photographs. Published by Essex County Council ({{ISBN|1 85281 165 X}})</ref> Camulodunon may have been an at the centre of the local trade in this important preservative.<ref name="Fawn, A 1990"/>

[[File:Bronze coins of Cunobelin 1 to 42 CE.jpg|left|thumb|upright=1.7|Bronze coin of Cunobelin – note the letters '''CAMV''' for ''Camulodunon'' at left, an indication of literacy]]
[[Addedomarus]], a king of the [[Trinovantes|Trinovantes tribe]] (originally centred at [[Braughing]]), is the first identifiable ruler of Camulodunon, known from his inscribed coins dating to around 25–10&nbsp;BC. For a brief period around 10&nbsp;BC [[Tasciovanus]], a king of the [[Catuvellauni]] already issuing coins from [[Verlamion]], also issued coins from Camulodunon, suggesting that the Trinovantes' capital had been conquered by the Catuvellauni, but he was soon forced to withdraw, perhaps as a result of Roman pressure – his later coins are no longer marked with the Latin ''[[Rex (king)|REX]]'' (for "king"), but with the [[Common Brittonic|Brythonic]] ''RICON'' – and Addedomarus was restored. His son [[Dubnovellaunus]] succeeded him, but was soon supplanted by Tasciovanus' son [[Cunobelinus]]. Cunobelinus then succeeded his father at Verlamion, beginning the dominance of the Catuvellauni over the south-east.<ref>John Creighton (2000), ''Coins and power in Late Iron Age Britain'', Cambridge University Press</ref><ref>[[Philip de Jersey]] (1996), "Celtic Coinage in Britain", ''Shire Archaeology''</ref> Cunobelinus was friendly with Rome, marking his coins with the word ''REX'' and classical motifs rather than the traditional Gallo-Belgic designs. Archaeology shows an increase in imported luxury goods, probably through the Sheepen site port of Camulodunon, during his reign.<ref>Keith Branigan (1987), ''The Catuvellauni'', Alan Sutton Publishing Ltd, pp. 10–11</ref> He was probably one of the British kings that [[Strabo]] says sent embassies to [[Augustus]]. Strabo reports Rome's lucrative trade with Britain; the island's exports included grain, gold, silver, iron, hides, slaves and hunting dogs.<ref>[[Strabo]], [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Strabo/4E*.html ''Geography'' 4.5]</ref> Iron ingots, slave chains and storage vessels discovered at the Sheepen site appear to confirm this trade with the Empire.<ref name="Crummy, Philip 1997"/>

==Pre-Boudican Roman town==

===Claudian invasion===

{{Main article|Roman invasion of Britain}}
{{Campaignbox Boudica's Uprising}}
[[File:Claudius crop.jpg|thumb|upright=1.05|right|The Emperor [[Claudius]] personally oversaw the Roman attack on Camulodunon. The town was renamed ''Colonia Victricensis'' in honour of his triumph, and [[Temple of Claudius, Colchester|a Temple was built there to worship him]]. Its foundation vaults still survive beneath [[Colchester Castle]].]]
The [[Catuvellauni]] king Cunobelinus, ruling from his capital at Camulodunon, had subjugated a large area of southern and eastern Britain,<ref name="Todd, M 1981">Todd, Malcolm. (1981) Roman Britain; 55 BC – AD 400. Published by Fontana Paperbacks ({{ISBN|0 00 633756 2}})</ref><ref name="Wilson, Roger J 2002"/> and was called by the Roman historian [[Suetonius]] "King of the Britons".<ref name="Crummy, Philip 1997"/> Under his rule Camulodunon had replaced Verlamion as the most important settlement in pre-Roman Britain.<ref name="Wilson, Roger J 2002"/> Around AD 40 he had fallen out with his son [[Adminius]] (acting as proxy ruler of the [[Cantiaci]] tribe in his father's name), who had fled to Rome for support.<ref name="Crummy, Philip 1997"/> There he was received by [[Caligula|the Emperor Gaius]], who [[Caligula#Britannia|may have attempted an invasion of Britain]] to put Adminius on his father's throne.<ref>Suetonius (1989) The Twelve Caesars. Published by Penguin Classics. ({{ISBN|0-14-044072-0}})</ref> After Cunobelinus’ death (c. AD 40) his sons took power with the eldest, [[Togodumnus]], ruling the Catuvellauni homeland around Verlamion, and [[Caratacus]] ruling from Camulodunon.<ref name="Crummy, Philip 1997"/> Together these brothers began expanding their influence over other British tribes, including the [[Atrebates]] of the south coast. [[Verica]], king of the Atrebates, which had branches on both sides of the [[English Channel]] and had been [[Roman client kingdoms in Britain|friends of Rome]] since [[Julius Caesar|Caesar's conquest]],<ref>Caesar (1982) The Conquest of Gaul. Published by Penguin Classics. ({{ISBN|0-14-044433-5}})</ref> appealed to the [[Claudius|Emperor Claudius]] for aid. At the time of this appeal in AD 43 the newly enthroned Emperor Claudius was in need of a military victory in order to secure his shaky position with the [[Roman army|military]], and saw this call for help as the perfect pretext.<ref>Scarre, Chris (1997) Chronicle of the Roman Emperors. The Reign-by-Reign Record of the Rulers of Imperial Rome. Published by Thames and Hudson. ({{ISBN|0-500-05077-5}})</ref> [[Aulus Plautius]] led the four Roman legions across to Britain with Camulodunon being their main target,<ref name="Todd, M 1981"/> defeating and killing Togodumnus near the [[Thames]] and then waiting for Claudius to cross the Channel. Claudius arrived with reinforcements, including artillery and elephants,<ref>[[Cassius Dio]], ''Roman History'' [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/60*.html#19 60.19–22]</ref> leading the attack on Camulodunon. Caratacus fled the storming of the town, taking refuge with the [[Ordovices]] and [[Silures]] tribes in [[Wales]] and becoming a Welsh folk hero for his resistance to Rome.<ref name="Crummy, Philip 1997"/> The Roman historian [[Suetonius]] and Claudius' triumphal arch state that after this battle the British kings who had been under Cunobelinus’ sons’ control surrendered without further bloodshed, Claudius accepting their submission in Camulodunon.<ref>[[Suetonius]], ''Claudius'' [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Claudius*.html#17 17]; [[s:Arch of Claudius|Arch of Claudius]]</ref>

===Roman fortress and early town===
As the stronghold of a major tribe in the south-east, Camulodunum held strategic importance.<ref name="BBC"/> A Roman legionary fortress or ''[[castrum]]'', the first permanent legionary fortress to be built in Britain,<ref name="Crummy, Philip 1997"/> was established within the confines of Camulodunon  (which was [[Latinisation of names|Latinised]] as ''Camulodunum'') following the successful invasion in AD 43, and was home to the [[Legio XX Valeria Victrix|Twentieth Legion]].<ref name="Todd, M 1981"/> A smaller fort was built against the Iron Age earthworks close to the Gosbecks high-status farmstead, and was home to the Ala Primae Thracum ("First Wing of [[Thracians]]", a cavalry regiment) and the Cohors Primae Vangionum ("First Cohort of [[Vangiones]]", a mixed cavalry-infantry unit from [[Gaul]]).<ref name="RBStan">{{cite web |url=http://www.roman-britain.co.uk/places/stanway/ |title=roman-britain}} retrieved 29 July 2014</ref>

[[File:Colchester roman ornaments.jpg|thumb|left|Figurines from a child's burial, pre-60/1]]

The legionary fortress was larger than a standard ''castrum'', and included a large annex on its north-east side.<ref name="Crummy, Philip 1997"/> It was protected by a large palisaded ditch and wall (Roman military ''[[Vallum]]'' and ''Fossa''), along with new earthwork ditch and rampart defences, built to supplement the existing native defences.<ref name="Wilson, Roger J 2002">Wilson, Roger J.A. (2002) A Guide to the Roman Remains in Britain (Fourth Edition). Published by Constable. ({{ISBN|1-84119-318-6}})</ref><ref name="Crummy, Philip 1992">Crummy, Philip (1992) Colchester Archaeological Report 6: Excavations at Culver Street, the Gilberd School, and other sites in Colchester 1971–85. Published by Colchester Archaeological Trust ({{ISBN|0-9503727-9-X}})</ref><ref name="Crummy, Philip 1984">Crummy, Philip (1984) Colchester Archaeological Report 3: Excavations at Lion Walk, Balkerne Lane, and Middleborough, Colchester, Essex. Published by Colchester Archaeological Trust ({{ISBN|0-9503727-4-9}})</ref> One of these was around the Sheepen site, which became the main Roman port for the fortress and later for the town, with another military river port at [[Fingringhoe]].<ref name="Crummy, Philip 1997"/>  Archaeological excavations in 2008–2009 revealed that the Roman Sheepen site was more extensive than previously thought, and had a network of gravelled roads and timber-buildings, some of which contained timber-lined basements.<ref name="ColchArch2009"/> A wooden paddle for a [[coracle]] was found preserved at the site.<ref name="ColchArch2009"/> The fortress had two main metalled roads, a north–south ''[[via principalis]]'' and an east–west ''[[via praetoria]]'', as well as a ''via sagularis'' around the inside of the defensive walls.<ref name="Crummy, Philip 1984"/> Along the roads leading out of the fortress settlements known as [[Vicus|vici]] developed, home to native Britons who served the Roman garrison.<ref name="Crummy, Philip 1997"/> The interior of the fortress consisted of long barrack blocks able to hold groups of eighty soldiers, known as a [[Century (military unit)|Century]], with a large room for a centurion at one end of each block.<ref name="Crummy, Philip 1984"/> Larger buildings for [[Military tribune|military Tribunes]] have been excavated in the centre of the fort<ref name="Crummy, Philip 1984"/> The walls of the military buildings were built on mortared plinths called ''opus caementicium'', with wooden and [[Wattle and daub|daub walls]] faced with keyed plaster.<ref name="Crummy, Philip 1984"/> Roman military equipment and weapons have been found from the fortress, including swords, armour and harness fittings.<ref name="Wilson, Roger J 2002"/>

[[File:Temple of Claudius, Colchester.svg|thumb|right|Plan of the [[Temple of Claudius, Colchester|Temple of Claudius at Colchester]].]]
After the legion was withdrawn in c. AD 49, the legionary defences were dismantled and the fortress converted into a town, with many of the barrack blocks converted into housing.<ref name="Crummy, Philip 1997"/><ref name="cooper"/> Its official name became ''[[Colonia (Roman)|Colonia]] Victricensis'', with discharged Roman soldiers making up the population; a bronze military ''[[Roman military diploma|diplomata]]'' (document formalising a soldier's retirement, citizen rights and land rights) for a legionary soldier called ''Saturninus'' has been found at the Sheepen site.<ref name="Crummy, Philip 1997"/> As a colonia (the only one in Britain at the time) its citizens held equal rights to Romans, and it was the principal city of Roman Britain.<ref name="Crummy, Philip 1997"/> [[Tacitus]] wrote that the town was "a strong ''colonia'' of ex-soldiers established on conquered territory, to provide a protection against rebels and a centre for instructing the provincials in the procedures of the law".<ref name="Wilson, Roger J 2002"/> The [[Temple of Claudius, Colchester|Temple of Claudius]], the largest [[Roman temple|classical style temple]] in Britain, was built there in the 50s and was dedicated to Emperor Claudius on his death in 54.<ref name="BBC"/><ref name="cooper">[http://www.british-history.ac.uk/report.aspx?compid=21969  "Iron-Age and Roman Colchester", ''A History of the County of Essex: Volume 9: The Borough of Colchester (1994): 2–18'', Janet Cooper, C R Elrington (Editors), A P Baggs, Beryl Board, Philip Crummy, Claude Dove, Shirley Durgan, N R Goose, R B Pugh, Pamela Studd, C C Thornton.. British History Online. Web. 01 June 2014]</ref> The podium, or foundation of the temple, was incorporated into the [[Colchester Castle|Norman castle]], and represents "the earliest substantial stone building of Roman date visible in the country".<ref name="Wilson, Roger J 2002"/> A monumental arch was built from [[tufa]] and [[Purbeck Marble]] at the western gate out of the town.<ref name="Crummy, Philip 1984"/> Tombs lined the roads out of the town, with several belonging to military veterans giving insights into the military units stationed in Britain during the post-Conquest period, such as:

*The famous tomb of the [[Thracian]] cavalryman Longinus Sdapeze,<ref name="Toynbee, J. 1996"/> depicting a [[Thracian horseman]] on horseback with full armour, in triumph over a cowering Briton. It reads:
::::LONGINVS.SDAPEZE
::::MATYCI.F.DVPLICARIVS.ALA.PRIMA.TRACVM.PAGO
::::SARDICA.ANNO.XL.AEROR.XV
::::HEREDES.EXS.TESTAM.F.C.
::::H S E
::(Translated: Longinus Sdapeze, son of Matycus, [[Duplicarius]] of Ala Primae Thracum, from the country district of [[Sardica]], who lived for forty years, with fifteen years’ paid service. His heirs set this up as stipulated in his will. He lies here.)<ref name="RBStan"/>

*The tomb of the [[centurion]] Marcus Favonius Facilis from Rome, depicting him in full [[Roman armour|military dress]], is one of the finest examples,<ref name="Wilson, Roger J 2002"/><ref name="Crummy, Philip 1997"/><ref name="Toynbee, J. 1996"/> and reads:
::::M.FAVONI.M.F.POL.FACI
::::LIS.C.LEG.XX.VERECVND
::::VS.ET.NOVCIVS.LIB.POSVERVNT H S E
::(Translated: For Marcus Favonius Facilis, son of Marcus, of the [[Roman voting tribes|Pollentian voting tribe]], centurion of the Twentieth Legion, Verecundus and Noucius his [[Freedmen#Ancient Rome|freedmen]] have placed [this memorial]. He lies here.)<ref name="roman-britain.co.uk"/>

*The tomb of an [[Auxiliaries (Roman military)|auxiliary]] from [[Gaul]]:
::::D M AR... RE... VAL... COH I VA... QVI M... EX AERE COLLATO
::(Translated: To the spirits of the departed and to Ar[...] Re[...] Val[...] of the First Cohort of Vangiones, who [...] former collector of taxes.)<ref name="RBStan"/>

*The tomb of another experienced centurion from [[Anatolia]]:
::::...LEG I (or II) ADIVTRICIS... ...AE BIS C ... ... BIS C LEG III AVG ... C LEG XX VAL VICTORIVNDVS NICAEA IN BITHYNIA MILITAVIT ANN ... VIXIT ANN ... ...
::(Translated: [...] of Legio Primae Adiutrix [...] twice centurion [...] twice centurion of Legio Tertiae Augusta [...] centurion of Legio Vicesimae Valeria, Victoriundus, from [[Nicaea]] in [[Bithynia]], with [...] years military service who lived for [...] years [...])<ref name="roman-britain.co.uk"/>

By 60–61 the population may have been as high as 30,000.<ref name="google2">{{cite book|title=A History of England in 100 Places: From Stonehenge to the Gherkin|author=Norwich, J.J.|date=2011|publisher=Hodder & Stoughton|isbn=9781848546080|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=37XQ87lOcXMC|access-date=25 October 2014}}</ref>

===Iceni revolt===
{{Main article|Battle of Camulodunum}}
[[File:Roman emperor head.jpg|thumb|left|The head of a presumed [[equestrian statue]] of either [[Nero]] or Claudius found in the [[River Alde]] at [[Rendham]] in [[Suffolk]], believed to have been taken from the Temple of Claudius during [[Boudica]]'s revolt.<ref name="Crummy, Philip 1997"/><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/highlights/highlight_objects/pe_prb/b/bronze_head_of_claudius.aspx|title= Head of the Emperor Claudius|publisher=British Museum}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=figure {{!}} British Museum |url=https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/H_1965-1201-1 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240708040219/https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/H_1965-1201-1 |archive-date=2024-07-08 |access-date=2025-03-10 |work=The British Museum |language=en}}</ref> [[British Museum]], London.]]
The city was the capital of the Roman province of [[Roman Britain|Britannia]], and its temple (the only classical-style temple in Britain) was the centre of the [[Imperial cult (ancient Rome)|Imperial Cult]] in the province.<ref name="Crummy, Philip 1997"/> The Roman philosopher [[Seneca the Younger|Seneca]] mentioned the temple when he [[Apocolocyntosis|mocked the province for its piety towards the Deified Claudius]].<ref>Petronius – The Satyricon/Seneca – The Apocolocyntosis (1986) Published by Penguin Classics. ({{ISBN|0-14-044489-0}})</ref> The colonia was also initially home to the [[Procurator (Roman)|provincial Procurator]] of Britain. Aside from the [[Roman citizen|Roman]] population, the city and surrounding territorium was also home to a large native population. Examples of cooperation between the two groups include the Romano-British [[Stanway, Essex#Druid of Colchester|Stanway Burials mounds]]<ref name="Crummy, Philip 1997"/><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.camulos.com/gosbecks.htm |title=Camulodunum – Gosbecks Archaeological Park |website=www.camulos.com |access-date=21 July 2014}}</ref> and the warrior graves of native elites from the 50s.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.gazette-news.co.uk/news/10677948._/ |title=Warrior grave found in excavation |website=www.gazette-news.co.uk |date=16 September 2013 |access-date=22 July 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.archaeology.org/news/1309-130918-england-warrior-catuvellauni-spears |title=2,000-Year-Old Warrior Grave & Spears Unearthed – Archaeology Magazine |website=www.archaeology.org |date=18 September 2013 |access-date=22 July 2014}}</ref> These graves represent members of the native aristocracy who have been Romanised.<ref name="Strachan, David 1998"/>

However tensions arose in 60/61 when the Roman authorities used the death of [[Prasutagus]] as a pretext for seizing the [[Iceni|Iceni client state]] from his widow [[Boudica]]. The [[Boudica#Uprising|Iceni rebels]] were joined by the Trinovantes around Colonia Victricensis, who held several grudges against the Roman population of the town. These included the [[Centuriation|seizure of land for the colonia's veteran population]], the use of labour to build the Temple of Claudius, and the sudden recall of loans given to the local elites by leading Romans (including Seneca and the Emperor), which had been needed to allow the locals to qualify for a position on the city council.<ref name="Crummy, Philip 1997"/><ref name="Tacitus">Tacitus (1876), [[s:The Annales (tacitus)/Book14#31|XIV:31]].</ref> The Procurator [[Catus Decianus]] was especially despised.<ref name="Todd, M 1981"/>

Tacitus recorded that certain ominous portents occurred in the town prior to the rebellion:

::"[...]the statue of [[Victoria (mythology)|Victory]] fell down, its back turned as though in retreat from the enemy. Women roused into frenzy chanted of approaching destruction, and declared that the cries of the barbarians had been heard in the council-chamber, that the theatre had re-echoed with shrieks, that a reflection of the ''colonia'', overthrown, had been seen in the Thames estuary. The sea appeared blood-red, and spectres of human corpses were left behind as the tide went out."<ref name="Wilson, Roger J 2002"/>

As the symbol of Roman rule in Britain the city was the first target of the rebels, with its Temple seen in British eyes as the ''arx aeternae dominationis'' ("stronghold of everlasting domination") according to Tacitus.<ref name="Wilson, Roger J 2002"/> He wrote that it was undefended by fortifications when it was attacked<ref name="Tacitus"/> with a garrison of only 200 members of the procurator's guard.<ref name="BBC"/> He wrote of a last stand at the Temple of Claudius:

:"In the attack everything was broken down and burnt. The temple where the soldiers had congregated was besieged for two days and then sacked.".<ref name="Wilson, Roger J 2002"/>

The rebels destroyed the city and slaughtered its population. Archaeologists have found layers of ash in the site of the city, suggesting that Boudica ordered her rebel army to burn the city to the ground.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.thecolchesterarchaeologist.co.uk/?p=13560 |title=Colchester: Death by sword in Boudicca's war? |website=www.thecolchesterarchaeologist.co.uk |date= 15 July 2014|access-date=21 July 2014}}</ref> A relief army consisting of the [[Legio IX Hispana]] led by [[Quintus Petillius Cerialis]] attempted to rescue the besieged citizens, but was [[Battle of Camulodunum|destroyed outside of the town]]. After the Romans under governor [[Gaius Suetonius Paullinus]] finally defeated the uprising, the Procurator of the province moved his seat to the newly established commercial settlement of [[Londinium]] ([[London]]).<ref>Graham Webster, ''Boudica: the British Revolt against Rome AD 60'', 1978, pp. 89–90</ref>

====Boudican destruction layer====
[[File:Boudica's Sprit^ Colchester - geograph.org.uk - 132842.jpg|right|thumb|Stylized statue of [[Boudica]] in [[Colchester]], commemorating her sacking of the Roman town.]]
The destruction of the early town by the rebels has left a thick layer of ash, destroyed buildings and smashed pottery and glasswork across the town centre and at the Sheepen river port site outside the NW corner of the town. The [[destruction layer]], also found at [[Verulamium]] ([[St Albans]]) and [[Londinium]] ([[London]]), is famous for the charred preservation of artefacts and furniture,<ref name="Wilson, Roger J 2002"/> including a samian store, a glass store, beds and mattresses, wall plaster, [[Roman mosaic|tessellated floors]], a few human bones with wounds and even [[Dates (fruit)|dates]] and [[plums]].<ref name="Crummy, Philip 1992"/><ref name="Crummy, Philip 1984"/><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.thecolchesterarchaeologist.co.uk/?p=13385 |title=The Trust finds further ancient human remains at Williams & Griffin… |website=www.thecolchesterarchaeologist.co.uk |date= 23 July 2014|access-date=24 July 2014}}</ref> During excavations in 2014 at [[Williams and Griffin]] on the High Street a collection of gold and silver jewellery was discovered buried in the floor of a Roman building destroyed during the revolt.<ref name="Fenwick1">{{cite web |url=http://www.thecolchesterarchaeologist.co.uk/?p=14844 |title=The Fenwick Treasure at Williams & Griffin! |website=www.thecolchesterarchaeologist.co.uk |date= 3 September 2014|access-date=4 September 2014}}</ref> Known as the "[[Fenwick (department store)|Fenwick]] Treasure", it appears to have been buried just prior to the building's destruction by a victim of the Boudican attack.<ref name="Fenwick1"/> The layer is important to [[historians]] as it is one of the first archaeological contexts in Britain that can be given a definitive date, as well as to [[archaeologists]] as it provides a snapshot of artifacts from 60, allowing [[Typology (archaeology)|typologies]] of finds to be tied into a historical timeline, for example in Samian production.<ref name="Bedoyere, Guy 1988"/> The rubble from the destruction was landscaped during the rebuilding of the town that took place in the years after the revolt.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.thecolchesterarchaeologist.co.uk/?p=13568 |title=Colchester's Boudican revolt human remains in national press |website=www.thecolchesterarchaeologist.co.uk |date= 9 July 2014|access-date=22 July 2014}}</ref>

==''Colonia Victricensis'' in the second and third centuries==
[[File:ColoniaVictricensisMap02.png|thumb|upright=1.3|right|The Roman '''Colonia Victricensis''' in its wider landscape]]
[[File:Gnaeus Munatius Aurelius Bassus.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|right|Tomb inscription for ''Gnaeus Munatius Aurelius Bassus'', mentioning Camulodunum in its ninth line. The tomb is noticeable for the precision of its lettering. [[Vatican Museum]], Rome.]]
Following the destruction of the Colonia and [[Suetonius Paulinus]]’ crushing of the revolt the town was rebuilt on a larger scale and flourished,<ref name="roman-britain.co.uk"/> growing larger in size than its pre-Boudican levels (to 108 acres/45 ha)<ref name="Wilson, Roger J 2002"/> despite its loss of status to [[Londinium]], reaching its peak in the Second and 3rd centuries.<ref name="Crummy, Philip 1997"/> The town's official name was ''Colonia Claudia Victricensis'' (City of Claudius’ Victory), but it was known colloquially by contemporaries (such as on the monument of Gnaeus Munatius Aurelius Bassus in Rome – ''see below'') as ''Camulodunum'' or simply ''Colonia''.<ref name="Crummy, Philip 1997"/>
The colonia became a large industrial centre, and was the largest, and for a short time the only, place in the province of Britannia where [[samian ware]] was produced, along with glasswork and metalwork, and a coin mint.<ref name="Crummy, Philip 1997"/> Roman brick making and wine growing also took place in the area. Colonia Victricensis contained many large townhouses, with dozens of mosaics and tessellated pavements found, along with [[hypocaust]]s and sophisticated waterpipes and drains.<ref name="Crummy, Philip 1997"/><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.thecolchesterarchaeologist.co.uk/?p=13656 |title=Part of Roman street uncovered at Williams & Griffin site |website=www.thecolchesterarchaeologist.co.uk |date= 16 July 2014|access-date=21 July 2014}}</ref>

The colonia is mentioned by name several times by contemporaries, including in [[Pliny the Elder|Pliny's]] [[Natural History (Pliny)|Natural History]], [[Ptolemy's Geography]], Tacitus' [[Annals (Tacitus)|Annales]], The [[Antonine Itinerary]] and the [[Ravenna Cosmography]].<ref name="roman-britain.co.uk"/> The 2nd century tomb inscription for Gn. Munatius Bassus in Rome, which describes the name of the town and its Roman citizenship, reads:

:::GN.MVNATIVS.MF.PAL
:::AVRELIVS.BASSVS
:::PROCAVG
:::PRAEF.FABR.PRAEF.COH.III
:::SAGITTARIORVM.PRAEF.COH.ITERVM.II
:::ASTVRVM.'''CENSITOR.CIVIVM'''
:::'''ROMANORVM.COLONIAE.VICTRI'''
:::'''CENSIS.QVAE.EST.IN.BRITTANNIA'''
:::'''CAMALODVNI.'''CVRATOR
:::VIAE.NOMENTANAE.PATRONVS.EIVSDEM
:::MVNICIPI.FLAMEN.PERPETVS
:::DVVM.VIR.ALI.POTESTATE
:::AEDILIS.DICTATOR.IIII.

:(Translated: Gnaeus Munatius Aurelius Bassus, son of Marcus of the [[Roman tribe#Later tribes|Palatine Tribe]], Procurator of the Emperor, Prefect of the Armourers, Prefect of the Third Cohort of Archers, Prefect again of the Second Cohort of [[Astures|Asturians]], '''Census Officer of the Roman Citizens of Colonia Victricensis, which is in Britain at Camulodunum''', Overseer of the [[Nomentum]] Road, Patron again of the same municipality, [[Flamen|Priest]] for life, [[Aedile]] with [[Potestas|magisterial power]], Dictator four times.)<ref name="Crummy, Philip 1997"/>

===Status===
The city was one of the few Roman settlements in Britain designated as a ''Colonia'' rather than a ''[[Municipia]]'', meaning that in legal terms it was an extension of [[Rome|the city of Rome]], not a provincial town. Its inhabitants therefore had [[Roman citizen]]ship. Of the two [[Roman province|provincial administrators]] the [[Roman senator|senatorial]] military [[Roman governor|governor]] was always located in areas of conflict,<ref>Tacitus (1986) The ''Agricola'' and the ''Germania''. Published by Penguin Classics ({{ISBN|0-14-044241-3}})</ref> whilst the civilian [[Procurator (Roman)|Procurator's office]] had moved from Camulodunum to the new port of Londinium sometime around the Boudican Revolt.<ref name="Crummy, Philip 1997"/> However the Colonia did retain the [[Sodales Augustales|Imperial cult centre and priesthood]] at the Temple of Claudius. The colonia was at the centre of a large territorium containing many [[Roman villa|villa sites]], including an important cluster around the [[River Colne, Essex|Colne estuary]].<ref name="Todd, M 1981"/>

===Walls===
[[File:Balkerne Gate, a 1st-century Roman gateway in Camulodunum, it is the largest surviving gateway in Roman Britain, Colchester, Great Britain (23282941975).jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.5|The remains of the Roman [[Balkerne Gate]] in [[Colchester]], which straddled the main road from London; the best-preserved such gateway in England]]
Following the rebuilding of the town after 60/1, new walls and a large defensive ditch were built around the colonia (the first town walls in Britain, predating other such walls in the province by at least 150 years<ref name="Wilson, Roger J 2002"/>). They were completed by 80, twenty years after the revolt.<ref name="Wilson, Roger J 2002"/><ref name="cooper"/> They were built with two external faces of alternating layers of [[Imbrex and tegula|tile]] and [[Septaria|septaria mudstone]] containing a core of septaria boulders, with a 10&nbsp;ft wide and 4&nbsp;ft deep foundation trench, the whole structure taking up 45,000 cubic metres of stone, tile and mortar.<ref name="Wilson, Roger J 2002"/><ref name="Strachan, David 1998"/><ref name="Crummy, Philip 1984"/> They were 2,800m long and 2.4m thick, and survive up to a height of over 6m in the 21st century.<ref name="Crummy, Philip 1997"/> Later, in around 175–200 a large earth bank was built up against the inner face of the walls.<ref name="Wilson, Roger J 2002"/> The walls had between 12 and 24 towers and six large gates.<ref name="Crummy, Philip 1997"/> The [[Balkerne Gate]], in the centre of the Western section of the walls, was the main gate out of the town. It has a large fortified barbican that still stands as Britain's largest Roman gateway, which incorporated the earlier monumental arch built before the Iceni rebellion and was flanked by two possible temples,<ref name="Crummy, Philip 1984"/> one of which may have contained the [[Venus (mythology)|Venus]] statuette found during the 1973–76 excavations.<ref>[[Nina Crummy|Crummy, Nina]] (1983) Colchester Archaeological Reports 2: The Roman small finds from Colchester 1971-9. Published by Colchester Archaeology Trust. ({{ISBN|0-9503727-3-0}})</ref> Skulls showing signs of [[decapitation]] were found in the town ditch in front of the gate, interpreted as executions on public display.<ref name="Crummy, Philip 1984"/> The North wall contained two gates, the modern North Gate and Duncan's Gate. The East wall had the modern East Gate, and the Southern wall had the modern South Gate and Head Gate.<ref name="Crummy, Philip 1997"/> Drains were constructed in the wall to allow sewerage out of the colonia.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.camulos.com/virtual/townwall2.htm |title= Your Virtual Walk-the-Walls Guided Tour of Colchester|website=www.camulos.com |access-date=21 July 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140223061440/https://www.camulos.com/virtual/townwall2.htm|archive-date=23 February 2014}}</ref>

===Streets===
[[File:Roman Colchester Street Plan.gif|thumb|upright=1.4|right|Roman streets and excavated remains of '''Colonia Victricensis''' (''Camulodunum'')]]
The [[Cardo maximus]], the main north–south street, ran between North Gate and Head Gate, whilst the [[Decumanus Maximus]], the main east–west street, ran between Balkerne Gate and East Gate, and have their origins in the Legionary fortresses two main axial streets.<ref name="Crummy, Philip 1997"/> They were well paved, had drainage channels and were fronted with houses and shops.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.thecolchesterarchaeologist.co.uk/?p=13656 |title=Part of Roman street uncovered at Williams & Griffin site |website=www.thecolchesterarchaeologist.co.uk |date= 16 July 2014|access-date=22 July 2014}}</ref> Many included footways, a feature that is rare in other Roman British towns.<ref name="Crummy, Philip 1984"/> The rest of the colonia was gridded into around forty blocks known as [[Insula (building)|insula]], with paved streets and colonnaded paths between.<ref name="Crummy, Philip 1992"/><ref name="Crummy, Philip 1984"/> As well as a system of local roads leading to settlements around the colony, Camulodunum was linked to the rest of the Province by several major roads, including [[Stane Street (Colchester)|Stane Street]], [[Camlet Way]], [[Pye Road]] and the [[Via Devana]].

===Public buildings===
Within the town walls was located the [[Temple of Claudius, Colchester|Temple of Claudius]] in its large [[Glossary of ancient Roman religion#templum|temple precinct]] with a monumental columned arcade.<ref name="thecolchesterarchaeologist">{{cite web |url=http://www.thecolchesterarchaeologist.co.uk/?p=13840 |title=Colchester: grand Roman arcade on a monumental scale &#124; The Colchester Archaeologist |date=21 July 2014 |publisher=thecolchesterarchaeologist.co.uk |access-date=25 October 2014}}</ref><ref name="RBTemp">{{cite web |url=http://www.roman-britain.co.uk/places/colchester_temples/ |title=www.roman-britain.co.uk}} retrieved 20 July 2014</ref> Parts of the temple precinct wall are still visible to the NW of the present castle, jutting out from beneath the [[Normans|Norman]] bailey rampart.<ref name="Wilson, Roger J 2002"/> The front of the precinct wall consisted of a large columned arcade screen extending the full width of the frontage.<ref name="Crummy, Philip 1997"/> At the centre of this arcade stood the entranceway to the temple precinct, which took the form of a tufa-faced monumental arch that at 8&nbsp;m wide was about 2&nbsp;m wider than the one at the Eastern entrance to the town, which had been incorporated into Balkerne Gate.<ref name="Crummy, Philip 1997"/>

To the west of the temple on the modern Maidenburgh Street was a 3,000&nbsp;seat capacity [[Roman theatre (structure)|Roman theatre]], which now has the Norman chapel of [[St Helena]] built into the corner of it,<ref name="Wilson, Roger J 2002"/> currently open to public viewing.<ref name="Wilson, Roger J 2002"/><ref name="Crummy, Philip 1992"/> Opposite the Temple, on the south side of the Decumanus Maximus, the remains of a possible [[Basilica]] have been identified.<ref name="Crummy, Philip 1997"/> At least seven [[Romano-Celtic Temple|Romano-Celtic temples]] have been identified at Camulodunum,<ref name="cooper"/> with the largest located at the [[Colchester#Gosbecks Archaeological Park|Gosbecks area]] to the south of the town, built within the site of a former Iron-Age enclosure.<ref name="Crummy, Philip 1997"/>

A large portico with an eastern entrance ran all the way around the outside of the site, with a solid outer wall, a row of columns down the centre of the portico and a second row of columns around the inner side.<ref name="Crummy, Philip 1997"/> In all there were about 260&nbsp;columns placed 2&nbsp;m apart, and reaching a height of at least 5&nbsp;m.<ref name="Crummy, Philip 1997"/> The portico ran around the outside of a deep, Iron-Age enclosure ditch, which separated the portico from the central space in the middle of the site. This central space contained a large Romano-Celtic temple, which stood off-centre, leading to suggestions that something else stood at the heart of the religious complex.<ref name="Crummy, Philip 1997"/>

Next to the Gosbecks temple stood a second 5,000&nbsp;seat theatre, Britain's largest at 82&nbsp;m in diameter.<ref name="Wilson, Roger J 2002"/><ref name="Strachan, David 1998"/> A group of four Romano-Celtic temples stood at the Sheepen industrial site, one of which was dedicated to [[Jupiter (mythology)|Jupiter]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.thecolchesterarchaeologist.co.uk/?p=15908 |title=It's all in the pits at St Helena School |website=www.thecolchesterarchaeologist.co.uk |date= 29 October 2014|access-date=30 October 2014}}</ref> ''Temple I'' at the Sheepen site was found to be enclosed by a large, buttressed precinct wall during excavations in 1935 and 2014.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.thecolchesterarchaeologist.co.uk/?p=16086 |title=The Trust uncovers temple precinct wall at St Helena School |website=www.thecolchesterarchaeologist.co.uk |date= 5 November 2014|access-date=7 November 2014}}</ref>

In 2005, the [[Circus (building)#row-Camulodunum|only known Roman circus in Britain]] was discovered on the southern outskirts of the colonia.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.thecolchesterarchaeologist.co.uk/?p=7882 |title=More of the Roman circus uncovered! |website=www.thecolchesterarchaeologist.co.uk |date= 4 November 2013|access-date=21 July 2014}}</ref> It is about 450&nbsp;metres long, with eight starting-gates, and it was built in the early 2nd&nbsp;century.<ref name="ColcArchCirc1">{{cite news|url=http://www.thecolchesterarchaeologist.co.uk/?p=13904|title=Circus Maximus games &#124; The Colchester Archaeologist|newspaper=The Colchester Archaeologist |date=28 July 2014|publisher=thecolchesterarchaeologist.co.uk|access-date=25 October 2014}}</ref> It could accommodate at least 8,000&nbsp;spectators and maybe up to as many as double that.<ref name="ColcArchCirc1"/> The structure's gates are being opened to the public.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.thecolchesterarchaeologist.co.uk/?p=13470 |title= Welcome to the Roman circus! Circus centre and cafe to reopen tomorrow, June 5th|website=www.thecolchesterarchaeologist.co.uk |access-date=21 July 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140913080343/https://www.thecolchesterarchaeologist.co.uk/?p=13470|archive-date=13 September 2014}}</ref>

Several temples and religious monuments in and around the colonia have evidence for the deity honoured by them:
* A statue of [[Venus (mythology)|Venus]] was found in the vicinity of the temple outside of the Balkerne Gate.<ref name="Crummy, Philip 1997"/>
* A statue of [[Mercury (mythology)|Mercury]] was found at the site of the Gosbecks temple.<ref name="cooper"/>
*The Temple at the [[Colchester Royal Grammar School]] has several plaques dedicated to [[Silvanus (mythology)|Silvanus]],<ref name="Crummy, Philip 1997"/> including:
::::DEO SILVANO CALLIRIO D CINTVSMVS AERARIVS VSLM
::(Translated: To the god Silvanus Callirius, Decimus Cintusmus, coppersmith, willingly and deservedly fulfilled his vow.)<ref name="RBTemp"/>

::::DEO SILVANO HERMES VSLM
::(Translated: To the god Silvanus, Hermes willingly and deservedly fulfilled his vow.)<ref name="RBTemp"/>

* The largest of the four temples at the Sheepen site has a plaque dedicated to [[Jupiter (mythology)|Jupiter]]:
::::P.ORANIVS
::::FACILLIS.IOVI
::::SIGILLUM.EX.TESTA
::(Translated: Publius Oranius Facilis gave a statue to Jove under the terms of his will)<ref name="Crummy, Philip 1997"/>

* An altar to the SW of the town dedicated to the [[Suleviae]]:
::::MATRIBVS SVLEVIS SIMILIS ATTI F CI CANT VSLM
::(Translated: To the Sulevi mothers, Similis the son of Attius, of the [[Durovernum Cantiacorum|Civitas Cantiacorum]], willingly and deservedly fulfills his vow.)<ref name="roman-britain.co.uk"/>

* A Bronze plaque dedicated sometime between 222 and 235&nbsp;CE by a [[Roman Syria|Syrian]] to [[Mars (mythology)|Mars]] and the [[Alexander Severus|Emperor Imperator Caesar Marcus Aurelius Severus]], himself a Syrian:
::::DEO MARTI MEDOCIO CAMPESIVM ET VICTORIE ALEXANDRI PII FELICIS AVGVSTI NOSI DONVM LOSSIO VEDA DE SVO POSVIT NEPOS VEPOGENI CALEDO
::(Translated: To the god of the battlefields Mars Medocius, and to the victory of [Imperator Caesar Marcus Aurelius Severus] Alexander Pius Felix Augustus, Lossius Veda the grandson of Vepogenus Caledos, placed [this] offering out of his own [funds].)<ref name="roman-britain.co.uk"/>

* A monument, built by a local artisan Maronius, was dedicated to the "Numinibus Augusti" ([[Genius (mythology)#Imperial genii|Spirits of the Emperor]]) and Mercury:
::::NVMINIB AVG ET MERCV DEO ANDESCOCI VOVCO IMILCO AESVRILINI LIBERTVS ARAM OPERE MARONIO D S D
::(Translated: To the Spirits of the Emperor and the God Mercury, Andescoci Vouco Imilco Aesurilini, freedman, [dedicates] this altar, the work of Maronius, donated out of his own [funds].)<ref name="roman-britain.co.uk"/>

Marble from many of these public structures has been found, including [[Purbeck Marble]] and ''[[giallo antico]]'' (a rare yellow marble from [[Tunisia]]),<ref name="Wilson, Roger J 2002"/> as well as statutes, inscriptions and plaques.<ref name="Crummy, Philip 1997"/>

Several other public buildings have been postulated for which evidence is so far lacking, for example:
* Depictions on pottery, glasswork, and wall plaster from the colonia of [[Roman gladiators|gladiators]] has been suggested as evidence that the town could have possessed an [[Roman amphitheatre|amphitheatre]].<ref name="Wilson, Roger J 2002"/><ref name="Crummy, Philip 1997"/>
* A mound called "The Mount", which formerly stood in the [[St. John's Abbey, Colchester|Abbey grounds]], was once thought to have been part of a Roman burial mound,<ref name="Crummy 1981"/> although after the discovery of the Roman Circus just to the south of where it once stood, there have been suggestions by Colchester Archaeological Trust that it could have been the remnants of an amphitheatre.<ref name="ColchArch2011"/>

===Water management===
The town's streets and walls feature many brick built drains, including several large examples in Castle Park and near [[St Botolph's Priory]].<ref name="Wilson, Roger J 2002"/> As well as drains the colonia also possessed pipes for bringing pressurised water into the settlement. At the excavations at Balkerne Lane four lines of hollow wooden pipes, joined with iron collars were found bringing water from nearby springs, as well as evidence of a possible [[Roman aqueduct|raised wooden aqueduct]] which may have been briefly in existence next to Balkerne Gate.<ref name="Crummy, Philip 1984"/> Further pipes have been discovered across the town.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.thecolchesterarchaeologist.co.uk/?p=14116 |title=The Trust reveals Roman water-main on the Williams & Griffin site |website=www.thecolchesterarchaeologist.co.uk |date= 4 August 2014|access-date=5 August 2014}}</ref> The water would have been pressurised in reservoirs; it has been argued by archaeologist Philip Crummy that the pipes would have been fed by a ''castellum divisiorum'', a water tower with multiple outlets, and that some form of aqueduct or water-lifting wheel would have been needed to bring water from springs west of the town to the pipes found at Balkerne Lane.<ref name="Crummy, Philip 1984"/> Within the town, a complicated system of chambers, water pipes and slots for possible water-wheels was found in Castle Park that were once described as a [[Mithraeum]] but that has now been reinterpreted as a reservoir system. A large overflow drain ran from the structure down to a culvert near Duncan's Gate where the excess water exited the town into the River Colne.<ref name="Crummy, Philip 1997"/> Timber framed wells have also been discovered, and there are at least nine springs located within the walls of Camulodunum.<ref name="Crummy, Philip 1984"/><ref name="Crummy, Nina 1993">Crummy, Nina; Crummy, Philip; and Crossan, Carl (1993) Colchester Archaeological Report 9: Excavations of Roman and later cemeteries, churches and monastic sites in Colchester, 1971–88. Published by Colchester Archaeological Trust ({{ISBN|1-897719-01-9}})</ref> Private baths have been found at some sites, and [[Roman bath|public baths]] were discovered in summer 2019.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.eadt.co.uk/news/roman-artefacts-found-in-three-wise-monkey-building-colchester-2598976 |title=Exciting Roman artefacts discovered underneath famous building |first=Will |last=Jefford |orig-date=1 August 2019 |date=11 October 2020|newspaper=[[East Anglian Daily Times]]}}</ref><ref name="Crummy, Philip 1984"/>

===Houses===
[[File:Colchester mosaic.jpg|thumb|right|Roman Mosaic found at the Middleborough House, Colchester. Now in the [[Colchester Castle]] Museum.]]
Many houses have been found in the colonia during archaeological excavations. Stone-founded buildings largely replaced timber ones in the course of the 2nd century, while average house size tended to increase in size up to a peak at around 250.<ref name="Faulkner, Neil 1994"/> They have painted plaster walls and tiled roofs, many with tessellated mosaic floors, [[Hypocaust|hypocaust systems]], private baths and courtyards.<ref name="Crummy, Philip 1992"/><ref name="Crummy, Philip 1984"/> Latrine pits, with examples well over a metre deep, have been discovered next to some of the houses.<ref name="Crummy, Philip 1992"/> Large houses were also found in the extramural suburbs outside of the town walls, with the Middleborough House beneath the old Cattle Market being the largest, containing many rooms, mosaics and basements.<ref name="Crummy, Philip 1984"/> The Beryfield mosaic (of 180/200) from the SE corner of the colonia is the best preserved of the more than 50 mosaics found in the town.<ref name="Wilson, Roger J 2002"/>

===Cemeteries===

[[File:Colchester sphinx.jpg|thumb|right|Roman [[sphinx]] sculpture, from a tomb found in Colchester in 1821. Colchester Castle Museum.]]

In keeping with [[Roman funerals and burial|Roman burial customs]] the cemeteries for adults of the colonia in the First, Second and Third centuries are all located outside of the walls along the main roads out of the town,<ref name="Crummy, Nina 1993"/> with infants buried within the walls.<ref name="Crummy, Philip 1984"/> The cemeteries, some of which are walled, initially contained [[Cremation|cremation burials]], with ashes placed within jars and urns depicting human faces or glass vessels; these jars were sometimes buried in "boxes" made from ceramic tiles and hypocaust flue blocks to protect the vessel.<ref name="Toynbee, J. 1996">Toynbee, J.M.C. (1996) Death and Burial in the Roman World. Published by Thames and Hudson. ({{ISBN|0-8018-5507-1}})</ref><ref name="Bedoyere, G 2000"/> Some cremation pots have graffiti on them, with PVERORVA ("remains of the boys") scratched on one,<ref name="Bedoyere, G 2000"/> as do some glass vessels, such as one found with CN.A.ING.A.V.M. scratched on it (presumably the initials of the interred ashes).<ref name="Allen, Denise 1998"/>  Later (post-c. 260) burials are [[inhumations]],<ref name="cooper"/> some in lead coffins decorated with patterns and images of scallop shells,<ref name="Crummy, Nina 1993"/> and some with wooden superstructures above and around them.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.archaeology.co.uk/articles/news/remarkable-ringfenced-burials-from-roman-colchester.htm |title=Remarkable ringfenced burials from Roman Colchester |website=www.archaeology.co.uk |date= 8 March 2013|access-date=22 July 2014}}</ref> Examples of ''bustum'' burials (funerary pyre that is then covered with a mound) have been found, which are rare outside of Italy.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.thecolchesterarchaeologist.co.uk/?p=3304 |title=Extraordinary 'bustum' burial excavated in Colchester |website=www.thecolchesterarchaeologist.co.uk |date= 7 February 2013|access-date=22 July 2014}}</ref> Elaborate grave goods accompanied some of the burials.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.thecolchesterarchaeologist.co.uk/?p=5392 |title=Drawing a remarkable small find |website=www.thecolchesterarchaeologist.co.uk |date= 14 June 2013|access-date=22 July 2014}}</ref> Many fragments of carved tombstones have been found in the cemeteries outside of the town,<ref name="Crummy, Philip 1997"/> with several being near complete such as the "Colchester Sphinx".<ref name="Wilson, Roger J 2002"/> Some of the inscriptions on the tombs are almost fully intact, including:

* The tomb of a Roman [[Eques (ancient Rome)|Eques]]:
::::...OS... ... MACRI... ... VS EQ R VIX AN XX V FRONTINA CONIVNX ET FLOR COGITATVS ET FLOR FIDELIS FECERVNT
::(Translated: [...] Macri[nus] [Flor]us, a knight of Rome, who lived for twenty-five years, Frontina his wife, with Florus Cogitatus and Florus Fidelis, have made [this memorial].)<ref name="roman-britain.co.uk"/>
* The tomb of a young man:
::::D M IN HOC TVMVLO TEGVNTVR OSSA VENERABILIS IVVENIS ... CVNCTI MVCIANVM ... ERVNT SER ... ... VN ...
::(Translated: To the spirits of the departed, within this mound are being protected the bones of the honourable young man [...] Cunctius Muciana [...] they are overthrowing slavery [...])<ref name="roman-britain.co.uk"/>

Other funerary monuments include the large tower-like ossuary containing the remains of cremated individuals and [[birds of prey]], which was found at the junction between the road to London and the road to Gosbecks beneath the modern Colchester Royal Grammar School.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.thecolchesterarchaeologist.co.uk/?p=2977 |title='Tomb of the falconer?' from "the Colchester Archaeologist" magazine no 19 in 2006 |website=www.thecolchesterarchaeologist.co.uk |date= 17 January 2012|access-date=22 July 2014}}</ref>

===Industry and economy===

====Pottery production====

Camulodunum was a centre for pottery production, peaking at around 200,<ref name="Faulkner, Neil 1994"/> and over 40 kilns have been in the town, including those found in the northern suburbs of the colonia around Middleborough<ref name="Crummy, Philip 1984"/> and a large group at Warren Fields and Oak Drive on the southern outskirts of the Sheepen site.<ref name="Crummy, Philip 1984"/> Many of the kilns are of the oval "Colchester type", whilst tile kilns have larger rectangular chambers.<ref name="Crummy, Philip 1984"/> Camulodunum produced many types of pottery, including [[Terra sigillata|decorated Samian pottery]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.thecolchesterarchaeologist.co.uk/?p=13052 |title=Two Roman potters' stamps from Williams & Griffin |website=www.thecolchesterarchaeologist.co.uk |date= 16 June 2014|access-date=22 July 2014}}</ref> [[mortaria]], buff wares,<ref>Swan, Vivien G. (1988) Pottery in Roman Britain. Published by Shire Publishing LTD ({{ISBN|0 85263 912 0}})</ref> single-handled ring-necked flagons,<ref name="Bedoyere, G 2000">Bédoyère, Guy de la (2000) Roman Pottery in Britain. Published by Shire Publishing LTD ({{ISBN|0 7478 0469 9}})</ref> and, until c. 250, colour-coated wares.<ref name="Bedoyere, G 2000"/> In the late 1st century [[amphorae]], called "Camulodunum Carrots" for their shape and colour, were made in the colonia, and are found in thin numbers across Britain.<ref name="Bedoyere, G 2000"/> The Samian industry, copying the East Gaullish style, was active for a time in Camulodunum from 160 to about 200,<ref name="Bedoyere, Guy 1988"/> with the names of several individual Samian potters identified as working in the colonia.<ref name="Bedoyere, G 2000"/> Over 400 fragments of Samian moulds for producing the decorated pottery have been uncovered in the town,<ref name="Bedoyere, Guy 1988">Bédoyère, Guy de la (1988) Samian Ware in Britain. Published by Shire Publications LTD. ({{ISBN|0 85263 930 9}})</ref>  including 37 complete examples.<ref name="Bedoyere, G 2000"/> A well-preserved Samian kiln was excavated by archaeologist M.R. Hull near Middleborough, just outside North Gate. It was 8&nbsp;ft wide, with a 5m flue under a large circular kiln chamber, and had a complex system of ceramic pipes and tubes for regulating the oxidisation of the pottery to produce its distinctive red colour.<ref name="Bedoyere, Guy 1988"/> Several of the potters operating in Camulodunum in the First, Second and Third centuries are identified as immigrants from the Rhine Valley and East Gaul, including the Samian potter ''Minuso'' from [[Trier]] who also operated in other British towns,<ref name="Bedoyere, Guy 1988"/> ''Miccio'',<ref name="Crummy, Philip 1997"/> the mortaria potter ''G. Attius Marinus'' and several men called ''Sextus Valerius''.<ref name="Todd, M 1981"/><ref name="Bedoyere, Guy 1988"/> Pottery made in Camulodunum can be found across the [[East of England]], and as far away as [[Eboracum]].<ref>Monaghan, Jason (1997) Roman Pottery from York. Published by York Archaeological Trust ({{ISBN|1 872414 83 4}})</ref> One of the most famous examples of locally made pottery is the "[[Colchester Vase]]" (c. 200), which depicts combat between gladiators called Memnon and Valentinus.<ref name="Wilson, Roger J 2002"/>

====Other activities====

[[File:Britannica Drinking Vessels 1.jpg|thumb|right|Glass vessel found in Colchester depicting chariot racing]]

As well as pottery, ceramics produced in Camulodunum also include a large tile industry, oil lamps and figurines.<ref name="Bedoyere, G 2000"/> The colonia was also a major centre of glass production,<ref name="McWhirr, Alan 1988"/> and glass moulds (including a complete example) have been discovered in the town.<ref name="Allen, Denise 1998">Allen, Denise (1998) Roman Glass in Britain. Published by Shire Archaeology LTD. ({{ISBN|0-7478-0373-0}})</ref> Glass was produced throughout the Roman period of Camulodunum, including in the late 4th century,<ref name="Allen, Denise 1998"/> and glass-making waste was discovered at Culver Street from the mid-1st century.<ref name="Crummy, Philip 1992"/>  Bone carving for ornamentation,<ref name="Crummy, Nina 1993"/> metal working and jewellery making<ref name="Crummy, Philip 1997"/> were also practiced, and a coin mint<ref name="Todd, M 1981"/> operated in the colonia. Archaeological excavations suggest that the period between 150 and 250 saw the largest number of active workshops in the colonia.<ref name="Faulkner, Neil 1994"/> The town was at the centre of a largely rural economy,<ref name="cooper"/> with archaeological evidence of agricultural buildings in the colonia including the large buttressed tower granary found in the Southern part of the town, in use for much of the 2nd century, with a nearby corn-drying oven.<ref name="Crummy, Philip 1992"/> Many ovens have been located in excavations around the town.<ref name="Crummy, Philip 1997"/><ref name="Crummy, Philip 1992"/> A system of [[watermill]]s appears to have operated along Salary Brook near [[Ardleigh]] to the north of the settlement,<ref>{{citation |last=Spain |first=R. J. |year=1984 |title=Romano-British watermills |journal=Archaeologia Cantiana |volume=100 |pages=101–28 |url=https://kentarchaeology.org.uk/node/12043}} {{open access}}</ref> and other watermills may have operated on the Colne at the modern site of Middle Mill in Castle Park.<ref name="Crummy, Philip 1997"/> [[Oysters]] from the Colne Estuary and Mersea Island have been an important food source throughout much of Colchester's history, and large dumps (some 0.5m thick) of oyster shells have been found at Balkerne Hill from the Roman period,<ref name="Crummy, Philip 1997"/><ref name="Crummy, Philip 1984"/> along with [[mussels]], [[whelks]], [[Cockle (bivalve)|cockles]], carpet shells, [[Common periwinkle|winkle]] and [[scallop]]; fish imported from the River Colne and coast are represented by [[herring]], [[plaice]], [[flounder]], [[eel]], [[Smelt (fish)|smelt]], [[cod]], [[haddock]], [[Sea robin|gurnard]], [[Mullet (fish)|mullet]], [[dragonet]], dab, and [[Sole (fish)|sole]].<ref name="Crummy, Philip 1992"/> As well as the Sheepen river port, [[Roman road]]s lead to [[Mistley]] on the [[Essex]] bank of the [[River Stour, Suffolk|River Stour]] and to a cluster of Roman-era buildings at [[West Mersea]], both of which may also have possessed ports for the colonia.<ref name="Crummy, Philip 1997"/> Imports of dates, wine (including [[Falernian wine]]), olive oil, [[jet (mineral)|jet]], [[marble]] and other goods from across the Roman Empire have been found in Colchester,<ref name="Crummy, Philip 1997"/> including a locally made amphora with an inscription suggesting that it held North African palm-tree fruit products.<ref name="Bedoyere, G 2000"/> The trade in salt from local Red Hills also appears to have continued on from the Iron Age in the Roman period, but with more sophisticated evaporation kilns.<ref name="Fawn, A 1990">Fawn, A.J.; Evans, K.A.; McMaster, I.;Davies, G.M.R. (1990) The Red Hills of Essex. Published by Colchester Archaeological Group. ({{ISBN|0 9503905 1 8}})</ref> Small numbers of tiles were imported from [[Eccles, Kent|Eccles]] in [[Kent]] by Roman settlements in South-East Britain, including Camulodunum, for a brief time in the First Century, as was Kentish Ragstone for building.<ref name="Crummy, Philip 1992"/>

==Late Roman town==
The late 3rd century and 4th centuries saw a series of crises in the Empire, including breakaway of the [[Gallic Empire]] (of which Britain was a part), and raids by [[Saxon]] pirates. Such events led to creation of the [[Saxon Shore]] forts along the East coast of Britain.<ref name="cooper"/> The fort at [[Othona]] overlooking the confluence of the [[River Blackwater, Essex|Blackwater]] and Colne estuaries, and two more at the mouth of the [[River Colne, Essex|River Colne]] were built to protect the town.<ref name="Crummy, Philip 1997"/><ref name="Strachan, David 1998"/> Balkerne Gate and Duncan's Gate were blocked up in this period, with the latter showing signs of attack.<ref name="Crummy, Philip 1997"/> The extramural suburbs outside Balkerne Gate had gone by 300<ref name="cooper"/> and were replaced by cultivation beds.<ref name="Crummy, Philip 1987"/> Re-cutting of the town ditch in front of the newly blocked Balkerne Gate in 275–300 involved destroying the water pipes which entered the colonia through the gate. A small portal in the gateway may have been opened up later.<ref name="Crummy, Philip 1987">Crummy, Philip (1987) The Coins as Dating Evidence. In Crummy, N. (ed.) Colchester Archaeological Report 4: The Coins from Excavations in Colchester 1971-9. Published by Colchester Archaeological Trust</ref> The town ditch began to silt up from c. 400 onwards.<ref name="Crummy, Philip 1987"/> The troubles of the late 3rd century saw the burial of several [[coin hoard]]s around the town, including a hoard of 1,247 coins found in a grey-ware pot at Hyderabad Barracks.<ref name="ColchArch2011"/>
[[File:The Roman Empire ca 400 AD.png|thumb|right|upright=1.35|The location of Camulodunum within the Late Roman Empire, c. 400]]
As with many towns in the Empire, the colonia shrunk in size in the 4th century but continued to function as an important town.<ref name="Faulkner, Neil 1994">Faulkner, Neil. (1994) Late Roman Colchester, In Oxford Journal of Archaeology 13(1)</ref> Although houses tended to shrink in size, with 75% of the large townhouses being replaced by smaller buildings by c. 350,<ref name="Faulkner, Neil 1994"/> in the period 275 to 325 a weak "building boom" (the "[[Constantine the Great|Constantinian]] renaissance") occurred in the town, with new houses being built and old ones reshaped.<ref name="Faulkner, Neil 1994"/> Many of the town's mosaics date from this period, including the famous Lion Walk mosaic.<ref name="Wilson, Roger J 2002"/> Late Roman robber trenches have been found at some sites, used for removing and salvaging tessellated floors and tiles for reuse in later houses.<ref name="Crummy, Philip 1992"/><ref name="Crummy, Philip 1984"/> The pottery industry in the town had declined significantly by 300,<ref name="Faulkner, Neil 1994"/> but the 4th century saw an increase in the bone-working industry for making furniture and jewellery,<ref name="Crummy, Philip 1992"/> and evidence of blown glass making has also been found.<ref name="Crummy, Philip 1992"/> Large areas of the Southern part of the town were given over to agriculture.<ref name="Crummy, Philip 1992"/>

Despite scaling down of private buildings an increase in size and grandeur of public buildings occurred in the period 275–400.<ref name="Faulkner, Neil 1994"/> The Temple of Claudius and its associated ''[[temenos]]'' buildings were reconstructed in the early-4th century, along with the possible forum-basilica building to the south of it.<ref name="Drury, P 1984">Drury, P.J, (1984) The Temple of Claudius Reconsidered. Britannia XV, 7–50</ref> The Temple appears to have had a large apsidal hall built across the front of the podium steps, with numismatic dating evidence taking the date of the building up to at least 395.<ref name="Drury, P 1984"/> A large hall at the Culver Street site, dated 275–325 to c. 400, may have been a large centralised storage barn for taxes paid in kind with grain.<ref name="Crummy, Philip 1992"/><ref name="Faulkner, Neil 1994"/>

Although the Gosbecks Theatre had been demolished by the 3rd century, the theatre at Maidenburgh Street may still have been in use throughout the 4th century.<ref name="Crummy, Philip 1982">Crummy, Philip (1982) The Roman Theatre at Colchester. "Britannia XIII", 299–302</ref> The sunken chambers of the water reservoir system found in Castle Park appear to have become blocked with debris and dumped rubbish in the 4th century and was disused.<ref name="Hull, M 1958">Hull, M.R. 1958 Roman Colchester. Oxford Society of Antiquities</ref><ref name="Crummy, Philip 1980">Crummy, Philip (1980). The Temples of Roman Colchester. In Rodwell, W (ed.) Temples, Churches and Religion: Recent Research in Roman Britain. (Oxford, British Archaeological Report 77(i))</ref> The Roman chariot circus was also demolished during the late 4th century.<ref>o{{cite web |url=http://www.thecolchesterarchaeologist.co.uk/?p=16088 |title=Roman circus centre: Past, present and future |website=www.thecolchesterarchaeologist.co.uk |date= 7 November 2014|access-date=8 November 2014}}</ref>
Increases in the number of [[Coin clipping|clipped coins]] from the 4th century have been interpreted as a breakdown in the Roman monetary economy,<ref name="Crummy, Philip 1997"/> with most new Bronze coins ceasing to be introduced in the town c. 395 and silver coins in 402 (though these coins may have remained in circulation long after being minted).<ref name="Faulkner, Neil 1994"/> For example, the coin sequence at the Butt Road church goes up to around 425, 14 years after Roman rule ended in the province.<ref name="Faulkner, Neil 1994"/>

[[Late Roman military]] equipment has been discovered in the town,<ref name="Crummy 1981"/> including an official ''[[cingulum militare]]'' belt buckle made in [[Pannonia (Roman province)|Pannonia]] for Roman frontier units.<ref name="Crummy 1981"/> Alongside Roman military equipment 4th and early 5th century [[Germanic peoples#Warfare|Germanic]] weaponry has been found alongside Germanic domestic objects in the Late Roman town, which has been interpreted by archaeologist Philip Crummy as perhaps representing Saxon ''[[foederati]]'' mercenaries living and settling in the town during this period, several decades before the [[Adventus Saxonum|Saxon migrations]] of the mid to late 5th century.<ref name="Crummy 1981"/>

===Christianity in the late Roman town===
{{See also|Christianity in the 4th century}}
During this period the [[Late Roman Empire|late Roman]] church at Butt Road<ref name="cooper"/> just outside the town walls was built with its associated cemetery containing over 650 graves (some containing fragments of [[Sino-Roman relations|Chinese silk]]), and may be one of the earliest churches in Britain.<ref name="Crummy, Philip 1997"/><ref name="Crummy, Nina 1993"/> A strong numismatic chronology has been obtained from the over 500 coins found at the site, and puts its date from 320 to c.425.<ref name="Crummy, Philip 1987"/> Five of the extramural pagan Romano-British Temples were abandoned in c.300, whilst ''Temple II'' at Sheepen was rebuilt in 350 and continued in existence until c. 375.<ref name="Hull, M 1958"/><ref name="Crummy, Philip 1980"/> ''Temple X'' outside of the Balkerne Gate had its ambulatory demolished in 325-50 leaving just its [[Cella]], perhaps repurposed as a Christian temple.<ref name="Crummy, Philip 1984"/> A nearby shrine may also have survived into the late 4th century.<ref name="Crummy, Philip 1984"/> Several other possible churches or Christian buildings have been postulated, such as ''Building 127'' at Culver Street and possible Roman remains beneath St Helena's Chapel, St Nicholas Church and Roman "vaults" beneath [[St Botolph's Priory]] which might be a late-Roman [[Martyrium (architecture)|Martyrium]], although over interpretations include a bath-house.<ref name="Crummy, Philip 1980"/> The Temple of Claudius, which underwent large-scale structural additions in the 4th century, may also have been repurposed as a Christian church, as a [[Chi Rho]] symbol carved on a piece of Roman pottery found in the vicinity of the ''temenos''.<ref name="Crummy, Philip 1997"/> Further Roman Christian objects found in the town include a candlestick from Balkerne Lane inscribed with an [[IX monogram|Iota Chi]] symbol and a bronze spoon with [[Eternal life (Christianity)|AETERNVS VITA]] written on it.<ref name="Crummy, Nina 1993"/><ref name="Toynbee, J 1953"/> Three British Bishops attended the [[Council of Arles (314)]], one from London, one from York and a third from a place whose first word is ''Colonia'' but whose second word is too corrupted to make out with any certainty, but has been interpreted as something like ''Camulodensium'' (although [[Lincoln, England|Lincoln]] and [[Gloucester]] are other possible candidates).<ref name="Crummy, Nina 1993"/><ref name="Toynbee, J 1953">Toynbee, JMC (1953)'Christianity in Roman Britain' in Journal of Brit. Arch. Ass. 16 (3rd Series)</ref>

==Sub-Roman period==
{{Main article|Sub-Roman Britain}}

The [[Honorius (emperor)#Stilicho and the defense of Italy|formal collapse of Roman administration in the province]] occurred in the years 409–411. Activity in the 5th century continued in Camulodunum at a much reduced level,<ref name="Faulkner, Neil 1994"/> with evidence of at the Butt Road site showing it briefly carrying on into the early 5th century.<ref name="Crummy, Nina 1993"/>

Several burials within the towns walls have been dated to the late 5th century. These include two burials discovered at East Hill House in 1983, which have been surgically decapitated (in a fashion found in both [[Celts|Pre-Roman]] and some early pagan-Saxon burial practices),<ref name="Crummy, Philip 1997"/><ref name="cooper"/> and other burials cut into the 4th century barn at Culver Street.<ref name="Crummy, Philip 1997"/> A skeleton of a young woman found stretched out on a Roman mosaic floor at Beryfield, within the SE corner of the walled town, was initially interpreted as a victim of a Saxon attack on the Sub-Roman town; however, it is now believed that the burial is a post-Roman grave cut down to the hard floor surface (the name ''Beryfield'' means "burial field", a reference to the Medieval graveyards in the area).<ref name="Crummy, Philip 1997"/> Burials of men armed with Germanic weaponry have also been found outside of the town walls, and might be the graves of [[Saxon]] ''[[foederati]]'' or Saxon settlers.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.thecolchesterarchaeologist.co.uk/?p=1154 |title=Anglo-Saxon warrior burials – a link with late Roman Colchester? |website=www.thecolchesterarchaeologist.co.uk |date= 18 April 2011|access-date=9 September 2014}}</ref> Post-Roman/early Saxon burials from the 5th, 6th and 7th centuries, some buried with weapons, have been found outside of the walls in the areas of former Roman cemeteries, suggesting a continuity of practice.<ref name="Crummy, Philip 1997"/> A study by archaeologist Henry Laver concluded that all of the Roman cemeteries around Colchester contain later burials dating to the early Saxon period.<ref name="Crummy 1981">Crummy, Philip (1981). Colchester Archaeological Report 1/CBA Research Report 39: Aspects of Anglo-Saxon and Norman Colchester. Published by Colchester Archaeological Trust and the [[Council for British Archaeology]]. ({{ISBN|0 90678006 3}})</ref> Excavations of the former [[Colchester Garrison|Goojerat and Hyderabad Barracks]] in 2004 and 2010 saw the discovery of other pagan 5th century burials with Germanic weapons, nine of which were located in [[burial mound]]s surrounded by circular ditches.<ref name="ColchArch2011">The Colchester Archaeologist. Issue no. 24. (2011). (ISSN 0952-0988)</ref> As well as burials, coin hoards from the late Fourth and early Fifth centuries have been found, including a hoard minted in the reign of [[Constantine III (Western Roman Emperor)|Constantine III]] (reigned 407–411) from Artillery Folly, that are heavily clipped; this clipping must have occurred in the years after they were minted and so would have happened in the 400s (decade).<ref name="Crummy, Philip 1997"/><ref name="cooper"/> Scattered structures have also been excavated by archaeologists, such as a mid-5th century dwelling at Lion Walk,<ref name="Crummy, Philip 1984"/> as well as 5th century loam weights and cruciform-brooches found across the town.<ref name="Crummy, Philip 1997"/> At the Culver Street site a thin layer of early Saxon pottery was discovered along with two dwellings.<ref name="Crummy, Philip 1992"/> Other circumstantial evidence of activity includes large post-Roman rubbish dumps, which suggest nearby occupation by Romano-Britons.<ref name="Faulkner, Neil 1994"/> Excavations at Guildford Road Estate have uncovered a Germanic-style brooch, dated to around the 420s, associated with a group of beads from a necklace, also dated to sometime between 400 and 440.<ref name="Crummy 1981"/> The presence of Late Roman and Germanic military and domestic finds within the Late Roman and Pre-Saxon early-Fifth Century town has been interpreted by archaeologist Philip Crummy as either the result of Saxon ''foederati'' and their families living within Camulodunum, and/or cultural influences from the continent on the local population.<ref name="Crummy 1981"/>

===Roman legacy in Saxon and early medieval Colchester===
[[File:Trinity Church Colchester Door.JPG|thumb|Saxon doorway of [[Churches in Colchester#Holy Trinity|Holy Trinity Church]]. Note the Roman tiles reused in its construction]]
Later dwellings at Culver Street and artifacts from the 7th and 8th centuries are seen as evidence that the shell of the Roman town was still in use into the [[Kingdom of Essex|Saxon period]].<ref name="Crummy, Philip 1997"/><ref name="Crummy, Philip 1992"/> The ''[[Historia Brittonum|History of the Britons]]'' traditionally ascribed to [[Nennius]] includes a list of the [[28 Cities of Britain|28 cities of Britain]], including a '''[[Caer|Cair]] Colun'''<ref>[[Nennius]] ({{abbr|attrib.|Traditional attribution}}). [[Theodor Mommsen]] ({{abbr|ed.|Editor}}). [[s:la:Historia Brittonum#VI. CIVITATES BRITANNIAE|''Historia Brittonum'', VI.]] Composed after AD&nbsp;830. {{in lang|la}} Hosted at [[s:la:Main Page|Latin Wikisource]].</ref> that has been thought to indicate Colchester.<ref name=nashford>Ford, David Nash. "[http://www.britannia.com/history/ebk/articles/nenniuscities.html The 28 Cities of Britain] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160415120312/http://www.britannia.com/history/ebk/articles/nenniuscities.html |date=15 April 2016 }}" at Britannia. 2000.</ref><ref name=shusher>Newman, John Henry &&nbsp;al. [http://www.mocavo.co.uk/Lives-of-the-English-Saints-St-Gilbert-Prior-of-Sempringham-Volume-3/527392/459 ''Lives of the English Saints: St. German, Bishop of Auxerre'', Ch.&nbsp;X: "Britain in 429, A.&nbsp;D.",<!--sic--> p.&nbsp;92.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160321234154/http://www.mocavo.co.uk/Lives-of-the-English-Saints-St-Gilbert-Prior-of-Sempringham-Volume-3/527392/459 |date=21 March 2016 }} James Toovey (London), 1844.</ref> Archaeology aside, Colchester first explicitly re-enters the ''written'' historical record again in the [[Anglo-Saxon Chronicle]] for 917, the year it was retaken from the Danes by a Saxon army led by [[Edward the Elder|King Edward the Elder]], who "restored" the borough to English rule.<ref name="Crummy, Philip 1997"/> The walls of the colonia have been retained,<ref name="Crummy 1981"/> and many of the [[Medieval]] and [[Saxon architecture|Saxon]] buildings in Colchester, including the [[Colchester Castle|Castle]], [[St Botolph's Priory]], [[St John's Abbey, Colchester|St John's Abbey]], Greyfriars, [[Colchester churches#Holy Trinity|Holy Trinity church]] and many of the Norman "stone houses" were built from the vast amounts of [[Spolia|Roman debris left over in the town]].<ref name="Crummy, Philip 1997">Crummy, Philip (1997) City of Victory; the story of Colchester – Britain's first Roman town. Published by Colchester Archaeological Trust ({{ISBN|1 897719 04 3}})</ref><ref>Ashdown-Hill, John (2009) Mediaeval Colchester's Lost Landmarks. Published by The Breedon Books Publishing Company Limited. ({{ISBN|978-1-85983-686-6}})</ref> Over 25,000 cubic metres of reused Roman tile and brick was used for the Castle alone.<ref name="Crummy, Philip 1997"/> The quarrying of Roman rubble for building material reached a peak in the 12th and 13th Centuries.<ref name="Crummy 1981"/>

Several structures from the Saxon and Medieval period incorporated Roman structural remains within their walls and outlines.<ref name="Crummy 1981"/> The Temple of Claudius was a standing ruin until the Normans cleared the superstructure to incorporate the podium into [[Colchester Castle]] in the 11th Century.<ref name="Crummy, Philip 1997"/><ref name="Crummy 1981"/> In 2014 the discovery of marble pillars belonging to the Monumental Facade of the Temple precinct was made behind the High Street, with evidence suggesting that they were still standing until the Castle-builders knocked them over to make way for the Castle Bailey.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.thecolchesterarchaeologist.co.uk/?p=13902 |title=The Trust's investigation of Roman arcade in local press |website=www.thecolchesterarchaeologist.co.uk |date= 25 July 2014|access-date=26 July 2014}}</ref> The Normans referred to the Temple as King Coel's Palace and to the barbican of Balkerne Gate as Colkyng's Castle, reflecting a myth that continued into the medieval period, and was recorded in the ''Colchester Chronicle'' (written in the 13th or early 14th century at [[St John's Abbey, Colchester|St John's Abbey]]), that the Roman town was founded by a warlord called [[Coel Hen|Coel]]. According to the Medieval legend,<ref name="Crummy, Philip 1997"/> which garbles folk-tales and pseudo-historical events together, he was supposedly the father of [[Helena (empress)|St Helena]], who was married off to [[Flavius Valerius Constantius|Constantius]] in a bid to get the latter to lift his two-year siege of the town. Their son, [[Constantine the Great]] was then supposedly born in the town. St Helena is today the patron saint of Colchester, and the [[Coat of arms of Colchester|town's coat of arms]] depict the True Cross and crowns of the Three Kings that she is supposed to have found in [[Jerusalem]].<ref name="cooper"/> Other examples of Roman remains used in later buildings include several medieval cellars on the High Street,<ref name="Crummy 1981"/> [[Churches in Colchester#St Nicholas|St Nicholas's Church]] (demolished in the 1950s), which was built on a Roman building and originally incorporated the remains of standing Roman walls,<ref name="Crummy 1981"/> and St Helen's Chapel, which was built into the corner of the Roman theatre in the town.<ref name="Crummy, Philip 1997"/><ref name="Crummy 1981"/> A study in the late 1970s by Colchester Archaeological Trust discovered that many of the Medieval property boundaries within Colchester's town centre followed the lines of Roman street frontages and the walls of Roman buildings.<ref name="Crummy 1981"/> This was especially prominent along the High Street, where the medieval street "frontage of the High Street between St Runwald's Church and Maidenburgh Street has fossilized the imprint of the Roman town underneath...".<ref name="Crummy 1981"/> St Runwald's Church (demolished in the 19th century) formerly stood in the centre of the High Street market just east of the current Town Hall, and was built into the corner of a junction between two Roman streets.<ref name="Crummy 1981"/> The study concluded that Roman building ruins and old street remains were in some cases used as a template for later property divisions.<ref name="Crummy 1981"/>

The name of the town and the River Colne are also a legacy of the Romans. "Colchester" (first appearing in written form in the 10th Century as ''Colencaester'' and ''Colneceastre'') is a [[Old English|Saxon]] name derived from the Latin words ''Colonia'' and ''Castra'',<ref name="Crummy, Philip 1997"/> with the River Colne also taking its name from ''Colonia''.<ref name="Crummy, Philip 1997"/>

==See also==
*[[History of Colchester]]
*[[Oldest town in Britain]]
*[[Trinovantes]]
*[[Catuvellauni]]
*[[Cunobeline]]
*[[Caratacus]]
*[[Addedomarus]]
*[[Camelot]]

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

===Bibliography===
{{refbegin}}
*{{cite book |author=[[Tacitus]] |others=Alfred John Church and William Jackson Brodribb (translators) |title=The Annales |year=1876 }}
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{EB1911 poster|Camulodunum}}
{{Commons category|Camulodunum}}
* [http://www.thecolchesterarchaeologist.co.uk Colchester Archaeological Trust home page]
* [https://www.british-history.ac.uk/vch/essex/vol9/pp2-18 History of Roman Colchester]
* [http://www.cimuseums.org.uk Colchester and Ipswich Museums Home Page]

{{Major towns of Roman Britain}}
{{Roman visitor sites in the UK}}

[[Category:1st century in Roman Britain]]
[[Category:Ancient Roman temples]]
[[Category:Archaeological sites in Essex]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures completed in the 1st century]]
[[Category:Claudius]]
[[Category:Coloniae (Roman)]]
[[Category:Former national capitals]]
[[Category:Iron Age sites in England]]
[[Category:Roman Colchester]]
[[Category:Roman legionary fortresses in England]]
[[Category:Roman religious sites in the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Roman towns and cities in England]]
[[Category:Sub-Roman Britain]]