View source for Bukovina

{{Short description|Historical region split between Romania and Ukraine}}
{{Other uses|Bukovina (disambiguation)}}
{{Redirect|Bucovina|the folk metal band|Bucovina (band)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2024}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Bukovina
| native_name = {{native name|ro|Bucovina}}<br />{{native name|uk|Буковина}}
| other_name = {{native name|de|Buchenland/Bukowina}}
| settlement_type = [[List of historical regions of Central Europe|Historical region of Central Europe]]
| image_skyline = {{multiple image
 |total_width   = 280px
 |perrow        = 1/2/2/1
 |border        = infobox
 |caption_align = center
 |image1        = Suceava fortress (by Pudelek).jpg
 |alt1          = 
 |caption1      = [[Medieval Seat Fortress of Suceava|Suceava Fortress]]
 |image2        = Voronet.jpg
 |alt2          = 
 |caption2      = [[Voroneț Monastery]]
 |image3        = Humor Monastery, Romania.jpg
 |alt3          = 
 |caption3      = [[Humor Monastery]]
 |image4        = Manastirea putna1.jpg
 |alt4          = 
 |caption4      = [[Putna Monastery]]
 |image5        = Чернівці, Адміністративний будинок (мур.), пл.Центральна 10.jpg
 |alt5          = 
 |caption5      = [[Chernivtsi Regional Art Museum]]
 |image6        = Chernivtsi University.jpg
 |alt6          = 
 |caption6      = [[Residence of Bukovinian and Dalmatian Metropolitans]]
 }}
| image_flag = 
| image_shield = 
| image_map = Bucovina Romania Ukraine.png
| map_caption = Location of Bukovina within northern Romania and neighbouring Ukraine
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{flag|Romania}}<br />{{flag|Ukraine}}
| established_title = Bukovina
| established_date = 
| founder = [[Habsburg monarchy]]
| subdivision_type1 = Administrative Subdivisions
| subdivision_name1 = {{plainlist|
* [[Chernivtsi Oblast]] (Northern Bukovina in [[Ukraine]])
* [[Suceava County]] (Southern Bukovina in [[Romania]])}}
| population_demonym = {{plainlist|
* Bukovinian
* Bucovinean {{in lang|ro}}}}
| seat = [[Chernivtsi]]
| seat_type = Largest city
| timezone1 = [[Eastern European Time|EET]]
| utc_offset1 = +2
| timezone1_DST = [[Eastern European Summer Time|EEST]]
| utc_offset1_DST = +3
| blank_name_sec2 = Primary airport
| blank_info_sec2 = 
}}

[[File:Bucovethn.png|thumb|300px|Ethnic divisions in modern Bukovina with [[Ukrainians|Ukrainian]], [[Romanians|Romanian]] and [[Russians|Russian]] areas depicted in light yellow, green, and red respectively. The [[Moldovans]], counted separately in the [[2001 Ukrainian census]], are included in this map as [[Romanians]].]]

'''Bukovina'''<ref group="nb">{{langx|de|Bukowina|link=no}} or {{lang|de|Buchenland}}; {{langx|ro|Bucovina}}; {{langx|uk|Буковина|Bukovyna}}, {{IPA|uk|bʊkoˈwɪnɐ|IPA}}; see also [[List of European regions with alternative names#B|other languages]].</ref> is a historical region at the crossroads of [[Central Europe|Central]] and [[Eastern Europe]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Bukovina|title=Bukovina {{!}} region, Europe|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|access-date=2018-12-10}}</ref> It is located on the northern slopes of the central [[Divisions of the Carpathians|Eastern Carpathians]] and the adjoining plains, today divided between [[Romania]] and [[Ukraine]]. It is inhabited mainly by [[Romanians]] (in southern regions) and [[Ukrainians]] (in northern regions).<ref name= brit>{{cite web|title=Bukovina|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Bukovina|publisher=[[Britannica]]|access-date=22 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210622052226/https://www.britannica.com/place/Bukovina|archive-date=22 June 2021|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Settled throughout history by various cultures and peoples, it became part of the [[Kievan Rus']] in the 10th century, but the region was also affected by [[Pechenegs]] and [[Cumans]]. Consequently, the culture of the Kievan Rus' spread in the region, that belonged to the [[Principality of Halych]]. During the time of the [[Golden Horde]], namely in the 14th century, Bukovina became part of the [[Principality of Moldavia]], that was under the suzerainty of the medieval [[Kingdom of Hungary]]. In that region, the capital of Moldavia, Suceava, was founded.

According to the Moldo-Russian Chronicle, the Hungarian king Vladislav (Ladislaus) asked the Old Romans (i.e. [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantines]]) and the New Romans (i.e. [[Vlachs]]) to fight the [[Tatars]]. During the same event, it writes that Dragoș was one of the New Romans. Eventually, Dragoș dismounted Moldavia named from a river ([[Moldova River]]) flowing in Bukovina. During a Vlach revolt in Bukovina against Balc, Dragoș's grandson, [[Bogdan the Founder]] joined the revolt and deposed Balc, securing independence from the Kingdom of Hungary. In 1497 a battle took place at the [[Battle of the Cosmin Forest|Cosmin Forest]] (the hilly forests separating [[Chernivtsi]] and [[Siret]] valleys), at which [[Stephen III of Moldavia]] (Stephen the Great), managed to defeat the much-stronger but demoralized army of King [[John I Albert of Poland]]. The battle is known in Polish popular culture as "the battle when the Knights have perished".

After the Russo-Ottoman [[Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca]] (21 July 1774), the [[Habsburg Monarchy]] captured the region in October 1774. Under the Austro-Ottoman Convention of [[Pera (Beyoğlu)|Pera]] (7 May 1775), the region that came to be known as Bukovina was officially ceded to the Habsburgs. From 1775 to 1786 it was organized as a distictive [[Bukovina District]], that was included into the [[Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria]] (1786-1849) and later became the [[Duchy of Bukovina]] (1849-1918). 

The first census that recorded ethnicity was made in 1851 and shows a population of 184,718 or 48.5% [[Romanians]], 144,982 or 38.1% [[Ukrainians]] and 51,126 or 13.4% others, with a total population of 380,826 people. By 1910, Romanians and Ukrainians were almost in equal numbers with the Romanians concentrated mainly in the south and the Ukrainians mainly in the north. By 1930, following the Kingdom of Romania's acquisition of Bukovina, the region had a total population of 839,500. The region's ethnic composition was approximately 368,500 or 43% Romanian, 235,800 or 28% Ukrainian, 91,100 or 11% [[Jewish]], 75,000 or 9% [[Germans|German]], 30,500 or 3.6% [[Polish people|Polish]], 12,400 or 1.5% [[Hutsul]], and 11,800 or 1.4% [[Hungarians|Hungarian]], with the remainder consisting of [[Russians]], [[Romani people|Romani]], and other ethnic groups.<ref>UNGUREANU, Constantin. Populaţia Bucovinei în 1910 şi 1930. Evoluţii etno-demografice.  In: ''In honorem Alexandru Moşanu: Studii de istorie medievală, modernă şi contemporană a românilor'', 22 septembrie 2012, Cluj-Napoca. Cluj -Napoca, România: Academia Română. Centrul de Studii Transilvane: P resa Universitară Clujeană, 2012, pp. 449. ISBN 978-973-595-418-5.[https://ibn.idsi.md/sites/default/files/imag_file/439-458.pdf]</ref>

In the summer of 1940, the northern half of Bukovina was [[Soviet occupation of Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina|annexed]] by the [[Soviet Union]] in violation of the [[Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact]], a non-aggression pact between [[Nazi Germany]] and the Soviet Union.<ref>Brackman, Roman ''The Secret File of Joseph Stalin: A Hidden Life'' (2001) p. 341</ref> On 13 November 1940, [[Vyacheslav Molotov]] asked [[Adolf Hitler]] to endorse the Soviet annexation of South Bukovina as well. However, by that time, Romania was under a territorial guarantee from the Axis following the [[Second Vienna Award]], so Germany refused. As the ''Final Report'' of the [[Wiesel Commission]] put it: "Only Hitler's refusal saved the rest of Bukovina from being swallowed up, Russified, and lost to Romania forever.".<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xXOxCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA407|title=Twentieth-Century Germany: From Bismarck to Brandt|first=A. J.|last=Ryder|date=18 June 1973|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-1-349-00143-9 |via=Google Books}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.inshr-ew.ro/ro/files/Raport%20Final/Final_Report.pdf|title=International Commission on the Holocaust in Romania, Tuvia Friling, Polirom, 2005, ''Final Report'', pp. 320-321}}</ref> Northern Bukovina was temporarily recovered by Romania as an ally of Nazi Germany after the latter invaded the Soviet Union in 1941, but retaken by the Soviet army in 1944.<ref name= brit/> Bukovina's population was historically ethnically diverse. Today, Bukovina's northern half is the [[Chernivtsi Oblast]] of Ukraine, while the southern part is [[Suceava County]] of Romania.<ref name= brit/> Bukovina is sometimes known as the 'Switzerland of the East', given its diverse ethnic mosaic and deep forested mountainous landscapes.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://feefhs.org/sites/default/files/material/bukovina_germans.pdf|title=The Bukovina-Germans During the Habsburg Period: Settlement, Ethnic Interaction, Contributions|author=Sophie A. Welsch|date=March 1986|access-date=6 October 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=Looking Forwards through the Past: Bukovina's "Return to Europe" after 1989–1991|author=Gaëlle Fisher|journal=Lean Library|year=2019|volume=33|pages=196–217|doi=10.1177/0888325418780479|s2cid=149895103|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/14725880802405027|title=Geography is destiny: Region, nation and empire in Habsburg Jewish Bukovina|author=David Rechter|journal= Journal of Modern Jewish Studies|date=16 October 2008|volume=7|issue=3|pages=325–337|doi=10.1080/14725880802405027|s2cid=142797383|access-date=6 October 2021|url-access=subscription}}</ref>

==Name==
[[File:Duchy of Bukovina within Austria-Hungary 1914.png|thumb|right|Map of [[Austria-Hungary]] depicting the [[Duchy of Bukovina]], as part of [[Cisleithania]] in 1914.]]

The name first appears in a document issued by the Voivode of Moldavia [[Roman I of Moldavia|Roman I Mușat]] on 30 March 1392, by which he gives to Ionaș Viteazul three villages, located near the [[Siret (river)|Siret river]].<ref name= MIac>{{cite book|title=Din istoria Bucovinei |trans-title=From the history of Bukovina |volume=1 |year=1993 |first=Mihai |last=Iacobescu |isbn=973-27-0448-9 |place=Bucharest |language=ro}}</ref>

The name ''Bukovina'' came into official use in 1775 with the [[Grigore III Ghica|region's annexation]] from the [[Moldavia|Principality of Moldavia]] to the possessions of the [[Habsburg monarchy]], which became the [[Austrian Empire]] in 1804, and [[Austria-Hungary]] in 1867.

The official German name of the province under Austrian rule (1775–1918), {{lang|de|die Bukowina}}, was derived from the [[Polish language|Polish]] form {{lang|pl|Bukowina}}, which in turn was derived from the common [[Slavic languages|Slavic]] form of {{lang|sla|buk}}, meaning [[beech]] tree (compare [[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]] {{lang|uk|бук}} {{IPA|[buk]}}; German {{lang|de|Buche}}; [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]] {{lang|hu|bükkfa}}).<ref name= encyclo>{{cite encyclopedia |entry=Bukovyna |encyclopedia= Internet Encyclopedia of Ukraine |publisher= Canadian Institute of Ukrainian Studies |url=
http://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CB%5CU%5CBukovyna.htm |access-date=22 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210513152453/http://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CB%5CU%5CBukovyna.htm |archive-date=13 May 2021 |title= Entry Display Web Page }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.brasovtravelguide.ro/en/romania/bucovina/bucovinas-monastery.php |title=Painted monasteries of Southern Bucovina |website=Brasovtravelguide.ro |access-date=20 January 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140906133942/http://www.brasovtravelguide.ro/en/romania/bucovina/bucovinas-monastery.php |archive-date=6 September 2014 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Another German name for the region, {{lang|de|das Buchenland}}, is mostly used in poetry, and means 'beech land', or 'the land of beech trees'. In Romanian, in literary or poetic contexts, the name {{lang|ro|Țara Fagilor}} ('the land of beech trees') is sometimes used. In some languages a definite article, sometimes optional, is used before the name: ''the Bukovina'', increasingly an archaism in English{{citation needed|date=March 2022}}, which, however, is found in older literature.

In Ukraine, the name {{Lang|uk|Буковина}} (''Bukovyna'') is unofficial, but is common when referring to the ''[[Chernivtsi Oblast]]'', as over two-thirds of the [[oblast]] is the northern part of Bukovina. In Romania, the term ''Northern Bukovina'' is sometimes synonymous with the entire Chernivtsi Oblast of Ukraine, while ''Southern Bukovina'' refers to the [[Suceava County]] of Romania (although 30% of the present-day Suceava County covers territory outside of the historical Bukovina).

==History==
{{History of Romania}}
{{History of Ukraine}}

The territory of Bukovina had been part of [[Kievan Rus']] since the 10th century.<ref name= scare>{{cite book |last1= Katchanovski |first1= Ivan |last2=Kohut |first2=Zenon E. |last3=Nebesio |first3=Bohdan Y. |last4=Yurkevich |first4=Myroslav |title=Historical Dictionary of Ukraine |pages=64–66 |publisher=[[Scarecrow Press]] |year=2013 |isbn= 9780810878471 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-h6r57lDC4QC}}</ref><ref name= encyclo/> It then became part of the [[Principality of Galicia]], and then part of [[Moldavia]] in the 14th century. It was first delineated as a separate district of the [[Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria]] in 1775, and was made a nominal [[duchy]] within the Austrian Empire in 1849.

===Background===
{{further|History of Ukraine|Antes (people)|Moldavia|Romania in the Early Middle Ages|Origin of the Romanians}}

The region, which is made up of a portion of the northeastern Carpathian Mountains and the neighbouring plain, was settled by both [[Moldavia|Vlachs]] and [[Ruthenians]]. After being inhabited by ancient peoples and tribes ([[Trypillian culture|Trypillian]], Scythians, Dacians, Getae) starting from the Paleolithic, Germanic culture and language emerged in the region in the 4th century by the time of the Goths, archeological research has also indicated that the Romans had a presence in the region. Later, Slavic culture spread, and by the 10th century the region was part of Turkic, Slavic and Romance people like Pechenegs, Cumans, Ruthinians and Vlachs.{{citation needed|date=April 2022}} Among the first references of the [[Vlachs]] (Romanians) in the region is in the 10th century by Varangian Sagas referring to the Blakumen people i.e. Vlachs in the land of Pechenegs. By late 12th century chronicle of [[Niketas Choniates]], writes that some Vlachs seized the future Byzantine emperor, [[Andronikos I Komnenos|Andronikos Komnenos]], when "he reached the borders of [[Principality of Halych|Halych]]" in 1164. In the Moldo-Russian Chronicle, writes the events of year 1342, that the Hungarian king Vladislav (Ladislaus) asked the Old Romans and the New Romans to fight the Tatars, by that they will earn a sit in Maramureș. During the same event, it writes that Dragoș was one of the Romans .<ref>''O City of Byzantium, Annals of Niketas Choniates'' (2.4.131), p. 74.</ref> In the year 1359 Dragoș dismounted Moldavia and took with him many Vlachs and German colonists from Maramureș to Moldavia.<ref name= brit/><ref name= scare/><ref name= encyclo/>

===Early settlement===
First traces of human occupation date back to the Paleolithic.<ref name= scare/> The area was first settled by [[Trypillian culture]] tribes, in the Neolithic. It was then settled by now extinct tribes ([[Dacians]]/[[Getae]], [[Thracian]]/[[Scythians|Scythian]] tribes). Meanwhile, many nomads crossed the region (3rd to 9th century A.D). By the 4th century, the Goths appeared in the region.<ref name= scare/><ref name= encyclo/> And later by the 5th and 6th century Slavic people appeared in the region. They were part of the tribal alliance of the [[Antes (people)|Antes]]. In the 9th century [[Tivertsi]] and [[White Croatia]]ns and [[Cowari]] composed the local population.<ref name= scare/><ref name= encyclo/>

===Kievan Rus===
[[File:Principalities of Kievan Rus' (1054-1132) en.svg|thumb|left|Principalities of Kievan Rus', [[Principality of Halych]] in magenta]]
[[File:Kingdom of Galicia Volhynia Rus' Ukraine 1245 1349.jpg|thumb|left|[[Kingdom of Galicia–Volhynia|Galicia–Volhynia state]]]]
[[File:Partitions of Moldavia.jpg|thumb|left|Bukovina within the historical region of [[Moldavia]] over the passing of time.]]

According to the Russian and Ukrainian historians, Bukovina is an "ancient Slavic land".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://buk2016.wordpress.com/2016/04/17/%d1%81%d0%bb%d0%be%d0%b2%d1%8f%d0%bd%d1%81%d1%8c%d0%ba%d0%b0-%d0%b1%d1%83%d0%ba%d0%be%d0%b2%d0%b8%d0%bd%d0%b0/|title=Слов'янська Буковина|date=17 April 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title=Буковина – земля слов'янська. Про це свідчать сенсаційні знахідки чернівецьких археологів | date=28 October 2011 | url=https://versii.cv.ua/news/bukovyna-zemlya-slovyanska-pro-tse-svidchat-sensatsijni-znahidky-chernivetskyh-arheolohiv/15178.html }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title=Буковина | url=http://resource.history.org.ua/cgi-bin/eiu/history.exe?Z21ID=&I21DBN=DOP&P21DBN=EIU&S21STN=1&S21REF=10&S21FMT=eiu_all&C21COM=S&S21CNR=20&S21P01=0&S21P02=0&S21P03=TRN=&S21COLORTERMS=0&S21STR=Bukovyna }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title=Історія Буковини | url=https://buktour.icu/bukovyna/buk-history.html }}</ref>

United by [[Oleg the Wise|Prince Oleg]] in the 870s, Kievan Rus' was a loose federation of speakers of [[East Slavic languages|East Slavic]] and [[Uralic languages]] from the late 9th to the mid-13th century,<ref name= channon>{{cite book|first1=John |last1=Channon |first2=Robert |last2=Hudson |title=Penguin Historical Atlas of Russia |publisher=[[Penguin books|Penguin]] |date=1995 |pages=16}}</ref><ref name= Kievan>{{cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/317574/Kievan-Rus |title=Kievan Rus |website=Encyclopædia Britannica Online|date=10 May 2023 }}</ref> under the reign of the [[Rurik dynasty]], founded by the [[Varangians|Varangian]] prince [[Rurik]].<ref name= Kievan/> Bukovina gradually became part of Kievan Rus' from the late 10th century and Pechenegs{{dubious |Nonsensical. "from the late 10th century and Pechenegs" mixes a time unit with an ethnic group. |date=February 2025}}.<ref name= scare/><ref name= encyclo/> Parts of Bukovina were first conquered in 981 by [[Vladimir the Great]]. The rest was incorporated into the [[Principality of Terebovlia]] in 1084. When Kievan Rus' was partitioned at the end of the 11th century, Bukovina became part of the [[Principality of Galicia-Volhynia]].<ref name= scare/><ref name= encyclo/>

===Principality of Galicia–Volhynia===
After the fragmentation of Kievan Rus', Bukovina passed to the Principality of Galicia ([[Principality of Galicia-Volhynia]]) in 1124. The Church in Bukovina was initially administered from [[Metropolis of Kiev and all Rus'|Kiev]]. In 1302, it was passed to the [[Metropolis of Halych|Halych metropoly]].<ref name= scare/><ref name= encyclo/>

After the Mongols under Batu invaded Europe, with the region nominally [[Batu's raid of 1240 in Ruthenia|falling into their hands]], ties between Galician-Volhynian and Bukovina weakened. As a result of the Mongol invasion, the [[Shypyntsi land]], recognizing the suzerainty of the Mongols, arose in the region.<ref name= scare/><ref name= encyclo/>

Eventually, this state collapsed, and Bukovina passed to Hungary. [[Louis I of Hungary|King Louis I]] appointed [[Dragoș, Voivode of Moldavia]] as his deputy, facilitating the migration of the Romanians from [[Maramureș]] and [[Transylvania]].<ref name= scare/><ref name= encyclo/>

The [[Principality of Moldavia|Moldavian state]] was formed by the mid-14th century, eventually expanding its territory all the way to the [[Black Sea]]. Upon its foundation, the Moldavian or Moldovan state recognized the supremacy of Poland, keeping on recognizing it from 1387 to 1497.<ref name= scare/> Later (1514) it was vassalized by the Ottoman Empire.<ref name= scare/> Bukovina and neighboring regions became the nucleus of the Moldavian Principality, with the capital successively moving from [[Baia]], to [[Siret]], [[Suceava]], and finally in 1564 to [[Iași]], where it would remain until the end of the principality's history. The name of [[Moldavia]] ({{langx|ro|Moldova}}) is derived from the [[Moldova River]] in Bukovina.

===Polish and Moldavian period===
[[Petru II of Moldavia|Petru II]] moved the seat of Moldova from [[Siret]] to [[Suceava]] in 1388. In the 15th century, [[Pokuttya]], the region immediately to the north, became the subject of disputes between the Principality of Moldavia and the [[History of Poland (1385–1569)|Polish Kingdom]]. Pokuttya was inhabited by [[Ruthenians]] (the predecessors of modern Ukrainians together with the [[Rus' people|Rus']], and of the [[Rusyns]]). In 1497 a battle took place at the [[Battle of the Cosmin Forest|Cosmin Forest]] (the hilly forests separating [[Chernivtsi]] and [[Siret]] valleys), at which [[Stephen III of Moldavia]] (Stephen the Great), managed to defeat the much-stronger but demoralized army of King [[John I Albert of Poland]]. The battle is known in Polish popular culture as "the battle when the Knights have perished". The region had been under Polish nominal suzerainty from its foundation (1387) to the time of this battle (1497). Shortly thereafter, it became a vassal of the Ottoman Empire (1514).<ref name= scare/>

[[File:Cetatea de Scaun a Sucevei la ceas de seara.jpg|thumb|View over the western side of the [[medieval Seat Fortress of Suceava]].]]

In this period, the patronage of Stephen the Great and his successors on the throne of Moldavia saw the construction of the famous painted monasteries of [[Moldovița Monastery|Moldovița]], [[Sucevița Monastery|Sucevița]], [[Putna Monastery|Putna]], [[Humor Monastery|Humor]], [[Voroneț]], [[Dragomirna Monastery|Dragomirna]], [[Arbore Church|Arbore]] and others. With their renowned exterior [[fresco]]es, these monasteries remain some of the greatest cultural treasures of Romania; some of them are [[World Heritage Site]]s, part of the [[painted churches of northern Moldavia]]. The most famous monasteries are in the area of [[Suceava]], which today is part of Romania. Also part of Romania is the monastery of {{ill|John the New|ro|Sfântul Ioan cel Nou|uk|Йоан Новий (Сучавський)}}, an Orthodox saint and martyr, who was killed by the Tatars in [[Bilhorod-Dnistrovskyi]].

From 1490 to 1492, the Mukha rebellion, led by the Ukrainian hero [[Petro Mukha]], took place in Galicia.<ref name= mukha>{{cite web|title=Mukha Rebellion |url=http://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CM%5CU%5CMukharebellion.htm|publisher=[[Internet Encyclopedia of Ukraine]] |access-date=22 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210512151657/http://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CM%5CU%5CMukharebellion.htm |archive-date=12 May 2021}}</ref> This event pitted the Moldavians against the oppressive rule of the Polish magnates. A rebel army composed of Moldavian peasants took the fortified towns of Sniatyn, Kolomyia, and Halych, killing many Polish noblemen and burghers, before being halted by the Polish Royal Army in alliance with a Galician ''[[levée en masse]]'' and Prussian mercenaries while marching to Lviv. Many rebels died in the Rohatyn Battle, with Mukha and the survivors fleeing back to Moldavia. Mukha returned to Galicia to re-ignite the rebellion, but was killed in 1492.<ref name= mukha/>

In May 1600 [[Michael the Brave|Mihai Viteazul (Michael the Brave)]], became the ruler the two Danubian principalities and Transylvania.<ref>{{cite book|last=Djuvara |first=Neagu |author-link=Neagu Djuvara  |year=2014 |title=A Brief Illustrated History of Romanians |publisher=[[Humanitas (publishing house)|Humanitas]] |isbn=978-973-50-4334-6}}</ref>

In the 16th and 17th centuries, Ukrainian warriors (''[[Ukrainian Cossacks|Cossacks]]'') were involved in many conflicts against the Turkish and Tatar invaders of the Moldavian territory. Notably, [[Ivan Pidkova]], best known as the subject of Ukraine's bard [[Taras Shevchenko]]'s ''Ivan Pidkova'' (1840), led military campaigns in the 1570s.<ref name= scare/> Many Bukovinians joined the Cossacks during the [[Khmelnytsky uprising]]. As part of the peasant armies, they formed their own regiment, which participated to the 1648 siege of Lviv. Ukrainian [[Hetman]] [[Bohdan Khmelnytsky]] himself led a campaign in Moldavia, whose result was an alliance between Khmelnytsky and its ''hospodar'' [[Vasile Lupu]].<ref name= scare/> Other prominent Ukrainian leaders fighting against the Turks in Moldovia were [[Severyn Nalyvaiko]] and [[Petro Konashevych-Sahaidachny]].<ref name= encyclo/>

[[File:Monumentul lui Grigore Ghica III din Iaşi7.jpg|thumb|Monument in [[Iași]] (1875) dedicated to [[Grigore III Ghica]] and Moldavia's loss of Bukovina.]]

For short periods of time (during wars), the Polish Kingdom (to which Moldavians were hostile) again occupied parts of northern Moldavia. However, the old border was re-established each time, as for example on 14 October 1703 the Polish delegate Martin Chometowski said, according to the Polish protocol, "Between us and [[Moldavia|Wallachia]] (i.e. the Moldavian region, vassal of the Turks) God himself set [[Dniester]] as the border" (''Inter nos et Valachiam ipse Deus flumine Tyras dislimitavit''). According to the Turkish protocol the sentence reads, "God (may He be exalted) has separated the lands of Moldavia [Bukovina, vassal of the Turks] from our Polish lands by the river Dniester." Strikingly similar sentences were used in other sayings and folkloristic anecdotes, such as the phrase reportedly exclaimed by a member of the Aragonese Cortes in 1684.<ref name= Ottoman>{{cite book |editor= Christine Woodhead |title=The Ottoman World |publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]] |year=2011 |isbn= 9781136498947 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jt_FBQAAQBAJ}}</ref>

=== Habsburg Bukovina ===
{{Main|Bukovina District|Duchy of Bukovina|Early Modern Romania}}
[[File:Palace of Justice, Vienna - Aula, Coat of Arms - Herzogtum Bukowina 4216.jpg|thumb|right|The coat of arms of Bukovina, a constituent country of the [[Imperial Council (Austria)|Imperial Austrian Council]], depicted at the Assembly Hall in the [[Palace of Justice, Vienna|Viennese Justice Palace]].]]

During the Russo-Turkish War (1768–1774), the Ottoman armies were defeated by the [[Russian Empire]], and the Principality of Moldavia was temporarily possessed by Russian forces, from the autumn 1769 to September 1774. Already before the [[Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca]] (21 July 1774), the non-belligerent [[Habsburg Monarchy]] was already planing to occupy north-western regions of Moldavia, claiming the need for ''a road between Galicia and Transylvania'' and thus, while Russian armies were retreating upon the conclusion of the peace treaty, Habsburg forces entered and captured the region in October 1774. The Ottomans protested, but consequently, in order to avoid another war, agreed to relinquish the territory. Under the Austro-Ottoman Convention of [[Pera (Beyoğlu)|Pera]] (7 May 1775), the region that came to be known as Bukovina was officially ceded to the Habsburgs.<ref>Lindenbauer, Petrea. 2003. Diascursive Practice in Bukovina Textbooks. In Rindler Schjerve (ed). Diglossia and Power. Berlin: de Gruyter, p. 234.</ref> 

Prince [[Grigore III Ghica]] of [[Moldavia]] protested and was prepared to take action to recover the territory, but was assassinated, and a Greek-[[Phanariotes|Phanariot]] foreigner was put on the throne of [[Moldavia]] by the Ottomans.

On 2 July 1776, at Palamutka, Austrians and Ottomans signed a border convention, Austria giving back 59 of the previously occupied villages, retaining 278 villages.

Bukovina was a closed military district (1775–1786), then the largest district, [[Bukovina District]] (first known as the Czernowitz District), of the Austrian constituent [[Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria]] (1787–1849). On 4 March 1849, Bukovina became a separate Austrian [[Crown land#Austria|Kronland]] 'crown land' under a ''[[Landespräsident]]'' (not a ''Statthalter'', as in other crown lands) and was declared the [[Duchy of Bukovina]] ''Herzogtum Bukowina'' (a nominal duchy, as part of the official full style of the Austrian Emperors). In 1860 it was again amalgamated with Galicia but reinstated as a separate province once again on 26 February 1861, a status that would last until 1918.<ref name= hist>{{cite book|first=Paul Robert |last=Magocsi |title=A History of Ukraine |location=Toronto |publisher=[[University of Toronto Press]] |date=1996 |pages=420 |isbn=0-8020-0830-5}}</ref>

In 1849 Bukovina got a representative assembly, the ''Landtag'' ([[Diet (assembly)|diet]]). The [[Moldovans|Moldavian]] nobility had traditionally formed the ruling class in that territory. In 1867, with the re-organization of the [[Austrian Empire]] as the [[Austria-Hungary|Austro-Hungarian Empire]], it became part of the [[Cisleithania]]n or Austrian territories of Austria-Hungary and remained so until 1918.

====Late 19th to early 20th centuries====
{{Main|Early Modern Romania|History of Ukraine}}

[[File:Map of Bukovina in 1791 by Reilly 008.jpg|thumb|left|Topographic map of Bukovina, also with settlement place names, as depicted in 1791.]]
[[File:Кобилянська Ольга2.jpg|thumb|upright|left|[[Olha Kobylianska]], 1882]]
[[File:Bucovina.JPG|thumb|right|Map of the Austrian crownland of Bukovina at the turn of the 20th century.]]

The 1871 and 1904 celebrations held at [[Putna Monastery]], near the tomb of [[Stephen III of Moldavia|Stephen the Great]], constituted tremendous moments for Romanian national identity in Bukovina. Since gaining its independence, the [[Kingdom of Romania]] had had designs on incorporating this province into its new Kingdom. Romanians considered it to be a core part of the old Principality of Moldavia, and of great significance to its [[History of Romania|history]]. It contained many prominent historical Moldavian monuments, [[Art of Romania|art]] and architecture and remained a strong cultural anchor for Moldavians in particular.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9017989?query=bukovina |title=Bukovina (region, Europe) – Britannica Online Encyclopedia |publisher=Britannica.com |access-date=26 March 2013}}</ref>

During the Habsburg period, the Ukrainian population increased in the north of the region, while in the south the ethnic Romanian population remained the majority population. The Austrians "managed to keep a balance between the various ethnic groups."<ref name= brit/> In the 1880 census, there were 239,690 Ruthenians and [[Hutzul]]s, or roughly 41.5% of the regions population, while Romanians were second with 190,005 people or 33%, a ratio that remained more or less the same until [[World War I]]. The percentage of Romanians fell from 85.3% in 1774<ref name= roman1774>{{cite book |last=Hitchins |first=Keith |title=The Romanians 1774–1866 |location=Oxford |publisher=[[Clarendon Press]] |date=1996 |pages=226}}</ref><ref name= ceeol>{{cite journal |last= Ungureanu |first= Constantin |title=Die Bevölkerung der Bukowina (von Besetzung im Jahr 1774 bis zur Revolution 1848) |trans-title=The population of Bukovina (from occupation in 1774 to revolution in 1848) |journal= Romanian Journal of Population Studies |pages=117–143 |language=de |date=2011 |volume=5 |issue=1 |url= https://www.ceeol.com/search/article-detail?id=257907}}</ref> to 34.1% in 1910.<ref name= MIac/> Ruthenians is an archaic name for [[Ukrainians]], while the [[Hutsul]]s are a regional Ukrainian subgroup.

=== Ukrainian national sentiment ===
[[File:Степан Смаль-Стоцький.png|thumb|upright|right|[[Stepan Smal-Stotsky]], 1893]]

Ukrainian national sentiment re-ignited in the 1840s. Officially started in 1848, the nationalist movement gained strength in 1869, when the [[Ruska Besida Society]] was founded in [[Chernivtsi]]. By the 1890s, Ukrainians were represented in the regional diet and Vienna parliament, being led by [[Stepan Smal-Stotsky]]. Beside Stotsky, other important Bukovinian leaders were [[Yerotei Pihuliak]], [[Omelian Popovych]], [[Mykola Vasylko]], {{ill|Orest Zybachynsky|uk|Зибачинський Орест Рудольфович}}, {{ill|Denys Kvitkovsky |uk|Квітковський Денис Васильович}}, Sylvester Nikorovych, Ivan and Petro Hryhorovych, and Lubomyr Husar.<ref name= encyclo/> The first periodical in the Ukrainian language, ''Bukovyna'' (published from 1885 until 1918) was published by the populists since the 1880s. The Ukrainian populists fought for their ethnocultural rights against the Austrians.

Peasant revolts broke out in Hutsul areas in the 1840s, with the peasants demanding more rights, socially and politically. Likewise, nationalist sentiment spread among the Romanians. As a result, more rights were given to Ukrainians and Romanians, with five Ukrainians (including notably [[Lukjan Kobylytsia|Lukian Kobylytsia]]), two Romanians and one German elected to represent the region.<ref name= encyclo/> The Ukrainians won representation at the provincial diet as late as 1890, and fought for equality with the Romanians also in the religious sphere. This was partly achieved only as late as on the eve of World War I.<ref name= encyclo/> However, their achievements were accompanied by friction with Romanians. Overpopulation in the countryside caused migration (especially to North America), also leading to peasant strikes. However, by 1914 Bukovina managed to get "the best Ukrainian schools and cultural-educational institutions of all the regions of Ukraine."<ref name= encyclo/> Beside Ukrainians, also [[Bukovina Germans|Bukovina's Germans]] and Jews, as well as a number of Romanians and Hungarians, emigrated in 19th and 20th century.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bukovinasociety.org |title=Bukovina Society of the Americas Home Page |publisher=Bukovinasociety.org |access-date=26 March 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://freepages.genealogy.rootsweb.com/~bakerroots/bukovina.html |title=Bukovina Germans |publisher=Freepages.genealogy.rootsweb.com |access-date=2013-03-26}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bukovinasociety.org/ellingson-brzl-2001-a.html |title=Bukovina Immigration to North America |publisher=Bukovinasociety.org |access-date=26 March 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120609062842/http://www.bukovinasociety.org/ellingson-brzl-2001-a.html |archive-date=9 June 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

[[File:Bukovina1910ethnic.jpg|thumb|left|Ethnic groups in Bukovina 1775–1930 (Ukrainians in red, Romanians in green).]]
[[File:Chernivtsi - Чернівці 1.jpg|thumb|left|Czernowitz {{circa}} 1905]]

Under Austrian rule, Bukovina remained ethnically mixed: [[Romanians]] were predominant in the south, [[Ukrainians]] (commonly referred to as [[Ruthenians]] in the Empire) in the north, with small numbers of Hungarian [[Székelys]], [[Slovaks|Slovak]], and Polish peasants, and [[Germans]], [[Polish people|Poles]] and Jews in the towns. The 1910 census counted 800,198 people, of which: [[Ruthenians]] 38.88%, [[Romanians]] 34.38%, [[Germans]] 21.24% (Jews 12.86% included), [[Polish people]] 4.55%, [[Hungarian people]] 1.31%, [[Slovaks]] 0.08%, [[Slovenes]] 0.02%, [[Italian people]] 0.02%, and a few [[Croat]]s, [[Romani people]], [[Serbs]] and [[Turkish people]]. While reading the statistics it should be mentioned that, due to "adverse economic conditions", some 50,000 Ukrainians left the region (mostly emigrating to North America) between 1891 and 1910, in the aforementioned migrations.<ref name= scare/> Nonetheless, the percentage of Ukrainians has significantly grown since the end of the eighteenth century.<ref name= MIac/>

In 1783, by an [[Decree|imperial decree]] of [[Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor|Joseph II]], the local [[Eastern Orthodox]] Eparchy of Bukovina (with its seat in [[Czernowitz]]) was placed under spiritual jurisdiction of the [[Metropolitanate of Karlovci]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.putna.ro/istorie/cronologia.htm |title=Cronologie Concordantă șI Antologie de Texte |trans-title=Concordant Chronology and Anthology of Texts |language=ro |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050509082846/http://www.putna.ro/istorie/cronologia.htm |archive-date=9 May 2005 }}</ref> Some friction appeared in time between the church hierarchy and the Romanians, complaining that [[Old Church Slavonic]] was favored to [[Romanian language|Romanian]], and that family names were being [[Slavicisation|slavicized]].{{Citation needed|date=June 2021}} In spite of Romanian-Slavic speaking frictions over the influence in the local church hierarchy, there was no Romanian-Ukrainian inter-ethnic tension, and both cultures developed in educational and public life. After the rise of Ukrainian nationalism in 1848<ref name= scare/> and the following rise of Romanian nationalism, Habsburg authorities reportedly awarded additional rights to Ukrainians in an attempt to temper Romanian ambitions of independence.<ref>{{cite book |last= Livezeanu |first= Irina |title= Cultural Politics in Greater Romania: Regionalism, Nation Building & Ethnic Struggle, 1918–1930 |publisher=[[Cornell University Press]] |date=1995 |pages=54–55 |isbn=0-8014-8688-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5ysbpAyJjoAC&pg=PA54 |access-date= 14 February 2025}}</ref> On the other hand, the Ukrainians had to struggle against the Austrians, with the Austrians rejecting both nationalist claims, favoring neither Romanians nor Ukrainians, while attempting to "keep a balance between the various ethnic groups."<ref name= brit/><ref name= scare/><ref name= encyclo/> Indeed, a group of scholars surrounding the [[Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria|Austrian Archduke Franz Ferdinand]] were planning to turn Austria-Hungary into a [[United States of Greater Austria|federation]]. These plans included creating a majority-Romanian state of ''Transylvania'' within the federation which would have included Bukovina with Czernowitz.<ref name= abc>{{cite web |title=127. Föderációs tervek az Osztrák-Magyar Monarchia átalakítására |trans-title=127. Federation plans for the transformation of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy |language=hu |url=http://terkepek.adatbank.transindex.ro/legbelso.php3?nev=127 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071022185521/http://terkepek.adatbank.transindex.ro/legbelso.php3?nev=127 |archive-date=22 October 2007 }}</ref><ref name= buko>{{cite web |title= What and Where is Bukovina |publisher= Bukovina Society of the Americas |website= Bukovinasociety.org |url=http://www.bukovinasociety.org/#What%20and%20Where%20is%20Bukovina |access-date=20 January 2017}}</ref>{{failed verification |As of now (and likely never), no such data at the intro, "What and Where is Bukovina", nor in history sections. |date=February 2025}} After they acquired Bukovina, the Austrians opened only one elementary school in Czernowitz (Ukrainian 'Chernivsti', Romanian 'Cernăuți), which taught exclusively in Romanian. They later did open German schools, but no Ukrainian ones. Ukrainian language would appear in Chernivsti's schools as late as 1851, but only as a subject, at the local university (in spite of this, the city attracted students from other parts of Bukovina and Galicia, who would study in the German language of instruction).<ref name= chern>{{cite web |title=Chernivtsi |url=http://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CC%5CH%5CChernivtsi.htm |publisher=[[Internet Encyclopedia of Ukraine]] |access-date=28 June 2021 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20210628123641/http://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CC%5CH%5CChernivtsi.htm |archive-date=28 June 2021 |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Lukjan Kobylytsia]], a Ukrainian Bukovinian farmer and activist, died of torture-related causes after attempting to ask for more rights for the Bukovinian Ukrainians to the Austrians. He died of the consequence of torture in 1851 in Romania. At the end of the 19th century, the development of [[Ukrainian culture]] in Bukovina surpassed [[Galicia (Central Europe)|Galicia]] and the rest of Ukraine with a network of Ukrainian educational facilities, while [[Dalmatia]] formed an archbishopric, later raised to the rank of ''Metropolitanate''.

In 1873, the Eastern Orthodox Bishop of [[Czernowitz]] (who was since 1783 under the spiritual jurisdiction of the Metropolitan of Karlovci) was elevated to the rank of Archbishop, when a new [[Residence of Bukovinian and Dalmatian Metropolitans|Metropolitanate of Bukovinian and Dalmatia]] was created. The new archbishop of [[Czernowitz]] gained supreme jurisdiction in all [[Cisleithania]], over "Serbian" eparchies of [[Eparchy of Dalmatia|Dalmatia]] and [[Kotor]], which were also (until then) under the spiritual jurisdiction of the [[Patriarchate of Karlovci]].

In the early 20th century, a group of scholars surrounding the Austrian [[Archduke Franz Ferdinand]] created a plan (that never came to pass) of [[United States of Greater Austria]]. The specific proposal was published in Aurel C. Popovici's book "Die Vereinigten Staaten von Groß-Österreich" [The United States of Greater Austria], Leipzig, 1906. According to it, most of Bukovina (including Czernowitz) would form, with [[Transylvania]], a Romanian state, while the north-western portion (Zastavna, Kozman, Waschkoutz, Wiznitz, Gura Putilei, and Seletin districts) would form with the bigger part of [[Galicia (Central Europe)|Galicia]] a Ukrainian state, both in a federation with 13 other states under the Austrian crown.<ref name= abc/><ref name= buko/>

===Kingdom of Romania===
{{Main|Union of Bukovina with Romania|Greater Romania}}

{{Infobox military conflict
|conflict=Romanian takeover of Bukovina
|image=
|caption=
|date=11–12 November 1918
|place=Bukovina, now part of Romania and Ukraine
|partof =the [[Polish–Ukrainian War]]
|territory= Bukovina subsequently united with Romania on 28 November
|result=Romanian victory
|combatant1={{flagcountry|West Ukrainian People's Republic}}
|combatant2=[[Kingdom of Romania|Romania]]
|commander1=[[Yevhen Petrushevych]]
|commander2=[[Ferdinand I of Romania|Ferdinand I]]
|strength1=
|strength2=
|casualties1=
|casualties2=
|notes=
}}

In [[World War I]], several battles were fought in Bukovina between the [[Austria-Hungary|Austro-Hungarian]], [[German Empire|German]], and [[Imperial Russia|Russian]] armies, which resulted in the Russian army invading Chernivtsi for three times (30 August to 21 October 1914, 26 November 1914 to 18 February 1915 and 18 June 1916 to 2 August 1917). The regime that had occupied the city pursued a policy of persecution of "nationally conscious Ukrainians". The situation was not improved until the [[February Revolution of 1917]].<ref name= chern/> The Russian were driven out in 1917. Bukovina suffered great losses during the war.<ref name= encyclo/>

With the collapse of [[Austria-Hungary]] in 1918, both the local [[Romanian National Council]] and the [[Ukrainian National Council]] based in Galicia claimed the region. In the beginning, Bukovina joined the fledging [[West Ukrainian National Republic]] (November 1918), but it was occupied by the Romanian army immediately thereafter.<ref name= scare/>

A Constituent Assembly on 14/27 October 1918 formed an executive committee, to whom the Austrian governor of the province handed power. After an official request by [[Iancu Flondor]], Romanian troops swiftly moved in to take over the territory, against Ukrainian protest.<ref name= encyclo/> Although local Ukrainians attempted to incorporate parts of Northern Bukovina into the short-lived [[West Ukrainian People's Republic]], this attempt was defeated by Polish and Romanian troops.

The Ukrainian Regional Committee, led by Omelian Popovych, organized a rally in Chernivtsi on 3 November 1918, demanding Bukovina's annexation to Ukraine. The committee took power in the Ukrainian part of Bukovina, including its biggest center Chernivtsi.<ref name= encyclo/> The Romanian moderates, who were led by [[Aurel Onciul]], accepted the division. However, the Romanian conservatives, led by [[Iancu Flondor]], rejected the idea. In spite of Ukrainian resistance, the Romanian army occupied the Northern Bukovina, including Chernivtsi, on 11 November.<ref name= scare/><ref name= encyclo/>

Under the protection of Romanian troops, the Romanian Council summoned a [[General Congress of Bukovina]] for 15/28 November 1918, where 74 Romanians, 13 Ruthenians, 7 Germans, and 6 Poles were represented (this is the linguistic composition, and Jews were not recorded as a separate group).{{citation needed|date=September 2014}} According to Romanian historiography, popular enthusiasm swept the whole region, and a large number of people gathered in the city to wait for the resolution of the Congress.<ref name= CK>{{cite book |first= Constantin |last= Kirițescu |title= Istoria războiului pentru întregirea României: 1916–1919 |trans-title= History of the war for the unification of Romania: 1916–1919 |language=ro |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=e1weAAAAMAAJ |year=1989 |publisher=Ed. Științifică și Enciclopedică |isbn=978-973-29-0048-2}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last= Bulei |first= Ion |title= Scurta istorie a românilor |trans-title=The short history of the Romanians |language=ro |publisher= Editura Meronia |location= Bucharest |date=1996 |pages=104–107}}</ref> The council was quickly summoned by the Romanians upon their occupation of Bukovina.<ref name= encyclo/>

[[File:Interbelic Suceava County CoA.png|thumb|upright|left|Coat of arms of interwar Suceava county in the Kingdom of Romania]]

The Congress elected the Romanian Bukovinian politician Iancu Flondor as chairman, and voted for the union with the [[Kingdom of Romania]], with the support of the Romanian, German, and Polish representatives; the Ukrainians did not support this.<ref name= rezumat>{{cite web|url=http://www.unibuc.ro/studies/Doctorate2012Ianuarie/Mihai%20Florin%20Razvan%20-%20Minoritatea%20ucrainiana%20din%20Romania/REZUMAT-FLORIN-RAZVAN-MIHAI.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151017111137/http://www.unibuc.ro/studies/Doctorate2012Ianuarie/Mihai%20Florin%20Razvan%20-%20Minoritatea%20ucrainiana%20din%20Romania/REZUMAT-FLORIN-RAZVAN-MIHAI.pdf |url-status=dead |title=Minoritatea ucraineană din România (1918–1940) |trans-title=Ukrainian minority in Romania (1918–1940) |language=ro |archive-date=17 October 2015 |access-date=1 March 2022}}</ref> The reasons stated were that, until its takeover by the Habsburg in 1775, Bukovina was the heart of the [[Principality of Moldavia]], where the ''gropnițele domnești'' (voivods' burial sites) are located, and ''dreptul de liberă hotărâre de sine'' (right of self-determination).<ref group="nb">''"Congresul general al Bucovinei, întrupând suprema putere a țării și fiind învestiți cu puterea legiuitoare, în numele suveranității naționale, hotărâm: Unirea necondiționată și pe vecie a Bucovinei în vechile ei hotare până la Ceremuș, Colacin și Nistru cu Regatul României".'' The General Congress of Bukovina, embodying the supreme power of the country [Bukovina], and invested with legislative power, in the name of national sovereignty, we decide: Unconditional and eternal union of Bukovina, in its old boundaries up to Ceremuș [river], Colachin and Dniester [river] with the Kingdom of Romania.</ref> Romanian control of the province was recognized internationally in the [[Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye (1919)|Treaty of St. Germain]] in 1919. Bukovina's autonomy was undone during Romanian occupation, the region being reduced to an ordinary Romanian province.<ref name= scare/> It was subject to martial law from 1918 to 1928, and again from 1937 to 1940.<ref name= scare/>

The Ukrainian language was suppressed, "educational and cultural institutions, newspapers and magazines were closed."<ref name= scare/>

Romanian authorities oversaw a renewed programme of [[Romanianization]] aiming its assimilationist policies at the Ukrainian population of the region.<ref name= rezumat/><ref name= scare/> In addition to the suppression of the Ukrainian people, their language and culture, Ukrainian surnames were Rumanized, and the Ukrainian Orthodox Church was persecuted.<ref name= scare/><ref name= encyclo/> In the 1930s an underground nationalist movement, which was led by Orest Zybachynsky and Denys Kvitkovsky, emerged in the region.<ref name= encyclo/> The Romanian government suppressed it by staging two political trials in 1937.<ref name= encyclo/>

At the same time, Ukrainian enrollment at the [[Chernivtsi University|Cernăuți University]] fell from 239 out of 1671, in 1914, to 155 out of 3,247, in 1933, while simultaneously Romanian enrollment there increased several times to 2,117 out of 3,247.<ref>A. Zhukovsky, [http://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/pages/C/H/ChernivtsiUniversity.htm Chernivtsi University], ''Encyclopedia of Ukraine'', 2001, Canadian Institute of Ukrainian Studies. Accessed 11 February 2006.</ref> In part this was due to attempts to switch to Romanian as the primary language of university instruction, but chiefly to the fact that the university was one of only five in Romania, and was considered prestigious.

In the decade following 1928, as Romania tried to improve its relations with the [[Soviet Union]], Ukrainian culture was given some limited means to redevelop, though these gains were sharply reversed in 1938.{{Citation needed|date=June 2009}}

According to the 1930 Romanian census, [[Romanians]] made up 44.5% of the total population of Bukovina, and Ukrainians (including Hutsuls) 29.1%.<ref>Livezeanu (1995), p. [https://books.google.com/books?id=5ysbpAyJjoAC&pg=PA53 53].</ref> In the northern part of the region, however, Romanians made up only 32.6% of the population, with Ukrainians significantly outnumbering Romanians.

On 14 August 1938 Bukovina officially disappeared from the map, becoming a part of [[Ținutul Suceava]], one of [[Ținuturi|ten new administrative regions]]. At the same time, Cernăuți, the third most populous town in Romania (after [[Bucharest]] and [[Chișinău]]), which had been a mere county seat for the last 20 years, became again a (regional) capital. Also, Bukovinian regionalism continued under the new brand. During its first months of existence, Ținutul Suceava suffered far right ([[Iron Guard]]) uproars, to which the regional governor [[Gheorghe Alexianu]] (the future governor of the [[Transnistria Governorate]]) reacted with nationalist and anti-Semitic measures. Alexianu was replaced by Gheorghe Flondor on 1 February 1939.

===Division of Bukovina===
{{see also|Soviet occupation of Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina}}
[[File:Bucovina division.svg|thumb|right|Bukovina as divided in 1940: Soviet to the north, Romanian to the south.]]

As a result of the [[Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact]], the USSR demanded not only [[Bessarabia]] but also the northern half of Bukovina and [[Hertsa region|Hertsa]] regions from Romania on 26 June 1940 (Bukovina bordered [[Galicia (Central Europe)|Eastern Galicia]], which the USSR had annexed during the [[Invasion of Poland]]). Initially, the USSR wanted the whole of Bukovina.{{Citation needed|date=June 2021}} [[Nazi Germany]], which was surprised by the Soviet claim to Bukovina,{{Citation needed|date=June 2021}} invoked the presence of ethnic Germans living in the region to protest the claim. As a result,{{Citation needed|date=June 2021|reason=Citation for this being the result of the German rejection to Soviet request for Bucovina}} the USSR only demanded the northern, overwhelmingly Ukrainian part, arguing that it was a "reparation for the great loss produced to the Soviet Union and [[Bassarabia]]'s population by twenty-two years of Romanian domination of [[Bassarabia]]". Following the Soviet ultimatum, Romania ceded Northern Bukovina, which included Cernăuți, to the USSR on 28 June 1940. The withdrawal of the Romanian Army, authorities, and civilians was disastrous. Mobs attacked retreating soldiers and civilians, whereas a retreating unit [[Dorohoi pogrom|massacred Jewish soldiers and civilians in the town of Dorohoi]]. The Red Army occupied [[Cernăuți County|Cernăuți]] and [[Storojineț County|Storojineț]] counties, as well as parts of [[Rădăuți County|Rădăuți]] and [[Dorohoi County|Dorohoi]] counties (the latter belonged to Ținutul Suceava, but not to Bukovina). The new Soviet-Romanian border was traced less than {{convert|20|km|0|abbr=off}} north of [[Putna Monastery]]. Until 22 September 1940, when Ținutul Suceava was abolished, the spa town [[Vatra Dornei]] served as the capital of Ținutul Suceava.<ref>Philippe Henri Blasen: Suceava Region, Upper Land, Greater Bukovina or just Bukovina? Carol II's Administrative Reform in North-Eastern Romania (1938–1940), in: Anuarul Institutului de Istorie "A. D. Xenopol", supplement, 2015; <br /> Philippe Henri Blasen: Terrorisme légionnaire et ordonnances antisémites. La Région Suceava d'octobre 1938 à septembre 1940, in: Archiva Moldaviae 2018. <br /> Philippe Henri Blasen: Regionalism after the Administrative Reform of 14th August 1938. How Romanian Authorities and Elites Celebrated the Year 1918 in Suceava Region, in: Anuarul Institutului de Istorie "A. D. Xenopol", 2018.</ref>

====Second World War====
{{Main|Romania in World War II}}

In 1940, [[Chernivtsi Oblast]] ({{frac|2|3}} of which is Northern Bukovina) had a population of circa 805,000, out of which 47.5% were Ukrainians and 28.3% were Romanians, with Germans, Jews, Poles, Hungarians, and Russians comprising the rest.{{Citation needed|date=February 2007}} The strong Ukrainian presence was the official motivation for the inclusion of the region into the [[Ukrainian SSR]] and not into the newly formed [[Moldavian SSR]]. Whether the region would have been included in the Moldavian SSR, if the commission presiding over the division had been led by someone other than the communist leader [[Nikita Khrushchev]], remains a matter of debate among scholars.{{citation needed|date=March 2012}} In fact, some territories with a mostly Romanian population (e.g., [[Hertsa region]]) were allotted to the Ukrainian SSR.
[[File:GUVERNAMANTUL BUCOVINEI.png|thumb|right|Administrative map of the [[Bukovina Governorate]] as of May 1942]]

After the instauration of Soviet rule, under [[NKVD]] orders, thousands of local families were deported to [[Siberia]] during this period,<ref name= noinu>{{cite web |title=Românii din Ucraina (2) |language=ro |trans-title= Romanians in Ukraine (2) |date=7 August 2005 |url=http://noinu.rdscj.ro/article.php?articleID%3D149%26document%3D3#_ftn2 |access-date=2006-04-17 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071006123106/http://noinu.rdscj.ro/article.php?articleID=149&document=3 |archive-date= 2007-10-06}}</ref> with 12,191 people targeted for deportation in a document dated 2 August 1940 (from all formerly Romanian regions included in the Ukrainian SSR),<ref name= noinu/> while a December 1940 document listed 2,057 persons to be deported to Siberia.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ziua.ro/display.php?id=183159&data=2005-08-20&ziua=40514329d9c319e3a6c30e040e4a40d9 |title=Calvarul bucovinenilor sub ocupatia sovietica |language=ro |trans-title=The ordeal of the Bukovinians under the Soviet occupation |website=Ziua.ro |access-date=20 January 2017 |archive-date=2018-07-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180709215616/http://www.ziua.ro/display.php?id=183159&data=2005-08-20&ziua=40514329d9c319e3a6c30e040e4a40d9 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The largest action took place on 13 June 1941, when about 13,000 people were deported to Siberia and Kazakhstan.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.unhcr.md/article/masspop_ro.htm |title=UNHCR Moldova |publisher=Unhcr.md |access-date=26 March 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060628161431/http://www.unhcr.md/article/masspop_ro.htm |archive-date=28 June 2006 }}</ref> The majority of those targeted were ethnic native [[Romanians]], but there were (to a lesser degree) representatives of other ethnicities, as well.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Genocide of Romanians in Northern Bukovina |website=Radio Romania International |url=https://www.rri.ro/en_gb/the_genocide_of_romanians_in_northern_bukovina-2547072}}</ref>

Until the repatriation convention{{Citation needed|date=February 2007}} of 15 April 1941, NKVD troops killed hundreds of Romanian peasants of Northern Bukovina as they tried to cross the border into Romania to escape from Soviet authorities. This culminated on 7 February 1941 with the [[Lunca massacre]] and on 1 April 1941 with the [[Fântâna Albă massacre]].

During Soviet Communist rule in Bukovina, "private property was nationalized; farms were partly collectivized; and education was Ukrainianized. At the same time all Ukrainian organizations were disbanded, and many publicly active Ukrainians were either killed or exiled." A significant part of Ukrainian intelligentsia fled to Romania and Germany in the beginning of the occupation.<ref name= encyclo/> When the conflict between the Soviets and Nazi Germany broke out, and the Soviet troops began moving out of Bukovina, the Ukrainian locals attempted to established their own government, but they were not able to stop the advancing Romanian army.<ref name= encyclo/>[[File:Heinrich_Himmler,_1900-1945_(meeting_buconivian)_(cropped).jpg|thumb|[[Heinrich Himmler]] handing naturalization papers to a repatriated Buconivian, [[Breslau]], [[Germany]] (now [[Poland]]). c. 1941. ]]Almost the entire [[Bukovina Germans|German population of Northern Bukovina]] was [[Heim ins Reich|coerced to resettle]] in 1940–1941 to the parts of Poland then occupied by Nazi Germany, during 15 September 1940 – 15 November 1940, after this area was occupied by the Soviet Union. About 45,000 ethnic Germans had left Northern Bukovina by November 1940.<ref>Leonid Ryaboshapko. Pravove stanovishche natsionalnyh menshyn v Ukraini (1917–2000), P. 259 (in Ukrainian).</ref>

In the course of the [[Operation Barbarossa|1941 attack on the Soviet Union]] by the [[Axis forces]], the [[Romanian Third Army]] led by General [[Petre Dumitrescu]] (operating in the north), and the [[Fourth Army (Romania)|Fourth Romanian Army]] (operating in the south) regained Northern Bukovina, as well as [[Hertsa region|Hertsa]], and [[Bassarabia]], during June–July 1941. It was organized as part of the [[Bukovina Governorate]].

The Axis invasion of Northern Bukovina was catastrophic for its Jewish population, as conquering Romanian soldiers immediately began massacring its Jewish residents. Surviving Jews were forced into ghettoes to await deportation to work camps in Transnistria where 57,000 had arrived by 1941. One of the Romanian mayors of Cernăuți, [[Traian Popovici]], managed to temporarily exempt from deportation 20,000 Jews living in the city between the fall of 1941 and the spring of 1942. Bukovina's remaining Jews were spared from certain death when it was retaken by Soviet forces in February 1944. In all, about half of Bukovina's entire Jewish population had perished.<ref>"Bukovina" in Shoah Resource Center, at https://www.yadvashem.org/odot_pdf/Microsoft%20Word%20-%206091.pdf, archived at https://web.archive.org/web/20161220072748/http://www.yadvashem.org/odot_pdf/Microsoft%20Word%20-%206091.pdf</ref> In southern Bukovina (the territory that is currently a part of Romania), in the counties of Campulung, Suceava and Radauti, there were 18,893 Jews according to the September 1, 1941 census; after the deportations to Transnistria later in the year, there were only 179 Jews in 1942.<ref>See Jean Ancel, ''The History of the Holocaust in Romania'' (Lincoln, University of Nebraska Press and Jerusalem, Yad Vashem, 2011) p. 290. Also see the census results in Publikationstelle Wien, ''Die Bevölkerungzählung in Rumänien, 1941'', Viena 1943. Also see the census results in Publikationstelle Wien, Die Bevölkerungzählung in Rumänien, 1941, Viena 1943.</ref> If one excludes the orphans, about 12,000 of the southern Bukovinian Jewish deportees survived the deportations to Transnistria.<ref>See Radu Ioanid, ''The Holocaust in Romania: The Destruction of the Jews and Gypsies Under the Antonescu Regime'' (Chicago: Ivan R. Dee, 2000), p. 255. Also see "Situatie Numerica de evreii ucisi sub regimul de dictatura din Romania de la data de 6 decembrie 1940, pana la 23 august 1944, precum si acelor deportati in acelasi interval de timp si nereintorsi la domiciliu", in "Nota Ministerului Afacerilor Interne, Directia Generala a Politiei, Directia Politiei de Siguranta, Sectia Nationalitati Nr. 780-S din 6 Main 1946 Catre M.A.S.", in Ion Calafeteanu, Nicolae Dinu and Teodor Gheorghe, ''Emigrarea Populatiei Evreiesti din Romania in 1940-1944, Culegere de Documente din Arhiva Ministerului Afaceror Externe al Romaniei'' (Bucuresti, Silex - Casa de Editura, Presa si IMpresariat S.R.L., Bucuresti, 1993), p. 246.</ref> According to the  Israeli scholar Gali Mir-Tibon 2018 study, over 70% of the Jews of southern Bukovina deported to Transnistria survived, with the orphans included in that figure.<ref>Gali Mir-Tibon, "Am I My Brother's Keeper? Jewish Committees in the Ghettos of the Mogilev District and the Romanian Authorities in Transnistria, 1941-1944", in Wendy Z. Goldman and Joe William Trotter, Jr., ''The Ghetto in Global History, 1500 to the Present'' (London and New York: Routledge, 2018), p. 139.</ref> After the war and the return of the Soviets, most of the Jewish survivors from Northern Bukovina fled to Romania (and later settled in Israel).<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.yadvashem.org/odot_pdf/Microsoft%20Word%20-%206091.pdf |access-date=2016-08-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161220072748/http://www.yadvashem.org/odot_pdf/Microsoft%20Word%20-%206091.pdf |archive-date=2016-12-20 |url-status=live |title=Bukovina |website=Shoah Resource Center}}</ref> For more information on the Holocaust in [[Transnistria]], including on the fate of the Jewish deportees from Bukovina, see [[History of the Jews in Transnistria]]. For more information on the history of the Jews of Bukovina, including during the Holocaust, see [[History of the Jews in Bukovina]].

On October 11, 1942, the (Soviet) State Committee on Defense decided to extend the decrees on "the mobilization of the NKVD labour columns, German men, able to work, 17-50 years old - to the persons of other nations, being in war with USSR-Romanians, Hungarians, Italians, Finns."; the order was signed by Stalin.<ref>Nikolai Bougai, ''The Deportation of Peoples in the Soviet Union'' (New York: Nova Science Publishers, Inc., 1996), p. 116.</ref> As a reult, in May 1944, in the village of [[Molodiia]] and some other northern Bukovinian localities, those men who declared a "Moldovan" nationality were incorporated into the Soviet army, while those who declared a "Romanian" nationality were sent to the work camps in the area of Lake Onega, where most of them died.<ref>Ion Popescu and Constantin Ungureanu, ''Romanii din Ucraina - intre trecut si viitor'', vol. 1 (''Romanii din Regiunea Cernauti''), Cernauti, 2005, p. 168.</ref> In March 1945, 3,967 ethnic Romanians from Ukraine, mostly from the Chernivtsi Oblast, were sent to the Soviet east.<ref>Nikolai Bougai, ''The Deportation of Peoples in the Soviet Union'' (New York: Nova Science Publishers, Inc., 1996), p. 156.</ref> The Soviet era dominance of the "Moldovan" identity in parts of northern Bukovina was due to the fact that the inhabitants of the Chernivtsi and Sadagura rural raions, and of the Bukovinian part of the [[Novoselytsia Raion|Novoselytsia raion]], were pressured in 1944 to adopt a "Moldovan" national/ethnic identity.<ref>Ion Popescu and Constantin Ungureanu, ''Romanii din Ucraina - intre trecut si viitor'', vol. 1 (''Romanii din Regiunea Cernauti''), Cernauti, 2005, p. 172.</ref>

====After the war====
{{Main|Socialist Republic of Romania|History of Moldova}}

{{History of Ukraine}}

[[File:Ukraine-Bukovyna.png|thumb|left|Northern Bukovina within Ukraine]]
[[File:Bucovina Romania.svg|thumb|left|Southern Bukovina within Romania]]

In 1944 the [[Red Army]] drove the [[Axis forces]] out and re-established Soviet control over the territory. Romania was forced to formally cede the northern part of Bukovina to the [[USSR]] by the 1947 [[Paris peace treaty]]. The territory became part of the [[Ukrainian SSR]] as [[Chernivtsi Oblast]] ([[oblast|province]]). While during the war the Soviet government killed or forced in exile a considerable number of [[Ukrainians]],<ref name= encyclo/> after the war the same government deported or killed about 41,000 [[Romanians]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.observatorul.com/articles_main.asp?action=articleviewdetail&ID=1951 |title=Observatorul |publisher=Observatorul |access-date=26 March 2013}}</ref> As a result of killings and mass deportations, entire villages, mostly inhabited by Romanians,{{Citation needed|date=June 2021}} were abandoned (Albovat, Frunza, I.G.Duca, Buci—completely erased, Prisaca, Tanteni and Vicov—destroyed to a large extent).<ref name=Tara>Țara fagilor: Almanah cultural-literar al românilor nord-bucovineni. Cernăuți-Târgu-Mureș, 1994, p. 160.</ref> Men of military age (and sometimes above), both Ukrainians and Romanians, were conscripted into the Soviet Army. That did not protect them, however, from being arrested and deported for being "anti-Soviet elements".

As a reaction, partisan groups (composed of both Romanians and Ukrainians) began to operate against the Soviets in the woods around [[Chernivtsi]], Crasna and [[Codrii Cosminului]].<ref>Dragoș Tochiță. Români de pe Valea Siretului de Sus, jertfe ale ocupației nordului Bucovinei și terorii bolșevice. – Suceava, 1999. – P. 35. (in Romanian)</ref> In Crasna (in the former [[Storozhynets]] county) villagers attacked Soviet soldiers who were sent to "temporarily resettle" them, since they feared deportation. This resulted in dead and wounded among the villagers, who had no firearms.

Spring 1945 saw the formation of transports of Polish repatriates who (voluntarily or by coercion) had decided to leave. Between March 1945 and July 1946, 10,490 inhabitants left Northern Bukovina for Poland, including 8,140 Poles, 2,041 Jews and 309 of other nationalities. Most of them settled in [[Silesia]], near the towns: [[Bolesławiec]], [[Dzierżoniów]], [[Gubin, Poland|Gubin]], [[Lubań Śląski]], [[Lwówek Śląski]], [[Nowa Sól]], [[Oława]], [[Prudnik]], [[Wrocław]], [[Zielona Góra]], [[Żagań]], [[Żary]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Pokrzyńska |first=Magdalena |url=https://zbc.uz.zgora.pl/dlibra/publication/64811/edition/58194 |title=Bukowińczycy w Polsce |publisher=Oficyna Wydawnicza Uniwersytetu Zielonogórskiego |year=2010 |isbn=978-83-7481-383-9 |location=Zielona Góra |pages=64}}</ref>

Overall, between 1930 (last Romanian census) and 1959 (first Soviet census), the population of Northern Bukovina decreased by 31,521 people. According to official data from those two censuses, the Romanian population had decreased by 75,752 people, and the Jewish population by 46,632, while the Ukrainian and Russian populations increased by 135,161 and 4,322 people, respectively.{{Citation needed|date=June 2021}}

After 1944, the human and economic connections between the northern (Soviet) and southern (Romanian) parts of Bukovina were severed. Today, the historically Ukrainian northern part is the nucleus of the Ukrainian [[Chernivtsi Oblast]], while the southern part is part of Romania, though there are minorities of Ukrainians and Romanians in Romanian Bukovina and Ukrainian Bukovina respectively. [[Ukrainians of Romania|Ukrainians are still a recognized minority in Romania]], and have one seat reserved in the Romanian Chamber of Deputies.

In Romania, 28 November is a holiday observed as [[Bukovina Day]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.agerpres.ro/politica/2015/10/28/presedintele-iohannis-a-promulgat-legea-prin-care-data-de-28-noiembrie-este-declarata-ziua-bucovinei-18-51-31 |title=Președintele Iohannis a promulgat legea prin care data de 28 noiembrie este declarată Ziua. |trans-title=President Iohannis promulgated the law declaring 28 November as the Day. |language=ro |website=Agerpres.ro |access-date=1 March 2022 |archive-date=16 January 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180116135123/https://www.agerpres.ro/politica/2015/10/28/presedintele-iohannis-a-promulgat-legea-prin-care-data-de-28-noiembrie-este-declarata-ziua-bucovinei-18-51-31 |url-status=dead }}</ref> A popular Romanian-language song about the region is "[[Cântă cucu-n Bucovina]]" ("Sings the Cuckoo in Bukovina").<ref>{{cite news|url=https://ea.md/cine-este-autorul-legendarei-melodii-canta-cucu-n-bucovina-video/|title=Cine este autorul legendarei melodii "Cântă cucu-n Bucovina" (Video)|newspaper=EA.md|date=20 June 2017|language=ro}}</ref>

==Geography==
Bukovina proper has an area of {{convert|10442|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}. The territory of Romanian (or Southern) Bukovina is located in [[Historical regions of Romania|northeastern Romania]] and it is part of the [[Suceava County]] (plus three localities in [[Botoșani County]]), whereas Ukrainian (or Northern) Bukovina is located in [[Ukrainian historical regions|western Ukraine]] and it is part of the [[Chernivtsi Oblast]].

== Population ==

=== Historical population ===

[[File:Bucov.png|thumb|right|Demographic composition of Bukovina in 1930]]

The region was occupied by several now extinct peoples. After which it was settled by both Romanians (Moldavians) and Ukrainians (Ruthenians)<ref>{{cite encyclopedia | url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Bukovina | title=Bukovina &#124; Ukraine, Romania, Map, & History &#124; Britannica | encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Britannica | date=December 2023 }}</ref> with the [[Antes (people)|Antes]] controlling a large area that included Bukovina by the 6th century. Later, the region was part of Kievan Rus', and later still of the [[Kingdom of Galicia–Volhynia]]. During this period it reinforced its ties to other Ukrainian lands, with many Bukovinian natives studying in Lviv and Kyiv, and the Orthodox Bukovinian Church flourishing in the region. After passing to Hungary in the 14th century, the Hungarian king appointed Dragoș as his deputy forming the [[principality of Moldavia]], following the revolt of [[Bogdan the Founder]] against the Kingdom of Hungary, Bukovina became an integral part of the principality of Moldavia. Suceava, in the south of the territory, was the capital of Moldavia from the late 14th to the mid-16th century. The only data we have about the ethnic composition of Bukovina are the Austrian censuses starting from the 1770s. The Austrians hindered both Romanian and Ukrainian nationalisms. On the other hand, they favored the migration in Bukovina of Ukrainians from Galicia as well as Romanians from Transylvania and Maramureș.

According to the 1775 Austrian census, the province had a total population of 86,000 (this included 56 villages which were returned to Moldavia one year later). The census only recorded social status and some ethno-religious groups (Jews, [[Armenians]], [[Roma people|Roma]], and German colonists). Historian [[Ion Nistor]] estimated that the 1774 population consisted of 52,750 Romanians (also called Moldavians) (73.5%), 15,000 [[Ruthenians]] and [[Hutsuls]] (20.9%) (of whom 6,000 were Hutsuls, and 9,000 were Ruthenian immigrants from [[Galicia (Eastern Europe)|Galicia]] and [[Podolia]] settled in Moldavia around 1766), and 4,000 others who "use the Romanian language in conversation" (5.6%), consisting of Armenians, Jews and Roma.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Nistor |first1=Ion |title=Românii și rutenii în Bucovina |date=1915 |publisher=[[Romanian Academy]] |location=Bucharest |pages=70–72}}</ref> [[Keith Hitchins]] on the other hand, estimated that in 1774 Bukovina's population consisted of 64,000 Romanians, 8,000 Ukrainians and 3,000 Germans, Jews, and Poles.<ref name= roman1774/> According to Alecu Hurmuzaki, by 1848, out of a population of 377,581 people, 209,293 or 55.4% of the population was Romanian. At the same time, the Ukrainian population rose to 108,907 and the Jewish population surged from 526 in 1774, to 11,600 in 1848.<ref name= roman1774/>

[[File:Biserica Adormirea Maicii Domnului din Dornesti3.jpg|thumb|150px|right|[[Dornești]] ({{langx|de|link=no|Kriegsdorf}}, {{langx|hu|Hadikfalva}}), [[Suceava County]], an example of a former mixed German-Hungarian rural settlement in Bukovina.]]
[[File:HerrenGasse 761.jpg|thumb|right|The Polish House in [[Chernivtsi|Cernăuți]] ({{langx|pl|Czerniowce}}, {{langx|de|link=no|Czernowitz}})]]

In 2011, an anthropological analysis of the Russian census of the population of Moldavia in 1774 asserted a population of 68,700 people in 1774, out of which 40,920 (59.6%) Romanians, 22,810 Ruthenians and Hutsuls (33.2%), and 7.2% Jews, Roma, and Armenians.<ref name= ceeol/>

Based on the above anthropological estimate for 1774 as well as subsequent official censuses, the ethnic composition of Bukovina changed in the years after 1775 when the Austrian Empire occupied the region.<ref name= MIac/> The population of Bukovina increased steadily, primarily through immigration, which Austrian authorities encouraged to develop the economy.<ref name= wesen>Raimund Friedrich Kaindl. ''Das Ansiedlungswesen in der Bukowina seit der Besitzergreifung durch Österreich.'' Innsbruck (1902), pp. 1–71</ref> Indeed, the migrants entering the region came from Ukrainian Galicia, as well as from Romanian Transylvania and Moldavia.<ref name= encyclo/> Another Austrian official report from 1783, referring to the villages between the Dniester and the Prut, indicated Ruthenian-speaking immigrants from Poland constituting a majority, with only a quarter of the population speaking Moldavian. The same report indicated that Moldavians constituted the majority in the area of Suceava.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Nistor |first1=Ion |title=Românii și rutenii în Bucovina |date=1915 |publisher=[[Romanian Academy]] |location=Bucharest |pages=107–112}}</ref> H.F. Müller gives the 1840 population used for purposes of military conscription as 339,669.<ref>{{Cite book
| publisher = H.F. Müller's Kunsthandlung
| last = Müller
| first = H F
| title = Die Bukowina im Königreiche Galizien
| location = Wien
| access-date = 2014-06-05
| date = 1848
| page = 9
| language = de
| url = https://archive.org/stream/diebukowinaimk00benduoft#page/8/mode/2up
}}</ref>

In 1843 the [[Ruthenian language]] was recognized, along with the [[Romanian language]], as 'the language of the people and of the Church in Bukovina'.<ref name= jew/>

During the 19th century, as mentioned, the Austrian Empire policies encouraged the influx of migrants coming from Transylvania, Moldavia, Galicia and the heartland of Austria and Germany, with Germans, Poles, Jews, Hungarians, Romanians, and Ukrainians settling in the region.<ref name= encyclo/><ref name= jew>''[http://www.jewishgen.org/yizkor/bukovina/buk001.html#Decline%20of%20Rumanian%20Nationality Bukovina Handbook]'',
prepared under the Direction of the Historical Section of the British Foreign Office No.6. Published in London, Feb.1919.</ref> Official censuses in the [[Austrian Empire]] (later [[Austria-Hungary]]) did not record ethnolinguistic data until 1850–1851. The 1857 and 1869 censuses omitted ethnic or language-related questions. 'Familiar language spoken' was not recorded again until 1880.

The Austrian census of 1850–1851, which recorded data regarding languages spoken, shows 48.50% [[Romanians]] and 38.07% [[Ukrainians]].<ref>[[:File:Ethnographic map of austrian monarchy czoernig 1855.jpg|1855 Austrian ethnic-map showing census data in lower right corner]]</ref> Subsequent Austrian censuses between 1880 and 1910 reveal a Romanian population stabilizing around 33% and a Ukrainian population around 40%. From 1774 to 1910, the percentage of Ukrainians increased, meanwhile the one of Romanians decreased.<ref name= MIac/>

According to the [[Demographic history of Romania|1930 Romanian census]], Bukovina had a population of 853,009.<ref name= Liv>Livezeanu (1995), p. [https://books.google.com/books?id=5ysbpAyJjoAC&pg=PA52 52].</ref>  Romanians made up 44.5% of the population, while 27.7% were Ukrainians/Ruthenians (plus 1.5% Hutsuls), 10.8% Jews, 8.9% Germans, 3.6% Poles, and 3.0% others or undeclared.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/02/1930_provincii_2.jpg|title=1930 Romanian Census|format=JPG|website=Upload.wikimedia.org|access-date=1 March 2022}}</ref>

According to estimates and censuses data, the population of Bukovina was:
{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Year
! colspan=2|Romanians
! colspan=2|Ukrainians
! colspan=2|Others <small>(most notably Germans, Jews, and Poles)</small>
!Total
|-
|1774 (e)<ref name= roman1774/><ref name= ceeol/>
|40,920 – 64,000
|59.6% – 85.33%
|8,000 – 22,810
|10.6% – 33.2%
|3,000 – 4,970
|4.0% – 7.2%
|51,920 – 91,780
|-
|1848 (e)<ref name= roman1774/>
|209,293
|55.4%
|108,907
|28.8%
|59,381
|15.8%
|377,581
|-
|1851 (c)<ref name= ionas>Ionas Aurelian Rus (2008), ''Variables Affecting Nation-building: The Impact of the Ethnic Basis, the Educational System, Industrialization and Sudden Shocks''. [[ProQuest]]. {{ISBN|9781109059632}}. p. 102</ref><ref>1855 Austrian ethnic-map showing 1851 census data in lower right corner [[:File:Ethnographic map of austrian monarchy czoernig 1855.jpg]]</ref>
|184,718
|48.5%
|144,982
|38.1%
|51,126
|13.4%
|380,826
|-
|1880 (c)<ref>First [[Austro-Hungarian]] census measuring the 'language spoken at home' of the population [http://hauster.de/data/censusbuk1880.pdf]</ref>
|190,005
|33.4%
|239,960
|42.2%
|138,758
|24.4%
|568,723
|-
|1890 (c)<ref>[[Austro-Hungarian]] census of 1890 [http://hauster.de/data/censusbuk1890.pdf]</ref>
|208,301
|32.4%
|268,367
|41.8%
|165,827
|25.8%
|642,495
|-
|1900 (c)<ref>[[Austro-Hungarian]] census of 1900 [http://hauster.de/data/censusbuk1900.pdf]</ref>
|229,018
|31.4%
|297,798
|40.8%
|203,379
|27.8%
|730,195
|-
|1910 (c)
|273,254
|34.1%
|305,101
|38.4%
|216,574
|27.2%
|794,929
|-
|1930 (c)<ref name= Liv/><ref name= Eberhardt>{{cite book|author=Jan Owsinski, Piotr Eberhardt|title=Ethnic Groups and Population Changes in Twentieth-Century Central-Eastern Europe|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jLfX1q3kJzgC&pg=PA295|publisher=M.E. Sharpe|isbn=978-0-7656-1833-7|pages=295–}}</ref>
|379,691
|44.5%
|248,567
|29.1%
|224,751
|26.4%
|853,009
|}
Note: e-estimate; c-census

=== Current population ===

The present demographic situation in Bukovina hardly resembles that of the [[Austrian Empire]]. The northern (Ukrainian) and southern (Romanian) parts became significantly dominated by their Ukrainian and Romanian majorities, respectively, with the representation of other ethnic groups being decreased significantly.

According to the data of the [[2001 Ukrainian census]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ukrcensus.gov.ua/eng/ |title=All-Ukrainian population census&#124; |publisher=Ukrcensus.gov.ua |access-date=2013-03-26}}</ref> the [[Ukrainians]] represent about 75% (689,100) of the population of [[Chernivtsi Oblast]], which is the closest, although not an exact, approximation of the territory of the historic Northern Bukovina. The census also identified a fall in the Romanian and [[Moldovans|Moldovan]] populations to 12.5% (114,600) and 7.3% (67,200), respectively. [[Russians]] are the next largest ethnic group with 4.1%, while [[Polish people|Poles]], [[Belarusians]], and Jews comprise the rest 1.2%. The languages of the population closely reflect the ethnic composition, with over 90% within each of the major ethnic groups declaring their national language as the mother tongue ([[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]], [[Romanian language|Romanian]], and Russian, respectively).

The fact that [[Romanians]] and [[Moldovans]], a [[self-declared]] majority in some regions, were presented as separate categories in the census results, has been criticized in Romania, where there are complains that this artificial Soviet-era practice results in the Romanian population being undercounted, as being divided between [[Romanians]] and [[Moldovans]]. The Romanian minority of Ukraine also claims to represent a 500,000-strong community.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://romania.europalibera.org/a/romanii-din-ucraina-reclama-lipsa-de-interes-a-autoritatilor-de-la-bucuresti-/30729562.html|title=Românii din Ucraina reclamă lipsa de interes a autorităților de la București|website=Europa Liberă România|date=16 July 2020 |access-date=1 March 2022|last1=Liberă |first1=Europa }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://cernauti.mae.ro/node/286|title=Comunitatea românească din Ucraina &#124; CONSULATUL GENERAL AL ROMÂNIEI în Cernăuți|website=Cernauti.mae.ro|access-date=30 June 2021|archive-date=3 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210703035149/http://cernauti.mae.ro/node/286|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.dw.com/ro/ziarecom-romanii-din-ucraina-sunt-divizati-romania-vazuta-in-presa-ca-un-vrajmas-la-fel-ca-rusia-interviu/a-17725042 |title=Ziare.com: Romanii din Ucraina sunt divizati. Romania, vazuta in presa ca un vrajmas, la fel ca Rusia Interviu |language=ru |trans-title=Ziare.com: Romanians in Ukraine are divided. Romania, seen in the press as an enemy, just like Russia Interview |publisher=DW |date=20 June 2014 |access-date=2022-02-28}}</ref>

The Romanians mostly inhabit the southern part of the Chernivtsi region, having been the majority in former [[Hertsa Raion]] and forming a plurality together with Moldovans in former [[Hlyboka Raion]].{{Citation needed|date=June 2021}} Self-declared Moldovans were the majority in [[Novoselytsia Raion]]. In the other eight districts and the city of [[Chernivtsi]], [[Ukrainians]] were the majority.{{Citation needed|date=June 2021}} However, after the 2020 administrative reform in Ukraine, all these districts were abolished, and most of the areas merged into [[Chernivtsi Raion, Chernivtsi Oblast|Chernivtsi Raion]], where Romanians are not in majority anymore.{{Citation needed|date=June 2021}}

[[File:Muzeul Arta Lemnului Câmpulung Moldovenesc 2022.jpg|thumb|right|The renovated Wood Art Museum situated in [[Câmpulung Moldovenesc]] ({{langx|de|link=no|Kimpolung}}).]]

The southern, or Romanian Bukovina reportedly has a significant Romanian majority (94.8%) according to Romanian sources, the largest minority group being the [[Romani people]] (1.9%) and Ukrainians, who make up 0.9% of the population (2011 census). Other minor ethnic groups include [[Lipovans]], [[Poles in Romania|Poles]] (in [[Cacica]], [[Mănăstirea Humorului]], [[Mușenița]], [[Moara, Suceava|Moara]], and [[Păltinoasa]]), [[Zipser Germans]] (in [[Cârlibaba]] and [[Iacobeni, Suceava|Iacobeni]]) and [[Bukovina Germans]] (in [[Suceava]], [[Rădăuți]], and [[Câmpulung Moldovenesc]]), as well as [[Slovaks of Romania|Slovaks]] and [[Jews in Romania|Jews]] (almost exclusively in [[Suceava]], [[Rădăuți]] and [[Siret]]).

Concerns have been raised about the way census are handled in Romania.{{citation needed|date=July 2021}}{{POV statement|date=November 2021}} For example, according to the 2011 Romanian census, [[Ukrainians of Romania]] number 51,703 people, making up 0.3% of the total population.<ref name= insse3>{{in lang|ro}} [http://www.recensamantromania.ro/wp-content/uploads/2012/02/Comunicat_DATE_PROVIZORII_RPL_2011.pdf "Comunicat de presă privind rezultatele provizorii ale Recensământului Populației și Locuințelor – 2011"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190802060014/http://www.recensamantromania.ro/wp-content/uploads/2012/02/Comunicat_DATE_PROVIZORII_RPL_2011.pdf |date=2019-08-02 }}, at the 2011 census site; accessed 2 February 2012.</ref> However, Ukrainian nationalists{{citation needed|date=June 2021}} of the 1990s claimed the region had 110,000 Ukrainians.<ref name = "wilson">"The Ukrainians: Engaging the 'Eastern Diaspora'".  By [[Andrew Wilson (historian)|Andrew Wilson]]. (1999). In Charles King, Neil Melvin (Eds.) ''Nations Abroad''. Wesview Press, p. 119. {{ISBN|0-8133-3738-0}}</ref>{{Full citation needed|date=June 2021}} The Ukrainian descendants of the [[Zaporozhian Cossacks]] who fled Russian rule in the 18th century, living in the [[Dobruja]] region of the [[Danube Delta]], also complained similar practices. In 1992, their descendants numbered four thousand people according to official Romanian statistics.<ref name= anri>Calculated from statistics for the counties of Tulcea and Constanța from {{cite web|title=Populația după etnie la recensămintele din perioada 1930–2002, pe judete|publisher=Guvernul României — Agenția Națională pentru Romi|url=http://www.anr.gov.ro/docs/statistici/statistici/t1.pdf|access-date=2007-05-02|pages=5–6, 13–14|language=ro|archive-date=2015-09-23|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923172336/http://www.anr.gov.ro/docs/statistici/statistici/t1.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> However, the local community claims to number 20,000, five times the number stated by Romanian authorities.<ref name= uur>{{Cite web|url=http://www.uur.ro/frames.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081230193516/http://www.uur.ro/frames.htm|url-status=dead|title=Union of Ukrainians in Romania website|archive-date=30 December 2008|access-date=1 March 2022}}</ref> Rumanization, with the closure of schools and suppression of the language, happened in all areas in present-day Romania where the Ukrainians live or lived. The very term "Ukrainians" was prohibited from the official usage and some Romanians of disputable Ukrainian ethnicity were rather called the "citizens of Romania who forgot their native language" and were forced to change their last names to Romanian-sounding ones.<ref name= Derh>Oleksandr Derhachov (editor), "Ukrainian Statehood in the Twentieth Century: Historical and Political Analysis", Chapter: "Ukraine in Romanian concepts of the foreign policy", 1996, Kiev {{ISBN|966-543-040-8}}</ref> In Bukovina, the practice of Romanization dates to much earlier than the 20th century. Since Louis of Hungary appointed Dragoș, Voivode of Moldavia as his deputy, there was an introduction of Romanians in Bukovina, and a process of Romanization that intensified in the 1560s.<ref name= scare/><ref name= encyclo/>

Places such as the etymologically Ukrainian [[Breaza, Suceava|Breaza]] and [[Moldovița]] (whose name in German is ''Russ Moldawitza'', and used to be ''Ruska Moldavyda'' in Ukrainian), [[Șerbăuți]] and [[Siret]] used to have an overwhelming Ukrainian majority. In some places in southern Bukovina, such as [[Bălcăuți, Suceava|Balkivtsi]] (Romanian: ''Bălcăuți''), [[Izvoarele Sucevei]], [[Ulma, Suceava|Ulma]] and [[Negostina (town)|Negostina]], Ukrainian majority is still reported in Romanian census. On other hand in North Bukovina the Romanians used to be the biggest ethnic group in the city of [[Chernivtsi]], as well as in the towns of [[Hlyboka]] and [[Storozhynets]], and still are in [[Boiany]] and [[Krasnoilsk]].{{citation needed|date=March 2024}}

=== Urban settlements ===

==== Romanian Bukovina ====

{| class="wikitable sortable"  style="text-align:center; width:70%;"
|-
! colspan=4|Table highlighting all urban settlements in Southern Bukovina
|-
! style="width:30%;"| Romanian name
! style="width:25%;"| German name
! style="width:25%;"| Ukrainian name
! style="width:20%;"| Population
|-
| '''[[Cajvana]]'''
| Keschwana
| Кажване, ''Kazhvane''
| 6,812
|-
| '''[[Câmpulung Moldovenesc]]'''
| Kimpolung
| Кимпулунґ, ''Kympulung''; <small>historically Довгопілля, ''Dovhopillya''</small>
| 16,105
|-
| '''[[Frasin]]'''
| Frassin
| Фрасин, ''Frasyn''
| 5,702
|-
| '''[[Gura Humorului]]'''
| Gura Humora
| Ґура-Гумора, ''Gura-Humora''
| 12,729
|-
| '''[[Milișăuți]]'''
| Milleschoutz
| Милишівці, ''Mylyshivtsi''
| 4,958
|-
| '''[[Rădăuți]]'''
| Radautz
| Радівці, ''Radivtsi''
| 22,145
|-
| '''[[Siret]]'''
| Sereth
| Сирет, ''Syret''
| 7,721
|-
| '''[[Solca]]'''
| Solka
| Солька, ''Sol'ka''
| 2,188
|-
| '''[[Suceava]]'''
| Sotschen/Sutschawa/Suczawa; <small>historically in [[Old High German]]: Sedschopff</small>
| Сучава, ''Suchava''; <small>historic Сочава, ''Sochava''</small>
| 124,161
|-
| '''[[Vatra Dornei]]'''
| Dorna-Watra
| Ватра Дорни, ''Vatra Dorny''
| 13,659
|-
| '''[[Vicovu de Sus]]'''
| Ober Wikow
| Верхнє Викове, ''Verkhnye Vykove''
| 16,874
|}

==== Ukrainian Bukovina ====

{| class="wikitable sortable"  style="text-align:center; width:70%;"
|-
! colspan=4|Table highlighting all urban settlements in Northern Bukovina
|-
! style="width:30%;"| Ukrainian name
! style="width:25%;"| Romanian name
! style="width:25%;"| German name
! style="width:20%;"| Population
|-
| '''[[Berehomet]]'''
| Berehomete pe Siret
| Berhometh
| 7,717
|-
| '''[[Boyany]]'''
| Boian
| Bojan
| 4,425
|-
| '''[[Chornivka]]'''
| Cernăuca
| Czernowka
| 2,340
|-
| '''[[Chernivtsi]]'''
| Cernăuți
| Czernowitz
| 266,366
|-
| '''[[Hlyboka]]'''
| Adâncata
| Hliboka
| 9,474
|-
| '''[[Kitsman]]'''
| Cozmeni
| Kotzman
| 6,287
|-
| '''[[Krasnoyilsk]]'''
| Crasna-Ilschi
| Krasna
| 10,163
|-
| '''[[Luzhany]]'''
| Lujeni
| Luschany/Luzan
| 4,744
|-
| '''[[Mikhalcha]]'''
| Mihalcea
| Mihalcze
| 2,245
|-
| '''[[Nepolokivtsi]]'''
| Nepolocăuți/Grigore-Ghica Vodă
| Nepolokoutz/Nepolokiwzi
| 2,449
|-
| '''[[Putyla]]'''
| Putila
| Putilla Storonetz/Putyla
| 3,435
|-
| '''[[Storozhynets]]'''
| Storojineț
| Storozynetz
| 14,197
|-
| '''[[Vashkivtsi]]'''
| Vășcăuți
| Waschkautz/Waschkiwzi
| 5,415
|-
| '''[[Voloka, Hlybotskyi Raion|Voloka]]'''
| Voloca pe Derelui
| Woloka
| 3,035
|-
| '''[[Vyzhnytsia]]'''
| Vijnița
| Wiznitz
| 4,068
|-
| '''[[Zastavna]]'''
| Zastavna
| Zastawna
| 7,898
|}

== Southern Bukovina ==

{{Infobox settlement
| name               = Southern Bukovina
|native_name      = {{native name|ro|Bucovina de Sud|italics=off}}
|settlement_type  = [[Historical regions of Romania|Historical region of Romania]]
|image_skyline    = {{multiple image
 |total_width   = 280px
 |perrow        = 1/2/2/1
 |border        = infobox
 |caption_align = center
 |image1        = Câmpulung Moldovenesc, vedere de sus (2).jpg
 |alt1          = 
 |caption1      = [[Câmpulung Moldovenesc]]
 |image2        = View on Suceava (Romania) from Fortess.jpg
 |alt2          = 
 |caption2      = [[Suceava]]
 |image3        = Romania Putna Monastery Main Church2.jpg
 |alt3          = 
 |caption3      = [[Putna Monastery]]
 |image4        = Centrul oraşului Rădăuţi1.jpg
 |alt4          = 
 |caption4      = [[Rădăuți]]
 |image5        = Voroneț monastery, Church of Saint George.jpg
 |alt5          = 
 |caption5      = [[Voroneț Monastery]]
 }}
|image_flag       = Flag of Bukowina.svg
|image_shield     = [[File:Coat of arms of Bucovina.svg|75px]]
|image_map        = Bucovina Romania.svg
|map_caption      = {{legend|#FF9955|Southern Bukovina in [[Romania]]}}
|subdivision_type = Country
|subdivision_name = {{flag|Romania}}
|seat             = [[Suceava]]
|seat_type        = Largest city
| timezone1          = [[Eastern European Time|EET]]
| utc_offset1        = +2
| timezone1_DST      = [[Eastern European Summer Time|EEST]]
| utc_offset1_DST    = +3
}}

== Northern Bukovina ==

{{Infobox settlement
| name               = Northern Bukovina
|native_name      = {{native name|uk|Північна Буковина|italics=off}}
|settlement_type  = 
|image_skyline    = {{multiple image
 |total_width   = 280px
 |perrow        = 1/2/2/1
 |border        = infobox
 |caption_align = center
 |image1        = Резиденція митрополитів Буковини і Далмації 5.jpg
 |alt1          = 
 |caption1      = [[Residence of Bukovinian and Dalmatian Metropolitans]]
 |image2        = HerrenGasse 830.jpg
 |alt2          = 
 |caption2      = The German House in [[Chernivtsi]]
 |image3        = Кафедральний собор православної церкви Московського патріархату.jpg
 |alt3          = 
 |caption3      = The Metropolitan Cathedral of [[Chernivtsi]], with the statue of [[Eugene Hackmann]]
 |image4        = Storozhynets ratusz DSC 5963 73-245-0005.jpg
 |alt4          = 
 |caption4      = [[Storozhynets]]
 |image5        = 73-245-5024 Storozhynets Arboretum RB.jpg
 |alt5          = 
 |caption5      = [[Storozhynets]] Dendropark
 }}
|image_flag       = 
|image_shield     = 
|image_map        = Chernivtsi in Ukraine.svg
|map_caption      = [[Chernivtsi Oblast]] in [[Ukraine]]
|subdivision_type = Country
|subdivision_name = {{flag|Ukraine}}
|seat             = [[Chernivtsi]]
|seat_type        = Largest city
| timezone1          = [[Eastern European Time|EET]]
| utc_offset1        = +2
| timezone1_DST      = [[Eastern European Summer Time|EEST]]
| utc_offset1_DST    = +3
}}

==Notes==
{{reflist|group=nb}}

==See also==
* [[Moldavia|Principality of Moldavia]]
* [[Galicia (Eastern Europe)|Galicia, Central European historical region]]
* [[Bukovina Germans]]
* [[Székelys of Bukovina]]

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==Sources==
* {{cite book|author=Valentina Glajar|title=The German Legacy in East Central Europe as Recorded in Recent German-language Literature|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6qn1SsCbSAIC&pg=PA13|date=1 January 2004|publisher=Camden House|isbn=978-1-57113-256-7|pages=13–}}
* {{cite book|editor=O. Derhachov|title=Українська державність у ХХ столітті. (Ukrainian statehood of the twentieth century)|publisher=Politychna Dumka|year=1996|language=uk }}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20071113170140/http://www.unibuc.ro/eBooks/istorie/istorie1918-1940/13-4.htm 13.4 Notele ultimate ale guvernului sovietic din 26–27 iunie și răspunsurile guvernului roman] (original version, in German – use English and French versions with caution)
* Dumitru Covălciuc. Românii nord-bucovineni în exilul totalitarismului sovietic
* Victor Bârsan "Masacrul inocenților", București, 1993, pp.&nbsp;18–19
* Ștefan Purici. Represiunile sovietice... pp.&nbsp;255–258;
* Vasile Ilica. Fântâna Albă: O mărturie de sânge (istorie, amintiri, mărturii). – Oradea: Editura Imprimeriei de Vest, 1999.
* Marian Olaru. Considerații preliminare despre demografie și geopolitică pe teritoriul Bucovinei. Analele Bucovinei. Tomul VIII. Partea I. București: Editura Academiei Române, 2001
* Țara fagilor: Almanah cultural-literar al românilor nord-bucovineni. Cernăuți-Târgu-Mureș, 1994
* Anița Nandris-Cudla. Amintiri din viață. 20 de ani în Siberia. Humanitas, Bucharest, 2006 (second edition), (in Romanian) {{ISBN|973-50-1159-X}}
* {{cite book|title=Jews of Bukovina on the Eve of the War|via=Adapted by Dorcas Gelabert and Stephen Freeman|date=1999|publisher=Miriam Weiner Routes to Roots Foundation|location=Secaucus, NJ|isbn=978-0-9656508-0-9|url=https://www.izmiracilambulans.com/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211014014514/https://www.izmiracilambulans.com/|url-status=usurped|archive-date=14 October 2021}}

==External links==
{{Wikivoyage inline|Bukovina}}

{{Commons category-inline|Bukovina}}

{{EB1911 poster|Bukovina}}

{{Wikisourcelang-inline|ro|La Bucovina|La Bucovina (Mihai Eminescu original poem in Romanian)}}
*{{cite web|url=http://unknown-ukraine.co.uk/articles/chernivtsi-regionoblast|work=Travel information on Ukrainian (Northern) Bukovina|title=Chernivtsi oblast (region) info page|url-status=usurped|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110620192543/http://unknown-ukraine.co.uk/articles/chernivtsi-regionoblast|archive-date=2011-06-20}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20071113170140/http://www.unibuc.ro/eBooks/istorie/istorie1918-1940/13-4.htm Ukrainian Census results] {{in lang|en|uk}}
* [http://www.city.cv.ua/English/ City of Chernivtsy] {{in lang|uk}}
* [http://www.mmb.ro/ro The Metropolitanate of Moldavia and Bucovina (Romanian Orthodox Church)] {{in lang|ro}}
* {{cite web |url=http://www.unibuc.ro/eBooks/istorie/istorie1918-1940/13-4.htm |title=Soviet Ultimatum Notes (University of Bucharest site) |access-date=30 December 2005 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071113170140/http://www.unibuc.ro/eBooks/istorie/istorie1918-1940/13-4.htm |archive-date=13 November 2007 |url-status=dead |df=mdy-all }}
*{{cite web|url=http://noinu.rdscj.ro/article.php?articleID=149&document=1 |title=detailed article about WWII and aftermath |access-date=2006-04-17 |url-status=bot: unknown |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071113183940/http://noinu.rdscj.ro/article.php?articleID=149&document=1 |archive-date=2007-11-13 }}
*[http://jgaliciabukovina.net/ JEWISH GALICIA & BUKOVINA]
*[https://true-romania.tours/top-12-places-bucovina-include-itinerary/ Things to do when visiting Bucovina]

{{Romanian historical regions}}
{{Ukrainian historical regions}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Bukovina| ]]
[[Category:Historical regions in Romania]]
[[Category:Historical regions in Ukraine]]
[[Category:Subdivisions of the Habsburg monarchy]]
[[Category:Moldavia]]
[[Category:Rusyn communities]]