View source for Byzantine flags and insignia

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For most of its history, the [[Byzantine Empire|Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire]] did not use [[heraldry]] in the Western European sense of permanent motifs transmitted through [[hereditary]] right.{{sfn|Cernovodeanu|1982|p= 409}} Various large aristocratic families employed certain symbols to identify themselves;{{sfn|Cernovodeanu|1982|p= 409}} the use of the cross, and of [[icon]]s of [[Christ]], the [[Theotokos]] and various [[saint]]s is also [[sigillography|attested on seals]] of officials, but these were often personal rather than family emblems.<ref name="ODBCoA">
{{harvnb|ODB|loc= "Coats of arms" (A. Kazhdan), pp. 472–473}}.
</ref>
Likewise, various emblems ({{langx|el|σημεῖα}}, ''sēmeia''; {{abbr|sing.| singular}} ''σημεῖον'', ''sēmeion'') were used in official occasions and for military purposes, such as banners or shields displaying various motifs such as the [[cross]] or the ''[[labarum]]''.<ref name="ODBInsignia">{{harvnb|ODB|loc="Insignia" (A. Kazhdan), pp. 999–1000}}.</ref> Despite the abundance of pre-heraldic symbols in Byzantine society from the 10th century, only through contact with the [[Crusaders]] in the 12th century (when heraldry was becoming systematized in Western Europe<ref>
{{harvnb|Crouch|2002|p=28}}. "Current consensus places the beginnings of a systematised and self-conscious use of heraldry by aristocrats in the mid twelfth century."
</ref>), and particularly following the [[Fourth Crusade]] (1202–1204) and the establishment of [[Frankokratia|Frankish principalities]] on Byzantine soil from 1204 onwards, did heraldic uses penetrate in Byzantium.{{sfn|Cernovodeanu|1982|pp= 409–411}} A native Byzantine heraldry began to appear in the middle and lower rungs of aristocratic families in the 14th century, coinciding with the decline of imperial authority and with the fragmentation of political power under the late [[Palaiologan emperors]]. However, it never achieved the breadth of adoption, or the systematization, of its Western analogues.{{sfn|Cernovodeanu|1982|pp= 411–412}}

== Imperial insignia ==

===Single-headed eagle===
[[File:Flavius Anastasius Probus 01b.JPG|thumb|upright=0.85|right|[[Anastasius (consul 517)|Flavius Anastasius]] (consul in 517) in consular garb, holding an eagle-topped sceptre.]]
The single-headed Roman [[imperial eagle]] continued to be used in Byzantium, although far more rarely.{{sfn|Soloviev|1935|pp=129–130}} Thus "eagle-bearers" ({{lang|grc|ὀρνιθόβορας}}), descendants of the ''[[aquilifer]]s'' of the Roman legions, are still attested in the 6th century [[Byzantine military manuals|military manual]] known as the ''[[Strategikon of Maurice]]'', although it is unknown whether the standards they carried bore any resemblance to the legionary ''[[Aquila (Roman)|aquilae]]''.{{sfn|Babuin|2001|pp=15–16}} Eagle-topped scepters were a frequent feature of [[consular diptychs]], and appear on coins until the reign of [[Philippikos Bardanes]] ({{reign|711|713}}).<ref name="ODBEagles">{{harvnb|ODB|loc="Eagles" (A. Cutler), p. 669}}.</ref> It continued in use in bas-reliefs in churches and funerary monuments until well into the 11th century, however.{{sfn|Soloviev|1935|p=130}} In the last centuries of the Empire it is recorded as being sewn on imperial garments, and shown in [[illuminated manuscripts]] as decorating the cushions (''suppedia'') on which the emperors stood.<ref name="ODBEagles"/>

===Double-headed eagle===
The emblem mostly associated with the Byzantine Empire is the [[double-headed eagle]]. It is of Byzantine invention and the Byzantines themselves used for over 300 years, the last centuries of the Empire.{{sfn|von Koehne|1871–1873|p=1}}{{sfn|Soloviev|1935|pp=119–126}} The date of its adoption by the Byzantines has been hotly debated by scholars.<ref name="ODBEagles"/>

[[File:Device of Andronikos II Palaiologos, Vatopedi.png|thumb|left|Device of Andronikos II Palaiologos, in the so-called "Flag of Andronikos Palaiologos" kept in the [[Vatopedi Monastery]].]]
In 1861, the Greek scholar [[Georgios Chrysovergis]] wrote that it was adopted by the [[Komnenoi]] in 1048. Although this was based on no evidence whatsoever, this view gained wide acceptance and circulation.{{sfn|Soloviev|1935|p=120}} More careful examination of the primary sources by [[Spyridon Lambros]] and [[August Heisenberg]] demonstrated that although as a decorative motif the double-headed eagle begins to appear in [[Byzantine art]] during the 10th/11th century, it is not securely attested in connection with the emperor until the [[chrysobull]] of [[Andronikos II Palaiologos]] in 1301, where he is shown on a {{Transliteration|grc|suppedion}} decorated with the device.{{sfn|Soloviev|1935|pp=119–121, 130–132}}{{sfn|Cernovodeanu|1982|p=412}} Lambros suggested that it was adopted from Hittite rock-carvings,{{sfn|Soloviev|1935|p=120}} while A. Soloviev argued in favour of a late adoption around 1288, as a talisman against the first [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] successes in Anatolia, as a symbolic gesture reaffirming Byzantine rule over both European and Asian territories.{{sfn|Soloviev|1935|p=121}}

The double-headed eagle has been shown to derive from Central Asian traditions, and spread to the eastern Mediterranean with the [[Seljuq Turks]].{{sfn|Androudis|2017|p=184}} In the late 12th and throughout the 13th century, the double-headed eagle was used in northern [[Syria (region)|Syria]] and [[Upper Mesopotamia]]: the [[Artuqid]] sultans of [[Amida (Mesopotamia)|Amida]] used it as their emblem, the coins of the [[Zengid dynasty]] featured it, and [[Saladin]] and the [[Seljuq Empire|Seljuq]] sultan [[Kayqubad I]] likewise used it as a decorative motif in their buildings.{{sfn|Soloviev|1935|pp=126–127}} This usage declined sharply after the [[Battle of Köse Dağ]] in 1243, as many Seljuq traditions of pre-Islamic origin were abandoned, including the depiction of animals. The motif continues to appear sporadically as architectural decoration in the 14th century, and in some Ottoman coinage in the 15th century.{{sfn|Androudis|2017|pp=185–186}} In addition, the double-headed eagle may have been in use in the [[Latin Empire]] established after the [[Fourth Crusade]]: according to [[Robert of Clari]], the first Latin Emperor, [[Baldwin I, Latin Emperor|Baldwin of Flanders]], wore a cloak embroidered with eagles for his coronation; his daughters used the same device in their arms; and the Byzantine historian [[Niketas Choniates]] reports that the Latin emperors struck bronze coins with a double-headed eagle on them.{{sfn|Cernovodeanu|1982|pp=412–413}}

The [[Palaiologan emperors]] used the double-headed eagle as a symbol of the senior members of the imperial family. It was mostly used on clothes and other accoutrements, as codified in the mid-14th century by [[pseudo-Kodinos]] in his ''Book of Offices''. According to Kodinos, the emperor bore special boots ({{Transliteration|grc|tzangia}}) with eagles made of pearls on both shins and on the instep;{{sfn|Verpeaux|1966|p=171}} the [[Despot (court title)|Despot]]s wore similar boots of white and purple, and featured pearl-embroidered eagles on their saddles, while the saddle cloth and their tents were white decorated with red eagles.{{sfn|Verpeaux|1966|pp=144–145}} Similarly, the {{Transliteration|grc|[[sebastokrator]]}} wore blue boots with golden wire-embroidered eagles on a red background, while his saddle cloth was blue with four red embroidered eagles.{{sfn|Verpeaux|1966|p=148}} The only occasion the double-headed eagle appears on a flag is on the ship that bore Emperor [[John VIII Palaiologos]] to the [[Council of Florence]], as mentioned by Sphrantzes and confirmed by its depiction in the [[Filarete#Bronze doors of Old St. Peter's Basilica|Filarete Doors]] of [[St. Peter's Basilica]].{{sfn|Soloviev|1935|pp=133–135}}{{sfn|Babuin|2001|pp=37–38}} According to a handful of surviving examples, such as the supposed "Flag of Andronikos II Palaiologos" in the [[Vatopedi Monastery]], or a frontispiece of a Bible belonging to [[Demetrios Palaiologos]], the Byzantine double-headed eagle was golden on a red background.{{sfn|von Koehne|1871–1873|p=6}} Likewise, in Western [[armorials]] from the 15th century, the golden double-headed eagle on a red shield is given as the arms of the "Empire of the East" or "of Constantinople", or as emblem of members of the imperial family.{{sfn|von Koehne|1871–1873|pp=7–8}} The representation of the eagle on a shield is an adaptation to Western heraldic practice, however; the Byzantines never used it in this manner for themselves, although they employed it in a Western context, e.g. in the award of the right to bear the imperial arms to the Florentine citizen Giacomo Paolo di Morellis in 1439.{{sfn|Cernovodeanu|1982|pp=413–414}} Western European rulers in Greek lands, like [[Esau de' Buondelmonti]] and [[Carlo I Tocco]], also [[impalement (heraldry)|impaled]] their arms with the double-headed eagle as a sign of their status when they received the title of despot from the Byzantine emperors.{{sfn|Osswald|2018}}

Within the Byzantine world, the eagle was also used by the semi-autonomous [[Despots of the Morea]], who were younger imperial princes, and by the [[Gattilusi]] of [[Lesbos]], who were Palaiologan relatives and vassals.{{sfn|Soloviev|1935|pp=134–135}}{{sfn|Babuin|2001|p=37}} The double-headed eagle was used in the breakaway [[Empire of Trebizond]] as well, being attested imperial clothes but also on flags. Indeed, Western [[portolans]] of the 14th–15th centuries use the double-headed eagle (silver/golden on red/[[vermilion]]) as the symbol of Trebizond rather than Constantinople. Single-headed eagles are also attested in Trapezuntine coins, and a 1421 source depicts the Trapezuntine flag as yellow with a red single-headed eagle. Apparently, just as in the metropolitan Byzantine state, the use of both motifs, single and double-headed, continued side by side.{{sfn|Soloviev|1935|p=136}}{{sfn|Babuin|2001|pp=36–37}}{{sfn|Androudis|2017|pp=187–196}} Double-headed eagle reliefs are also attested for the walls of Trebizond, with one example preserved in a church in [[Kalamaria]], [[Thessaloniki]], which is very similar to 13th-century Seljuq examples.{{sfn|Androudis|2017|pp=179–184}} Modern scholars commonly consider the double-headed eagle to have been adopted by the Grand Komnenos emperors of Trebizond after their recognition of the suzerainty of, and intermarriage with, the Palaiologos dynasty in the 1280s.{{sfn|Androudis|2017|pp=190–192}} Likewise, the small Byzantine  [[Principality of Theodoro]] in the [[Crimean Peninsula]], whose rulers conducted marriage alliances with both the Palaiologoi and the Grand Komnenoi, also used the double-headed eagle in the 15th century.{{sfn|Androudis|2017|pp=196–201}}

Other Balkan states copied the Byzantine model: chiefly the [[Medieval Serbia|Serbians]], but also the [[Second Bulgarian Empire|Bulgarians]] and [[League of Lezhë|Epirus]] under George Kastrioti (better known as [[Skanderbeg]]), while after 1472 the eagle was adopted by [[Grand Duchy of Moscow|Muscovy]] and then [[Russia]].{{sfn|Soloviev|1935|pp=137–149, 153–155}} In Western Europe, the [[Holy Roman Empire]] likewise adopted the double-headed eagle in the mid-13th century, under [[Frederick II Hohenstaufen]], and used it side by side with the single-headed version.{{sfn|Soloviev|1935|pp=150–153}}

<gallery class="center">
File:Palaeologoi eagle.jpg|The double-headed eagle with the Palaiologos family monogram (ΠΑΛΓ), from Demetrios Palaiologos' personal bible.{{sfn|von Koehne|1871–1873|p=6}}{{sfn|Babuin|2001|pp=42, 52, 56}}
File:Michael VIII Palaiologos.jpg|[[Michael VIII Palaiologos]] standing on a ''suppedion'' decorated with single-headed eagles
File:John VI Kantakouzenos.jpg|[[John VI Kantakouzenos]] standing on a ''suppedion'' decorated with gold-embroidered double-headed eagles
File:Manuel II Helena sons.JPG|[[Manuel II Palaiologos]] with his family. The two younger sons wear red robes with golden double-headed eagles
File:Ο Αλέξιος Γ’ Μεγάλος Κομνηνός 1349-1390 με τη σύζυγο του Θεοδώρα σε μικρογραφία του κτιτορικού χρυσόβουλλου της Μονής Διονυσίου του.jpg|[[Alexios III of Trebizond]] and his wife [[Theodora Kantakouzene]], wearing a robe with embroidered golden double-headed eagles
File:Ulrich Richental - Arms of a Byzantine despot.png|Arms of the despots Michael and Philip Palaiologos, envoys to the [[Council of Constance]], by [[Ulrich of Richenthal]]{{sfn|von Koehne|1871–1873|p=8}}{{sfn|Cernovodeanu|1982|p=414}}
File:Σφραγίς Δημητρίου Παλαιολόγου.png|Seal of [[Demetrios Palaiologos]], Despot of the Morea
File:Banner of the Empire of Trebizond.svg|Banner with the double-headed eagle, used in Western portolans to mark Trebizond in the 14th century
File:Coat of arms of Carlo I Tocco in Arta.svg|Arms of [[Carlo I Tocco]], [[Count palatine of Cephalonia and Zakynthos]], as [[Despot of Epirus]]{{sfn|Osswald|2018}}
</gallery>

===Tetragrammatic cross===
[[File:20131205 Istanbul 131.jpg|thumb|upright=0.85|Relief with the tetragrammatic cross as imperial arms, in the [[Istanbul Archaeological Museum]]]]
During the [[Palaiologan period]], the insigne of the reigning dynasty, and the closest thing to a Byzantine "national flag", according to Soloviev, was the so-called "tetragrammatic cross", a gold or silver cross with four letters [[beta]] "Β" (often interpreted as [[firesteel]]s) of the same color, one in each corner.{{sfn|Babuin|2001|pp=38–39}}{{sfn|Soloviev|1935|p=155}}

As an insigne, the cross was already in frequent use in Byzantium since [[Late Antiquity]]. Since the 6th century, crosses with quartered letters are known, especially from coinage, forming the acronyms of various invocations, e.g. quartered "X"s for {{lang|grc|Σταυρὲ Χριστοῦ χάριν χριστιανούς χάριζε}} ''Staurè Christou chárin christianoús chárize'' ("Cross of Christ bestow grace on the Christians") or the [[:File:Romanus IV.jpg|letters ϹΒΡΔ]] for {{lang|grc|Σταυρὲ σου βοήθει Ρωμανόν δεσπότην}} ''Staurè sou boíthei Romanón despótin'' ("Thy Cross aid the [[Romanos IV Diogenes|Lord Romanos]]").{{sfn|Soloviev|1935|pp=156–158}} Images of flags with crosses quartered with golden discs survive from the 10th century, and a depiction of a flag almost identical to the Palaiologan design is known from the early 13th century.{{sfn|Babuin|2001|p=39}}

The tetragrammatic cross appears with great frequency in the 14th and 15th centuries: it appears on Byzantine coins during the joint rule of [[Andronikos II Palaiologos]] and his son [[Michael IX Palaiologos]], on several Western portolans to designate Constantinople and other Byzantine cities, above one of the windows of the [[Palace of the Porphyrogenitus]], and is described by pseudo-Kodinos as "the customary imperial banner" (''basilikon phlamoulon'').{{sfn|Babuin|2001|pp=38–39}}{{sfn|Soloviev|1935|pp=155, 157–158}}{{sfn|Grierson|1999|p=88}} On coins, the "B"s were often accompanied by circles or stars up to the end of the Empire, while Western sources sometimes depict the Byzantine flag as a simple gold cross on red, without the "B"s.{{sfn|Babuin|2001|pp=39–40}}{{sfn|Soloviev|1935|pp=158–159}}  The symbol was also adopted by Byzantine vassals, like the Gattilusi who ruled Lesbos after 1355, or the Latin lords of [[Rhodes]] [[Vignolo dei Vignoli]] and [[Foulques de Villaret]]. It was placed on the walls of [[Galata]], apparently as a sign of the Byzantine emperor's—largely theoretical—suzerainty over the Genoese colony. Along with the double-headed eagle, the tetragrammatic cross was also adopted as part of their family coat of arms by the cadet line of the Palaiologos dynasty ruling in [[March of Montferrat|Montferrat]].{{sfn|Grierson|1999|p=88}}{{sfn|Soloviev|1935|pp=159, 160}} It was also [[Serbian cross|adopted in Serbia]], with slight changes.{{sfn|Soloviev|1935|pp=161–162}}

The interpretation of the emblem's symbolism hinges on the identification of the four devices either as letters or as firesteels, a dispute where even contemporary sources are inconsistent, and which has led to much scholarly debate since the time of the 17th-century scholars [[Du Cange]] and [[Marcus Vulson de la Colombière]].{{sfn|Tipaldos|1926|pp=209–221}} Thus a late 15th-century French source explicitly refers to them as letters, but a mid-14th century Sevillan traveller and pseudo-Kodinos both call them firesteels (πυρέκβολα, ''pyrekvola'', in Greek). Nevertheless, as Philip Grierson points out, the use of letters by the Greeks as symbols was a long-established practice, and their identifications as firesteels by Kodinos probably reflects Western influence.{{sfn|Grierson|1999|pp=88–89}} The two traditional readings of the four "B"s, {{lang|grc|Βασιλεὺς βασιλέων βασιλεύων βασιλεύουσιν}} ''Basileùs basiléon basileúon basileúousin'' and {{lang|grc|Βασιλεὺς βασιλέων βασιλευόντων βασιλεύει}} ''Basileùs basiléon basileuónton basileúei'' (both meaning "King of Kings ruling over the kings/rulers") were demonstrated by the Greek archaeologist and numismatist [[Ioannis Svoronos]] to be later interpretations by Marcus Vulson de la Colombière. Svoronos himself proposed three alternate readings by incorporating the symbol of the cross into the motto: {{lang|grc|Σταυρὲ βασιλέως βασιλέων βασιλεῖ βοήθει}} ("Cross of the King of Kings aid the emperor"), {{lang|grc|Σταυρὲ βασιλέως βασιλέων βασιλευούσῃ βοήθει}} ''Staurè basileùs basiléon basileuoúse boéthei''  ("Cross of the King of Kings aid the ruling city [Constantinople]"), and {{lang|grc|Σταυρὲ βασιλέως βασιλέων βασιλεύων βασίλευε}} ''Staurè basileùs basiléon basileúon basíleue'' ("Cross of the King of Kings, rule in reigning"), while the Greek heraldist G. Tipaldos rejected Svoronos' reading and suggested that they represented a repetition of the motto Σταυρέ, βοήθει ''Staurè, boéthei'' ("Cross, Come to Our Aid").{{sfn|Soloviev|1935|p=159}}{{sfn|Tipaldos|1926|pp=209–221}}

<gallery class="center">
File:Golden Greek cross and discs of the Byzantine Empire.svg|Cross quartered with golden discs, the rendition based on the historian Babuin{{sfn|Babuin|2001|p=39}}
File:Crusaders attack Constantinople - Detail of Constantinople.jpg|Early 14th-century depiction of Constantinople during the [[Siege of Constantinople (1204)|1204 siege]] by the [[Fourth Crusade]]
File:Arms of Courtenay-Constantinople.svg|Attributed arms of the [[Latin Empire]] from the reign of [[Philip I, Latin Emperor|Philip I]], who held the title of Latin Emperor of Constantinople from 1273 to 1283
File:Johannes V 1742.jpg|[[Billon (alloy)|Billon]] [[tornese]] coin from the joint reign of [[John V Palaiologos]] and John VI Kantakouzenos (1347–1353)
File:Flag of the Emperor of Constantinople.svg|The tetragrammatic cross emblem of the [[Palaiologos dynasty]], from the 15th-century ''Harley 6163'' manuscript
File:Byzantine imperial flag, 14th century.svg|Imperial banner of the [[Palaiologos dynasty]], as recorded by pseudo-Kodinos and one of the Byzantine flags depicted in the Castilian ''[[Libro del Conoscimiento|Conosçimiento de todos los reynos]]'' (ca. 1350){{sfn|Martins|2007}}
File:Byzantine imperial flag, 14th century according to portolan charts.png|Byzantine flag as shown on some [[portolan chart]]s<ref>[[:File:Portolan chart of Guillem Soler (c.1380, Paris) Black Sea.jpg|Guillem Soler's portolan chart of c. 1380]]; [[:File:1375 abraham cresques bnf 02 mediterrani oriental .jpg|''Catalan Atlas'' of 1375]]</ref>
File:Byzantine imperial flag, 14th century according to Pietro Vesconte.png|The Byzantine imperial ensign of the 14th century according to [[Pietro Vesconte]]'s portolan chart.
File:Flag of Salloniq in the 14th century.png|The flag of [[Salonica]] according to Pietro Vesconte's portolan chart.
File:Denaro of Domenico Gattilusio.jpg|Bronze ''denaro'' of [[Domenico Gattilusio]], lord of [[Lesbos]] in 1455–1458, with a large "D" on the obverse, and the tetragrammatic cross on the reverse
File:Arms of the house of Palaiologos-Montferrat (2).svg|Arms of [[William IX, Marquess of Montferrat|William IX Palaiologos]], Marquess of Montferrat in 1494–1518
File:Arms of Francesco III Gonzaga, Duke of Mantua.svg|Arms of the [[House of Gonzaga]] as [[Dukes of Mantua]]
File:Βυζαντινή σημαία στο Άργος.jpg|In modern Greece ahistorical variants of the Byzantine flag are hoisted sometimes in churches.
</gallery>

== Personal and family insignia ==
[[File:Theodora Doukaina Palaeologina the wife of Davit IV Narin, King of Georgia.jpg|thumb|right|Typical Byzantine seal of Theodora Palaiologina, wife of [[David VI of Georgia]]. The Virgin Mary stands on the obverse and a representation of Theodora with her titles on the reverse.]]
[[File:Lesbos Mytilene Fort06.JPG|thumb|right|Relief at the [[Castle of Mytilene]], showing the family cypher of the [[Palaiologoi]] (left), the Byzantine [[double-headed eagle]] (centre) with the Gattilusi coat of arms on its breast, and the eagle of the [[Doria family]] (right)]]
Unlike the Western [[feudal]] lords, Byzantine aristocratic families did not, as far as is known, use specific symbols to designate themselves and their followers.{{efn|For a survey of the evidence available at the time, cf. {{harvnb|Tipaldos|1926|pp=206–222}}.}} Only from the 12th century onwards, when the Empire came in increased contact with Westerners because of the [[Crusades]], did heraldry begin to be used among Byzantines. Even then however, the thematology was largely derived from the symbols employed in earlier ages, and its use was limited to the major families of the Empire. Far more common, both in seals and in decorations, was the use of cyphers or monograms (sing. συμπίλημα, ''sympilēma''), with the letters of the owner's personal or family name arranged around a cross.

[[File:Arms of Andronikos II Palaiologos (Millingen).jpg|thumb|Arms of Andronikos II Palaiologos, located in the now demolished sea walls of Constantinople, sketched by Mary Adelaide Walker in the 19th century.{{sfn|van Millingen|1899|pp=189–190}}]]
Another very Western design could be found on one of the now-demolished towers of the seaward [[walls of Constantinople]], which had been restored by [[Andronikos II Palaiologos]] (r. 1282–1328) and bore that emperor's emblem, a crowned [[lion rampant]] holding a sword.{{sfn|van Millingen|1899|pp=189–190}}

The frequent use of the [[Star and crescent|star and crescent moon]] symbol, which appears on coins, military insignia and, perhaps, as a sometime municipal emblem of the imperial city, appears to be connected to the cult of [[Hecate]] ''Lampadephoros'' ("light-bearer") in Hellenistic-era Byzantium.{{sfn|Holmes|2003|pp=5f}}{{sfn|Limberis|1994|p=15}} In AD 330, Constantine the Great used this symbol while re-dedicating Constantinople to the [[Theotokos|Virgin Mary]].<ref>{{cite book |author=Cathedral of Learning |publisher=University of Pittsburgh |title=The Turkish Nationality Room Dedication Book |date=March 4, 2012 |page=3}}</ref>

It is known that [[Anna Notaras]], daughter of the last ''megas doux'' of the Byzantine Empire [[Loukas Notaras]], after the fall of Constantinople and her emigration to Italy, made a seal with her coat of arms which included two lions facing each other, each holding a sword on the right paw, and a crescent with the left. However, this most likely represents a design that was created after her emigration to Italy.{{sfn|Tipaldos|1926|pp=221–222}} On the other hand, the adaptation of Byzantine forms to Western uses can be seen with the seal of [[Andreas Palaiologos]], which includes the imperial double-headed eagle on an [[escutcheon (heraldry)|escutcheon]], a practice never used in Byzantium.{{sfn|Tipaldos|1926|p=208}}

== Military flags and insignia ==
[[File:As-Constantine-XR RIC vII 019.jpg|thumb|right|A coin of Constantine (c.337) depicting his ''labarum'' spearing a serpent.]]
The [[Late Roman army]] in the late 3rd century continued to use the insignia usual to the [[Roman legions]]: the eagle-tipped ''[[Aquila (Roman)|aquila]]'', the square ''[[vexillum]]'', and the ''imago'' (the bust of the emperor on a pole). In addition, the use of the ''[[Draco (military standard)|draco]]'', adopted from the [[Dacians]], was widespread among cavalry and [[Roman auxiliaries|auxiliary]] units. Few of them seem to have survived beyond the 4th century, however. The ''aquila'' fell out of use with the breaking up of the old legions, the ''imago'' was abandoned with the adoption of [[Christianity]], and only the ''vexillum'' and the ''draco'' are still occasionally attested in the 5th century and beyond.{{sfn|Grosse|1924|pp=359–364}}{{sfn|Dennis|1981|pp=51–52}} [[Constantine the Great]] (r. 306–337) inserted the ''[[Chi-Rho]]'' emblem in Roman military standards, resulting in the so-called ''[[labarum]]''. In iconographical evidence, this commonly takes the form of the ''Chi-Rho'' embroidered on the field of a ''vexillum'', but literary evidence suggests also its use as a symbol at the head of a staff. The ''labarum'', although common in the 4th and 5th centuries, vanishes entirely in the 6th, and reappears only much later in altered form as part of the imperial regalia.{{sfn|Babuin|2001|pp=7–9}}

In the late 6th-century ''[[Strategikon of Maurice|Stratēgikon]]'' attributed to Emperor [[Maurice (emperor)|Maurice]], two kinds of military flags appear: the triangular pennon or ''phlamoulon'' (φλάμουλον, from {{langx|la|flammula}}, "little flame"), and the larger ''bandon'' (βάνδον, from Latin and ultimately [[Germanic languages|Germanic]] ''bandum'').{{sfn|Dennis|1981|p=52}}{{sfn|Grosse|1924|p=365}} The pennons were used for decorative purposes on lances, but the ''Stratēgikon'' recommends removing them before battle. According to literary evidence, they were single or double-tailed, while later manuscript illuminations evidence triple-tailed ''phlamoula''.{{sfn|Dennis|1981|pp=52–53}} The ''bandon'' was the main Byzantine battle standard from the 6th century on, and came even to give its name to the basic Byzantine army unit (''[[bandon (Byzantine Empire)|bandon]]'' or ''[[tagma (military)|tagma]]'').{{sfn|Dennis|1981|p=52}} Its origin and evolution are unknown. It may have resulted from modifications to the ''draco'' or the ''vexillum'', but it appears in its final form in the ''Stratēgikon'', composed of a square or rectangular field with streamers attached.{{sfn|Dennis|1981|p=53}}

Illuminated chronicles, such as the ''[[Madrid Skylitzes]]'', often depict flags conforming to the general ''bandon'' type in various colours and designs, but their accuracy is doubtful.{{sfn|Dennis|1981|pp=58–59}} While they may give a good general idea of how flags looked like, the flags themselves are "simplified and schematised", and the illustrators do not bother to differentiate between the flags shown for the Byzantines and for their enemies; even the [[Saracens]] are shown as flying a flag topped with a cross.{{sfn|Tsamakda|2002|p=312}} The historian A. Babuin furthermore notes that the flags shown in the manuscript vary widely in appearance and that no singular pattern can be discerned, apart from a relatively restricted range of colours (red, white, and blue) used either monochromatically or in alternating bands. In addition, the "considerable length of the streamers" shown in the manuscript does not appear in similar sources from areas under direct Byzantine control, but reflects iconography common in southern Italy, where the manuscript was illuminated.{{sfn|Babuin|2001|p=33}}

<gallery class="center">
File:Fighting between Byzantines and Arabs Chronikon of Ioannis Skylitzes, end of 13th century..jpg|Scene of a battle from the 13th-century ''[[Madrid Skylitzes]]''
File:Byzantine banner, Madrid Skylitzes, fol. 43b.png|Example of a military banner appearing in the ''Madrid Skylitzes''
File:Byzantine pennants, Madrid Skylitzes, fol. 42v.png|Example of a military banner appearing in the ''Madrid Skylitzes''
File:Byzantine banner, Madrid Skylitzes, fol. 31r.png|Example of a military banner appearing in the ''Madrid Skylitzes''
File:Byzantine banner, Madrid Skylitzes, fol. 73va.png|Example of a military banner appearing in the ''Madrid Skylitzes''
File:Byzantine Banner 5.png|Example of a military banner appearing in the ''Madrid Skylitzes''
File:Byzantine banner, Madrid Skylitzes, fol. 30v.png|Example of a military banner appearing in the ''Madrid Skylitzes''
File:Byzantine Banner 7.png|Example of a military banner appearing in the ''Madrid Skylitzes''
File:Byzantine pennants, Madrid Skylitzes, fol. 80r.png|Example of a military banner appearing in the ''Madrid Skylitzes''
File:FanteriapesanteBizantina2.JPG|[[Historical re-enactors]] of Byzantine soldiers, with flags inspired by the ''Madrid Skylitzes''
</gallery>

According to the ''Stratēgikon'', the colours of the standard reflected a unit's hierarchical subordination: the ''banda'' of the regiments of the same brigade (''[[moira (military)|moira]]'', ''[[droungos]]'') had a field of the same colour, distinguished by a distinctive device, and the regiments of the same division (''meros'' or ''[[tourma]]'') of the army had the same colour on their streamers. Each ''moira'' and ''meros'' also had their own flag, as well as the army's commanding general (''[[strategos|stratēgos]]''). These were on the same pattern but of larger size, and possibly with more streamers (the ''Stratēgikon'' depicts flags with two to eight streamers). Maurice further recommends that the flag of the centre ''meros'', led by the deputy commander (''[[hypostrategos|hypostratēgos]]''), should be more conspicuous than those of the other ''merē'', and that the flag of the commanding general (or the emperor, if he was present) should be the most conspicuous of all. In addition, the ''Stratēgikon'' prescribes a separate standard for the baggage train (''touldon'') of each ''moira''. The standards were not only used for distinguishing units, but also as rallying points and for conveying signals to the other formations.{{sfn|Dennis|1981|pp=54–55}}{{sfn|Grosse|1924|pp=368–370}} In the [[Byzantine navy]], likewise, each ship had its own standard. As with their land counterparts, they were also used to convey signals.{{sfn|Dennis|1981|pp=56–57}} In the 10th century, the cross became a more prominent symbol, and was often used as a [[finial]] instead of a spear point. Under [[Nikephoros II Phokas]] (r. 963–969) large crosses of gold and jewels were used as standards, perhaps carried on a pole or otherwise displayed on the flags. In addition, the use of pieces of the [[True Cross]] is often mentioned in military parades.{{sfn|Dennis|1981|p=57}}{{sfn|Haldon|1990|pp=245–247}}

In the late Byzantine period, pseudo-Kodinos records the use of the Palaiologan "tetragrammatic cross" (see above) on the imperial ensign ({{langx|el|βασιλικόν φλάμουλον}}, ''basilikon phlamoulon'') borne by Byzantine naval vessels, while the navy's commander, the ''[[megas doux]]'', displayed an image of the emperor on horseback.{{sfn|Verpeaux|1966|p=167}}

== Ceremonial insignia ==
[[File:Gunthertuch.jpg|thumb|right|A ceremonial miniature ''labarum'', as it appears borne by a triumphant emperor in the 10th-century ''[[Gunthertuch]]'']]
From the 6th century until the end of the empire, the Byzantines also used a number of other insignia. They are mostly recorded in ceremonial processions, most notably in the 10th-century ''[[De Ceremoniis]]'', but they may have been carried in battle as well. When not used, they were kept in various churches throughout [[Constantinople]].{{sfn|Haldon|1990|pp=271–273}} Among them were the imperial ''phlamoula'' of gold and gold-embroidered silk, and the insignia collectively known as "sceptres" ({{lang|grc|σκῆπτρα}}, ''skēptra''), which were usually symbolical objects on top of a staff. A number of them, the so-called "Roman sceptres" ({{lang|grc|ῥωμαϊκὰ σκῆπτρα}}, ''rhōmaïka skēptra'') resembled to old ''vexilla'', featuring a hanging cloth ({{lang|grc|βῆλον}}, ''vēlon'', from Latin ''[[:wikt:velum#Latin|velum]]'').{{sfn|Babuin|2001|pp=10–13}}{{sfn|Haldon|1990|pp=271–272}} Further insignia of this type included the ''eutychia'' or ''ptychia'' ({{lang|grc|εὐτυχία or πτυχία}}), which probably bore some representation of [[Victoria (mythology)|Victory]].{{sfn|Babuin|2001|p=13}}{{sfn|Haldon|1990|p=272}}

A further group, collectively known as ''skeuē'' (σκεύη), is mentioned in the ''De Ceremoniis'', mostly old military standards handed down through the ages. They were the ''laboura'' (λάβουρα), probably a form of the ''labarum''; the ''kampēdiktouria'' (καμπηδικτούρια), descendants of the batons of the late Roman drill-masters or ''[[Drill instructor|campiductores]]''; the ''signa'' (σίγνα, "insignia"); the ''drakontia'' (δρακόντια) and the ''banda''.{{sfn|Haldon|1990|pp=272–274}} The ''drakontia'' are clearly the descendants of the old Roman ''draco'', and the term ''draconarius'' for a standard bearer survived into the 10th century. It is not certain, however, what the later standards looked like. According to the description of [[Niketas Choniates]], they still included the [[windsock]] that was the ''draco''′s distinctive feature, but this may be a deliberate archaicism. At any rate, the use of the [[dragon]] as an image is attested well into the 14th century.{{sfn|Haldon|1990|p=272}}{{sfn|Babuin|2001|pp=13–15}}

Pseudo-Kodinos also enumerates various banners and insignia used in imperial processions: one named ''archistratēgos'' ({{lang|grc|ἀρχιστράτηγος}}, "chief general"); another with images of renowned prelates and eight streamers known as ''oktapodion'' ({{lang|grc|ὀκταπόδιον}}, "octopus"); another in the form of a cross with the images of [[St. Demetrius]], [[Procopius of Scythopolis|St. Procopius]], [[Theodore of Amasea|St. Theodore Tiro]] and [[Theodore Stratelates|St. Theodore Stratelates]]; another depicting [[St. George]] on horseback; another in the shape of a dragon (δρακόνειον, ''drakoneion''); and another with the emperor on horseback.{{sfn|Verpeaux|1966|pp=195–196}} A pair of each existed, and were carried in processions, while on campaign, one or two copies were taken along, depending on the size of the imperial escort. These were always preceded by the ''[[skouterios]]'' bearing the ''[[dibellion]]'' (διβέλλιον), the emperor's personal ensign, along with the imperial shield (''skouterion''), and were followed by the banners of the [[Despot (court title)|Despot]]s and other commanders, with the banners of the ''[[demarchoi|dēmarchoi]]'' (the heads of Constantinople's quarters) bringing up the rear.{{sfn|Verpeaux|1966|p=196}} The ''dibellion''{{'}}s nature has been debated, but its name – most likely a mixed Greek-Latin compound meaning "double ''velum''" – apparently describes a forked [[pennon]], evidently of Western European origin.{{sfn|Hendy|1992|pp=175–176}}

==See also==
*[[Chi Rho]]
*[[Christogram]]
*[[Double-headed eagle]]

== Notes ==
{{notelist}}

== References ==
{{reflist|20em}}

== Sources ==
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* {{cite journal |last=Tipaldos |first=G. E. |title=Εἶχον οἱ Βυζαντινοί οἰκόσημα |journal=Ἐπετηρίς Ἐταιρείας Βυζαντινῶν Σπουδῶν |volume=III |year=1926 |language=el |pages=206–222 |hdl=11615/16885}}
* {{cite book | last = Tsamakda | first = Vasiliki | title = The Illustrated Chronicle of Ioannes Skylitzes in Madrid | year = 2002 | location = Leiden | publisher = Alexandros | isbn = 978-9-0806-4762-6}}
* {{cite book |last=van Millingen |first=Alexander |author-link=Alexander van Millingen |year=1899 |title=Byzantine Constantinople: The Walls of the City and Adjoining Historical Sites |publisher=John Murray Ed. |location=London |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.279762}}
* {{cite book |editor-first=Jean |editor-last=Verpeaux |title=Pseudo-Kodinos, Traité des Offices |publisher=Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique |year=1966 |language=fr}}
* {{cite journal |last=von Koehne |first=Bernhard| author-link=Bernhard von Koehne |title=Vom Doppeladler |pages=1–26 |language=de |journal=Berliner Blätter für Münz-, Siegel- und Wappenkunde |volume=6 |year=1871–1873 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cs2R9P5GrnoC&pg=PA1}}

== External links ==
* [https://www.heraldik-wiki.de/wiki/Tetragrammkreuz Tetragrammkreuz (article on the tetragrammic cross)] at ''heraldik-wiki.de'' {{in lang|de}}
* [http://www.christopherlong.co.uk/per/vlasto.byzantium.html Heraldry In Byzantium & The Vlasto Family]
* [http://www.heraldica.org/topics/national/byzantin.htm Byzantine Heraldry] at ''heraldica.org''
* [http://flagspot.net/flags/gr_byz.html Byzantine Empire] at ''Flags of the World''

{{Byzantine Empire topics|state=collapsed}}

[[Category:History of the Byzantine Empire|Heraldry]]
[[Category:Coats of arms of the Roman Empire]]
[[Category:Flags by country|Byzantine Empire]]
[[Category:Heraldry by country]]
[[Category:Obsolete national flags|Byzantine Empire]]
[[Category:Coats of arms of former countries]]
[[Category:Imperial Eagle]]
[[Category:Lists and galleries of flags]]