View source for Cairo Citadel

{{Short description|Medieval Islamic-era fortification in Egypt}}
{{for|the castle in Taiz, Yemen|Al-Qahira Castle}}
{{redirect-distinguish-text|Citadel of Saladin|the [[Citadel of Salah Ed-Din|Castle of Saladin]] in Syria nor the [[Salah El-Din castle|Castle of Saladin, Pharaoh's Island]]}}
{{Infobox military installation
| name          = Cairo Citadel<br />{{lang|ar|قلعة صلاح الدين الأيوبي}}
| partof        =
| location      = [[Islamic Cairo]], [[Cairo]], [[Egypt]]
| image         = Flickr - HuTect ShOts - Citadel of Salah El.Din and Masjid Muhammad Ali قلعة صلاح الدين الأيوبي ومسجد محمد علي - Cairo - Egypt - 17 04 2010 (4).jpg
| image_size    =
| caption       = View of the Citadel, with the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]]-era gate of Bab al-'Azab, and the 19th-century [[Mosque of Muhammad Ali|Muhammad Ali Mosque]].
| type          = [[Citadel]]
| built         = * 1176–1183 (original construction)
* 1310–1341 (major modifications)
* 1805–1848 (major modifications)
| builder       = * [[Saladin]] (1176–1183)
* [[An-Nasir Muhammad]] (1310–1341)
* [[Muhammad Ali of Egypt|Muhammad Ali Pasha]] (1805–1848)
| materials     = stone
| height        =
| used          = {{Designation list
  | embed                   = yes
  | designation1            = WHS
  | designation1_partof     = [[Islamic Cairo|Historic Cairo]]
  | designation1_date       = [[List of World Heritage Sites by year of inscription#1979 (3rd session)|1979]] <small>(3rd [[World Heritage Committee|session]])</small>
  | designation1_criteria   = {{UNESCO WHS type|(i)(v)(vi)}}(i)(v)(vi)
  | designation1_number     = [https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/89 89-002]
}}
| demolished    =
| condition     = Intact
| ownership     =
| controlledby  =
| garrison      =
| commanders    =
| occupants     =
| battles       =
| events        =
}}

The '''Citadel of Cairo''' or '''Citadel of Saladin''' ({{langx|ar|قلعة صلاح الدين|Qalaʿat Salāḥ ad-Dīn}}) is a medieval [[Islam]]ic-era fortification in [[Cairo]], [[Egypt]], built by [[Saladin|Salah ad-Din]] (Saladin) and further developed by subsequent Egyptian rulers. It was the seat of government in Egypt and the residence of its rulers for nearly 700 years from the 13th century until the construction of [[Abdeen Palace]] in the 19th century. Its location on a promontory of the [[Mokattam|Mokattam hills]] near the center of Cairo commands a strategic position overlooking the city and dominating its skyline. When it was constructed it was among the most impressive and ambitious military fortification projects of its time.<ref name=":0"/> It is now a preserved historic site, including mosques and museums.

In addition to the initial [[Ayyubid]]-era construction begun by Saladin in 1176, the Citadel underwent major development during the [[Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)|Mamluk Sultanate]] that followed, culminating with the construction projects of Sultan [[An-Nasir Muhammad|al-Nasir Muhammad]] in the 14th century. In the first half of the 19th century [[Muhammad Ali of Egypt|Muhammad Ali Pasha]] demolished many of the older buildings and built new palaces and monuments all across the site, giving it much of its present form. In the 20th century it was used as a military garrison by the [[History of Egypt under the British|British occupation]] and then by the [[Egyptian Army]] until being opened to the public in 1983. In 1979, it was proclaimed by [[UNESCO]] as a part of the [[World Heritage Site]] ''Historic Cairo'' ([[Islamic Cairo]]) which was "the new centre of the Islamic world, reaching its golden age in the 14th century."<ref>[[UNESCO]], [https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/89 ''Decision Text''], World Heritage Centre, retrieved 21 July 2017</ref>

==History==
[[File:Cairo citadel entrance.jpg|thumb|View of the Citadel near the visitor entrance today. The minarets of the 14th-century [[Al-Nasir Muhammad Mosque]] can be seen in the background.]]

=== Overview ===
The Citadel was built on a promontory beneath the [[Mokattam|Muqattam Hills]], a setting that made it difficult to attack. The efficacy of the Citadel's location is further demonstrated by the fact that it remained the heart of Egyptian government until the 19th century.<ref name="Andre85-132">{{cite book |last=Raymond |first=Andre |title=Cairo |others=trans. by Willard Wood |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=2001 |pages=85–132}}</ref> During this long period, the layout and structure of the Citadel was repeatedly altered and adapted to suit the designs of new rulers and new regimes, which makes it difficult to reconstitute its original plan or even its plan in subsequent periods.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=Le Caire|last=Raymond|first=André|publisher=Fayard|year=1993}}</ref><ref name=":1">Rabbat, Nasser (1989). ''The Citadel of Cairo''. Geneva: The Aga Khan Trust for Culture.</ref> There have been three major construction periods leading to the Citadel's current form: 12th-century [[Ayyubid]] (starting with [[Saladin]]), 14th-century [[Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)|Mamluk]] (under [[An-Nasir Muhammad|al-Nasir Muhammad]]), and in the 19th century under [[Muhammad Ali of Egypt|Muhammad Ali]].<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|title=Islamic Monuments in Cairo: The Practical Guide|last=Williams|first=Caroline|publisher=The American University in Cairo Press|year=2018|location=Cairo}}</ref> The Citadel stopped being the seat of government when [[Egypt]]'s ruler, [[Khedive Ismail]], moved to his newly built [[Abdin Palace]] in the new [[downtown Cairo]] in 1874. Despite its elaborate defenses, the Citadel never ended up being subjected to a true siege, though it was implicated on various occasions in the political conflicts within Cairo or Egypt.<ref name=":42"/>

==== General layout ====
[[File:GD-EG-Citadelle du Caire-map ENG.jpg|alt=|thumb|Layout of the Cairo Citadel today]]
In general, the fortress complex is divided into two parts: the '''Northern Enclosure''' (where the [[Egyptian National Military Museum|National Military Museum]] is located today), and the '''Southern Enclosure''' (where the [[Mosque of Muhammad Ali]] is located today). The Northern Enclosure was historically reserved for military garrisons, while the Southern Enclosure was developed as the residence of the sultan. There is also a lower, western enclosure which was historically the site of the royal stables of the Mamluks.<ref name=":5"/> However, these functional distinctions were largely erased in the 19th century under Muhammad Ali Pasha, who overhauled the entire site and constructed buildings of various functions throughout the Citadel.<ref name=":1"/>

To the west and southwest of the Citadel was a long open field frequently referred to as the "hippodrome" by historians or as the ''Maydan'' ("plaza" or "square").<ref name=":0"/><ref name=":5"/><ref name=":2"/> For centuries this was maintained as a training ground (especially for horsemanship) and as a military parade ground. Its outline is still visible in the layout of the roads (mainly Salah ad-Din Street) on this side of the Citadel.

At the northern end of this hippodrome was another square or plaza known as Rumayla Square (''Maydan/Midan Rumayla''), today known as [[Salah al-Din Square]] (''Midan Salah ad-Din'') or Citadel Square (''Midan al-Qal'a''). This was used as a horse market (due to its adjacency to the royal stables), but also as an official square for royal and religious ceremonies. It is occupied today by a large roundabout next to which are the massive mosques of [[Mosque-Madrasa of Sultan Hassan|Sultan Hassan]] and [[Al-Rifa'i Mosque|al-Rifa'i]].<ref name=":0"/><ref name=":2"/><ref name=":5"/>

===Ayyubid foundation and construction: 12th–13th centuries===

==== Saladin's original construction ====
[[File:Eagle of Saladin Sketch from Cairo Citadel.png|thumb|19th-century sketch of the [[Eagle of Saladin]] on the citadel walls. The eagle became the coat of arms of Egypt.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Goldschmidt |first=Arthur Jr. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QQNSAQAAQBAJ&dq=eagle+egyptian+flag+-wikipedia&pg=PA156 |title=Historical Dictionary of Egypt |publisher=Scarecrow Press |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-8108-8025-2 |pages=156 |language=en}}</ref>]]
The Citadel was begun by the [[Kurds|Kurdish]] [[Ayyubid]] ruler Salah al-Din ([[Saladin]]) between 1176 and 1183 CE in order to protect Cairo from potential [[Crusades|Crusader]] attacks and to provide a secure center of government for his new regime (only a few years after he had dismantled the [[Fatimid Caliphate]]).<ref name=":0"/><ref name="Ades226">{{cite book |last=Ades |first=Harry |title=A Traveller's History of Egypt |publisher=Arris Publishing Ltd. |year=2007 |isbn=978-1-905214-01-3 |page=226}}</ref> This also emulated a feature of many Syrian cities, such as [[Damascus]] and [[Aleppo]], which had walled citadels that acted as the seat of power and which Saladin was familiar with.<ref name=":2"/> Saladin also set out to build a wall, around 20 kilometres long, that would surround both Cairo and [[Fustat]] (the nearby former capital), and is recorded as saying: "With a wall I will make the two [cities of Cairo and Fustat] into a unique whole, so that one army may defend them both; and I believe it is good to encircle them with a single wall from the bank of the [[Nile]] to the bank of the Nile."<ref name=":0"/> The Citadel would be the centerpiece of the wall. While the Citadel was initially completed in 1183–1184, the wall Saladin had envisioned was still under construction in 1238, long after his death.<ref name=":0"/> It does not appear to have ever been fully completed after this, though long segments were built.<ref name=":3">{{cite thesis |last=Rabbat |first=Nasser O. |year=1991 |title=The Citadel of Cairo, 1176-1341: reconstructing architecture from texts |type=Ph.D. thesis |publisher=Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Department of Architecture |hdl=1721.1/13706 }}</ref>

Saladin charged his chief eunuch and close confidant, [[Baha al-Din Qaraqush]], with overseeing the construction of the new fortifications. Most of the structure was built with limestone quarried from the surrounding Muqattam Hills; however, Qaraqush also quarried a number of minor pyramids at [[Giza pyramid complex|Giza]] and even as far away as [[Abusir]] in order to obtain further materials.<ref name=":0"/> He also made use of labour provided by [[Christians|Christian]] [[Prisoner of war|prisoners of war]] captured in Saladin's victories against the Crusaders.<ref name=":0"/> The initial fortress built in Saladin's time consisted essentially of what is today's Northern Enclosure, although not all elements of the Northern Enclosure's current walls are original.<ref name=":2"/><ref name=":3"/> The southeast and northeast sections of these walls are likely the closest to their original forms.<ref name=":0"/><ref name=":2"/> Also from Saladin's time is the so-called Yusuf's Well, a deep underground well accessed through a spiral staircase which provided water for the fortress. The original southwestern section of Saladin's enclosure has disappeared but is likely to have extended around this well and around the current site of [[Al-Nasir Muhammad Mosque|al-Nasir Muhammad's mosque]] (making the original enclosure slightly bigger than the existing Northern Enclosure today).<ref name=":3"/> The carved image of a double-headed eagle, found near the top of one of the towers of the western walls (near the Police Museum), is a curious feature which is popularly attributed to Salah ad-Din's reign. It was probably located elsewhere originally and then moved here at some point when the walls were rebuilt in Muhammad Ali's time.<ref name=":5"/><ref name=":42">{{Cite book|title=Islamic Architecture in Cairo: An Introduction|last=Behrens-Absouseif|first=Doris|publisher=E.J. Brill|year=1989|location=Leiden, the Netherlands|pages=78–85 |isbn=9004086773 }}</ref> The eagle's heads are missing today, but their original appearance was noted by chroniclers.<ref name=":5">{{Cite book|title=The Citadel of Cairo: A New Interpretation of Royal Mamluk Architecture|last=Rabbat |first=Nasser O.|publisher=E.J. Brill|year=1995 |isbn=9004101241 }}</ref>{{rp|24}}

Only one original gate, ''Bab al-Mudarraj'', has survived to the present day. It is located along the walls of the Northern Enclosure, nowadays between the Harem Palace (National Military Museum) and the newer ''Bab al-Jadid'' gate. It was originally the main gate of the Citadel, but today it is obscured by later constructions from [[Muhammad Ali of Egypt|Muhammad Ali]]'s time, including the ''Bab al-Jadid'' ("New Gate").<ref name=":0"/> Its name was derived from the carved stone steps (''darraj'') which led up to it from the path that connected the Citadel to the city below.<ref name=":1"/> Like other gateways in Ayyubid military architecture, it had a [[bent entrance]].<ref name=":5"/> Today, the inside of the gate's dome-vault is covered in plaster with painted inscriptions belonging to Sultan [[An-Nasir Muhammad|al-Nasir Muhammad]] and dated to 1310.<ref name=":5"/><ref name=":42"/> It was also on this gate that a foundation inscription was discovered which dates the completion of the Citadel to 1183–1184. Nonetheless, construction of one kind or another almost certainly continued under Saladin's Ayyubid successors.<ref name=":0"/><ref name=":1"/>

==== Construction under Saladin's successors ====
[[File:Каир крепость цитадель Kair Fortress Citadel - panoramio (1).jpg|thumb|The two easternmost towers, fortified by [[al-Kamil]] in 1207: the ''Burj al-Ramla'' and the ''Burj al-Hadid''|alt=]]
[[File:Cairo Citadel northeast towers DSCF5180.jpg|thumb|Chamber inside the ''Burj al-Ramla'']]
Construction of the Ayyubid Citadel appears to have continued under Sultan [[Al-Adil I|al-'Adil]] ({{r.}}1200–1218), Saladin's brother and later successor, and was probably finished under the reign of [[al-Kamil]] (1218–1238).<ref name=":1"/> Al-'Adil had already supervised some of the construction under Saladin, while al-Kamil in turn probably worked on the Citadel during al-'Adil's reign when the latter gave him the viceroyship of Egypt in 1200 (a prelude to becoming sultan later).<ref name=":3"/> The rounded towers in the outer walls of the Northern Enclosure date from Saladin's initial construction while the large rectangular towers date to al-Adil's reign.<ref name=":0"/> The two large round towers in the far northeastern corner of the enclosure, known as ''Burj al-Ramla'' ("Tower of Sand") and ''Burj al-Hadid'' ("Tower of Iron") are towers from Saladin's time which al-Kamil subsequently reinforced in 1207.<ref name=":2"/>

More significantly, al-Kamil built or completed the palaces in the southern section of the Citadel, and became the first ruler to actually move there in 1206.<ref name=":1"/> In addition to the palaces, a number of other structures were built, including a mosque, a royal library, and a "hall of justice".<ref name=":3"/> In 1213 al-Kamil also established a horse market on what became Rumayla Square (the square between the Citadel and [[Mosque-Madrasa of Sultan Hasan|Sultan Hasan's mosque]] today), as well as a ''maydan'', a long open square or "hippodrome", to the west and south of the Citadel which was used for equestrian training and military parades.<ref name=":3"/> This was on the same site that [[Ibn Tulun|Ahmad Ibn Tulun]] established a similar hippodrome in the 9th century.<ref name=":3"/> This work established the overall plan of the Citadel area for centuries to come: the northern part of the citadel was devoted to military functions, the southern part to the sultan's private residence and the state administration, and outside, at the southwestern foot of the Citadel, was the parade ground which remained for centuries.<ref name=":3"/> Al-Kamil was likely also responsible for building or completing the first [[Cairo Citadel Aqueduct|water aqueduct]] which ran along the top of Saladin's city walls to the southwest and brought water from the Nile to the Citadel.<ref name=":3"/>

Sultan [[As-Salih Ayyub|al-Salih]] (r. 1240–1249) subsequently moved away from the Citadel again and built himself a new fortified enclosure on [[Roda Island]] (which also became the barracks of the [[Bahri Mamluks]] who took power after him). Only under the [[Mamluk Sultanate|Mamluks]], who ruled from 1250 to 1517, did the Citadel finally become the permanent residence of the sultans.

=== Mamluk period: 13th–16th centuries ===

==== Early Bahri Mamluk period ====
[[File:Qaa al-ashrafiyya.jpg|thumb|Excavated remains of the ''Qa'a al-Ashrafiyya'' (Reception hall of [[al-Ashraf Khalil]]), on the terrace in front of the modern Police Museum]]
Under the early [[Bahri dynasty|Bahri Mamluks]], the Citadel was continuously developed and the Southern Enclosure in particular was expanded and became the site of important monumental structures. [[Baibars|Al-Zahir Baybars]], [[al-Mansur Qalawun]], [[al-Ashraf Khalil]] and [[An-Nasir Muhammad|al-Nasir Muhammad]] each built or rebuilt the audience hall (throne hall), the main mosque, the palaces, or other structures. Unlike the earlier Ayyubid buildings, the Mamluk buildings were increasingly designed to be visible from afar and to dominate the city's skyline.<ref name=":1"/> Many of these structures have not survived, with few exceptions.

[[Baibars|Baybars]] ({{r.}}1260–1277) was the first one to split the Citadel into two areas by building the ''Bab al-Qulla'', the gate and wall which today separates the Southern and Northern Enclosures of the Citadel. It was named after a [[keep]] tower which he built nearby and which was later torn down by Qalawun. The gate itself was rebuilt again by al-Nasir Muhammad in 1320.<ref name=":3"/> The gate was intended to control access to the newly delimited Southern Enclosure which Baybars then developed into a more elaborate and more exclusive royal complex. A part of the Southern Enclosure became reserved for the [[harem]], the private and domestic area of the sultan and his family, while another part became the site of more monumental structures whose functions were more public, ceremonial, or administrative. Among the structures he built here was one called the ''Dar al-Dhahab'' ("the Hall of Gold"), which he seems to have used as his private reception hall and which may have been located in the area of the present Police Museum.<ref name=":3"/> Another important structure he built in the area is referred to as the ''Qubba al-Zahiriyya'' ("the Dome of al-Zahir"), a monumental and richly decorated hall with a central dome which acted as an audience hall or throne hall. It may have been a new structure or an addition to an existing Ayyubid structure, and it was probably the predecessor of al-Nasir Muhammad's "Great Iwan".<ref name=":3"/> Baybars also built the Tower of the Lions (''Burj al Siba'''), a round tower which featured a stone-carved frieze of lions (Baybars' emblem) along its upper parts. The tower was obscured by later construction but its remains, including the lion carvings, were rediscovered in the late 20th century and are now visible on the northwestern side of the Police Museum.<ref name=":1"/>

Sultan [[al-Mansur Qalawun]] ({{r.}}1279–1290) either built or significantly renovated a structure known as the ''Dar al-Niyaba'' which served as the palace of the sultan's vice-regent.<ref name=":0"/><ref name=":3"/> He also demolished Baybars' ''Qubba al-Zahiriyya'' and replaced it with his own domed structure, the ''Qubba al-Mansuriyya''.<ref name=":3"/> More significantly in the long run, Qalawun was the first to create elite regiments of [[mamluk]]s (soldiers of slave origin) who resided in the various towers of the Citadel, which earned them the name "Burji" Mamluks (Mamluks of the Tower).<ref name=":3"/> It was these cohorts of mamluks who would eventually dominate the sultanate during the [[Burji dynasty|Burji Mamluk]] period.

Sultan [[al-Ashraf Khalil]] built a ''[[Qa'a (room)|qa'a]]'' (reception hall) in 1291–1292, referred to as the ''Qa'a al-Ashrafiyya.'' Its remains were excavated in the late 20th century and are still visible today, just west of the present-day gate called ''Bab al-'Alam'' (Gate of the Flag), across the terrace from the current Police Museum.<ref group=Note name=Note01/> The remains indicate that the walls of the hall were decorated with multi-coloured marble paneling along the lower walls (a [[Dado (architecture)|dado]]), above which was a small frieze of marble mosaics with mother-of-pearl and other marble reliefs, and above all this were panels of glass mosaics with scenes of trees and palaces which are reminiscent of the mosaics of the [[Umayyad Mosque|Ummayyad Mosque]] and [[Al-Zahiriyah Library|Mausoleum of Baybars]] in [[Damascus]].<ref name=":5"/><ref name=":9">Abdulfattah, Iman R. and Mamdouh Mohamed Sakr (2012), "Glass Mosaics in a Royal Mamluk Hall: Context, Content, and Interpretation", in Doris Behrens-Abouseif (ed.), ''The Arts of the Mamluks in Egypt and Syria – Evolution and Impact'' (Bonn: Bonn University Press), pp. 203-222.</ref> (During excavations the mosaics were removed for study and restoration.<ref name=":9"/>) The hall also had a central octagonal fountain of marble and the floor was paved with marble mosaics arranged in geometric patterns.<ref name=":2"/><ref name=":5"/> It was one of the few structures in this area which al-Nasir Muhammad did not destroy but instead re-used for various purposes, and in the Burji Mamluk period it seems to have replaced the ''Dar al-Niyaba'' as the palace of the vice-regent.<ref name=":3"/> Al-Ashraf also, once again, demolished the ''qubba'' or domed throne hall of his father Qalawun and replaced it with his own structure, the ''Iwan al-Ashrafiyya'' (the word "[[iwan]]" seems to have been used from then on for this particular type of building).<ref name=":3"/> This new throne hall differed from previous incarnations in one notable respect: it was painted with pictures of al-Ashraf's amirs (commanders), each with their rank inscribed above his head.<ref name=":5"/>

==== The reign of Sultan al-Nasir Muhammad ====
[[File:OldCairoAqueduct2.jpg|thumb|The [[Cairo Citadel Aqueduct|Nile aqueduct]] that supplied water to the Citadel, largely built in the [[Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)|Mamluk]] period|alt=]]
The greatest builder of the Citadel during the Mamluk period was [[An-Nasir Muhammad|al-Nasir Muhammad]], another son of Qalawun, who was sultan three times over a period of nearly fifty years between 1293 and 1341. It was most likely under his reign that the borders of the Southern Enclosure expanded to their current outline, in order to accommodate the new palaces and structures he built.<ref name=":3"/> He is responsible for several major works in the Citadel, though unfortunately most of them fell into ruin during the Ottoman period and were finally demolished by Muhammad Ali in the 19th century. In addition to his official palaces and his semi-public monuments in the Southern Enclosure, al-Nasir reserved the southeastern corner of the enclosure (the location of the [[al-Gawhara Palace]] today) for the palaces, private courtyard, and garden devoted to his [[harem]] (wives and [[concubine]]s), probably as Baybars had done, called ''al-Qusur al-Jawwaniyya''.<ref name=":1"/><ref>{{Cite book|title=A Turning Point in Mamluk History: The Third Reign of al-Nasir Muhammad Ibn Qalawun (1310-1341)|last=Levanoni|first=Amalia|publisher=E.J. Brill|year=1995|pages=156–158}}</ref> He also commissioned new palaces outside the Citadel but nearby for his favourite [[Emir|amirs]], and his projects encouraged the development of areas near the Citadel, such as [[al-Darb al-Ahmar]].<ref name=":2"/><ref name=":5"/>

In 1312 al-Nasir also ordered the renovation of the [[Cairo Citadel Aqueduct|water aqueduct]] which brought water from the Nile to the Citadel. His predecessor, al-Ashraf, is responsible for building an octagonal water intake tower on the shores of the Nile, from which water was raised and transferred along the aqueduct, but al-Nasir completed the project.<ref name=":3"/> This improvement of the infrastructure allowed him in turn to embark on more ambitious projects within the Citadel.

===== The Ablaq Palace (''Qasr al-Ablaq'') =====
{{Main|Ablaq Palace}}
Among the most important constructions was the Ablaq Palace (''Qasr al-Ablaq''; sometimes translated as the "Striped Palace"), built in 1313–1314. Its name derived from the red-and-black ''[[ablaq]]'' masonry that marked its exterior.<ref name=":3"/> It may have been partly inspired by the palace of the same name that Sultan Baybars had built in Damascus in 1264 and in which al-Nasir resided when he visited that city.<ref name=":5"/> The palace was used for regular receptions and private ceremonies. It was connected to the Great Iwan (see below) by a private passage or corridor which led to the sultan's entrance in the back wall of the Iwan. The walls of the palace itself formed a part of the new outer boundary of the Citadel's enclosure: it was located on an escarpment overlooking the city below, and the escarpment, along with the foundation walls of the palace, acted as the effective outer wall of the Citadel at its western corner. Because of this, al-Nasir was able to build a [[loggia]] on the side of the palace from which he could freely observe the activities in the stables and in the ''maydan'' (hippodrome) at the foot of the Citadel below, as well as a private door and staircase which gave him direct access between the palace and the hippodrome.<ref name=":0"/><ref name=":3"/>

===== The Great Iwan (''al-Iwan al-Kabir'') =====
{{Main|Great Iwan}}
[[File:The story of Cairo (1906) (14781884752).jpg|thumb|The ruins of the [[Great Iwan]], as seen in the early 19th century (missing its dome), before it was demolished by [[Muhammad Ali of Egypt|Muhammad Ali]]|alt=]]Al-Nasir demolished, yet again, the ''Iwan al-Ashrafiyya'' (throne hall) of his brother al-Ashraf in 1311, and replaced it with his own structure known as the Great Iwan (''al-Iwan al-Kabir''). This may have been out of a desire to make it appear even more prominent and monumental, as well as to perhaps accommodate larger ceremonies.<ref name=":3"/> In any case, he demolished it (either entirely or in part) and rebuilt it yet again in 1333, and it is this incarnation of the Great Iwan which survived up until the 19th century (when it was destroyed during Muhammad Ali's constructions). It was frequently cited by chroniclers as the most impressive structure in Cairo, more monumental than almost any of the Mamluk mosques.<ref name=":0"/> It served as the sultan's public and ceremonial throne room and continued to be used (albeit less consistently) by Mamluk sultans after him.<ref name=":5"/>

===== Al-Nasir Muhammad's Mosque =====
[[File:Al-Nasir Muhammad Mosque (2).jpg|thumb|The entrance of the [[Al-Nasir Muhammad Mosque|Mosque of al-Nasir Muhammad]], with a typical Mamluk-era portal]]
Lastly, al-Nasir's other most notable contribution, and the only major structure of his reign still preserved at the Citadel, was the [[Al-Nasir Muhammad Mosque|Mosque of al-Nasir]], also situated in the Southern Enclosure. This was built in 1318 on the site of an earlier Ayyubid main mosque which he demolished in order to serve as the new grand mosque of the Citadel. Al-Nasir renovated his mosque again in 1335.<ref name=":1"/> Some of its huge columns were also re-used from Pharaonic-era buildings, much like the columns of the Great Iwan.<ref name=":42"/> While its structure is well preserved, most of its rich marble paneling decoration was stripped away and shipped to Istanbul by the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] sultan [[Selim I]] after his [[Ottoman–Mamluk War (1516–17)|conquest of Egypt]].<ref name=":2"/>

==== Later Mamluk period ====
Subsequent sultans continued to build or add to the palaces and administrative buildings inside the Citadel, though rarely with the same ambition as al-Nasir Muhammad. Sultan [[As-Salih Ismail, Sultan of Egypt|al-Salih Isma'il]] (a son of al-Nasir who reigned from 1342 to 1345) built a richly decorated palace or hall known as ''al-Duhaysha'' (the "little wonder") which was inaugurated in February 1344.<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Kahil|first=Abdallah|date=2006|title=The Architect/s of the Sultan Ḥasan Complex in Cairo|journal=Artibus Asiae|volume=66|issue=2|pages=155–174}}</ref> Likewise, [[An-Nasir Hasan|Sultan Hasan]] (another son of al-Nasir) built a lavish domed palace known as the ''Qa'a al-Baysariyya'', which was completed in 1360.<ref name=":6"/><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Al-Harithy|first=Howyda N.|date=1996|title=The Complex of Sultan Hasan in Cairo: Reading between the Lines|journal=Muqarnas|volume=13|pages=69–79}}</ref> It was over 50 metres tall and, in addition to a main hall covered by a dome, it also had a tower with an apartment for the sultan which was decorated with ivory and ebony.<ref name=":42"/>{{Rp|83}} Other private apartments also had domes, while paintings and portraits decorated the walls.<ref name=":42"/> Both Isma'il and Hasan were sons of al-Nasir Muhammad. Sultan Hasan also built [[Mosque-Madrassa of Sultan Hassan|his massive madrasa-mosque]] just northwest of the Citadel, off Rumayla Square, in the 1350s and early 1360s (and still standing today). It was so large and tall that in later years it was reportedly used by rebels as a platform from which to bombard the Citadel on more than one occasion.<ref name=":2"/><ref name="Book"/>

The [[Burji dynasty|Burji]] Mamluk period saw little construction in the Citadel by comparison with the earlier Mamluk period. The private harem courtyard in the southeastern corner of the Southern Enclosure, known as the ''[[Hosh (architecture)|hosh]]'', became increasingly used to build new reception halls and other structures with slightly more public functions.<ref name=":1"/> The late Burji sultans [[Qaitbay|Qaytbay]] and [[Al-Ashraf Qansuh al-Ghuri|al-Ghuri]] built palaces in this part of the Citadel, on the site of what is now the 19th-century [[al-Gawhara Palace]].<ref name=":2"/> Al-Ghuri also restored many other structures in and around the Citadel, including a major restoration/reconstruction of the [[Cairo Citadel Aqueduct|Citadel's Nile aqueduct]].<ref name=":5"/> He also restored or reconfigured the Mamluk hippodrome at the southwestern foot of the Citadel, where he installed a vast pool which received water from the restored aqueduct.<ref name=":0"/><ref name=":42"/>

=== Ottoman period: 16th–18th centuries ===
[[File:Cairo Citadel 004.JPG|thumb|left|The ''Burj al-Muqattam'', a tower built by the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] governor [[Pargalı Ibrahim Pasha|Ibrahim Pasha]] around 1525]]
Egypt was conquered by the [[Ottoman Empire]] in 1517 and remained under Ottoman rule for centuries. Sultan [[Selim I]] stripped the monumental Mamluk buildings of their precious materials, especially their marble panels and decoration, and shipped them to [[Istanbul]] for use in his own building projects.<ref name=":5"/>

During this period the Citadel was neglected and many Mamluk structures fell into ruin, although some of the Citadel walls were rebuilt or extended in the 16th–17th centuries.<ref name=":2"/> Due to rivalries between different military corps in the [[Ottoman army in the 15th–19th centuries|Ottoman forces]], the Citadel was divided into three areas to house three different elements of the Ottoman garrison: the Northern Enclosure housed the barracks of the [[Janissaries]], the Southern Enclosure was used by the Ottoman [[pasha]] (governor) and his own troops, and another lower western enclosure, which contained the stables, housed the [[Azap|'Azaban]] (or Azap) corps.<ref name=":1"/> Each section had its own mosque and facilities. In between them was a virtual no-man's-land where some of the former grand Mamluk buildings stood abandoned or under-used. This included the Great Iwan of al-Nasir Muhammad, whose large dome collapsed in 1521 and was never rebuilt.<ref name=":5"/>{{Rp|246}} The Ablaq Palace was used more productively as a manufacturing center for weaving the ''[[Kiswah]]'', the rich cloth covering the [[Kaaba]] in [[Mecca]], which continued to come from Cairo until the 20th century.<ref name=":42"/>

Some notable structures were still created during this period. The huge round tower near the visitor entrance today, standing at the corner of the Southern and Northern Enclosures, was built by [[Pargalı Ibrahim Pasha|Ibrahim Pasha]] (the later [[Grand vizier|Grand Vizier]] under [[Suleiman the Magnificent]]) in 1525 and is known as the ''Burj al-Muqattam'' ("Tower of the Muqattam Hills").<ref name=":5" /> The round tower at the other corner of the two enclosures (between Bab al-Qulla and Bab al-Wastani), known now as ''Burj al-Wastani'' ("Middle Tower"), may also date from this time.<ref name=":8">{{Cite book|title=The Citadel of Cairo: A History and Guide|last=Lyster|first=William|publisher=The Palm Press|year=1993}}</ref> The first mosque built in the Citadel after the Mamluk period was the [[Sulayman Pasha Mosque|Mosque of Sulayman Pasha]] in the Northern Enclosure, built by the Ottoman governor in 1528 for use by the Janissaries.<ref name=":1" /> It is one of the few mosques in Cairo that represents something close to the classical [[Ottoman architecture|Ottoman architectural style]].<ref name=":2" />

[[File:The Citadel, Cairo (4326479498).jpg|alt=|thumb|Bab al-'Azab, the northwestern entrance. Although built in 1754 during the Ottoman era, it emulates the Fatimid-era gate of [[Bab al-Futuh]].]]
The lower, western enclosure which can be seen today below the Mosque of Muhammad Ali was historically the area which housed the stables of the Citadel. It's not clear when walls were first built around it, though they were likely already enclosed in Mamluk times.<ref name=":1"/> This enclosure was occupied by the 'Azaban soldiers, and contains the [[Mosque of al-'Azab]] which was built by Ahmad Katkhuda in 1697. (It is possible that Ahmad Katkhuda merely renovated an existing early [[Burji dynasty|Burji Mamluk]] mosque and added the present-day Ottoman-style [[minaret]] to it.<ref name=":1"/>) The rest of the area is presently occupied by various 19th-century buildings, including storehouses and old factories.<ref name=":5"/> The lower enclosure was accessed from the west through the monumental gate called ''Bab al-'Azab'', which was built by Radwan Katkhuda al-Julfi in 1754, probably on the site of an earlier Mamluk gate known as ''Bab al-Istabl'' (Gate of the Stables).<ref name=":2"/><ref name=":5"/> The gate was modeled on the old Fatimid gate of [[Bab al-Futuh]] in the north of Cairo, but its interior facade was later remodeled into a neo-Gothic style during the [[Khedivate of Egypt|Khedival period]].<ref name=":1"/>

The present-dat visitor entrance goes through the small western gate called ''Bab al-Jabal'' ("Gate of the Mountain") which was built by the Ottoman governor Yakan Pasha in 1785 when he rearranged the area to build a new palace. Yakan also rebuilt a small stretch of the adjoining wall south of here.<ref name=":5" />

===Muhammad Ali: 19th-century===
[[File:Massacre of the Mamelukes at Cairo.png|thumb|''[[Massacre of the Mamelukes]]'' by [[Horace Vernet]], 1819|left]]
[[Muhammad Ali of Egypt|Muhammad Ali]] was a [[pasha]] of [[Albanians|Albanian]] origin who was appointed by the Ottoman sultan in 1805 to restore order after the [[French campaign in Egypt and Syria|French occupation of Egypt]] (1798–1801). However, he subsequently established himself as ''de facto'' independent ruler of the country. He consolidated power through a [[Muhammad Ali's seizure of power|famous and violent coup in 1811]] which eliminated the remaining Mamluk class that still formed the country's elites. One of the most pivotal events of this coup took place in the Citadel. Muhammad Ali invited the Mamluk leaders to a celebration banquet in the Citadel, and as they were leaving and passing along the road leading from the upper Citadel to Bab al-Azab, regiments of his Albanian gunmen opened fire from above and massacred all of them.<ref name=":2"/>

The Citadel is sometimes referred to as the "Citadel of Muhammad Ali" ({{langx|ar| قلعة محمد علي}} ''{{transliteration|ar|DIN|Qalaʿat Muḥammad ʿAlī}}''). It contains the [[Mosque of Muhammad Ali]], which he built between 1828 and 1848, perched on the summit of the citadel.<ref name="AN-mosque">{{cite web |title=The Mosque of Muhammad Ali (history) |url=http://archnet.org/library/sites/one-site.tcl?site_id=2080 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060207144945/http://archnet.org/library/sites/one-site.tcl?site_id=2080 |archive-date=2006-02-07 }}</ref> This [[Ottoman architecture|Ottoman-style]] mosque was built in memory of [[Tusun Pasha]], Muhammad Ali's second son who died in 1816. However, it also represents Muhammad Ali's efforts to erase symbols of the Mamluk legacy that he sought to replace. Many of the former Mamluk structures, including the Great Iwan and the Ablaq Palace of al-Nasir Muhammad, were demolished in 1825 to make way for his new mosque and its renovated surroundings.<ref name=":5"/>{{Rp|246}} Muhammad Ali himself was eventually buried in the mosque.<ref name=":2"/> His mosque also replaced the nearby [[Al-Nasir Muhammad Mosque|Mosque of al-Nasir Muhammad]] as the Citadel's official main mosque.<ref name="AN-mosque"/> Muhammad Ali's mosque, with its large dome and tall pencil-like Ottoman minarets, is one of the most prominent monuments on Cairo's skyline to this day.

[[File:Cairo Citadel, 1950's.tif|thumb|A view of the Citadel and the Mosque of Muhammad Ali, 1955]]
Another obvious change that Muhammad Ali enacted pertained to the uses of the Citadel's northern and southern enclosures: during the Mamluk period the Southern Enclosure was the royal residential area and the Northern Enclosure was mostly military, but Muhammad Ali built his Harem Palace (which now houses the [[Egyptian National Military Museum|National Military Museum]]) in the Northern Enclosure, erasing the old functional division between the two sections of the Citadel.<ref name=":1"/> He also built or rebuilt some of the walls. Notably, he rebuilt the Bab al-Qulla gate and the surrounding wall which separated the Northern and Southern enclosures from each other, giving it its current look. The gate's form today once again emulates the appearance of Bab al-Futuh but introduces some Turkish elements.<ref name=":1"/> In 1825 he also built the gate known as Bab al-Jadid (the "New Gate") at the point where a new [[carriage]] road entered the Citadel from the north.<ref name=":1"/> Around the same time he built the ''Bab al-Wastani'' (or ''Bab al-Wustani'') ("Middle Gate") where the same road continues into the Southern Enclosure (just north of the Bab al-Qulla).<ref name=":8"/>

The Citadel eventually ceased to act as the residence of Egypt's ruler after [[Isma'il Pasha|Khedive Isma'il]] (Muhammad Ali's grandson) moved the court to the new [[Abdeen Palace|'Abdin Palace]], located in the newly created districts of [[downtown Cairo]], in 1874.

=== 20th century and present day ===
[[File:مشهد بانورامي لقلعة صلاح الدين الأيوبي.JPG|thumb|View of the Citadel from the southeast. The present-day visitor entrance is up the hill on the right.|alt=]]
For many years up to the late 20th century, the Citadel was closed to the public and used as a military garrison and base; at first by the [[British Army]] during the [[History of Egypt under the British|British occupation]] and afterward up to 1946, and since then by the [[Egyptian Armed Forces|Egyptian military]].<ref name=":1"/> In 1983, the Egyptian government opened a large part of the Citadel to the public and initiated refurbishment programs to convert some of its old buildings into museums, though the military retains a presence. It is now a major tourist site for both Egyptians and foreigners alike.<ref name=":2"/><ref name=":4">{{Cite book|title=Lonely Planet: Egypt|publisher=Lonely Planet|year=2018|edition=13th}}</ref>

== Water supply system ==
[[File:Egipto, 1882 "Obra hidráulica del Pozo de José" (20814814223).jpg|thumb|upright=0.6|Cross-section of Saladin's well]]

=== Yusuf's Well (Salah ad-Din's Well) ===
To supply water to the Citadel, Saladin built an {{convert|280|ft|m|-deep|adj=mid|order=flip}}<ref name="CairoAmericanCyclopaedia">{{cite encyclopedia |title=Cairo |editor1-last=Ripley |editor1-first=George |editor2-last=Dana |editor2-first=Charles A. |encyclopedia=American Cyclopaedia |year=1873 |publisher=D. Appleton and Co. |url=http://chestofbooks.com/reference/American-Cyclopaedia-2/Cairo.html}}</ref> well known as the Well of Joseph (or ''Bir Yusuf),'' so-called because Saladin's birth name, Yūsif, is the Arabic equivalent of Joseph. His chief eunuch and confidant, Qaraqush, who oversaw construction of the Citadel, was also responsible for digging the well. The well is considered a masterpiece of medieval engineering and still exists today.<ref name=":1"/> Its shaft was divided into two sections, almost all of which is cut out of the rock itself. The upper part has a wider shaft which is surrounded by a long spiral staircase, separated from the main shaft only by a thin wall of rock. For this reason, the well is also known as the Spiral Well (''Bir al-Halazon'').<ref name=":1"/> The stairs could be covered with earth to make it into a ramp for oxen to travel down to its bottom.<ref name=":2"/> The lower part of the well was another shaft descending to the level of underground water seeping in from the Nile. At the bottom of the upper section, two oxen turned a waterwheel that brought the water up from the bottom of the well, while another waterwheel at the top of the well, also powered by oxen, brought the water up the rest of the way.<ref name=":1"/>

=== The Mamluk Aqueduct ===
{{Main|Cairo Citadel Aqueduct}}
During the reign of [[al-Nasir Muhammad]], Saladin's well was insufficient to produce enough water for the Citadel's growing population and for al-Nasir's envisioned construction projects.<ref name=":02">{{Cite web|url=http://islamicart.museumwnf.org/database_item.php?id=monument;ISL;eg;Mon01;27;en|title=Aqueduct|last=Torky|first=Tarek|date=2019|website=Discover Islamic Art, Museum With No Frontiers|access-date=November 1, 2019}}</ref> To increase the volume of water, al-Nasir renovated an [[Ayyubid]] aqueduct system (probably originally completed by [[al-Kamil]]) and extended it with a [[Cairo Citadel Aqueduct|new aqueduct system]]. This system consisted of a number of water wheels on the Nile which raised water to the top of an hexagonal tower (built by his predecessor al-Ashraf Khalil), from which the water was then transported along a series of raised aqueducts to the base of the Citadel. From the foot of the Citadel, the water was then carried up to the palaces via another system of waterwheels.<ref name=":2"/> However, since this water supply could not be guaranteed in the event of a siege, Saladin's well was still an essential water source.<ref name=":2"/>

=== The Cistern of Ya'qub Shah al-Mihmandar ===
This small domed building just outside the Citadel to the east was built in 1495–96 by an [[Emir|amir]] called Ya'qub Shah al-Mihmandar, a man originally from [[Erzincan]] ([[Turkey]]) who joined the [[Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)|Mamluk]] ranks under Sultan [[Qaitbay|Qaytbay]]. Because of its dome, the building has the look of a mausoleum but it is actually a structure covering access to a [[cistern]]. It has an inscription that memorializes the victory of Sultan Qaytbay's army over [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] forces at [[Adana]] in [[Ottoman–Mamluk War (1485–1491)|a battle in 1486]].<ref name="Book">{{cite book|title=Cairo of the Mamluks: A History of its Architecture and its Culture|last=Behren-Abouseif|first=Doris|publisher=The American University in Cairo Press|year=2007}}</ref> Today it is cut off from the Citadel and stands stranded between two highways (Salah Salem road and Kobri al-Ebageah) which pass right next to the Citadel on its eastern side.<ref name=":2"/>

==Mosques==
[[File:قلعة صلاح الدين الأيوبي 18.jpg|thumb|Courtyard of the [[Al-Nasir Muhammad Mosque]]. The domes and minarets of the Mosque of Muhammad Ali are visible in the background.]]
There are four main mosques in the Citadel today, some of which are open to visitors:

=== Mosque of Muhammad Ali ===
{{Main|Mosque of Muhammad Ali}}
The mosque was built between 1830 and 1848, although not completed until the reign of [[Sa'id of Egypt|Said Pasha]] in 1857. It is located in the Southern Enclosure and is open to the public today. The architect was Yusuf Bushnak from [[Istanbul]] and its model was the [[Sultan Ahmed Mosque]] in that city.<ref>{{cite book |title=Blue Guide Egypt |edition=Second |year=1988 |isbn=0713628383 }}</ref> Muhammad Ali Pasha was buried in a tomb carved from [[Carrara marble]], in the courtyard of the mosque. His body was transferred here from Hawsh al-Basha in 1857.

=== Al-Nasir Muhammad Mosque ===
{{Main|Al-Nasir Muhammad Mosque}}
Built in 1318, during the early [[Bahri dynasty|Bahri Mamluk]] period,<ref name="Ades237">{{cite book |last=Ades |first=Harry |title=A Traveller's History of Egypt |publisher=Arris Publishing Ltd. |year=2007 |isbn=978-1-905214-01-3 |page=237}}</ref> as the royal mosque of the Citadel where the sultans of Cairo performed their Friday prayers, today this [[hypostyle]] mosque is still similar to how it looked in the 1300s though many repairs have been made and only some of its original decoration has been restored.<ref name=":2"/> The parts of the building relying on plastered walls have been reinforced. There have also been attempts to restore the light-blue color of the ceiling. It is located in the Southern Enclosure and is open to the public.

=== Mosque of Sulayman Pasha ===
{{Main|Sulayman Pasha Mosque}}
[[File:قلعة صلاح الدين بالقاهره.jpg|thumb|[[Sulayman Pasha Mosque]] (16th century)]]
Built in 1528, it was first of the Citadel's [[Ottoman architecture|Ottoman-style]] mosques and is one of the few structures in Cairo closely resembling the "classical" Ottoman style of the 16th century. It is located in the Northern Enclosure, just northeast of the Harim Palace (Military Museum). It was built on the ruins of the earlier Mosque of Sidi Sariyya built by Abu-Mansur Qasta, an amir in the Fatimid era (predating the Citadel). Qasta's tomb, dated to 1140 CE, still exists in the mosque today.<ref name=":5"/>

=== Mosque of al-'Azab ===
This lesser-known mosque is situated right behind the main western gate, Bab al-'Azab. Both are named after the Ottoman military regiments known as [[Azeb|'Azaban]] (or Azaps) who were housed in this part of the Citadel during the Ottoman period. The mosque was built by the [[Mamluk]] [[amir]] Ahmad Katkhuda in 1697, but it has been argued that it incorporates, or was a renovation of, an earlier [[Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)|Mamluk]] mosque or religious structure.<ref name=":5"/> Although not publicly accessible, it can be spotted by its pointed Ottoman-style minaret.

==Museums==
The Citadel also contains several museums:

=== Egyptian Military museum ===
{{Main|Egyptian National Military Museum}}
[[File:Flickr - Gaspa - Cairo, museo militare (2).jpg|thumbnail|[[Egyptian National Military Museum]]]]
The official museum of the [[Egyptian Army]]. The museum was established in 1937 at the old building of the Egyptian Ministry of War in downtown Cairo. It was later moved to a temporary location in the [[Garden City, Cairo|Garden City]] district of Cairo. In November 1949 the museum was moved to the Harem Palace at the Cairo citadel. It has been renovated several times since, in 1982 and 1993.<ref name="ask-aladdin">{{cite web|url=http://www.ask-aladdin.com/Egypt-museums/military_museum.html|title=Egypt Military Museum in the Citadel|work=Ask-aladdin|access-date=2 March 2013}}</ref>

=== Al-Gawhara Palace Museum ===
{{Main|Al-Gawhara Palace}}
[[File:Палац Біжу, вхід і деталь будівлі.JPG|thumb|upright|Exterior of the [[al-Gawhara Palace]]]]
Also known as Bijou Palace, is a palace and museum commissioned by [[Muhammad Ali of Egypt|Muhammad Ali Pasha]] in 1814. The palace was designed and constructed by artisans contracted from a variety of countries, including [[Greeks]], [[Turkey|Turks]], [[Bulgarians]] and [[Albanians]].<ref name="Johnston">{{cite book | last1 = Johnston | first1 = Shirley | title = Egyptian Palaces and Villas | date = 2006 | publisher = Abrams | location = New York | isbn = 0-8109-5538-5}} Photographs by [[Sherif Sonbol]]</ref> Muhammad Ali's official divan or audience hall, where the pasha received guests, contains a 1,000&nbsp;kg chandelier sent to him by [[Louis Philippe I]] of France. The palace also contains the throne of Muhammad Ali Pasha that was a gift from the King of Italy.<ref name="Johnston"/>

=== Carriage Museum ===
{{Main|Carriage Museum (Egypt)}}
Inaugurated in 1983, it houses a collection of unique Royal Carriages attributed to different historical periods, from the reign of [[Isma'il Pasha|Khedive Ismail]] until the reign of King [[Farouk]], in addition to other collection of unique antiques related to the carriages.

=== Police Museum ===
The museum (also sometimes referred to as the Prison Museum) is just north of the gate known as Bab al-'Alam, on a terrace commanding sweeping views of the city below. It is housed in the Citadel's former prison and contains exhibits on topics such as famous political assassinations and displays of the murder weapon used.<ref name=":4"/>

==Notes==
{{reflist|group=Note|refs=
<ref name=Note01>This site was originally identified by excavators as a part of the ''Qasr al-Ablaq'' (Ablaq Palace) of al-Nasir Muhammad, but Nasser Rabbat argued against this interpretation and identified it as the ''Qa'a al-Ashrafiyya''; see Rabat (1995), ''The Citadel of Cairo: A New Interpretation of Royal Mamluk Architecture'', and Abdulfattah & Sakr (2012), ''Glass Mosaics in a Royal Mamluk Hall''. For more info on al-Nasir Muhammad's palace, see relevant sub-section in this article.</ref>
}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
{{commons category|Cairo Citadel}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070512215018/http://www.cairocitadel.gov.eg/main.html Cairo Citadel (Arabic)]
* [https://archnet.org/sites/218 Qal'a (Citadel) at ArchNet]

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{{Islamic Cairo}}{{Castles in Egypt}}

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