View source for Buhen

{{short description|Ancient Egyptian fortress}}
{{Infobox ancient site
 |name = Buhen
 |native_name = 
 |alternate_name = 
 |image = 
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 |caption = Fortress of Buhen, of the Middle Kingdom, reconstructed under the New Kingdom (about 1200 B.C.)
 |map_type = Nile#Sudan
 |relief=yes
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 |coordinates = {{coord|21|55|N|31|17|E|display=inline,title}}
 |location = [[Northern state, Sudan|Northern]], Sudan
 |region = [[Old Kingdom of Egypt|Old Kingdom]]
 |type = Settlement
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'''Buhen''', alternatively known as Βοὥν (Bohón) in [[Ancient Greek language|Ancient Greek]],<ref name="Budge980" /> stands as a significant [[ancient Egyptian]] settlement on the western bank of the Nile, just below the [[Cataracts of the Nile|Second Cataract]] in present-day [[Northern state, Sudan|Northern State]], [[Sudan]]. Its origins trace back to the [[Old Kingdom of Egypt|Old Kingdom]] period (about 2686–2181[[Common Era|BCE]]), where it served as an Egyptian colonial town, particularly recognized for copper [[smelting]]. In 1962, archaeological discoveries brought to light an ancient copper manufacturing facility encircled by an imposing stone barrier, indicating its origin during the rule of [[Sneferu]] in the [[Fourth Dynasty of Egypt|4th Dynasty]]. Inscriptions and graffiti disclosed a continuous Egyptian presence spanning two centuries, only to be interrupted by migration from the southern regions in the [[Fifth Dynasty of Egypt|5th Dynasty]].<ref>Davey, Christopher J., Brunella Santarelli, and Thilo Rehren. "Egyptian Middle Kingdom Copper: Analysis of a Crucible from Buhen."</ref>

== History of Buhen ==
{{hiero|b(w)hn<ref name = Gauthier26>{{cite book |last1=Gauthier |first1=Henri |title=Dictionnaire des Noms Géographiques Contenus dans les Textes Hiéroglyphiques Vol. 2 |date=1925 |page=26 |url=https://archive.org/details/Gauthier1925_2/page/n15/}}</ref><ref name = Budge980>{{cite book |last1=Wallis Budge |first1=E. A. |title=An Egyptian hieroglyphic dictionary: with an index of English words, king list and geological list with indexes, list of hieroglyphic characters, coptic and semitic alphabets, etc. Vol II |date=1920 |publisher=[[John Murray (publishing house)|John Murray]] |page=[https://archive.org/details/egyptianhierogly02budguoft/page/980 980] |url=https://archive.org/details/egyptianhierogly02budguoft}}</ref>|<hiero>b-h:n-niwt</hiero> '''or''' <hiero>b-h:n-xAst</hiero>|era=mk|align=right}}In the [[Old Kingdom of Egypt|Old Kingdom]]  (about 2686–2181 [[Common Era|BCE]]), there was an Egyptian colonial town at Buhen, which was also used for copper working. An archaeological investigation in 1962 revealed what was described as an ancient copper factory.<ref name="Gayar-1989" /> This was surrounded by a massive though crude stone wall, and further evidence points to the colony having been supplied from the north.<ref name="web.archive.org">Brian Yare, [https://web.archive.org/web/20030415212255/http://www.yare.org/essays/fortresses.htm The Middle Kingdom Egyptian Fortresses in Nubia.] 2001</ref> The settlement may have been established during the reign of [[Sneferu]], of the [[Fourth dynasty of Egypt|4th Dynasty]]. Nevertheless, there is evidence of earlier [[2nd Dynasty]] occupation at Buhen.<ref name="web.archive.org" /><ref>Drower, Margaret 1970: ''Nubia, A Drowning Land'', London, pp. 16-17</ref>

[[Graffito (archaeology)|Graffiti]] and other inscribed items from the site show that the Egyptians stayed about 200 years, until late in the [[Fifth dynasty of Egypt|5th Dynasty]], when they were probably forced out by immigration from the south.<ref name="Van De Mieroop-2021b">{{Cite book |last=Van De Mieroop |first=Marc |title=A History of Ancient Egypt |publisher=Wiley Blackwell |year=2021 |isbn=9781119620877 |edition=2nd |location=New York |pages=111}}</ref>

In the [[Middle Kingdom of Egypt|Middle Kingdom]] (2055-1650 [[Common Era|BCE]]), the fortress at Buhen was established. The physical geography of Buhen worked to the benefit of the fortress. The large rock wall provided a strong preliminary base for the construction of the fortress. During the Middle Kingdom, the majority of people occupying Buhen were Egyptians who were directed south from [[Lower Egypt]], and cycled through.<ref name="Van De Mieroop-2021b" />

Following the Middle Kingdom came the [[Second Intermediate Period of Egypt|Second-Intermediate Period]]. With the Second Intermediate Period came the Funerary Stele of Sebek-dedu and Sebek-em-heb.<ref>Säve-Söderbergh, Torgny. "[https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/3855207.pdf?casa_token=U1RdD7680nUAAAAA:DXyDGMT4BNQwio-PWkGelf1D8CqYIHR9X2-Kn3w1MdzOr0hHlKlWojdspBUepHt_tCCoqY1YuKfz8RHT7TPaqksFXKivV494qOXIHPTTqNhcoZqKNHc A Buhen Stela from the Second Intermediate Period] (Kharṭūm No. 18)." ''The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology'' 35.1 (1949): 50-58.</ref> The excavation of the stele produced a new understanding of the annexation of [[Nubia]] at the site of Buhen.<ref name="Van De Mieroop-2021a" /> The stele iterates that the Egyptians who had gained control over Buhen had been dependent on Nubian kings in achieving this.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Shaw |first=Ian |title=Ancient Egyptian Technology and Innovation |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing Plc. |year=2012 |isbn=9781472519597 |language=English}}</ref>

=== <small>The Buhen Horse</small> ===
The Buhen horse holds significant archaeological importance, particularly noted in the works of Professor Emery in 1959 and 1960.<ref name="Raulwing-2">{{cite journal | url=https://doi.org/10.1163/187416509X12492786609122 | doi=10.1163/187416509X12492786609122 | title=The Buhen Horse: Fifty Years after Its Discovery (1958–2008) | date=2009 | last1=Clutton-Brock | first1=Juliet | last2=Raulwing | first2=Peter | journal=Journal of Egyptian History | volume=2 | pages=1–106 | url-access=subscription }}</ref> Currently housed at the Khartoum Museum and on loan to the Department of Egyptology at [[University College London]], the horse's skeleton originates from excavations conducted at the Buhen fortress by the [[Egypt Exploration Society]], under Emery's direction in 1958 and 1959.<ref name="Raulwing-2" />

During the initial sacking of the fortress circa 1675 BC, the horse, potentially confined between two [[Bastion|bastions]] of the main fortress wall, met its demise, falling onto a brick pavement. Subsequent layers of rubble and the later reconstruction efforts of the New Kingdom encased the horse's remains within the fortress walls, offering a clear chronological context for its discovery.<ref name="Raulwing-2" />

Identifying the species of the animal posed an initial challenge. Since true horses were not native to [[Ancient Egypt]], while both wild and domestic asses were common, and [[Grévy's zebra|Grevy's zebra]] ([[Equus grevyi]]) was likely available, confirming its identity was crucial. Notably, Grevy's zebra, the largest and northernmost distributed among zebra species, could feasibly be mistaken for a horse.<ref name="Raulwing-2" /> However, the structure of the Buhen horse's skeleton aligns with those introduced into various regions during the same era, such as India, Iran, northern [[Mesopotamia]], [[Syria]], [[Egypt]], and [[Greece]].<ref name="Raulwing-2" />

== Fortress ==
Buhen is known for its large [[fortress]], probably constructed during the rule of [[Senusret III]] in around 1860 BCE                             [[Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt|(12th Dynasty]]).<ref name="Lewis-2010">{{Cite book |last1=Lewis |first1=Leo Richard |title=The Compendium of Weapons, Armor & Castles |last2=Tenney |first2=Charles R. |publisher=Nabu Press |year=2010 |isbn=978-1146066846 |pages=139}}</ref> Senusret III conducted four campaigns into [[Kingdom of Kush|Kush]] and established a line of forts within signaling distance of one another; Buhen was the northernmost of these. The other forts along the banks were [[Mirgissa]], [[Shalfak]], [[Uronarti]], [[Askut]], [[Dabenarti]], [[Semna (Nubia)|Semna]], and [[Kumma (Nubia)|Kumma]]. The Kushites captured Buhen during the [[Thirteenth dynasty of Egypt|13th Dynasty]], and held it until [[Ahmose I]] recaptured it at the beginning of the [[Eighteenth dynasty of Egypt|18th Dynasty]].<ref name="Van De Mieroop-2021a">{{Cite book |last=Van De Mieroop |first=Marc |title=A History of Ancient Egypt |publisher=Wiley Blackwell |year=2021 |isbn=9781119620877 |edition=2nd |location=New York |pages=110–111 |language=English}}</ref>

One of the contributing factors for the creation of the fortress in Buhen was the goal of annexing Nubia. Both [[Senusret I]] and [[Senusret III]] dedicated much of their reign to campaigning into Nubia, in an attempt to extend the boundaries of Egypt. In doing so, the two kings built the fortress in Buhen, along with the other fortresses around the 2nd cataract.<ref name="Van De Mieroop-2021a" /> These fortresses established a new border for [[Upper Egypt]].

The fortress itself extended more than {{convert|150|m|ft}} along the west bank of the Nile. It covered {{convert|13000|m2|ft2}}, and had within its wall a small town laid out in a grid system. At its peak it probably had a population of around 3,500 people. The fortress also included the administration for the whole fortified region of the Second Cataract. Its fortifications included a moat three meters deep, [[Drawbridge|drawbridges]], [[Bastion|bastions]], [[Buttress|buttresses]], [[Defensive wall|ramparts]], [[Battlement|battlements]], [[Arrowslit|loopholes]], and a [[catapult]]. The outer wall included an area between the two walls pierced with a double row of arrow loops, allowing both standing and kneeling archers to fire at the same time.<ref name="Lewis-2010" /> The walls of the fort were about {{convert|5|m|ft}} thick and {{convert|10|m|ft}} high.<ref name="Lewis-2010" /> The walls of Buhen were crafted with rough stone.<ref name="Lawrence-1965">{{Cite journal |last=Lawrence |first=A. W. |date=1965 |title=Ancient Egyptian Fortifications |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3855621 |journal=The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology |volume=51 |pages=69–94 |doi=10.2307/3855621 |issn=0307-5133 |jstor=3855621|url-access=subscription }}</ref> The walls of Buhen are unique as most Egyptian fortress walls were constructed with timber and mud-brick.<ref name="Lawrence-1965" /> The fortress at Buhen is now submerged under [[Lake Nasser]] as a result of the construction of the [[Aswan Dam]] in 1964.<ref name="Van De Mieroop-2021a" />

=== <small>Headquarters</small> ===
At Buhen, the central administrative hub occupied the northern corner of the settlement. Spanning the entirety of block A, its expansive footprint surpassed 1000m².<ref name="Vogel">Vogel, in Godlewski and Lajtar, PAM Supplement Series, 423-424; Vogel, Ägyptische Festungen, 128-129;Vogel, in Beinlich, "Die Männer hinter dem König", 155; Vogel, The fortifications of ancient Egypt, 42; Randall-Maciver and Woolley, Buhen, 8-9; W. B. W Emery, in Habachi (ed.), Actes du IIe Symposium, 98; W.B. Emery, ʻ[https://d1wqtxts1xzle7.cloudfront.net/35268885/Rules_of_Military_Architecture_The_Nubian_Fortresses-libre.pdf?1414208879=&response-content-disposition=inline%3B+filename%3DRules_of_Military_Architecture_The_Nubia.pdf&Expires=1710193292&Signature=TdFnukywAxG~2B99Fx0wacAwcNmM4e4rEzoDvzcNvdJK~i4Ddv-xse51QkWLkEfohrIcqUxL2gHrvoNtysegVSmzX-iu~Y7OqJsbvdSlq9~GLCDVAJUvBHxuNr0xmnki9Ts0z1g939a8vMuFd-vvinDtbIG1OvpTzjF5145Zn~McO2uN704UwWscxlN1mPrVpgqA8JYLgf35X-jSeepPQESo3zLwd3eTrzTSAuHQHjVs~Xx6ZKoKHdbxYjMf0-GoqBzv0xeMyAwVuw6SvL8wGCes73Z4big9MQSyoZStUHSYeVieNG5Dxu8ZnuQNFluHTpQ1ZRQW9xvOAMLnq8x-5A__&Key-Pair-Id=APKAJLOHF5GGSLRBV4ZA Preliminary Report on the Excavations of the Egypt Exploration Society at Buhen], 1958-9ʼ, Kush 8(1960), 9.</ref><ref name="Mumford">Mumford, G. "[https://d1wqtxts1xzle7.cloudfront.net/35457358/Mumford.2012.Forts.Encycl.Anc.Hist.GALLEY.pdf-libre.pdf?1415347557=&response-content-disposition=inline%3B+filename%3DForts_Pharaonic_Egypt_pp_2724_30_in_R_B.pdf&Expires=1710193381&Signature=evhOw9NGEtlN0h3GAuO9eW0mSURCZCooMy2626qnNxm5RRetojbsBZjgOH6hq1sTTqbZkuVGr6ZzuPIGPdRUHnmmcVcF6qkgU1D8rezUNYnvjx1OnGVfIpJP4b7x7QG8nAx4CUFl9XkYPvmkGS7REVobYpNPSnILgjqLlzEKvWU7unGP7WcpG6F8kxIISf61vHivkpcwTfq3S0X7hv9wMTh2z-6WUq~RLQOEVCgQqjMZ6efGCAZo1cXJg0j6YZ4fZldF3zjt1yWoNJ~z71cTtl01x5YTztguBLh2-qzqGQbyDnf25CPiF6kgd1RDDzkRaKpHv6jOzPb~-T5ikUcyjg__&Key-Pair-Id=APKAJLOHF5GGSLRBV4ZA Forts, Pharaonic Egypt]." ''The Encyclopedia of Ancient History'' (2013).</ref> Positioned directly adjacent to the main wall, the structure boasted a single entrance located in the western corner. Upon entry, one would encounter an anteroom with a solitary pillar. Adjacent to this space lay another anteroom, also featuring a lone pillar, and connected to a staircase and a brief hallway.<ref name="Gashe">Gashe, Vicky, and Jacky Finch. "[https://d1wqtxts1xzle7.cloudfront.net/1659752/Liszka_CRE_2008_pdf-libre.pdf?1390821584=&response-content-disposition=inline%3B+filename%3DWater_Basins_in_Middle_Kingdom_Planned.pdf&Expires=1710823587&Signature=hKh~AbpO9MCFy6u6C3waPSDv4lIb7wLIJE294oYMn7pP4lSg3ILtMpIr2SiP6DJO8j-KyGzjqiEUJJhqd5NgNa4Sd-ybNgW6ocOzKyXryfHZkGG3E1Y7KX-VpnCxdqgVZuxBalpi6h3azr~FFf47jn8JkQSoZK~avWLQvCOZKJ5pd~dJzJy3oISqUUhoCk~ctswSqigUe4JMgZIY2N2ZEQPvpj0sM6EArpcc8ayngxcIzb-zJyY6Cb9beVk9FUDD01jHdLf50qomcG6jVNZGsCuNQX9rJ7Jxnc6FJiKLfbm2I2i7D6Z3zSjPVHakfaqXYRSrd2UmpK2W5xgTeWh5MQ__&Key-Pair-Id=APKAJLOHF5GGSLRBV4ZA CURRENT RESEARCH IN EGYPTOLOGY 2008]." (2008).</ref>

Dominating the center of the edifice stood a grand hall adorned with fifteen imposing pillars. Towards the northeast, an additional sizable hall, flanked by six pillars, was accompanied by a slender elongated chamber leading to three smaller rooms.<ref name="Mumford" />Meanwhile, to the southwest of the central hall, two [[diminutive]] chambers resided. One boasted a rectangular layout, while the other featured a square shape and was supported by four pillars. Encircling these chambers and the central hall were three elongated corridors.<ref name="Mumford" /><ref name="Gashe" />

Ascending the smaller staircase granted access to the upper floor, while the larger staircase ascended to the apex of the main wall. [[Archaeology|Archaeological]] investigations revealed remnants of decorative paintings and remnants of weaponry within the structure, indicating its repurposing during the New Kingdom period.<ref name="Vogel" /> The fortress at Buhen is now submerged under [[Lake Nasser]] as a result of the construction of the [[Aswan Dam]] in 1964. Before the site was covered with water, it was excavated by a team led by [[Walter Bryan Emery]].<ref name="Emery W" />

== Copper production ==
The investigation into potential copper production activities at Buhen offers valuable insights into ancient [[Metallurgy|metallurgical]] practices. Emery's discovery of what he identified as an Old Kingdom copper 'factory' has drawn attention from  [[Egyptologist|Egyptologists]]  interested in metalworking techniques.<ref name="Emery  W">Emery  W. B. (1962). [https://findanexpert.unimelb.edu.au/scholarlywork/1504773-egyptian-middle-kingdom-copper--analysis-of-a-crucible-from-buhen-in-the-petrie-museum?cache=1706124240029 Egypt Exploration Society : a Preliminary Report on the Excavations at Buhen] 1960-1. ''Kush: Journal of the Sudan Antiquities Service''  ''10  1962  Pages 106-108''.</ref> Samples collected from the site, including copper ore fragments, smelted copper metal, slag, crucible pieces, and a small copper artifact, were sent to the [[Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology]] at [[University College London]] for analysis. El Gayar and Jones conducted the analysis at the [[Royal School of Mines]] in London.<ref name="Gayar-1989" /> However, attempts to locate these samples have been unsuccessful.

Analysis of a 150 gm ore sample revealed its composition, predominantly consisting of finely dispersed [[quartz]] (approximately 44 wt%) and malachite, with notable traces of [[atacamite]], a copper chloride. Proposing that atacamite formation occurred during occasional Nile inundations when [[malachite]] reacted with [[Chloride ions|chlorine ions]].<ref name="Gayar-1989" /> Other elements detected through atomic absorption analysis included[[zinc]], [[calcium]], [[lead]], and [[silver]], with minimal [[iron]] content.<ref name="Emery  W" /> 

Further analysis using an [[Electron probe microanalyser|Electron Probe Micro-Analyzer]] detected an average of 0.18 wt% gold in parts of the ore prepared for [[Optical microscope|optical microscopy]].  Crucible smelting was suggested as a practice at the site, and the ore's association with nearby gold deposits was speculated.<ref name="Emery  W" /> 

However, recent research challenges Emery's interpretations, with some scholars questioning the site's use for [[Pyrometallurgy|pyro-metallurgical]] treatment. There are doubts about some of Emery's metallurgical features.<ref name="Gayar-1989" />

=== <small><big>Copper smelting</big></small> ===
In 1962, an archaeological expedition to Buhen discovered a copper smelter. Buhen would have been an ideal location to produce small quantities of copper, which requires several local resources: human labor, water, clay, wood, a mineral-based flux, and large quantities of ore. During the time of the Old Kingdom, Buhen could offer almost everything necessary: the nearby Nile provided both water and clay,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Stanley |first1=Daniel Jean |last2=Wingerath |first2=Jonathan G. |date=1996 |title=Clay Mineral Distributions to Interpret Nile Cell Provenance and Dispersal: I. Lower River Nile to Delta Sector |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4298542 |journal=Journal of Coastal Research |volume=12 |issue=4 |pages=911–929 |issn=0749-0208 |jstor=4298542}}</ref>  Egypt had many skilled workers who could be brought to Buhen, and although there is little local timber now remaining, during the Old Kingdom, the higher rainfall would have supported more timber along the Nile and [[Wadi|Wadis]]. The furnace slags found contained iron, indicative of a ferruginous [[Flux (metallurgy)|flux]], which requires iron oxide and is abundant throughout the Nile valley.<ref name="Gayar-1989">{{cite journal |last1=Gayar |first1=El Sayed El |last2=Jones |first2=M. P. |year=1989 |title=A Possible Source of Copper Ore Fragments Found at the Old Kingdom Town of Buhen |journal=The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology |volume=75 |pages=31–40 |doi=10.2307/3821897 |jstor=3821897}}</ref> However, not much is known about the sources of the ore. The excavation found copper ores, which analysis showed were initially [[atacamite]] and later [[atacamite]] containing gold.<ref name="Gayar-1989" /> All the copper deposits recorded in Egypt and Northern Sudan are a long way from Buhen and located to the east of the Nile; this required transportation over long distances and across the river.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Lucas |first=A. |date=1927 |title=Copper in Ancient Egypt |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3853955 |journal=The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology |volume=13 |issue=3/4 |pages=162–170 |doi=10.2307/3853955 |issn=0307-5133 |jstor=3853955|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

A large number of [[Andiron|andirons]] were found in Buhen. Andirons were commonly used in Egyptian cooking, but these were associated with copper smelting. Exactly how they were used in the smelting process is not known other than being involved in fire and burning.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Budka |first1=Julia |last2=Doyen |first2=Florence |date=2012 |title=Life in New Kingdom Towns in Upper Nubianew Evidence from Recent Excavations on Sai Island |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/43552818 |journal=Ägypten und Levante / Egypt and the Levant |volume=22/23 |pages=167–208 |issn=1015-5104 |jstor=43552818}}</ref>  The copper produced was probably used in the manufacture of household and agricultural tools, including knives and hoes.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Shaw |first=Ian |title=Ancient Egyptian Technology and Innovation |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing Plc. |year=2012 |isbn=9781472519597 |language=English}}</ref>

== Gallery ==
<gallery widths="200px" heights="200px" perrow="4">
File:Fortress of the Middle Kingdom, reconstructed under the New Kingdom ( about 1200 B.C.).jpg|Middle Kingdom fortress reconstructed under the New Kingdom {{Circa|1200 BCE}}.
File:Buhen Temple (8625532719).jpg|The Horus temple of Buhen in the [[Sudan National Museum]]
File:Buhen3.jpg|A view of the fortress from the north (artist's impression)
File:Ägyptisches Museum Leipzig 294.jpg|Funerary stele of Sebek-dedu and Sebek-em-heb, found in Buhen. This stele provided new knowledge of a Nubian ruler, Nedjeh, and suggests that there was some dependency on Nubian kings.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Van De Mieroop |first=Marc |title=A History of Ancient Egypt |publisher=Wiley Blackwell |year=2021 |isbn=9781119620877 |edition=2nd |location=New York |pages=135 |language=English}}</ref>
</gallery>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== Bibliography ==
BADAWY, ALEXANDER M. “ASKUT: A Middle Kingdom Fortress in Nubia.” ''Archaeology'', vol. 18, no. 2, 1965, pp.&nbsp;124–31. ''J [https://www.jstor.org/stable/41667517?searchText=buhen&searchUri=%2Faction%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuery%3Dbuhen&ab_segments=0%2Fbasic_search_gsv2%2Fcontrol&refreqid=fastly-default%3A97b83cd04f4681b9d8b24befe897896a STOR]''[https://www.jstor.org/stable/41667517?searchText=buhen&searchUri=%2Faction%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuery%3Dbuhen&ab_segments=0%2Fbasic_search_gsv2%2Fcontrol&refreqid=fastly-default%3A97b83cd04f4681b9d8b24befe897896a , http://www.jstor.org/stable/41667517]. Accessed 5 Mar. 2024.

Davey, CJ, et al. “Egyptian Middle Kingdom Copper: Analysis of a Crucible from Buhen in the Petrie Museum.” ''UCL Discovery - UCL Discovery'',      Apr. 2021, [https://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/id/eprint/10124084/ discovery.ucl.ac.uk/id/eprint/10124084/]. Accessed 3 Mar. 2024.

Raulwing, Peter, and Juliet Clutton-Brock. "The Buhen Horse: Fifty Years after Its Discovery (1958–2008)". ''Journal of Egyptian History'' 2.1 (2009): 1-106. [https://d1wqtxts1xzle7.cloudfront.net/34911220/Raulwing_CluttonBrock_Buhen_Horse_JEH_2_2009-libre.pdf?1411925137=&response-content-disposition=inline%3B+filename%3DThe_Buhen_Horse_Fifty_Years_after_Its_Di.pdf&Expires=1709677027&Signature=OxOYSHRU5FhvJjBZHRGsk71X9rNdxwsak-tidL0mbnm8spV3m~orzVBYNb-pSM6Z47TqN29zkVPNWWcs4PQ7NuI1xsqTEEMV27ejyqGFMmocpZ46wWGvx4t2kWfSmGEjBm9LAMJCFWOmP4W4U8elcyDTTowKFVQlHtzgPxI-Yrg3DvuSFVz6urieQS1akAWFCEcOBE~Y75KgMw~pIzUiuZy2mF7LYMRryodrEtbov6rjeC8Kc7ioNT5CXzOW-hSZtJ6lJwpHKzA4psgz-38EorSt6njSe9e46r4e-IcjAV9l9dnbR5n-W5oG-GXudNxuFQCv8gOhTNuYNncAEWmSwg__&Key-Pair-Id=APKAJLOHF5GGSLRBV4ZA https://doi.org/10.1163/187416509X12492786609122] Web. Accessed 3 Mar. 2024.

Stanley, Daniel Jean, and Jonathan G. Wingerath. “Clay Mineral Distributions to Interpret Nile Cell Provenance and Dispersal: I. Lower River Nile to Delta Sector.” ''Journal of Coastal Research'', vol. 12, no. 4, 1996, pp.&nbsp;911–29. ''JSTOR'', [https://www.jstor.org/stable/4298542 http://www.jstor.org/stable/4298542]. Accessed 5 Mar. 2024.

== External links ==

# [https://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/id/eprint/10124084/3/Rehren_Egyptian%20Middle%20Kingdom%20copper-%20Analysis%20of%20a%20crucible%20from%20Buhen%20in%20the%20Petrie%20Museum_AAM.pdf Egyptian Middle Kingdom copper: analysis of a crucible from Buhen in the Petrie Museum]
# [https://web.archive.org/web/20030415212255/http://www.yare.org/essays/fortresses.htm The Middle Kingdom Egyptian Fortresses in Nubia]
# [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZByWv4SUh8g 3D Reconstruction of Buhen Fortress]
# [https://madainproject.com/buhen_fortress Historic Photographs and 3D Reconstruction Video]
# [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qku55BujHWA Ancient Egypt ~The Submerged Huge Buhen Ruins]
# [https://www.heritagedaily.com/2020/09/buhen-the-sunken-ancient-egyptian-fortress/135148 Buhen – The Sunken Egyptian Fortress]
# [[List of ancient Egyptian towns and cities]]
# [https://historyofegypt.net/?page_id=13734 Buhen Fort] 
# [https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/030751337205800104?journalCode=egaa Rock Inscriptions of Buhen]
{{Castles in Egypt}}

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[[Category:Archaeological sites in Egypt]]
[[Category:Former populated places in Egypt]]
[[Category:History of Nubia]]
[[Category:Castles in Egypt| ]]
[[Category:19th-century BC establishments in Egypt]]