View source for Byblos

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{{Infobox settlement
| name                   = Byblos
| native_name            = جُبَيْل
| other_name             = Jebeil
| native_name_lang       = ar
| settlement_type        = City
| image_skyline          = Byblos Libanon 2003.JPG
| image_alt              = byblos
| image_caption          = Byblos Old Town
| pushpin_map            = Lebanon#Middle East2
| pushpin_label_position = 
| pushpin_map_alt        = Map showing the location of Byblos within Lebanon
| pushpin_map_caption    = Location within Lebanon
| coordinates            = {{Coord|34|07|25|N|35|39|07|E|type:city_region:LB|display=inline,title}}
| coordinates_footnotes  = 
| subdivision_type       = Country
| subdivision_name       = [[Lebanon]]
| subdivision_type1      = [[Governorates of Lebanon|Governorate]]
| subdivision_name1      = [[Keserwan-Jbeil Governorate|Keserwan-Jbeil]]
| subdivision_type2      = [[Districts of Lebanon|District]]
| subdivision_name2      = [[Byblos District|Byblos]]
| established_title      = <!-- Founded -->
| established_date       = 
| founder                = 
| leader_party           = 
| leader_title           = 
| leader_name            = 
| area_total_km2         = 4.16
| area_metro_km2         = 17
| population_total       = 40000
| population_metro       = 100000
| population_note        = 
| timezone1              = [[Eastern European Time|EET]]
| utc_offset1            = +2
| timezone1_DST          = [[Eastern European Summer Time|EEST]]
| utc_offset1_DST        = +3
| postal_code_type       = Postal code
| postal_code            = 
| area_code_type         = [[Telephone numbers in Lebanon|Dialing code]]
| area_code              = +961
| footnotes              = {{Infobox UNESCO World Heritage Site
 |child                  = yes
 |ID                     = 295
 |Year                   = 1984
 |Criteria               = Cultural: iii, iv, vi
 }}
| website                = {{URL|http://www.jbail-byblos.gov.lb/}}
}}
'''Byblos''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|b|ɪ|b|l|ɒ|s}} {{respell|BIB|loss}}; {{langx|grc|Βύβλος}}), also known as '''Jebeil''', '''Jbeil''' or '''Jubayl''' ({{langx|ar|جُبَيْل|Jubayl}}, <small>[[Lebanese Arabic|locally]]</small> {{lang|apc-Latn|Jbeil}} {{IPA|apc-LB|ʒ(ə)beːl|}}), is an ancient city in the [[Keserwan-Jbeil Governorate]] of [[Lebanon]]. The area is believed to have been first settled between 8800 and 7000{{nbsp}}BC<ref name="PeltenburgWasse2004a">{{cite book |editor1=E. J. Peltenburg |editor2=Alexander Wasse |author=Garfinkel, Yosef |chapter="Néolithique" and "Énéolithique" Byblos in Southern Levantine Context |title=Neolithic Revolution: New Perspectives on Southwest Asia in Light of Recent Discoveries on Cyprus |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6mKBAAAAMAAJ |access-date=18 January 2012 |year=2004 |publisher=Oxbow Books |isbn=978-1-84217-132-5}}</ref> and continuously inhabited since 5000{{nbsp}}BC.<ref name="byblos1">{{cite book |title=Cities of the Middle East and North Africa |last1=Dumper |first1=Michael |last2=Stanley |first2=Bruce E. |last3=Abu-Lughod |first3=Janet L. |year=2006 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=1-57607-919-8 |page=104 |quote=Archaeological excavations at Byblos indicate that the site has been continually inhabited since at least 5000 B.C. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3SapTk5iGDkC&q=byblos+continually+inhabited&pg=PA104 |access-date=22 July 2009}}</ref> During its history, Byblos was part of numerous cultures including [[Old Kingdom of Egypt|Egyptian]], [[Phoenicia]]n, [[Assyria]]n, [[Achaemenid Empire|Persian]], [[Hellenistic period|Hellenistic]], [[Roman Empire|Roman]], [[Genoese Republic|Genoese]], [[Mamluk Sultanate|Mamluk]] and [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]]. Urbanisation is thought to have begun during the third millennium BC when it developed into a city,<ref>{{cite book |author1=Lorenzo Nigro |author-link1=Lorenzo Nigro |editor1-last=Nigro |editor1-first=Lorenzo |title=Byblos and Jericho in the early bronze I : social dynamics and cultural interactions : proceedings of the international workshop held in Rome on March 6th 2007 by Rome "La Sapienza" University |date=2007 |publisher=Università di Roma "La Sapienza" |isbn=978-88-88438-06-1 |page=35 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NfAWQoiLQwEC&q=byblos+millenium&pg=PA81 |access-date=17 February 2017 |chapter=Aside the spring: Byblos and Jericho from village to town |archive-date=2023-09-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230923091524/https://books.google.com/books?id=NfAWQoiLQwEC&q=byblos+millenium&pg=PA81 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="byblos1" /> making it one of the [[List of oldest continuously inhabited cities|oldest cities in the world]],  if not the oldest. It is a [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Site]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/295 |title=Byblos |website=UNESCO |access-date=14 March 2018}}</ref>

It was in Ancient Byblos that the [[Phoenician alphabet]], likely the ancestor of the [[Greek alphabet|Greek]], [[Latin]] and all other Western alphabets, was developed.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Phoenician alphabet {{!}} Definition, Letters, & History {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Phoenician-alphabet |access-date=2022-11-11 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref>

== Etymology ==
{{hiero|kbnj<ref name = Gauthier197/>|<hiero>R5:N35-Z4:N25</hiero>|era=1ip|align=left}}
{{hiero|kbn<ref name= Gauthier197>{{cite book |last1=Gauthier |first1=Henri |title=Dictionnaire des Noms Géographiques Contenus dans les Textes Hiéroglyphiques Vol. 5 |date=1928 |pages=197–198 |url=https://archive.org/details/Gauthier1928/page/n101}}</ref><ref name = Budge1047>{{cite book |last1=Wallis Budge |first1=E. A. |title=An Egyptian hieroglyphic dictionary: with an index of English words, king list and geological list with indexes, list of hieroglyphic characters, coptic and semitic alphabets, etc. Vol II |date=1920 |publisher=[[John Murray (publishing house)|John Murray]] |page=[https://archive.org/details/egyptianhierogly02budguoft/page/1047 1047] |url=https://archive.org/details/egyptianhierogly02budguoft}}</ref>|<hiero>V31*D58-N35:N25</hiero>|era=mk|align=left}}
The name appears as ''Kebny'' in [[ancient Egyptian language|Egyptian]] [[Egyptian hieroglyphs|hieroglyphic]] records going back to the [[Dynasty IV|4th-dynasty]] [[pharaoh]] [[Sneferu]] ({{fl.|2600}}{{nbsp}}BC)<ref>{{cite book |last=Wilkinson |first=Toby |title=The Rise and Fall of Ancient Egypt |year=2011 |publisher=Random House Trade Paperbacks Books |location=New York, NY |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=P07rgiJjsk4C |isbn=978-0553384901 |page=66}}</ref> and as {{lang|akk-Latn|Gubla}} ({{lang|akk|𒁺𒆷}}) in the [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]] [[cuneiform]] [[Amarna letters]] to the [[XVIII Dynasty|18th-dynasty]] pharaohs {{nowrap|[[Amenhotep III]]}} and [[Amenhotep IV|IV]]. In the 1st{{nbsp}}millennium{{nbsp}}BC, its name appeared in [[Phoenician language|Phoenician]] and [[Punic language|Punic]] inscriptions as {{lang|phn-Latn|Gebal}} ({{lang|phn|𐤂𐤁𐤋}}, {{sc|gbl}});{{sfnp|Head, ''et al''.|1911|p=791}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Huss |first=Werner |title=Geschichte der Karthager |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NvEK7kc3qnQC |publisher=C.H. Beck |location=Munich |date=1985 |isbn=9783406306549 |language=de |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=NvEK7kc3qnQC&pg=PA561 561]}}.</ref> in the [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] [[Bible]] as ''Geval'' ({{lang|he|גבל}});<ref>[[Book of Ezekiel|Ezekiel]] 27:9.</ref> and in [[Classical Syriac language|Syriac]] as {{sc|gbl}} ({{lang|syc|ܓܒܠ}}). [[Onomasticon (Eusebius)|Eusebius' ''Onomasticon'']] stated that Byblos was called "Gobel / Gebal" in Hebrew.<ref name="de Césarée 1659 p. 184">{{cite book |last=de Césarée |first=E. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-h45FkDkhsYC&pg=PA70 |title=Eusebii pamphili caesareae palestinae episcopi Liber de locis hebraicis: Sive onomasticon urbium et locorum Sacrae Scripturae. Nunc primùm Graecè editum, cum Latina versione Sancti Hieronymi. Et variis Additamentis R. P. Jacobi Bonfrerii Soc. Iesu. Unà cum Commentariis ejusdem in Josue, Judices, & Ruth |publisher=apud Sebastianum Cramoisy Regis & Reginae Architypographum |year=1659 |page=70 |language=la}}</ref> The name seems to derive from {{sc|gb}} ({{lang|phn|𐤂𐤁}}, "[[water well|well]]") and {{sc|ʾl}} ({{lang|phn|𐤀𐤋}}, "[[deity|god]]"), the latter a word that could variously refer to [[Canaanite mythology|any of the Canaanite gods]] or to [[El (deity)|their leader in particular]]. The name thus seems to have meant the "Well of the God" or "Source of the God".{{citation needed|date=September 2024}}

Its present [[Arabic language|Arabic]] name {{lang|ar-Latn|Jubayl}} ({{lang|ar|جبيل}}) or ''J''(''e'')''beil'' is a direct descendant of these earlier names, although apparently modified by a misunderstanding of the name as the [[triliteral root]] {{sc|gbl}} or {{sc|jbl}}, meaning "[[mountain]]". {{citation needed span|When the Arabic form of the name is used, it is typically rendered ''Jbeil'', ''Jbail'', or ''Jbayl'' in English.|date=February 2022}} All of these, along with Byblos, are etymologically related. During the [[Crusades]], this name appeared in Western records as ''Gibelet'' or {{lang|fro|Giblet}}. This name was used for [[Byblos Castle]] and [[Lord of Gibelet|its associated lordship]].{{citation needed|date=September 2024}}

The Phoenician City, known to the Greeks as {{lang|grc-Latn|Býblos}} ({{lang|grc|Βύβλος}}) and to the Romans as {{lang|la|Byblus}}, was important for their import of [[papyrus]] out of [[Ancient Egypt]]<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://phoenicia.org/byblosmart.html |title=Byblos Mart -- Bookworms Corner}}</ref> – to the extent that "''Byblos''" came to mean "papyrus" in Greek. The [[English language|English]] word "''[[Bible]]''", therefore, ultimately derives from the Greek name of the city, ''Βύβλος'' ('Βύblos / Byblos')'','' a Greek mumbo-jumble of גְּבָל ('Gāḇal / Gə<u>b</u>al Gobâl'..., that is, 'Gebal' or 'Jebel'), which shares the same root as גְּבוּל ('Gəḇūl / Gā<u>b</u>ūl, that is 'Gebul' or 'Jabul'), as they're derivatives of ג־ב־ל ('g-ḇ-l' / 'g-<u>b</u>-l' / 'g-v-l'), which means 'twist as a rope', '(be a, set) border' or 'bound(aria)', which tells us that it is a North Boundary of Canaan.<ref>{{cite book |last=Brake |first=Donald L. |title=A visual history of the English Bible: the tumultuous tale of the world's bestselling book |year=2008 |publisher=Baker Books |location=Grand Rapids, MI |isbn=978-0-8010-1316-4 |page=[https://archive.org/details/visualhistoryofe00brak/page/29 29] |url=https://archive.org/details/visualhistoryofe00brak/page/29}}</ref><ref name="Eberhart2013">{{cite book |first=George M. |last=Eberhart |title=The Whole Library Handbook 5: Current Data, Professional Advice, and Curiosa |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tuacAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA198 |year=2013 |publisher=American Library Association |isbn=978-0-8389-1090-0 |page=198}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Beekes |first=R. S. P. |author-link=R. S. P. Beekes |title=Etymological Dictionary of Greek |year=2009 |publisher=Brill |location=Leiden and Boston |pages=246–7}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Strong's Hebrew: 1380. גְּבַל (Gebal) -- a city in Phoenicia |url=https://biblehub.com/hebrew/1380.htm |access-date=2024-08-26 |website=biblehub.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Strong's Hebrew: 1366. גְּבוּל (gebul) -- border, boundary, territory |url=https://biblehub.com/hebrew/1366.htm |access-date=2024-08-26 |website=biblehub.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Strong's Hebrew: 1379. גָּבַל (gabal) -- to bound, border |url=https://biblehub.com/hebrew/1379.htm |access-date= |website=biblehub.com}}</ref>

==History and archaeology==
{{Main|Canaan|Phoenicia|Kings of Byblos}}
[[File:Jug Byblos Louvre AO14707.jpg|thumb|upright|Terracotta jug from Byblos (now in the Louvre), Late Bronze Age (1600–1200 BC)]]
Situated approximately 42&nbsp;km (26&nbsp;mi) north of [[Beirut]], Byblos holds a strong allure for archaeologists due to its accumulations of various strata resulting from countless centuries of human dwelling. The initial excavation was conducted by [[Ernest Renan]] in 1860, documented in his work ''[[Mission de Phénicie|"Mission de Phénicie" (1865–1874)]]''. This was succeeded by [[Pierre Montet]]'s efforts from 1921 to 1924, and later by [[Maurice Dunand]], who continued excavations from 1925 for a span of forty years.<ref name="MillsBullard1990">{{cite book |author1=Watson E. Mills |author2=Roger Aubrey Bullard |title=Mercer dictionary of the Bible |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=goq0VWw9rGIC&pg=PA124 |access-date=8 July 2011 |year=1990 |publisher=Mercer University Press |isbn=978-0-86554-373-7 |pages=124–}}</ref><ref name="Moore">{{cite book |last=Moore |first=A.M.T. |title=The Neolithic of the Levant |publisher=Oxford University, Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis |year=1978 |pages=329–339 |url=http://ancientneareast.tripod.com/143.html}}</ref> Renan's expedition was to "provide the evidence that the city did not move and that Gebeil is Byblos".<ref>{{cite book |last=Montet |first=Pierre |title=Byblos et l'Égypte: quatre campagnes de fouilles à Gebeil, 1921-1922-1923-1924 |url=https://archive.org/details/Montet1928 |page=[https://archive.org/details/Montet1928/page/n6 3] |year=1928 |publisher=P. Geuthner}}
* [Original French]: "D’abord, le site de Byblos était fixé sans conteste possible. Le passage où Strabon définit Byblos une ville située sur une colline à quelque distance de la nier, avait égaré les savants. Renan lui-même avait songé à Qassouba, mais il comprit vite que cette colline était trop peu importante pour avoir été le siège d’une ville telle que Byblos. L’abondance des fragments antiques recueillis aux environs de la citadelle, la situation des nécropoles au nord et au sud de l’enceinte franque prouvent jusqu'à l’évidence que la ville ne s’est pas déplacée et que Gebeil recouvre Byblos."
* [English translation]: "First, the site of Byblos was fixed without question possible. The passage where Strabon defines Byblos as a city situated on a hill some distance away from it, had misled the scientists. Renan himself had thought of Qassouba, but he soon realised that this hill was too small to have been the seat of a city such as Byblos. The abundance of ancient fragments collected around the citadel, the situation of the necropolises to the north and south of the Frankish enclosure provide the evidence that the city did not move and that Gebeil is Byblos."</ref>

Fragments attributed to the semi-legendary pre-[[Homeric]] [[Phoenicia]]n [[Canaanite religion|priest]] [[Sanchuniathon]] say Byblos was the first city erected in [[Phoenicia]] and was established by the god [[Cronus]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sacred-texts.com/cla/af/af01.htm |title=The Theology of the Phœnicians: From Sanchoniatho |website=www.sacred-texts.com}}</ref> (Cronus was considered the nearest equivalent to the Canaanite [[Baal]] / [[Baal Hammon]] in [[interpretatio graeca|the syncretising system]] used by the ancient Greeks and Romans.) According to the writer [[Philo of Byblos]] (quoting Sanchuniathon, and quoted in [[Eusebius]]), Byblos was founded by the Phoenician shrine god [[El (deity)|El]] (whom the [[Greeks]] identified with their god [[Cronus]]). During the 3rd millennium BC, the first signs of a town can be observed, with the remains of well-built houses of uniform size. This was the period when the [[Canaan]]ite civilization began to develop.{{citation needed|date=September 2024}}

===Neolithic and Chalcolithic levels===
[[Neolithic]] remains of some buildings can be observed at the site. [[Jacques Cauvin]] published studies of [[flint tools]] from the stratified Neolithic and [[Chalcolithic]] sites in 1962.<ref>Cauvin, Jacques., Les industries lithiques du tell de Byblos (Liban), L'Anthropologie, vol. 66, 5–6, 1962.</ref> Remains of humans found in Chalcolithic burials have been published by [[Henri Victor Vallois]] in 1937.<ref>Vallois, H.V., Note sur les ossements humains de la nécropole énéolithique de Byblos (avec 2 planches). ''Bulletin du musée de Beyrouth''. Tome I, 1937. Beyrouth.</ref> Tombs from this era were discussed by Emir [[Maurice Chehab]] in 1950.<ref>Chehab, Emir M., Tombes des chefs d'époque énéolithique trouvés à Byblos, ''Bulletin du Musée de Beyrouth''. Tome IX, 1949–1950, Beyrouth.</ref> Early pottery found at the tell was published by E.S. Boynton in 1960 with further studies by R. Erich in 1954 and Van Liere and [[Henri de Contenson]] in 1964.<ref name="boynton">Boynton, E.S., The Ceramic Industry of Ancient Lebanon. (Available in MS in [[American University of Beirut]] and in microfilm in [[Harvard]] Library) 1960.</ref><ref>Erich, R., Relative chronologies in Old World Archaeology, Chicago, 1954.</ref><ref>Van Liere, W. and Contenson, Henri de, "Holocene Environment and Early Settlement in the Levant", ''Annales archéologiques de Syrie'', volume 14, pp. 125–128, 1964.</ref>

====Dunand's five-level stratigraphy====
Prehistoric settlements at Byblos were divided up by Dunand into the following five periods, which were recently expanded and re-calibrated by [[Yosef Garfinkel]] to correlate with [[Tell es-Sultan]] (Jericho):

* Early Neolithic (early phase) corresponding to the [[Pre-Pottery Neolithic B]] (PPNB) of Jericho, represented by plastered floors and [[naviforme]] technology, dated between 8800 and 7000 BC;
* Early Neolithic (late phase) corresponding to the [[Neolithic#Neolithic 3 – Pottery Neolithic (PN)|PNA]] of [[Tell es-Sultan]] (Jericho) IX (also [[Yarmukian]]) between 6400 and 5800 BC, represented by [[pottery]], [[sickle]] blades, [[figurine]]s and small points;
* Middle Neolithic corresponding to the [[Neolithic#Neolithic 3 – Pottery Neolithic (PN)|PNB]] of [[Tell es-Sultan]] (Jericho) VIII and represented by pottery, dated between 5800 and 5300 BC;
* Late Neolithic corresponding to the Middle [[Chalcolithic]] of [[Beth Shean]] and represented by pottery, [[Stone vessels in ancient Judaea|stone vessels]], [[silo]]s, [[chamber tomb]]s and seals, dated between 5300 and 4500 BC;
* Early Chalcolithic corresponding to the Late Chalcolithic of [[Ghassulian]], represented by [[jar burial]]s, pierced flint, churn and a violin figurine, dated to between 4500 and 3600 BC and,
* Late Chalcolithic corresponding to the Early [[Bronze Age]], represented by [[architecture]] and [[cylinder seal]] impressions, dated to between 3600 and 3100 BC.<ref name="PeltenburgWasse2004a"/>

The site first appears to have been settled during the [[Pre-Pottery Neolithic B]] period, approximately 8800 to 7000 BC<ref name="PeltenburgWasse2004a"/><ref>Vogel, J.C. [[Tjalling Waterbolk|Waterbolk, H.T.]], Groningen Radiocarbon Dates X, Radiocarbon, 14, 6–110 / 105, 1972.</ref> (Durand's Early Neolithic).

Early Neolithic Byblos was a later settlement than others in the [[Beqaa Valley]] such as [[Labweh]] and [[Ard Tlaili]]. It was located on the seaward slope of the larger of the two hills that used to compose ancient Byblos, with a watered valley in between.<ref name="CopelandWescombe1965">{{cite book |author1=Lorraine Copeland |author2=P. Wescombe |title=Inventory of Stone-Age sites in Lebanon, p. 78-79 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6YsRRwAACAAJ |access-date=21 July 2011 |year=1965 |publisher=Imprimerie Catholique}}{{Dead link|date=April 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

[[File:Shir Gefaess der DFBW.jpg|thumb|Dark faced burnished ware pottery from [[Shir (Neolithic site)|Shir]], in [[Syria]]]]

The original site spread down into the valley and covered an area of {{convert|1.2|ha|acre|abbr=on|sp=us}} providing fertile soils and a protected landing place for boats. Dunand discovered around twenty houses although some of the settlement was suggested to have been lost to the sea, robbed or destroyed.<ref name="Moore"/><ref>Dunand, Maurice., Rapport préliminaire sure les fouilles de Byblos en 1948, 1949, ''Bulletin du musée de Beyrouth''. Tome IX, 1949–1950, Beyrouth.</ref><ref>Dunand, Maurice., Fouilles de Byblos, vol II, Atlas, Paris, 1950d (also part I, 1954 – part II, 1958).</ref><ref>Dunand, Maurice., Chronologie des plus anciennes installations de Byblos, Revue Biblique, vol. 57, 1950b.</ref><ref>Dunand, Maurice., Rapport préliminaire sure les fouilles de Byblos en 1950, 1951 & 1952, ''Bulletin du musée de Beyrouth''. Tome XII, 1955, Beyrouth.</ref><ref>Dunand, Maurice., Rapport préliminaire sure les fouilles de Byblos en 1954, 1955, ''Bulletin du musée de Beyrouth''. Tome XIII, 1956, Beyrouth.</ref><ref>Fleisch, Henri., Préhistoire au Liban en 1950, Bulletin de la Société Préhistorique Français, vol. 48, 1–2, p. 26. (Contains report on Byblos presented by Maurice Dunand to the 3rd C.I.S.E.A., Brussels, 1948), 1951.</ref> Dwellings were rectangular with plastered floors, [[pottery]] was usually [[Dark faced burnished ware]] with some shell impressions.<ref>Dunand, Maurice., Rapport préliminaire sure les fouilles de Byblos en 1960, 1961 & 1962, ''Bulletin du musée de Beyrouth''. Tome XVII, 1964, Beyrouth.</ref>

The Middle Neolithic was a smaller settlement of no more than {{convert|0.15|ha|acre|abbr=on|sp=us}} adjacent to the older site. The pottery was more developed with red washes and more varied forms and elaborate decorations, buildings were poorer with unplastered floors.{{citation needed|date=September 2024}}

The Late Neolithic period showed development from the middle in building design, a wider range of more developed flint tools and a far larger variety of pottery with fabrication including silica. The Late Chalcolithic featured developments of "[[Canaanean blade|Canaanite blade]]s" and fan scrapers. Adult burials in jars started to appear along with metal in the form of one [[copper]] hook, found in a jar. Some jars were lined with white plaster that was applied and self-hardened after firing.<ref>Dunand, Maurice., Rapport préliminaire sure les fouilles de Byblos en 1957, 1958 & 1959, ''Bulletin du musée de Beyrouth''. Tome XVI, 1961, Beyrouth.</ref> Copper appeared more frequently in the Late Chalcolithic period along with multiple burials in tombs and jar handles with impressed signs.<ref name="boynton"/>
[[File:Byblos 5.jpg|thumb|upright|right|Byblos]]

=== Early Bronze ===
{{Main|Kings of Byblos|Old Kingdom of Egypt|First Intermediate Period of Egypt|Middle Kingdom of Egypt|Second Intermediate Period of Egypt|New Kingdom of Egypt|Third Intermediate Period of Egypt}}
According to [[Lorenzo Nigro]], Byblos moved from being a fishermen's village to its earlier urban form at the beginning of the third millennium BC.<ref>{{cite book |author1=Lorenzo Nigro |author-link1=Lorenzo Nigro |editor1-last=Nigro |editor1-first=Lorenzo |title=Byblos and Jericho in the early bronze I : social dynamics and cultural interactions : proceedings of the international workshop held in Rome on March 6th 2007 by Rome "La Sapienza" University |date=2007 |publisher=Università di Roma "La Sapienza" |isbn=978-88-88438-06-1 |page=35 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NfAWQoiLQwEC&q=byblos+millenium&pg=PA81 |access-date=17 February 2017 |chapter=Aside the spring: Byblos and Jericho from village to town}}</ref>  Early Bronze Age remains were characterised by the development of [[Byblos combed ware]] and a lithic assemblage studied by Jacques Cauvin.<ref name="CopelandWescombe1965"/><ref>Fleisch, Henri., Néolithique du Proche-Orient, Bulletin de la Société Préhistorique Français, vol. 49, 5–6, p. 212. (Contains report on Byblos excavations of 1951 by Maurice Dunand), 1952.</ref>

Watson Mills and Roger Bullard suggest that during the [[Old Kingdom of Egypt]] and [[Middle Kingdom of Egypt]] Byblos was virtually an Egyptian colony.<ref name="MillsBullard1990"/> The growing city was a wealthy one and seems to have been an ally (among "those who are on his waters") of [[Egypt]] for many centuries. [[First Dynasty of Egypt|First Dynasty]] tombs used timbers from Byblos. One of the oldest Egyptian words for an oceangoing boat was "Byblos ship". Archaeologists have recovered [[ancient Egypt|Egyptian]]-made artifacts as old as a vessel fragment bearing the name of the [[Second Dynasty of Egypt|Second dynasty]] ruler [[Khasekhemwy]], although this "may easily have reached Byblos through trade and/or at a later period".<ref>Wilkinson, Toby, 1999, ''Early Dynastic Egypt'' p. 78.</ref>

=== Middle Bronze ===
Objects have been found at Byblos naming the [[Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt|12th Dynasty]] king [[Senusret II]],{{Sfn|Aractingi|2025}} the [[Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt|13th Dynasty]] Egyptian king [[Neferhotep I]].

=== Late Bronze ===
The rulers of Byblos maintained close relationships with the New Kingdom pharaohs of Ancient Egypt.{{citation needed|date=September 2024}}

Around 1350 BC, the [[Amarna letters]] include 60 letters from [[Rib-Hadda]] and his successor [[Ili-Rapih]] who were rulers of Byblos, writing to the Egyptian government. This is mainly due to Rib-Hadda's constant pleas for military assistance from [[Akhenaten]]. They also deal with the conquest of neighbouring city-states by the [[Habiru]].{{citation needed|date=September 2024}}

It appears Egyptian contact peaked during the [[Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt|19th dynasty]], only to decline during the [[Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt|20th]] and [[Twenty-first Dynasty of Egypt|21st]] dynasties. In addition, when the [[New Kingdom of Egypt|New Kingdom]] collapsed in the 11th century BC, Byblos ceased being a colony and became the foremost city of Phoenicia.<ref>"Byblos" in: Encyclopædia Britannica, vol. 2, p. 692. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 1992. {{ISBN|0-85229-553-7}}</ref> Although the archaeological evidence seems to indicate a brief resurgence during the [[Twenty-second Dynasty of Egypt|22nd]] and [[Twenty-third Dynasty of Egypt|23rd]] dynasties, it is clear after the [[Third Intermediate Period of Egypt|Third Intermediate Period]] the Egyptians started favouring [[Tyre, Lebanon|Tyre]] and [[Sidon]] instead of Byblos.<ref>Shaw, Ian: "The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt", page 321. Oxford University Press, 2000. {{ISBN|978-0-19-280458-7}}</ref>

Archaeological evidence at Byblos, particularly the five [[Byblian royal inscriptions]] dating back to around 1200–1000 BC, shows existence of a [[Phoenician alphabet]] of twenty-two characters; an important example is the [[Ahiram sarcophagus]]. The use of the alphabet was spread by Phoenician merchants through their maritime trade into parts of North Africa and Europe. One of the most important monuments of this period is the [[Temple of the Obelisks]], dedicated to the [[ancient Canaanite religion|Canaanite war god]] [[Resheph]], but this had fallen into ruins by the time of [[Alexander the Great]].{{citation needed|date=September 2024}}

=== Iron Age ===
{{Main|Kings of Byblos|Neo-Assyrian Empire||||}}
[[File:Traditional lebanese house at Byblos.jpg|thumb|right|Traditional Lebanese house overlooking the Mediterranean sea, Byblos. This house is within the antiquities complex and illustrates the modern ground level concerning excavations]]
In the [[Assyria]]n period, [[Sibittibaal]] of Byblos became tributary to [[Tiglath-Pileser III]] in 738 BC, and in 701 BC, when [[Sennacherib]] conquered all [[Phoenicia]], the king of Byblos was [[Urumilki]]. Byblos was also subject to Assyrian kings [[Esarhaddon]] (r. 681–669 BC) and [[Ashurbanipal]] (r. 668–627 BC), under its kings [[Milkiasaph]] and [[Yehawmelek]].{{citation needed|date=September 2024}}

In the [[Achaemenid Empire]] (538–332 BC), Byblos was the fourth of four Phoenician vassal kingdoms established by the Persians; the first three being [[Sidon]], [[Tyre, Lebanon|Tyr]], and [[Arwad]].{{citation needed|date=September 2024}}

=== Classical antiquity ===
{{Main|Macedonia (ancient kingdom)|Seleucid Empire|Roman Syria|||}}
[[Hellenistic period|Hellenistic]] rule came with the arrival of [[Alexander the Great]] in the area in 332 BC. [[Currency|Coinage]] was in use, and there is abundant evidence of continued trade with other Mediterranean countries.{{citation needed|date=September 2024}}

[[File:Roman era Phoenecia.png|thumb|left|Phoenicia in [[late antiquity]], from the [[Peutinger map]]]]
[[File:Byblos-109933.jpg|thumb|Ruins at port.]]
During the [[Ancient Rome|Greco-Roman]] period, the temple of [[Resheph]] was elaborately rebuilt, and the city, though smaller than its neighbours such as Tyrus and Zidonia, was a centre for the cult of [[Adonis]].{{citation needed|date=September 2024}}

King [[Herod the Great|Herod]] of [[Herodian kingdom|Judaea]], known for his extensive building projects, including beyond his own kingdom, constructed a city wall for Byblos.<ref name=":6">{{Cite book |last=Rogers |first=Guy MacLean |title=For the Freedom of Zion: the Great Revolt of Jews against Romans, 66-74 CE |date=2021 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0-300-24813-5 |location=New Haven |pages=21–22, 535}}</ref>

In the 3rd century, a small but impressive [[theatre]] was constructed. With the rise of [[Christianity]], a [[Episcopal see|bishopric]] was established in Byblos, and the town grew rapidly. Although a [[Sasanian Empire|Sasanian]] colony is known to have been established in the region following the [[early Muslim conquests]] of 636, there is little archaeological evidence for it. Trade with [[Europe]] effectively dried up, and it was not until the coming of the [[First Crusade]] in 1098 that prosperity returned to Byblos, known then as Gibelet or Giblet.{{citation needed|date=September 2024}}

=== Crusader, Mamluk, Ottoman period ===
[[File:Byblos Castle.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Crusader Fort]]
[[File:St JohnByblos.jpg|thumb|right|The Crusades-era [[St. John's Cathedral, Byblos|Church of St. John-Mark]] in Byblos]]
In the 12th and 13th century, Byblos became part of the [[County of Tripoli]], a [[Crusader states|Crusader state]] connected to, but [[Vassals of the Kingdom of Jerusalem#Northern states|largely independent]] from, the [[Crusade]]r [[Kingdom of Jerusalem]].

As Gibelet or Giblet, it came under the rule of the [[Genoa|Genoese]] [[Embriaco family]], who created for themselves the [[Lord of Gibelet|Lordship of Gibelet]], first as administrators of the city in the name of the [[Republic of Genoa]], and then as a hereditary fief, undertaking to pay an annual fee to Genoa and the [[Genoa Cathedral|church of San Lorenzo]] (Genoa's Cathedral).<ref>{{Cite web |title=EMBRIACI in "Enciclopedia Italiana" |url=https://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/embriaci_(Enciclopedia-Italiana) |access-date=2020-12-15 |website=www.treccani.it |language=it-IT}}</ref>

The Embriaco family's residence, the [[Byblos Castle]], along with the fortified town, served as an important military base for the Crusaders. The remains of the castle are among the most impressive architectural structures now visible in the town centre. The town was taken by [[Saladin]] in 1187, re-taken by the Crusaders, and conquered by [[Baibars]] in 1266, but it remained in the possession of the Embriacos until around 1300.{{citation needed|date=September 2024}}

Having voluntarily surrendered to the Mamluks, the city was relatively spared from looting following its capture.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Mission de Phénicie |last=Renan |first=Ernest |publisher=Imprimerie impériale |year=1864 |location=Paris |pages=157}}</ref> Its fortifications were subsequently restored by [[Baybars]].<ref>{{cite book |author=Maurice Dunand |title=Byblos: Its History, Ruins and Legends |edition=3rd |location=Beirut |publisher=Imprimerie Catholique |year=1973 |page=41}}</ref> From 1516 until 1918, the town and the whole region became part of the [[Ottoman Empire]].{{citation needed|date=September 2024}}

=== Contemporary history ===
[[File:Old streets.jpg|thumb|right|Byblos Historic Quarter]]

Byblos and all of Lebanon were placed under [[French Mandate of Lebanon|French Mandate]] from 1920 until 1943 when Lebanon achieved independence. The [[2006 Lebanon War]] negatively affected the ancient city by covering its harbour and town walls with an oil slick that was the result of an oil spill from a nearby power plant.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.international.icomos.org/risk/world_report/2006-2007/pdf/H@R_2006-2007_28_National_Report_Lebanon.pdf |title=ICOMOS Heritage at Risk 2006/2007 |author=Dr. Lina G. Tahan |publisher=[[ICOMOS]]}}</ref>

During the [[2024 Israeli invasion of Lebanon]], [[UNESCO]] gave Byblos and 33 other cultural sites enhanced protection to safeguard them against [[Destruction of cultural heritage during the Israeli invasion of Lebanon|damage]].<ref>{{Cite news |title=Cultural property under enhanced protection Lebanon |url=https://www.unesco.org/en/culture/cultural-property-under-enhanced-protection-lebanon |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241231104017/https://www.unesco.org/en/culture/cultural-property-under-enhanced-protection-lebanon |archive-date=2024-12-31 |access-date=2025-01-01 |language=en |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Demographics==
[[File:ByblosSouk.jpg|thumb|right|The old souk in Byblos, [[Lebanon]]]]

Byblos's inhabitants are predominantly Christian, mostly [[Maronite]], with minorities of [[Armenian Apostolic Church|Armenian Apostolic]], [[Greek Orthodox Church of Antioch|Greek Orthodox]], and [[Melkite Greek Catholic Church|Greek Catholics]]. There is also a minority of [[Shia Islam|Shi`i Muslims]]. It is said that the predominantly  Shi`i city of [[Bint Jbeil]] ("Daughter of Byblos") in Southern Lebanon was founded by Shi`a migrants from Byblos. Byblos has three representatives in the [[Parliament of Lebanon]]: two Maronites and one Shi`i Muslim.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.proud-to-be-lebanese.com/e2005/ |title=Lebanon Elections 2005 |publisher=Proud-to-be-lebanese.com |access-date=2012-10-31 |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121201224012/http://www.proud-to-be-lebanese.com/e2005/ |archive-date=2012-12-01}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Elections municipales et ikhtiariah au Mont-Liban |url=http://www.localiban.org/IMG/pdf/Elections_municipales_libanaises_2010_-_Mont-Liban.pdf |website=Localiban |access-date=2016-02-12 |page=19 |date=2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150724081015/http://www.localiban.org/IMG/pdf/Elections_municipales_libanaises_2010_-_Mont-Liban.pdf |archive-date=2015-07-24}}</ref>

{{bar box
|title=Religion in Byblos (2014) <ref>{{cite web | url=https://lub-anan.com/المحافظات/جبل-لبنان/جبيل/جبيل/المذاهب/ | title=التوزيع حسب المذاهب للناخبين/ناخبات في بلدة جبيل، قضاء جبيل محافظة جبل لبنان في لبنان }}</ref>
|titlebar=
|left1=Religion
|right1=Percent
|float=right
|bars=
{{bar percent|[[Christianity in Lebanon|Christian]]|DarkBlue|86.51}}
{{bar percent|[[Lebanese Shia Muslims|Shia Islam]]|Green|6.90}}
{{bar percent|[[Lebanese Sunni Muslims|Sunni Islam]]|DarkGreen|6.06}}
{{Bar percent|Others|Gray|0.53}}
}}

In 2014, [[Christianity in Lebanon|Christians]] made up 86.51% and [[Islam in Lebanon|Muslims]] made up 12.97% of registered voters in Byblos. 64.57% of the voters were [[Lebanese Maronite Christians|Maronite Catholics]], 10.45% were [[Armenian Apostolic Church|Armenian Orthodox]], 6.90% were [[Lebanese Shia Muslims|Shiite Muslims]] and 6.06% were [[Lebanese Sunni Muslims|Sunni Muslims]].<ref>{{cite web | url=https://lub-anan.com/المحافظات/جبل-لبنان/جبيل/جبيل/المذاهب/ | title=التوزيع حسب المذاهب للناخبين/ناخبات في بلدة جبيل، قضاء جبيل محافظة جبل لبنان في لبنان }}</ref>

== Education ==
Byblos is home to the professional schools of the [[Lebanese American University]] (LAU). The LAU Byblos Campus houses the Medical School, the Engineering School, the School of Architecture and Design, the Pharmacy School, which offers the only Pharm.D. Program outside the United States accredited by the [[Accreditation Council for Pharmacy Education|Accreditation Council for Pharmacy Education (ACPE)]],<ref>{{Cite web |date=2016-02-29 |title=Lebanese American University |url=http://www.aaicu.org/lebanese-american-university/ |access-date=2020-09-22 |website=AAICU |language=en-US}}</ref> the School of Business, and the School of Arts and Sciences.

== Tourism ==
[[File:Byblos beach.jpg|thumb|Byblos public beach]]
[[File:ByblosSite1.jpg|thumb|The King's Spring]]

Byblos is re-emerging as an upscale touristic hub.<ref name="Beehner">{{cite news |url=http://travel.nytimes.com/2010/01/03/travel/03next.html |work=The New York Times |title=Byblos, Lebanon's Ancient Port, Is Reborn |first=Lionel |last=Beehner |date=2010-01-03 |access-date=2010-04-27}}</ref> With its ancient [[Byblos Port|port]], [[Phoenicia]]n, Roman, and Crusader ruins, sandy beaches and the picturesque mountains that surround it make it an ideal tourist destination. The city is known for its fish restaurants, open-air bars, and outdoor cafes. Yachts cruise into its harbor today as they did in the 1960s and 1970s when [[Marlon Brando]] and [[Frank Sinatra]] were regular visitors to the city.<ref name="Beehner"/> Byblos was crowned as the "Arab Tour Capital" for the year 2016 by the Lebanese minister of tourism in the [[Grand Serail of Beirut|Grand Serail]] in [[Beirut]]. Byblos was chosen by [[Condé Nast Traveler]] as the second best city in the [[Middle East]] for 2012, beating [[Tel Aviv]] and [[Dubai]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cntraveler.com/readers-choice-awards/africa-middle-east/top-5-cities-middle-east#/slide=2 |title=Middle East: Top 5 Cities: Readers' Choice Awards : Condé Nast Traveler |publisher=Cntraveler.com |date=2012-10-16 |access-date=2013-03-26 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130515000107/http://www.cntraveler.com/readers-choice-awards/africa-middle-east/top-5-cities-middle-east |archive-date=2013-05-15}}</ref> and by the [[World Tourism Organization]] as the best Arab tourist city for 2013.<ref>{{cite web |title=Byblos crowned best Arab tourist city |url=http://www.nna-leb.gov.lb/en/show-news/7801/Byblos-crowned-best-Arab-tourist-city |access-date=20 June 2013}}</ref>

== The Byblos archaeological site ==
* ''Ain el-Malik'' or ''King's Spring'', about 20 m deep, is a large cavity accessible by spiral stairs. Once it supplied the city with water.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.obelisks.org/en/byblos.htm |title=Temple of the Obelisks in Byblos |website=www.obelisks.org}}</ref> According to [[Plutarch]]'s version of the Egyptian [[Osiris myth]], the king's servants met [[Isis]] on the stairs of the spring and took her to the royal palace, where she found the body of her husband [[Osiris]] embedded in one of the palace pillars.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.phoenician.org/isis_and_osiris_legend.htm |title=Isis and Osiris Legend |website=www.phoenician.org}}</ref>

[[File:L Shaped Byblos.jpg|thumb|The L-shaped Temple]]

* The ''L-shaped Temple'' was erected about 2700 BC.

[[File:ByblosObeliskTemple.jpg|thumb|The Temple of the Obelisks]]

* The [[Temple of the Obelisks]], originally built in 1600–1200 BC on top of the “L-shaped temple,” was moved by archaeologists to its present location. The many small obelisks found in this temple were used as religious offerings. The sanctuary contained a large number of [[Byblos figurines|human figurines made of bronze covered with gold leaf]], which are now displayed in the [[National Museum of Beirut]].
* The [[Royal necropolis of Byblos|royal necropolis]] dates back to the second millennium BC and contains tombs of the Byblos kings, including King [[Ahiram]].
* The [[Bronze Age necropolis of Byblos|Bronze Age necropolis]] of the Gebalite elite, discovered in 2019 at the southern outskirts of the ancient city acropolis.{{Sfn|Aractingi|2025}}
* The [[Roman Theatre of Byblos|Roman theater]] was built around AD 218.

== Other historic buildings ==
* '''Byblos Wax Museum'''
{{Main|Byblos Wax Museum}}

The Byblos Wax Museum displays wax statues of characters whose dates of origin range from [[Phoenicia]]n times to current days.

* '''Byblos Fossil Museum'''
{{Main|Byblos Fossil Museum}}

The Byblos Fossil Museum has a collection of fossilised fish, sharks, eel, flying fish, and other marine life, some of which are millions of years old.

* '''Medieval city wall'''
The old medieval part of Byblos is surrounded by walls running about 270m from east to west and 200m from north to south.

* '''Byblos Castle'''
{{Main|Byblos Castle}}
Byblos Castle was built by the Crusaders in the 12th century. It is located in the archaeological site near the port.

* '''[[St. John's Cathedral, Byblos|St John the Baptist Church]]'''
Work on the church started during the Crusades in 1115. It was considered a cathedral and was partially destroyed during an earthquake in AD 1170. It was later given to the Maronite bishop as a gift by Prince [[Yusuf Shihab]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.jbail-byblos.gov.lb/baldati/amaken?la=en&id=6 |title=St. John-Marc Church |website=jbail-byblos.gov.lb}}</ref>

[[File:Sultan Abdul Majid mosque in Byblos, Lebanon (for women only).JPG|thumb|right|Sultan Abdulmejid mosque in Byblos, Lebanon]]

* '''Sultan Abduljid Mosque'''
The old mosque by the Castle dates back to the [[Mamluk]] period, and adopted the name of Sultan [[Abdulmejid I]] after he renovated it.

* '''Historic Quarter and Souks'''
In the southeast section of the historic city, near the entrance of the archaeological site, is an old market.

* '''Byblos International Festival'''
{{Main|Byblos International Festival}}
This summer music festival is an annual event that takes place in the historic quarter.

* '''Temple of Baalat Gebal'''
{{Main|Temple of Baalat Gebal}}

* '''Aram Bezikian Museum'''
The Armenian Genocide Orphans' Aram Bezikian Museum is a museum dedicated to preserving the memory of the Armenian Genocide and its survivors.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Dagher |first1=Rhéa |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WncxEAAAQBAJ |title=Art of Minorities: Cultural Representation in Museums of the Middle East and North Africa |last2=Kalindjian |first2=Rita |date=2020 |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |isbn=978-1-4744-4379-1 |editor-last=Rey |editor-first=Virginie |pages=180 |language=en |chapter=Paving the way for a Lebanese national narrative: Empathy at the Armenian Genocide Orphans' Aram Bezikian Museum in Lebanon}}</ref>

== Notable people ==
<!---♦♦♦ Only add a person to this list if they already have their own article on the English Wikipedia ♦♦♦--->
<!---♦♦♦ Please keep the list in alphabetical order by LAST NAME ♦♦♦--->
* [[Majdi Allawi]] (born 1970), Maronite priest, association founder
* [[Jihad Azour]] (born 1966), economist

== Twin towns – sister cities ==
Byblos is [[Sister city|twinned]] with:
*{{flagicon|FRA}} [[Bonifacio, Corse-du-Sud|Bonifacio]], France
*{{flagicon|ROU}} [[Mangalia]], Romania
*{{flagicon|FRA}} [[Orange, Vaucluse|Orange]], France
*{{flagicon|GRC}} [[Patras]], Greece

== Gallery ==
<gallery mode="nolines" caption="Byblos views">
Byblos ancient ruins, Byblos, Lebanon.jpg
The city of Byblos, Lebanon.jpg
Byblos historic quarter, Byblos, Lebanon.jpg
Byblos Historic Quarter.jpg
Byblos 02.jpg
ByblosStreet.jpg
Byblos le port.jpg
Byblos 09.jpg
Souk de Byblos.JPG
Byblos-harbor.jpg
</gallery>

== See also ==
* [[Byblos syllabary]]
* [[Cities of the ancient Near East]]

== Notes ==
{{Reflist|30em}}

== References ==
* {{cite book |last=Head |first=Barclay |editor=Ed Snible |author2=G.F. Hill |author3=George MacDonald |author4=W. Wroth |display-authors=1 |display-editors=0 |url=http://snible.org/coins/hn/index.html |title=Historia Numorum |contribution=Phoenicia |contribution-url=http://snible.org/coins/hn/syria.html |pages=788–801 |date=1911 |edition=2nd |location=Oxford |publisher=Clarendon Press |ref={{harvid|Head, et al.|1911}}}}
* {{Cite AV media |last=Aractingi |first=Philippe |author-link=Philippe Aractingi (director) |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=B4gumlPgL6s |title=Liban, Les secrets du royaume de Byblos |date=5 January 2025 |type=Television production |language=fr |publisher=[[Arte|ARTE]] |trans-title=Lebanon, the secrets of the kingdom of Byblos |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250210171942/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=B4gumlPgL6s |archive-date=10 February 2025 |url-status=live |people=}}

== Further reading ==
{{Library resources box |by=no |onlinebooks=yes |others=yes |about=yes |label=Byblos |viaf= |lccn= |lcheading= |wikititle= }}
* {{cite book |last=Aubet |first=Maria Eugenia |author-link=María Eugenia Aubet |title=The Phoenicians and the West: Politics, Colonies and Trade |edition=2d |translator=Mary Turton |location=Cambridge, UK |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2001 |isbn=978-0521795432}}
* {{cite book |last=Baumgarten |first=Albert I. |title=The Phoenician History of Philo of Byblos: A Commentary |location=Leiden |publisher=E. J. Brill |year=1981 |isbn=978-90-04-06369-3}}
* {{cite book |last1=Elayi |first1=Josette |first2=A. G. |last2=Elayi |title=A Monetary and Political History of the Phoenician City of Byblos: In the Fifth and Fourth Centuries B.C.E. |location=Winona Lake, IN |publisher=Eisenbrauns |year=2014 |isbn=978-1575063041}}
* {{cite book |last=Jidéjian |first=Nina |title=Byblos through the ages |publisher=Dar al Machreq |location=Beirut |year=1968 |oclc=7630}}
* {{cite book |last=Kaufman |first=Asher S. |title=Reviving Phoenicia: In Search of Identity In Lebanon |location=London |publisher=I.B. Tauris |year=2004 |isbn=978-1780767796}}
* {{cite book |last=Moscati |first=Sabatino |title=The World of the Phoenicians |location=London |publisher=Phoenix Giant |year=1999 |isbn=9780753807460}}
* {{cite book |last=Nibbi |first=Alessandra |title=Ancient Byblos Reconsidered |location=Oxford |publisher=DE Publications |year=1985 |isbn=0951070401}}
* {{cite book |last=Thiollet |first=Jean-Pierre |author-link=Jean-Pierre Thiollet |title=Je m'appelle Byblos |publisher=H & D |location=Paris |year=2005 |language=fr |isbn=9782914266048}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category}}
{{Wikivoyage}}
* {{cite web |url=http://tyros.leb.net/byblos |work=Lebanon, the Cedars' Land |title=Byblos}}
* {{cite web |url=http://www.middleeast.com/byblos.htm |title=Byblos info |work=middleeast.com}}
* {{cite web |url=http://www.lebanonembassy.ca/eng/byblos.php |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061010041100/http://www.lebanonembassy.ca/eng/byblos.php |url-status=dead |archive-date=2006-10-10 |work=Byblos |title=Embassy of Lebanon in Canada}}
* {{cite web |url=http://byblos.by |title=Byblos in Belarus |work=byblos.by |access-date=2021-06-15 |archive-date=2020-01-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200122054440/http://byblos.by/ |url-status=dead}}
* {{cite web |url=http://context-database.uni-koeln.de/c14.php?vonsite=200 |publisher=University of Cologne |title=Radio Carbon Context Database |access-date=2011-05-04 |archive-date=2011-08-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110813232858/http://context-database.uni-koeln.de/c14.php?vonsite=200 |url-status=dead}}
* [https://www.britannica.com/topic/Baalat Baalat ancient deity, chiefly of Byblos]

{{Byblos District}}
{{Neolithic Southwest Asia}}
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