View source for Bugis

{{Short description|Austronesian ethnic group}}
{{About|the people|other purposes|Bugis (disambiguation)}}
{{EngvarB|date=February 2015}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2015}}
{{Infobox ethnic group
| group            = Buginese/Bugis people
| image            = IMG-20190222-WA0014.jpg
| caption          = A couple walking under a ''Lellu' '' (traditional folding canopy) at their wedding
| total            = 7 million
| total_year       = 2010 census
| region1          = '''{{Flagcountry|Indonesia}}'''
| pop1             = 6,359,700
| ref1             = <ref>{{cite book|author=Akhsan Na'im, Hendry Syaputra|title=Kewarganegaraan, Suku Bangsa, Agama dan Bahasa Sehari-hari Penduduk Indonesia Hasil Sensus Penduduk 2010|year=2011|publisher= Badan Pusat Statistik|isbn=978-979-064-417-5}}</ref>
{{collapsed infobox section begin|Breakdown by Province in Indonesia}}
| region2          = {{nbsp|10}}''' {{flag|South Sulawesi}}'''
| pop2             = 3,618,683
| ref2             = 
| region3          = {{nbsp|10}} '''{{flag|East Kalimantan}}'''
| pop3             = 735,819
| ref3             = 
| region4          = {{nbsp|10}} '''{{flag|Southeast Sulawesi}}'''
| pop4             = 496,432
| ref4             = 
| region5          = {{nbsp|10}} '''{{flag|Central Sulawesi}}'''
| pop5             = 409,741
| ref5             = 
| region6          = {{nbsp|10}} '''{{flag|West Sulawesi}}'''
| pop6             = 144,554
| ref6             = 
| region7          = {{nbsp|10}} '''{{flag|West Kalimantan}}'''
| pop7             = 137,282
| ref7             = 
| region8          = {{nbsp|10}} '''{{flag|Riau}}'''
| pop8             = 107,159
| ref8             = 
| region9          = {{nbsp|10}} '''{{flag|South Kalimantan}}'''
| pop9             = 101,727
| ref9             = 
| region10         = {{nbsp|10}} '''{{flag|Jambi}}'''
| pop10            = 96,145
| ref10            = 
| region11         = {{nbsp|10}} '''{{flag|Papua}}'''
| pop11            = 88,991
| ref11            = 
| region12         = {{nbsp|10}} '''{{flag|Jakarta}}'''
| pop12            = 68,227
| ref12            = 
| region13         = {{nbsp|10}} '''{{flag|West Papua}}'''
| pop13            = 40,087
| ref13            = {{collapsed infobox section end}}
| region14         = '''{{Flagcountry|Malaysia}}'''
| pop14            = 728,465
| ref14            = <ref name="Mukrimin">{{cite book|author=Mukrimin|title="Moving the Kitchen out": Contemporary Bugis Migration|year=2019|publisher= Southeast Asian Studies}}</ref>
| region15         = '''{{Flagcountry|Singapore}}'''
| pop15            = 15,000
| ref15            = <ref name=Mukrimin/><ref>{{cite book|page=1|title=Malay Family Structure: Change and Continuity with Reference to Singapore|author=Tham Seong Chee|year=1993|isbn=9971-62-336-6|publisher=Department of Malay Studies National University of Singapore}}</ref>
| langs            = '''Predominantly'''<br />[[Bugis language|Bugis]]{{•}}[[Indonesian language|Indonesian]]{{•}}[[Makassar Malay]]<br />'''Also'''<br />[[South Sulawesi languages|Massenrempulu]]{{•}}[[Malay language|Malay]]<!--Buginese people exist in a large diaspora outside Indonesia too. Also, we are talking from a politically neutral anthropological stand-point - "Indonesian language" only existed decades after migration of some of this people outside areas of modern Indonesia. See also distinction of "Malay", "Malaysian" and "Indonesian" in Nothofer, Bernd (2009). "Malay". In Brown, Keith; Ogilvie, Sarah (eds.). Concise Encyclopedia of Languages of the World p. 678-->
| rels             = '''Predominantly'''<br />[[File:Star and Crescent.svg|15px]] [[Islam]]: 99%<br />'''Minorities'''<br />[[File:Christian cross.svg|15px]] [[Christianity|Christians]]
([[Protestantism|Protestant]] and [[Roman Catholicism|Roman Catholic]]): 0.55%{{•}}[[File:Om.svg|15px]] [[Hinduism in Indonesia|Hindu]] (incl. Tolotang): 0.40% {{•}}[[File:Dharma Wheel.svg|15px]] [[Buddhism|Buddhist]]: 0.05%<ref name=2010census>Aris Ananta, Evi Nurvidya Arifin, M Sairi Hasbullah, Nur Budi Handayani, Agus Pramono. ''Demography of Indonesia's Ethnicity''. Singapore: ISEAS: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 2015. p. 273.</ref>
| related          = {{ubl|[[Austronesian peoples]]}}
             {{hlist|item_style=font-size:90%;|[[Makassar people|Makassarese]]|[[Mandarese people|Mandarese]]|[[Torajan]]|[[Bugis-Malay|Buginese-Malays]]|[[Kangeanese people|Kangeanese]]|[[Bawean people|Bawean]]|[[Madurese people|Madurese]]}}
| native_name      = {{lang|bug|To Ugi}}<br />{{script|Bugi|ᨈᨚ ᨕᨘᨁᨗ}}<br />{{Script/Arabic|تَوْ أُوْڬِيْ}}
| native_name_lang = 
}}

The '''Buginese'''{{efn|{{smaller|[[UK English|UK]]:}} {{IPAc-en|b|ʊ|ɡ|ᵻ|ˈ|n|iː|z}}, {{smaller|[[US English|US]]:}} {{IPAc-en|b|ʊ|ɡ|ə|ˈ|n|i|z|}} {{respell|buug|ih|NEEZ}}}} ({{langx|bug|To Ugi}}, [[Lontara script]]: {{script|Bugi|ᨈᨚ ᨕᨘᨁᨗ}}; [[Jawi script|Serang script]]: {{Script/Arabic|تَوْ أُوْڬِيْ}}; {{langx|id|Suku Bugis}}), or simply '''Bugis''', are an [[Austronesian peoples|Austronesian]] ethnic group who are the most numerous of the three major linguistic and ethnic groups of [[South Sulawesi]] (the others being [[Makassar people|Makassarese]] and [[Toraja people|Torajan]]), in the south-western province of [[Sulawesi]], third-largest island of [[Indonesia]]. The Bugis converted from [[animism]] to [[Islam]] in 1605.<ref>{{cite book|first=Keat Gin|last=Ooi |title=Southeast Asia: A Historical Encyclopedia, From Angkor Wat to East Timor|publisher=[[ABC-CLIO]]|year=2004|isbn=1-57607-770-5|page=286}}</ref> A small minority adhere to Christianity and a pre-Islamic indigenous belief called ''Tolotang''.<ref name=":0">{{cite journal | url=http://www.sabrizain.org/malaya/library/bugisreligion.pdf | title=Religion and Cultural Identity Among the Bugis (A Preliminary Remark) | author=Said, Nurman | journal=[[Inter-Religio (journal)|Inter-Religio]] |date=Summer 2004 | issue=45 | pages=12–20}}</ref>

The Bugis, whose population numbers around six million and constitutes less than 2.5% of the [[Demographics of Indonesia|Indonesian population]], are influential in the politics of the country, and historically influential on the [[Malay Peninsula]], [[Sumatra]], [[Borneo]], [[Lesser Sunda Islands]] and other parts of the [[Maritime Southeast Asia|archipelago]] where they have migrated en masse, starting in the late seventeenth century.<ref name=":Andaya">{{Cite book |last=Andaya |first=Leonard Y. |title=The kingdom of Johor, 1641-1728|date=1975|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=0-19-580262-4 |oclc=906499076}}</ref> The third [[President of Indonesia|president]] of Indonesia, [[B. J. Habibie]],<ref>{{cite news |author=<!--not stated--> |title=Mengenang B.J Habibie: Fokus agar Usil Tetap Genius (1) |url=https://www.jawapos.com/nasional/11/09/2019/mengenang-b-j-habibie-fokus-agar-usil-tetap-genius-1/ |work=Jawa Pos |agency=Jawa Pos |date=2019-11-09|access-date=2022-03-29}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |author=<!--not stated--> |title=BJ Habibie, Si Jenius Indonesia dari Sulawesi|url=https://kebudayaan.kemdikbud.go.id/muspres/bj-habibie-si-jenius-indonesia-dari-sulawesi/ |work=[[Ministry of Education, Culture, Research, and Technology]] |agency=Jawa Pos |date=2019-05-03|access-date=2024-05-16}}</ref> and a former [[Vice President of Indonesia|vice president]] of Indonesia, [[Jusuf Kalla]], are of Bugis descent. In [[Malaysia]], the reigning [[Yang di-Pertuan Agong]] (King of Malaysia), [[Ibrahim Iskandar of Johor|Sultan Ibrahim]] and eighth [[Prime Minister of Malaysia|prime minister]], [[Muhyiddin Yassin]], have Bugis ancestry.<ref>{{cite news |author=Cantika Adinda Putri|title=Ini Muhyiddin Yasin, PM Baru Malaysia Berdarah Bugis & Jawa
|url=https://www.cnbcindonesia.com/news/20200301151910-4-141543/ini-muhyiddin-yasin-pm-baru-malaysia-berdarah-bugis-jawa |work=CNBC Indonesia |agency=CNBC Indonesia|date=2020-03-01|access-date=2022-09-13}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |author=Cantika Adinda Putri|title=Sultan Johor: Saya pun Bugis, terasa juga|url=https://www.malaysiakini.com/news/403156 |work=Malaysiakini|date=2017-11-27|access-date=2024-01-31}}</ref>

Most Bugis people speak a distinct regional language called [[Buginese language|Bugis]] ({{lang|bug|Basa Ugi}}) in addition to [[Indonesian language|Indonesian]]. The Bugis language belongs to the [[South Sulawesi language group]]; other members include [[Makassarese language|Makassarese]], [[Toraja-Sa'dan language|Torajan]], [[Mandar language|Mandarese]]<ref>{{cite journal|last=Mills|first=Roger Frederick|year=1975|url=https://oxis.org/theses/mills-1975.pdf|title=Proto South Sulawesi and Proto Austronesian phonology|journal=Ph. D Thesis|publisher=[[University of Michigan]]}}</ref> and [[South Sulawesi languages|Massenrempulu]]. The name Bugis is an [[exonym]] which represents an older form of the name; ''(To) Ugi'' is the [[endonym]].<ref>{{cite book|author=Shiv Shanker Tiwary & Rajeev Kumar|title=Encyclopaedia of Southeast Asia and Its Tribes, Volume 1|year=2009|publisher=Anmol Publications|isbn=978-81-261-3837-1|page=47}}</ref>

==Etymology==
* [[Endonym and exonym]]: The designation ''Bugis'' is classified as an exonym, referring to a term applied by external groups rather than the community itself. Within their own [[Linguistics|linguistic]] and cultural context, the Bugis people identify as ''To Ugi'' or ''To Bugis''. This distinction suggests that the term ''Bugis'' likely originated from external interactions, particularly during the colonial period, reflecting the influence of cross-cultural encounters on ethnonyms.<ref>{{cite book|author=Shiv Shanker Tiwary & Rajeev Kumar|title=Encyclopaedia of Southeast Asia and Its Tribes, Volume 1|year=2009|publisher=Anmol Publications|isbn=978-81-261-3837-1|page=47}}</ref>
* [[Myth|Mythological associations]]: The origin of the term Bugis has been linked to La Sattumpugi, a central character in the [[South Sulawesi]] epic [[La Galigo]]. According to oral traditions, La Sattumpugi, a sailor and kingdom founder in [[Wajo Regency|Wajo]], is believed to have inspired the term ''Ugi'', which later evolved into Bugis. Notably, the term Bugis itself is absent from La Galigo, indicating that this nomenclature and associated identity may have crystallised in subsequent historical periods.<ref name="The Ethnic Identity: The Genesis and Its Dynamics (The Case of Bugis)">{{cite web|date=2022|title=The Ethnic Identity: The Genesis and Its Dynamics (The Case of Bugis)|url=https://www.atlantis-press.com/article/125973592.pdf|access-date=2025-01-06|website=atlantis-press}}</ref>
* Colonial records: The term Bugis appears in colonial documentation as early as the 16th century, particularly in [[Portuguese Empire|Portuguese]] sources. These records highlight the increasing recognition and usage of the term during the era of [[History of colonialism|European colonial expansion]] in [[Southeast Asia]], reflecting the broader integration of the Bugis into regional historical narratives.<ref name="The Ethnic Identity: The Genesis and Its Dynamics (The Case of Bugis)"/>

==Origins and antecedents==
[[File:Sulawesi Locator.svg|thumb|left|The island of Sulawesi, shown in red]]

===Toalean{{snd}}Pre-Austronesian South Sulawesi===
The earliest inhabitant of South Sulawesi is potentially related to the [[Wajak Man]], of the [[Australo-Melanesian|Proto-Australoid]] origin. There are a few [[Flake tool|flake materials]] found in [[Walanae River]] valley and [[Maros]], likely dating between 40,000 and 19,000 BC. The [[Hunter-gatherer|hunter-gatherer culture]] in South Sulawesi is also known as [[Toalean culture]], and largely based on blade, flake and [[microlith]] complex. They are probably of Melanesoid or Australoid stock, hence related to the contemporary [[Indigenous people of New Guinea|population of New Guinea]] or to [[Australian aborigines]].{{sfn|Pelras|1996|p=39}}

In 2015, the remains of [[Bessé´]], a young woman, was unearthed Leang Panninge, South Sulawesi. Dated over 7,200 years old, half of her DNA was identified to be connected to the indigenous Australians, the people in New Guinea and the Western Pacific; together with a previously unknown and unique human lineage that diverged approximately 37,000 years ago. Her DNA provided important evidence pertaining to the understanding on ancient human migration.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Bower|first=Bruce|date=2021-08-25|title=Ancient DNA shows the peopling of Southeast Asian islands was surprisingly complex|url=https://www.sciencenews.org/article/ancient-dna-skeleton-woman-indonesia-peopling-southeast-asian-islands|access-date=2021-11-19|website=Science News|language=en-US}}</ref>

===The arrival of Austronesians===
[[File:Spread of South Sulawesi languages id.svg|thumb|The speculated origin (shaded in green) and expansion (orange-coloured routes) of [[South Sulawesi languages|South Sulawesi language family]] in the [[South Peninsula, Sulawesi|peninsula]]]]
Their [[Austronesian peoples|Austronesian]] ancestors settled on [[Sulawesi]] around 2500 B.C. There is "historical linguistic evidence of some late [[Holocene]] immigration of Austronesian speakers to South Sulawesi from [[Taiwan]]"{{snd}}which means that the Bugis have "possible ultimate ancestry in South China", and that as a result of this immigration, "there was an infusion of an exogenous population from [[China]] or [[Taiwan]]."<ref>Susan G. Keates, Juliette M. Pasveer, ''Quaternary Research in Indonesia''. [[Taylor & Francis]], 2004. {{ISBN|90-5809-674-2}}</ref> Migration from South China by some of the paternal ancestors of the Bugis is also supported by studies of [[Human Y-chromosome DNA haplogroup]]s.<ref>{{cite journal | pmc=2408594 | pmid=18482451 | doi=10.1186/1471-2148-8-146 | volume=8 | title=Paternal genetic affinity between Western Austronesians and Daic populations | year=2008 | journal=BMC Evol. Biol. | page=146 | last1 = Li | first1 = H | last2 = Wen | first2 = B | last3 = Chen | first3 = SJ | issue=1 | display-authors = etal  | doi-access=free | bibcode=2008BMCEE...8..146L }}</ref>

Christian Pelras, an [[anthropologist]], hypothesized that the proto-Bugis were potentially arrived from abroad, possibly from [[Borneo]], to the western seaboard of South Sulawesi. Their arrival was largely drawn to control the mineral and natural resources in the hinterland. As the group began to spread towards the interior of the present-day Bugis heartland, they become increasingly diverged from their neighbouring [[Makassar people|Makassarese]], [[Mandarese people|Mandarese]] and [[Torajan people|Torajan]] brethren; simultaneously, the proto-Bugis too would assimilated the former [[Austronesian peoples|Austronesian]] tribes in the sparsely populated area, a process whereby the native populations would gradually adopt the language of the new arrivals. Hence, a redesigned hybrid-identity through [[ethnogenesis]] emerged, binding the original elements derived from the indigenous people together with the introduction of revolutionary techniques, items and ideas bought by the new settlers, including [[weaving]], [[Metalworking|metal arts]] and [[Theology|theological]] doctrine. The society however, remains largely divided between two separate classes, the prevailing nobility and the common people.{{sfn|Pelras|1996|p=335-336}}

===Tana Ogi{{snd}}Land of the Bugis===
The homeland of the Bugis is the area around [[Lake Tempe]] and Lake Sidenreng in the Walannae Depression in the south-west peninsula of Sulawesi. It was here that the ancestors of the present-day Bugis settled, probably in the mid- to late second millennium B.C. The area is rich in fish and wildlife and the annual fluctuation of Lake Tempe (a reservoir lake for the [[Bila River (Indonesia)|Bila]] and Walannae rivers) allows speculative planting of wet rice, while the hills can be farmed by [[swidden]] or [[shifting cultivation]], wet rice, hunting and gathering.

Around A.D. 1200, the availability of prestigious imported goods including Chinese and South-East Asian ceramics and Gujarati print-block textiles, coupled with newly discovered sources of iron ore in [[Luwu]] stimulated an agrarian revolution which expanded from the great lakes region into the lowland plains to the east, south and west of the Walennae depression. This led over the next four hundred years to the development of the major kingdoms of South Sulawesi, and the social transformation of chiefly societies into hierarchical proto-states.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Caldwell|first=Ian|year=1995|title=Power, state and society among the pre-Islamic Bugis|journal=Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde|volume=151|issue=3|pages=394–421|doi=10.1163/22134379-90003038 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Bulbeck|first1= David|first2=Ian|last2=Caldwell 2000|title=Land of iron; The historical archaeology of Luwu and the Cenrana valley|publisher=Hull: Centre for South-East Asian Studies, University of Hull}}</ref>

==History==
===Early society===
[[File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Hofdames in Bone Celebes TMnr 10003352.jpg|thumb|250px|The [[Lady-in-waiting|court ladies]] of [[Bone state|Bone]], unknown date]]
The lifestyle of ancient Bugis people were, to some extent, preserved by the pagan [[Torajan people]] until the dawn of the 20th century. Their homes were mainly constructed on [[Stilt house|stilts]] and the communities were likely to be scattered along the river banks, sea or lake shores. The main undertakings during this period were farming [[rice]], [[millet]], [[adlay]] and other edible crops, catching fish and shellfish, obtaining forest produce and hunting wild animals. [[Water buffalo|Buffaloes]] were imported and used for important occasions.{{sfn|Pelras|1996|p=11}}{{sfn|Pelras|1996|p=44}}

The earliest inhabitants may have used simple clothing. The women possibly wore a [[skirt]] and the men a [[loincloth]] and possibly a headcloth. Remains of [[bronze]] and [[gold]] ornaments have also been retrieved based on archeological evidence. [[Pottery]] is evident, although [[Bambooworking|bamboo containers]] were more extensively used, along with bamboo knives. Weapons were sourced from iron and stones, while helmets and shields were made from [[rattan]].{{sfn|Pelras|1996|p=44}}

Theologically, the early Bugis potentially practiced [[Veneration of the dead|ancestor worship]]. There were also ancient rituals related to agriculture and fertility. They generally [[Burial|buried]] their corpses, although there were several cases where the deceased body was [[Burial at sea|disposed by immersion]] in the sea or lakes, or positioned in trees.{{sfn|Pelras|1996|p=44}} Other mortuary practices includes [[cremation]], especially for the rulers.{{sfn|Druce, et al.|2005|p=1}}

[[File:Muziek en dans tijdens feestelijkheden Op Zuid-Celebes, KITLV 29760.tiff|thumb|240px|left|Traditional melodies and performing arts in South Sulawesi, 1930s]]
Despite having only sparsely populated communities, the Bugis did not live in complete isolation from the outside world. Trade and commerce were held high in regard in society. The archeological findings near [[Bantaeng Regency|Bantaeng]] and [[Bulukumba Regency|Ara]] unearthed ancient artifacts dating from 300 to 100 BC, denoting evidence that the southern part of Sulawesi has played an integral role in the axis of early [[Maritime Southeast Asia|insulindian trade]]. There are also traces of imported Chinese and other [[Mainland Southeast Asia|continental Southeast Asian]] ceramics and stoneware found in the pre-Islamic cemeteries.{{sfn|Druce, et al.|2005|p=2}}

However, in contrast to much of Southeast Asia, the indicators of Hindu and Buddhist materials are rather sparse in South Sulawesi cultures.{{sfn|Pelras|1996|p=5}} Their [[Lontara script|writing system]], and some of their names and words, along with few [[Gautama Buddha|Buddhist]] bronze images found in Mandar and Bantaeng only suggest that the existence of trade relations made with the western [[Maritime Southeast Asia|archipelago]] and the presence of [[Alien (law)|foreigners]].{{sfn|Pelras|1996|p=54}} It is likely that despite engaging in trade, the Bugis would resist external [[Cultural assimilation|assimilation]].{{sfn|Pelras|1996|p=95}} Thus, outside elements are almost absent in the development of [[Ethnic religion|native religion]] and the indigenous states.{{sfn|Pelras|1996|p=54}}

The intensity of the early trade led to a gradual shift in terms of the economic development, social construct, political interest and the balance of power amongst the South Sulawesi peoples, which has fundamentally led to the Bugis states, dynasties and polities began to flourish.{{sfn|Pelras|1996|p=50}}

===The growth of Bugis kingdoms===
[[File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Paleis van de datu van Palopo TMnr 60028783.jpg|thumb|250px|A palace owned by an aristocrat in the port city of [[Palopo]], [[Luwu Regency|Luwu]] (c.1900–1930)]]
The progress of [[International trade|inter-insular commercial activities]] and the increasing interactions with [[Maritime Silk Road]] were potentially among the main factors contributing to the economic prosperity for a few leading South Sulawesi communities.{{sfn|Pelras|1996|p=94}} The period between 1200 and 1600 witnessed a radical change throughout the political landscape of lowland [[South Peninsula, Sulawesi|South Sulawesi Peninsula]].{{sfn|Druce|2009|p=}}

The trade in South Sulawesi was based on the export of rare commodities, a business which was easily dominated by an exclusive [[ruling class]]. The administrative structure is fairly basic, a majority of the states are small and in a form of a local chiefdom.{{sfn|Druce|2009|p=}} A small population is sufficient to assist the elite with food, physical work and military assistance to preserve their state's independence.{{sfn|Pelras|1996|p=111}}

However, by the 15th century, a major economic revolution taken place, and [[Agriculture|agricultural]] become an important economic foundation.{{sfn|Druce, et al.|2005|p=3}} To continue their powers in the [[Agrarian society|agrarian-based society]], the ruling elites are now required to handle the near unprecedented growth on the [[rice]]-producing territories to accommodate a major [[Population growth|population boom]]. Hence, in order adapt with the economic and societal change, a new system and intermediaries are needed.{{sfn|Pelras|1996|p=111}}

Trade and commerce however, still retains its essential importance for the South Sulawesi economy. Rice become a major source of export; and at the same time, the economy is stimulated by the import of prestige goods from other parts of archipelago.{{sfn|Druce, et al.|2005|p=1}} The area potentially experienced exceptional growth following the [[Malacca Sultanate|rise of Malacca]] as a regional [[entrepôt]]. Conversely, the wealth for the elite families in South Sulawesi would also consequently rose due to this intensive commercial transactions, despite the fact that trade is now not solely regarded as their single source of riches.

===Emergence of new political strengths over the peninsula===
[[File:South Sulawesi (1590) ID.svg|thumb|The southwest arm of Celebes in the 16th century. Parts of Kingdom of Luwu (Red), [[Mandarese people|Mandar]] & [[Torajan people|Torajan Society]] (light yellow), [[Ajatappareng|Ajatappareng Confederation]] (Yellow), Tellumpocco'e Confederation (Striped), [[Early history of Gowa and Talloq|Gowa and Tallo]] (Orange)]]
In the 1500s, [[Luwu]] was the major political force in the Bugis heartland, with its authority proclaimed throughout a large section of the peninsula. Nevertheless, new geopolitical players that would resist its dominance were already beginning to take shape by the end of the century.{{sfn|Pelras|1996|p=112}}

The impact following the rise of Malacca were more visible in the western coast of South Sulawesi, an area with a high concentration of [[Malay people|Malay]] and [[Minangkabau Merchants|Minangkabau merchants]] arriving from the west.<ref>Timothy P. Barnard, Contesting Malayness: Malay Identity Across Boundaries, 2004</ref> It slowly gained the attention of the kingdoms of Soppeng and Sindereng, with the pursuit to include the area in their territorial expansions, these Bugis states have already [[Landlocked country|lost their direct sea access]] in the west coast by Luwu.{{sfn|Pelras|1996|p=111}}

Sidenreng, a tributary under the domain of Soppeng had slowly grown into prominence and slowly seemed to be resistant to accept Luwu's dominance in the area. In cooperation with a few Bugis kingdoms in the western coast{{snd}}Sawitto', Alitta, Suppa' and Bacukiki'; as well as Rappang in the interior, they formed a loose confederation known as [[Ajatappareng|Aja'tappareng]] ('the lands west of the lake').{{sfn|Druce|2009|p=23}}

Conversely, the neighbouring Bugis territory of [[Wajoq|Wajo]] also possessed an aspiration for an autonomy against Luwu, and it too started to extend their influence and dominance in the surrounding areas. By 1490, they entered an agreement with Luwu, and in the agreement they would no longer be considered as "its servant" but as a "Luwu's child".{{sfn|Pelras|1996|p=112}} By 1498, the Wajorse enthroned Arung Matoa Puang ri Ma'galatung as their ruler, he would later turn the domain as one of the major Bugis Kingdom.{{sfn|Pelras|1996|p=113}}

The lower western seaboard, the Bugis Kingdom of [[Bone state|Bone]] under the rule of King Kerrampelua' (c.1433–83) had also enacted an expansion plan to absorb parts of neighboring Luwu territories into its vassalage. Thus, by two centuries later, it has become an area for intense confrontation between the two kingdoms.{{sfn|Pelras|1996|p=113}}

While the [[Makassar people|Makassarese]], traditionally occupied the deep down in the south and the western coast of the peninsula were mainly concentrated their political rule in [[Kingdom of Siang|Siang]] and Bantaeng (the latter was potentially still under Luwu's nominal control). However, the small twin states of [[Early history of Gowa and Talloq|Gowa and Tallo]] (better known by foreigners as a single state of Makassar) were started to gain its importance during this period.{{sfn|Pelras|1996|p=114}}

===Bugis-Makassar society in the 16th century===
[[File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Een markt in Zuid- Sulawesi TMnr 5426-6.jpg|thumb|left|A folk market, South Sulawesi, c.19th century]]
By the 16th century, the Bugis life is noted by a burgeoning tolerance towards [[Globalization|foreign influences]], overseas products were no longer limited to the ruling class, but also among the [[commoner]]s as well. The method of home construction remains the same. Sketches from few western sources in the first half of 17th century illustrates tall and strong wooded home raised on piles.{{sfn|Pelras|1996|pp=122-123}}

Nonetheless, inside of the more wealthy homes, some foreign furnitures, namely tables and chairs began to emerge, and basic wall opening sometimes become real windows with [[Window shutter|shutters]]. The Bugis names for these objects signaled their [[Portuguese language|Portuguese connection]], ''Jandela'' (window) deriving from ''Janela'', ''Kadera'' (chairs) from ''Cadeira''; and ''Mejang'' (table) from ''Mesa''. A gradual change is also noted in the [[Household hardware|household tools]] and utensils, including glasses and Iberian-style jugs and trays. There were also the adoption of few Portuguese games notably [[dice]], card game and marbles. The Portuguese and Spaniards also introduced new food and produce in the local diet, mainly from the [[New World crops]]: [[sweet potato]] and [[tobacco]], and also other important items{{snd}}[[manioc]], [[maize]] and [[chili pepper|chilies]].{{sfn|Pelras|1996|p=123}}

During the period, the women don baggy pants; the usage of short [[tunics]] and sleeves were also noted by the free married women. For the affluent male, there were potentially also a favour towards western [[shirt]]s and hats; and sometimes being paired together with a [[Plume (feather)|plume]], and a [[jacket]]. The slave class and the male commoners however, would usually go [[topless]].

[[File:Plate 7 of Ethnographische atlas Boeginezen various Bugis weapons, armors, and equipments.jpg|thumb|A catalogue of various Bugis weapons, armors, and equipments, 1874]]
The aftershocks following the [[Capture of Malacca (1511)|Fall of Malacca]] were potentially being strongly felt in South Sulawesi. As noted from [[Tomé Pires]] in Suma Oriental, few traders from 'The Macassar Islands', including the Bugis and [[Bajau people|Bajo]] were amongst the people who arrived in Melaka to trade,{{sfn|Julianti L. Parani|2015|pp=4-5}} although they are small in numbers. Conversely, the Muslim-Malay traders from [[Pattani Kingdom|Patani]], [[Pahang Kingdom|Pahang]], and [[Johor Sultanate|Ujung Tanah]] in the [[Malay Peninsula]]; as well as from [[Cham people|Champa]] in [[Indochina]]; and [[West Sumatra|Minangkabau]] in [[Sumatra]] settled throughout the port cities in the western coast, including Suppa', Pancana-Tanete, Siang, Tallo, Sanrabone and Gowa.{{sfn|Muhlis Hadrawi|2020|p=8}} Due to this extensive bilateral connection, the people of South Sulawesi were generally well aware on the political-religious changes taken place in the western half of the archipelago.{{sfn|Pelras|1996|p=124}}

It can be inferred that following the Conquest of Malacca by the [[Conquistador|Portuguese Conquistadors]], the trading links intensified between South Sulawesi to other commercial powerhouse: namely [[Johor Sultanate|Johor]] and [[Pattani Kingdom|Patani]] in the [[Malay Peninsula|peninsula]], [[Aceh Sultanate|Acheh]] in [[Sumatra]], [[Sultanate of Banjar|Banjarmasin]] in [[Borneo]] and [[Demak Sultanate|Demak]] in [[Java]]{{snd}}all having the [[Spread of Islam in Southeast Asia|status]] as a bastion for Islamic faith. However, as far as the mid 16th century, South Sulawesi persist to be one of the few remaining significant domains in the regional native trading network where [[Islamization|Islam]] has yet to take hold.{{sfn|Pelras|1996|p=125}}

===Early attempts to Christianize the Bugis states===
[[File:Manuel Godinho de Erédia self portrait.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Manuel Godinho de Erédia]], a [[Portuguese Malacca]]n explorer of Bugis-Portuguese descent]]
While early contacts with Islam had been made since 1490 with the trading relationship between Siang and Malacca, most Bugis still adhered to the native patturioloang religion. In year 1540, two aristocrats from Makassar were [[Baptism|baptized]] in [[Ternate]]. They later embarked on another visit the following year and bought many of the region's previous materials, including gold, [[sandalwood]] and iron weapons. Antonio de Paiva, a Portuguese trader, made multiple voyages between Sulawesi and [[Portuguese Malacca|Malacca]] from 1542, potentially intrigued by the potential riches of the region. During his expedition to the Bugis states of Suppa' and Siang, he was involved in a [[Theology|theological discussion]] and was requested to baptize La Putebulu, Datu of Suppa' and his family, followed by king of Siang in 1544. The baptism was also concluded with a [[military alliance]] with both states.{{sfn|Pelras|1996|p=127}}<ref name="Tribun-timur.com 2013">{{cite web | title=Jejak Kristen di Tanah Bugis | website=Tribun-timur.com | date=2013-12-28 | url=https://makassar.tribunnews.com/2013/12/28/jejak-kristen-di-tanah-bugis | language=id | access-date=2021-11-22}}</ref>

De Paiva's return to Malacca was not only together with official gifts to the [[Kingdom of Portugal]], but also accompanied with four young Bugis men who would later attend the Jesuit college in [[Portuguese Goa|Indian Goa]]. The two Bugis Kings also requested priests and a possible military support from the Portuguese Malaccan governor, potentially to curb the increasing peril imposed by the neighboring Makassarese states of Gowa-Tallo. Further baptism continued in 1545 by a priest, Father Vicente Viegas, which was involved the Christianization of Bugis rulers in Alitta and Bacukiki', according to [[Manuel Godinho de Erédia]], kings of Sawitto and Sidenreng also participated, all were allies of Suppa' part of [[Ajatappareng|Ajatappareng alliance]].<ref name="Tribun-timur.com 2013"/>

Relations with Portuguese were still good, until an elopement between a Portuguese officer and daughter of La Putebulu from Suppa was exposed as they married secretly in Malacca, which would result in the birth of [[Manuel Godinho de Erédia]]. The Portuguese vessel had to rapidly leave Sulawesi to avoid violence and they did not dared to travel back to the island until 1559.{{sfn|Pelras|1996|p=128}} One member of the voyage, Manuel Pinto, decided to remain in South Sulawesi, he recorded the political development and involved in discussions with several Bugis-Makassar rulers in the region before returning to Malacca (via Java). However Datu of Suppa and its population alongside other [[Ajatappareng]] states remain largely Christians according to [[Manuel Godinho de Erédia]].<ref name="Tribun-timur.com 2013"/>

Following the restoration of economic relations with the Portuguese Malacca in 1559, there were repeated requests made from South Sulawesi primarily [[Ajatappareng]] states for priests, however not many were available and the Portuguese did not consider Bugis as their prime concern. Not until 1584 did the Portuguese send four [[Franciscans]] fathers to the area, and their stay was a short one. Also not known were the fates of the four Bugis men sent for education in [[Portuguese Goa|Indian Goa]]. Subsequently, no new attempts to baptized Sulawesi were taken after the period,{{sfn|Pelras|1996|p=130}} nor Portuguese military support against invasion by King of Gowa-Tallo, Karaeng Lakiyung Tunipalangga, which annexed and vassalized Siang alongside other [[Ajatappareng]] states.<ref name="Tribun-timur.com 2013"/>

===Quest for prestige, influence and powers over the peninsula===
[[File:Ternate Bali Bugis soldiers.jpg|thumb|From left to right: Ternate, Bali and Bugis soldiers, European illustration from the 17th century]]
During the resumption of Portuguese-South Sulawesi relations in 1559, the political dynamic of the region have effectively morphed. The Makassarese state of Gowa had exerted his influence towards the north, and absorbed many Bugis states that have had a friendly relations towards the Portuguese.

Simultaneously, the Kingdom of Bone also commenced its southward expansion, and soon come into a direct contact with the Makassarese. Both kingdoms are pursuing dominance in the entirety of the Peninsula together with the important trade routes.

Thus, the two growing kingdoms are bound for a major collision course and a war finally broke out in 1562. Gowa was assisted by Luwu; and also by Wajo and Soppeng, the latter two would probably preferred in favour of a distant sovereign like Luwu or Gowa, as they would furnish Wajo and Soppeng with a greater autonomy in contrast to a nearby kingdom like Bone, which would likely dominate them.{{sfn|Pelras|1996|p=132}}

The war concluded in 1565 and a [[Peace treaty|peace negotiation]] followed afterwards. The two states agreed in the Tengka River as their respective spheres of influence under the Treaty of Caleppa. The citizens of Bone and Gowa were also awarded equal rights in each other's jurisdiction.

The ambitions for dominance continued in South Sulawesi. Between 1570 and 1591, several military operations were conducted by Gowa, in which oftentimes with the support of Luwu. Although a distant power, Gowa tend to be rather hard towards its Bugis vassals of Wajo and Soppeng, this made these two states become inclined to the invitation by Bone to restore their [[autonomy]]. In 1590, the three kingdoms (Wajo, Soppeng and Bone) entered an alliance known as ''Tellumpocco'e'', 'the Three Summits' or 'the Big Three'.{{sfn|Pelras|1996|p=133}}

In 1590, Daeng Mammeta embarked on another campaign to annihilate Wajo, but he was killed during an [[Running amok|amok]]. A truce was followed soon after in 1591, the peace negotiation, under the Treaty of Caleppa was thus renewed.

===The Islamisation of Bugis-Makassar-Mandar===
[[File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Traditionele begrafenis van de autonome bestuurder Maradia van Sawitto Paré-paré Celebes TMnr 10003212.jpg|thumb|Funeral ceremony for the ruler of Sawitto, 1930s]]
In the later half of the 16th century, the contest between Islam and Christianity was still largely undecided in South Sulawesi Peninsula. Most of the surrounding kingdoms in Sulawesi had already become Muslim under the sway of [[Sultanate of Ternate|Ternate]]-Gorontalo in 1525 and [[Sultanate of Buton|Buton]] in 1542. There were already individual converts in South Sulawesi.{{sfn|Pelras|1996|p=133}}

In 1550, the Malay-Muslim community of Macassar were awarded special privileges by the ruler of Gowa according to ''Lontarak Patturiolonga''. However, in 1575, during the visit by Abdul Makmur (Dato' ri Bandang), one of the Minangkabau proselytizers of Islam, he noted that there are several difficulties to convert the locals{{snd}}their fondness for [[Dried meat|dried boar flesh]], raw deer liver diced with blood (lawa) and palm liquor. He then embarked to promulgate the teaching of Islam in the [[Kutai|Kingdom of Kutei]], eastern Borneo, where he was more successful.{{sfn|Pelras|1996|p=133}} In 1580, the Sultan of Ternate, Babullah, advised the ruler of Gowa to embrace the teaching of Islam, but the king declined. However, as a gesture of kindness, he allowed the Makassar-Malay community to construct a [[mosque]].{{sfn|Pelras|1996|pp=134}}

[[File:Boeginese hadjis te Mekka, KITLV 90701.tiff|thumb|upright|left|Bugis [[Hajj|pilgrims]] to [[Mecca]], 19th century]]
Abdul Makmur returned to Makassar with Sulaiman (Dato' ri Pa'timang) and Abdul Jawad (Dato' ri Tiro). All three of them are from Minangkabau and likely to have been educated in Aceh,{{sfn|Pelras|1996|p=135}} before they visited Johor-Riau to study South Sulawesi culture from Bugis-Makassar sailors, followed by study under [[Wali Songo]] of [[Java]], in a proselytization mission facilitated by Sultan of Johor. After their new attempts to introduce the Islamic teaching once more met with opposition, they left for [[Luwu]]. This was because Luwu was the spiritual center of South Sulawesi and its indigenous belief of Dewata SewwaE had some similarities with Islam.<ref name="Mukhaer 2021">{{cite web | last=Mukhaer | first=Afkar Aristoteles | title=Proses Kristenisasi dan Islamisasi Sulawesi Selatan yang Beriringan | website=National Geographic Indonesia | date=2021-11-18 | url=https://nationalgeographic.grid.id/read/132993907/proses-kristenisasi-dan-islamisasi-sulawesi-selatan-yang-beriringan | language=id | access-date=2021-11-22}}</ref> They successfully converted the Pattiarase, Datu of Luwu and in February 1605 he took the name of Sultan Muhammad. The group then revisited Makassar and the three of them later managed promoted Islam to the Gowan ruler, to become Muslim under the name of Sultan Ala'uddin. In November 1607, the first public [[Salah|prayers]] were promulgated in the newly constructed Tallo' Mosque.{{sfn|Pelras|1996|p=139}} Conversion began slowly and adapted with native Ammatoa practitioners centered in Bulukumba.<ref name="Mukhaer 2021"/>

The twin kingdom of Gowa and Tallo persuaded other South Sulawesi Kingdoms to emulate their move on adopting Islam as their religion. When this invitation was declined, they launched a series of military actions known as "the Islamic wars". In 1608, the west coast states of Bacukiki', Suppa', Sa wino' and Mandar; and in the east coast, Akkotengeng and Sakkoli' submitted; followed by subjugation of Sidenreng and Soppeng in 1609, Wajo in 1610.

Pursuant to the submission from the Bugis state of Bone in 1611, most of the South Sulawesi Peninsula (with the exception of Toraja highlands) have accepted Islam.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Mohd Sani|first=Mohd Azizuddin |year=2016|title=Transformasi Budaya lslam di Kerajaan Bone pada abad ke-17|journal=Jurnal Adabiyah|publisher= Faculty of Adab and Humanities of Alauddin State Islamic University |language=id|location= Makassar, Indonesia|pages=26–43|url=https://repo.uum.edu.my/id/eprint/19548/|access-date=31 July 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Patmawati|year=2016|title=Peranan Nilai Philosofi Bugis Terhadap Proses Pengislaman Kerajaan Bugis Makassar di Sulawesi Selatan|journal=Jurnal Khatulistiwa – Journal of Islamic Studies|volume=6 |issue=2 |publisher= Pontianak State Institute of Islamic Studies|language=id|location= Pontianak, Indonesia|pages=183–200|url=https://jurnaliainpontianak.or.id/index.php/khatulistiwa/article/view/651/396|access-date=31 July 2021}}</ref><ref name ="Noorduyn">{{cite journal |title=Makasar and the Islamization of Bima |last=Noorduyn |first=J. |journal=Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde |year=1987 |volume=143 |issue=2/3 |pages=312–342 |doi=10.1163/22134379-90003330 |jstor=27863842 |quote="The Makasarese king understood the meaning of this and began what is known as the Islamic war, in Makasarese bunduq kasallannganga, by which he succeeded in the next four years in forcing the major Buginese kingdoms to accept Islam one by one, Bone as the last in 1611."}}</ref>{{sfn|Pelras|1996|p=137}} Bone, subsequently would continue to Islamize its two vassal states located in the edge of the Torajan realm{{snd}}namely Enrekang and Duri.{{sfn|Bigalke|2005|p=4}}

The Islamisation in most of South Sulawesi have provided a platform for a faith and ideological revolution. Islamic laws and principles were observed and absorbed into the Makassar, Bugis and Mandar cultures.{{sfn|Pelras|1996|p=138}}

Dato' ri Bandang directed first towards the foundation of [[Sharia|Sharia principles]] on the land, having emphasis on the importance of religious service at the [[Khitan (circumcision)|circumcision ceremony]], [[Marriage in Islam|marriage]] and [[Islamic funeral|funerals]]. However, with the exception of funeral rites which were absolutely Islamized; other rites of passage based on the Islamic understanding were simply incorporated with the existing traditional practices, norms and customs. As for prohibition, there are also strong enforcement against [[Zina#Adultery and fornication|adultery]] and the [[Animals in Islam#Qur'an|consumption of pork]]; other behaviors including consuming alcohol and opium, offerings to sacred places, worshipping at regalia, lending money with interest ([[Riba]]) and [[Maisir|gambling]] were also condemned.

As Islamization was slowly taking root among the society in the peninsula, mosques were built in each of the states and domains. Thus, appointments were made for the newly established positions of [[qadi]], [[imam]] and [[khatib]] throughout the Bugis-Makassar lands.

Despite being devout Muslims, the process did not serve as a hindrance towards the Makassarese Muslim King of Gowa to maintain a friendly relationship with Portuguese and Christianity. Despite so, the Bugis and Makassarese realms became Muslim and were now prevented to convert to Christianity by the local ruler.

===The twilight of dominance===
[[File:AMH-6157-NA The conquest of Macassar by Speelman from 1666 to 1669.jpg|thumb|The [[Sultanate of Gowa#Makassar War|Conquest of Makassar]], one of the most climatic events in the history of South Sulawesi]]
Beginning from the end of the 17th century and the dawn of the 19th, the highly delicate [[Balance of power (international relations)|balance of power]] in South Sulawesi was completely plunged on a downward spiral due to a series of radical changes in the local statecraft, including internal dynastic disputes, geopolitical tensions, growing secondary influence from the western [[Consumerism#Origins|consumerism]] and the Fall of Makassar.{{sfn|Pelras|1996|pp=138-139}}

After over a century following the monumental struggle between Gowa and Bone for the conquest of the peninsula, another war was slowly being reignited between the two rivaling powers. The conflict traced its origin from a domestic affair in the Kingdom of Bone, who was ruled from 1631 to 1634 by La Ma'daremmeng. The king enforced rules based on the strong Islamic principles, including removing the pagan bissu and forbidding the consumption of palm beer and other superstitious practice. The final straw was the prohibition of slavery, which resulted the rebellion by the [[Queen mother|mother of the king]]. She later then sought the assistance of Gowa and a major military operation ensured. The Makassarese forces managed to achieve success and captured 30,000 Bugis prisoners, including La'daremmeng and installed a Makassarese governor. After a subsequent revolt, Bone was transformed into a full-fledged colony. This resulted the anger amongst the Bone people and its nobility.{{sfn|Pelras|1996|pp=142-143}}

At the same time, the [[Dutch East India Company|Dutch]] was also eyeing their attention towards the port city of [[Makassar]]{{snd}}an important capital of commerce, wealth, political and military base in the eastern archipelago. Conversely, both Makassarese Kingdom of Gowa and the Dutch perceived each other as an imminent threat against their dominance within the highly lucrative [[spice trade]].

[[File:Radja Palacca (AMH-6157-NA).jpg|thumb|left|upright|[[Arung Palakka]], an illustration from the 17th century]]
The opportunity for Bone came after the victorious Dutch attack on Makassar in 1660. Required to sign an unfavorable truce, the Gowans requested 10,000 Bone people for a forced ditch digging as defense against potential attacks from the land. Few Bone noblemen, including Arung Pallaka, took refuge in the neighbouring Buton and presented for a Bugis-Dutch alliance against Makassar.{{sfn|Hall|1981|p=346}} The military alliance was also joined by Soppeng state, which, akin to Bone, aimed the attacks as an act of retribution against the action of Gowa for enslaving thousands of their people to construct the facilities in Makassar.

The war erupted in 1666, with the Bugis-Dutch alliance being assisted with troops from Ternate, [[Ambon Island|Ambon]] and Buton. The main Makassarese ally during the war was the northern Bugis state of Wajo. Despite being an associate of Bone by treaty in the past, the Wajorese leader decided to enter an alliance with Gowa to combat against the Dutch influence.

The fall of Makassar was proven to be fatal. Sultan [[Hasanuddin of Gowa]] was obliged to sign the [[Treaty of Bongaya]] on 18 November 1667. This required the Makassarese to removed most of its fortification, relinquish its trade in spices, end its import of foreign goods with the exception of the [[Dutch East India Company]], banish the Portuguese and other non-Dutch Europeans, and reject any other attempts of suzerainty, in both Bugis lands or other parts of the archipelago.{{sfn|Hall|1981|p=346}} In 1669, Sultan Hasanuddin abdicated from the throne.

The Dutch have succeeded to achieve its goal after the fall of Makassar, but they are not the sole victor; another was the Bugis State of Bone, despite having a few restriction following the treaty that it also signed, the kingdom would effectively maintain its sovereignty until the 19th century. Hence, in the Bone narration, Arung Palakka holds the status as an independence warrior; while in Makassar heritage, the rivaling Sultan Hasanuddin is hailed as the hero for the Makassarese.{{sfn|Pelras|1996|p=143}}

Once liberated from Makassar, the [[power vacuum]] has possibly set the stage for Bone to hold an unchallenged sovereignty across the whole peninsula. However, the prospect of [[Political union|unifying]] all the Bugis lands under a sole ruler was stopped by the existence of the Dutch in the region. The peninsula then continued to persist under a mosaic of various small and large [[confederation]]s.

===A new golden age===
[[File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Een Boeginese prauw aan de kust van West-Celebes TMnr 10010875.jpg|thumb|A [[Palari (boat)|Bugis vessel]] in [[West Sulawesi]] during the early 20th century]]
One of the major [[ripple effect]] following the conquest of Makassar was the change in the design of navigation and [[emigration]] routes among the South Sulawesi people. The cosmopolitan harbour of Makassar become a crucial maritime starting point for not only for the Makassarese, but also for the Bugis who seek for wealth and fame in the western Archipelago, as the Dutch set a heavy restriction for their access on the eastern [[Maluku Islands|spice islands]].{{sfn|Pelras|1996|pp=144-145}}

Concurrently, during the later 17th and 18th centuries, a transformative period emerged, marked by the establishment of a crucial sea-trading network. Ambitious migrants engaged in bold overseas ventures, contributing to the gradual rise of a merchant [[middle class]] that would later hold a prominent position in Bugis society. The construction of this pivotal [[Trade route|sea-trading network]] left a lasting impact, shaping economic activities and fostering connectivity both within their native South Sulawesi and in foreign regions.{{sfn|Pelras|1996|p=337}} Nevertheless, during this timeframe, they also underwent a flourishing art and cultural renaissance in their homeland. Many of their important literary works, including the majority of their post-[[La Galigo]] productions, originated from these years.{{sfn|Pelras|1996|p=139}}

The [[Age of Sail]] also marked with other closely interconnected waves of mass migration and trade towards [[Riau Archipelago]], [[Malay Peninsula]], [[Singapore]], [[Sumatra]], [[Batavia, Dutch East Indies|Batavia]], northern coast of [[Java]], [[Bali]], [[Madura]], [[Alor Island|Alor]], the [[Lesser Sunda Islands]], coastal [[Borneo]], [[Sulu Archipelago]] and other parts of Sulawesi in search of riches, prestige and political influence.{{sfn|Husain, B., et al.|2020|pp=83}}{{sfn|Ho|2013}}{{sfn|Lamima|2020}}

During the same period, they ushered a new golden era. With the consolidation of Islamic faith and values on one side, and the recognition as one of the major maritime society on the other; the two redefining elements that would be infused to become part and parcel with the Bugis identity until the early 20th century.

==Culture==
[[File:Bugis script example.jpg|thumb|center|800px|[[Lontara script|Lontara]], the traditional Bugis-Makassar writing script]]

===Language and dialects===
[[File:Bugis-speaking area.svg|thumb|upright|Areas with high concentrations Bugis-speakers in Sulawesi; with its central core located in the lowland plains of South Sulawesi province]]
The [[Bugis language]] constitutes a part of the larger [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian family]].{{sfn|Friberg|1984|p=1}} It is among the major languages located in the southwest hemisphere of Sulawesi, the others being [[Makassar language|Makassar]], [[Toraja language|Toraja]], [[Massenrempulu language|Massenrempulu]] and [[Mandar language|Mandar]]. These languages collectively belong to the [[South Sulawesi languages]].

Bugis speakers are dominant in most of the [[Kabupaten|districts]] in South Sulawesi{{snd}}namely [[Bone Regency|Bone]], [[Soppeng Regency|Soppeng]], [[Wajo Regency|Wajo]], [[Sidenreng Rappang Regency|Sidrap]], [[Pinrang Regency|Pinrang]], [[Barru Regency|Barru]], [[Sinjai Regency|Sinjai]], and [[Parepare]].{{sfn|Murni Mahmud|2010|pp=86}} In [[Bulukumba Regency|Bulukumba]], [[Pangkajene and Islands Regency|Pangkep]], and [[Maros Regency|Maros]], the populations are checkerboarded between Bugis and Makassar-speaking villages, each villages having their own separate language identity intact. A similarly unsharp [[language border]] can also be observed in the northwestern coastal towns of [[Pinrang Regency|Pinrang]] (in South Sulawesi Province) and [[Polewali Mandar Regency|Polmas]] (in [[West Sulawesi]]), being a transitional area between the traditional Bugis and Mandarese cultural areas.{{sfn|Umrahwati|2018|p=4}}

Located in the periphery of the Bugis-Torajan world, the Massenrempulu people (constituting Duri, Enrekang, Maiwa and Malimpung groups) from [[Enrekang Regency|Enrekang]] and northern [[Pinrang Regency|Pinrang]] as well as the [[Taeʼ language|Tae']] speakers of Luwu are also occasionally identified and embraced as among the subgroups of the Bugis family due to the shared tradition and common religious affiliation.{{sfn|Nur Azizah|2017|p=43}} Culturally, they formed a [[Continuum (measurement)#Linguistics|continuum]] between the Bugis and Toraja people; linguistically, the Massenrempulu's and Tae's [[mother tongue]] generally inherited a closer linguistic intelligibility with the Torajan language.

[[File:KITLV and Buginese poem.jpg|thumb|left|A Bugis poem with its font shaded in blue and a white background, located in the [[canal]] banks of [[Royal Netherlands Institute of Southeast Asian and Caribbean Studies]], [[Leiden]], [[Netherlands]]]]
Despite having some divergence in the local expression and dialects, the Bugis variants (with the exception of Massenrempulu and Tae', when considered) commonly retain a high level of [[mutual intelligibility]] between one another. Nonetheless, it is an accepted practice amongst the mainstream Bugis society to distinguish themselves regionally and culturally based on the location of their traditional and ancestral states.{{sfn|Pelras|1996|p=12}}

There are a subtle differences on the language spoken in these areas and linguist identified these versions as separate dialects (rather than distinct languages). Presently, there are ten main branches of Bugis Dialects{{sfn|Friberg|1984|p=1}}{{snd}}Bone, Camba, Pangkep, Sidrap, [[Pasangkayu Regency|Pasangkayu]], Sinjai, Soppeng, Wajo, Barru and [[Luwu Regency|Luwu]],{{sfn|Frawley|2003|p=137}} as well as dozens of smaller [[subdialect]]s deriving from the main branches. However, some researchers are divided whether Sawitto{{snd}}a divergent Bugis variety spoken in central Pinrang{{sfn|Druce|2009|p=140}}{{snd}}remains under the same language group or being diverged enough to be considered as a separate language.{{sfn|Tryon|1995|p=549}}

[[File:Wikipedia-logo-v2-bug.svg|thumb|125px|Bugis Wikipedia (''Wikipedia basa Ugi'') is the [[:bug:|Bugis-language edition]] of [[Wikipedia]], the free [[online encyclopedia]]]]
The present-day Bugis people are mostly [[Multilingualism|bilingual]]. In South Sulawesi, they use two leading [[language]]s, either Bugis or [[Indonesian language|Indonesian]], tailored based on the environment, social circle and activities. Bahasa Indonesia is largely incepted on official situations, it is the language of formal [[education]], [[Administration (law)|administration]], [[mass media]] and modern literature; Bahasa Indonesia is also prevalent during conversation with non-Bugis speakers.{{sfn|Murni Mahmud|2010|p=87}} In the informal and casual settings around the Bugis-speaking circle, a [[Code-switching|code-switch]] would be a commonplace, or intertwined with elements of both languages in varying degrees, such as speaking Bahasa Indonesia with a strong Bugis-influenced elements and vice versa.{{sfn|Murni Mahmud|2010|pp=86-87}}

In the South Sulawesi province, the [[affix]]es such as -ki', -ko, na-, -ji, - mi, etc. are emulated and conceived in the Indonesian-Bugis-Makassar [[mixed language|hybrid]]. The Bugis-Makassar accent, known as ''[[Okkots]]'' is also observed for the usage of a stronger -ng pronunciation in parts its speech. The fixture is not exclusively confined in the borders of South Sulawesi, the pattern can also be heard in other parts of Indonesia with a visible Bugis population. Outside the province, the language hybrid is not solely influenced by Bahasa Indonesia, but alongside traces of other local languages and dialects amalgamated with the diaspora Bugis language. Similarly beyond Indonesia, the extension of the language blend can also be seen in parts of Malaysia and Singapore, home to a sizable Bugis community. Instead of having influenced with Bahasa Indonesia, the Bugis communities in these countries would also be influenced by the [[Malay language|Malay]] language and its local dialects.

Outside from their ancestral heartland in the lowland plains of South Sulawesi, the Bugis language, dialects and hybrids are found throughout their extensive network of [[diaspora]] and [[ethnic enclave]]s in Sulawesi and all across [[Insular Southeast Asia]]. However, presently there tends to be a pronounced [[language shift]] among the diaspora outside of South Sulawesi, hence the understanding and the command on the Bugis language may vary based on the personal background, exposure, interest and contacts with their ancestral language.

===Philosophy===
{{blockquote|text=
''Siri' na Pacce'' (Shame, Compassion)
|author= Bugis-Makassar-Mandar-Toraja code of ethic
|title=
}}
[[File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Buginese kris met houten schede TMnr 1322-117.jpg|thumb|One of the Bugis-styled dagger]]
The Bugis-Makassar possessed a rich heritage, philosophy, religious and social structure. Their customs are based on the concept ''Pangadereng''{{snd}}originally consist of ''[[Adat|Ade]]{{'-}}'' (custom), ''Rapang'' ([[Jurisprudence]]), ''Bicara'' ([[Judiciary]]) and ''Warik'' ([[Social system]]); following the Islamisation of the Bugis-Makassar, ''Syara''' ([[Syariah]]) was incorporated into its core values.{{sfn|Nurnaningsih|2015|pp=340}}

Another fundamental local wisdom includes ''Siri' na pacce''.{{sfn|Abdul Azis, et al.|2020|pp=83}} It serves as a guidance, social convention and moral conduct. ''Siri'' signifies the consolidation a demeanor of shame and self-esteem, it acted as a pillar that bear the importance of dignity, virtue, esteem, solidarity and responsibility. ''Siri'' is essential for someone to be regarded as a ''tau'' (human). ''Pacce'' manifest as a presence of compassion and solidarity. It involves a person's ability on [[emotional intelligence]], which includes love, sadness, pain, and solidarity. Other interpretation of ''Pecce'' revolves on self-sacrifice, hard work, and abstinence. In addition to the Bugis and Makassarese, the traditional ethos is also shared by their northern cousins{{snd}}the [[Torajan people|Torajans]] and [[Mandarese people|Mandarese]].

Translated as the "four corners"{{snd}}''Sulappa Eppa'' represents the ancient philosophy, ideas and theories of the Bugis-Makassar on the notion that the universe was built in a form of a giant [[rhombus]], created by four salient fundamentals{{snd}}[[wind]], [[fire]], [[water]] and [[soil|earth]]. Thus, the classical Bugis-Makassar aesthetic vibes, articulations and nuances are largely created and envisioned in a dominant four-[[angle|cornered]] composure; including on their traditional writing scripts (the [[Lontara script|lontara]]), architectural [[floor plan|layouts]], ceremonial cuisines (''songko'' and ''songkolo''), artistic designs, textile ([[sarong]] motives) and philosophical values. The four elements are also synonymously evoked by a sense of four distinct colors{{snd}}wind (yellow), fire (red), water (white) and earth (black).{{sfn|Hasbi, et al.|2021}} Additionally, the ''Lipa' Sabbe'' or ''sarung sutra'' (a sarung-cloth made from [[silk]]) signifies as an embodiment to honor the refined Bugis-Makassar cultural paradigm in its purest form.{{sfn|Murni Mahmud|2010|pp=1}}

===Traditional script===
[[File:Sureq bawang.jpg|thumb|100px|The early forms of recorded Bugis literature was primarily documented in a ''[[Borassus|Lontar]]'' leave scroll, as can be seen in the ''Sure' Bawang'']]
The [[Lontara script|Lontara]] traced its origin from the [[Kawi script]]; however, it has received a localized development and modification to accommodate the writings in the Bugis, Makassar and Mandar language. It was traditionally used for formal and official documents such as [[contract]]s, [[trade law]]s, [[treaties]], [[map]]s, and [[Logbook|journal]]s, both in Western [[Book design|book format]] and in the traditional [[palm-leaf manuscript]].{{sfn|Atlas of Endangered Languages}} Following the rise of South Sulawesi as a naval powerhouse in eastern archipelago, the script expanded its influence, being introduced and incorporated as the Lonta Ende in [[Flores]], Mbojo in eastern [[Sumbawa]] and Satera Jontal in western Sumbawa, albeit with alternations for the latter languages.{{sfn|Valls|2014|p=06}}

Its designation, "Lontara" was acquired from the term ''Lontar'', the [[Javanese language|Javanese]] and [[Malay language|Malay name]] from [[Palmyra Palm]], whose leaves were commonly utilized for writing the manuscripts. It is also sometimes characterized as the Bugis script, as many of the historical writings are widely found in this language. In the Bugis Language, the writing system is styled as ''"urupu sulapa eppa"'', being described as "square" or "four-cornered letters", which served as a vivid illustration of the early Bugis-Makassar interpretation on the four ingredients that molded the universe{{snd}}fire, water, earth and air.{{sfn|Valls|2014|p=06}}

During the Dutch colonization of [[Dutch East Indies|East Indies]], the writing system is largely being superseded with the introduction of [[Latin Alphabet]]. Nonetheless, the script still retains its intimate cultural importance amongst the Bugis-Makassar society in their homeland and being use for the traditional ceremony, calendar and literature; as well as in personal documents and handwritten items, for instance, in letters and notes. The script is also being taught in many schools in South Sulawesi and the usage are visible on some [[street sign]]s across the province. Presently, there is also notable efforts by Indonesian typographers and graphic designers on introducing the script to a larger audience beyond its traditional borders.{{sfn|Atlas of Endangered Languages}}

In addition to Lontara, there is also another form of Bugis-Makassar traditional writing based on the Arabic-script, known as the Serang Alphabet. Relatively on an almost similar parallel module with its sister scripts, [[Jawi script|Jawi]] and [[Pegon script|Pegon]] for Malay and Javanese respectively, the Serang writing system incorporated the usage of [[Arabic script|Arabic element]]s with few additional characters to integrate with the local language.<ref>{{Cite book |author=Matlob |title=Pandai Jawi |publisher=Cerdik Publications |year=2007 |isbn=978-983-70-1054-3 |pages=237–238}}</ref>

===Folklore and literary traditions===
[[File:Kutika manuscript 1.jpg|thumb|upright|''Kutika'', a historical Bugis [[almanac]] with visible usage of Lontara and Arabic alphabets on the page.]]
Bugis literature connotes to the forms of literature expressed in the Bugis language{{snd}}which comprises both [[Literature|written]] and [[oral tradition]]s. The earliest works of Bugis literature were verbally transmitted, written literature began to arose and gradually codified with the evolution of the [[Lontara script|Lontara]] script by the 1400s. Its foundation largely coincides and intersects with the Makassarese literature{{snd}}of whom it shared a closely related development with. The Bugis literary tradition mainly focuses on the [[wisdom]], [[moral]], social life and cultural environment of the Bugis identity.

Bugis folk literature is an oral composition deeply rooted in Bugis understanding and perception of life{{snd}}in the form of [[prose]], [[poetry]] and [[Lyrics|lyric]]. The classification raging from various short poems, ''élong''; long narrative poems, ''tolo'''; playful sayings, such as [[riddle]]s, ''atteppungeng'' and [[nursery rhyme]]s; magical spells, ''jappi, baca-baca''; pre-Islamic ritual expressions, ''sabo, sessukeng, lawolo''; [[precept]]s, ''pappaseng''; and [[oath]]s of allegiance, ''aru''. Other important oral heritage includes{{snd}}stories, ''curita''; [[sermon]]s, ''katoba''; and [[Speech recognition|speeches]]. Although they are essentially verbal, many of the works are also subsequently being written in the language.{{sfn|Pelras|2016|p=27}}

[[File:Galigo.jpg|thumb|left|Excerpt from [[La Galigo]], written in the Lontara script ]]
Writings in the Lontara Script was likely to be first appeared around 1400. The earliest texts were inscribed on palm leaves, followed by volumes of [[Handwriting|handwritten]] composition on paper [[manuscript]]s, potentially from 1500 onwards, or even earlier.{{sfn|Macknight|2016|p=60}} The works of literature commonly commissioned by writing specialists known as ''palôntara'', the ''palôntara'' is being delegated the task as a researcher on creating and compiling the Bugis manuscripts.{{sfn|Pelras|2016|p=23}} The manuscripts tend to be rich and varied, with a plethora of [[theme (arts)|theme]]s and subjects{{snd}}including [[History|historical]] chronicles, poems, [[law|legal works]], ritual texts, manuals, ethics, among few. [[Printing|Printed]] materials in the Bugis language were introduced in the latter half of the 19th century, albeit with a smaller circulation, such as in [[Dictionary|dictionaries]], [[Grammar|grammars books]], [[Chrestomathy|chrestomathies]] and [[translation]]s.{{sfn|Pelras|2016|p=20}}

Consist of over 6,000 pages, the [[La Galigo]] is regarded as the [[magnum opus]] in the Bugis literary heritage. Composed in the old Bugis language, the [[chronicle|saga]] traced its origin from the early oral traditions. The poetic text serves as a revered [[almanac]] and provide narrations about the ancient understanding on humanity and kingdoms. In the Bugis culture, episodes from La Galigo are commonly reenacted through [[chant]] and [[Poetry|poetic recitation]] performance led by a La Galigo specialist, known as ''passure''. The performance is sometimes held during [[festival]]s, [[wedding]] or during a [[Housewarming party|house-moving]] ceremony.{{sfn|Pelras|2016|p=24}} In 2012, two of the La Galigo manuscripts are included in [[UNESCO|UNESCO's]] [[Memory of the World Programme]].

However, the largest collection of Bugis literature is in the form of family [[Genealogy|genealogies]]. It is regarded as an important family [[heirloom]], especially amongst the members of nobility and aristocratic families. Some dated as early as 1400{{snd}}about two hundred years prior to their Islamisation, the early Bugis genealogies provide a rare glimpse on the culture and ideology of an early and literate [[Austronesian peoples|Austronesian]] society.{{sfn|Druce|2016|pp=3-4}}

===Dress, textiles and weaving traditions===
[[File:Girls with traditional dress.jpg|thumb|A group of girls clad in the [[Baju Bodo]], [[sarong]] and traditional hair adornments in [[Fort Rotterdam]], Makassar, Indonesia]]
In the traditional Bugis-Makassar culture, [[textiles]] and [[clothes]] are revered and occupied a special place in the society. Historically, the colours and motives donned by the wearer possessed an important indicator and serves as a defining symbol on the person's identity, age and status.{{sfn|Sejarah Baju Bodo|2019}}

The term [[Baju Bodo]] derived from the Makassarese language, being described as "short clothing".{{sfn|Sejarah Baju Bodo|2019}} Conversely, in the Bugis language, it is also known as ''Waju Tokko'' and ''Waju Ponco'''. A short-sleeved [[tunic]], the costume is commonly worn together with [[silk]] or a woven [[sarong]]. The attire traced its origin as early as the 9th century, following the introduction of [[muslin]] cloth by the foreign traders to the harbors of South Sulawesi.{{sfn|Resti|2021}} The textile, being thin and light, is highly suitable to accommodate the local tropical weather in the region. In addition to muslin cloth, the Baju Bodo is also commonly sourced from [[pineapple]]-fiber fabric and cotton.

[[File:Songkok Recca.jpg|thumb|left|''Songkok Recca'', as being sold in a ''[[pasar malam]]'' in [[Tawau]], Malaysia]]
With the rise of [[Islamisation]] among the Bugis-Makassar, another closely related form of Baju Bodo emerged. Having a longer sleeve, the ''Baju La'bu'' (from Makassarese {{lang|mak|la'bu}} 'long'), also known as ''Bodo Panjang'' (both defined as "long cloth") is tailored in accordance of Islamic interpretation of ''[[Intimate parts in Islam|Aurat]]'' and modesty. The Baju La'bu is also traditionally made from silk, a departure from the semi-transparent and translucent fabric of its predecessor.{{sfn|Ros Mahwati Ahmad Zakaria|2019}}

The Bugis-Makassarese [[Woven fabric|handloom industry]] potentially commenced in the 1400s. The locally made [[sarung]] motives were initially basic, having rudimentary stripes of vertical, horizontal or in a checkered pattern,{{sfn|Aristy Claudia|2021}} potentially inspired by ''Sulappa Eppa'' (the four elements) foundations. By the 1600s, the designs are becoming progressively ornamented, with the inclusion of a multitude of geometrical shapes, contour and sequence. Almost in a coordination with the function of Baju Bodo in the past, the motives and design of the sarung would also be used to denote the status of its wearer.{{sfn|Eva Yanuarti, S.Pd}} The sarung material is usually sourced from silk and cotton.

The corresponding mode for the Bugis male is known as ''Jas Tutu''' or ''Jas Tutup'' (an "enclosed coat"), the garment is in a form of long-sleeved coat with a collar. The Jas Tutu is also synonymous to be worn with the ''Songkok recca/Pabiring/Songkok To Bone'' (Bugis [[songkok]]), ''Lipa' Sabbe'' ([[sarong]]) and a gold or silver-coloured button. The Bugis-styled Songkok is made of woven rattan and golden thread.{{sfn|Museum Daerah Maros|2020}} During a traditional wedding ceremony, the groom would also accompanied by a highly elaborated accessories, including ''Tataroppeng'' ([[Keris]]), ''Pabekkeng'' ([[Belt (clothing)|belt]]),{{sfn|Surya Karmila Sari|2015}} ''Rope'' ([[Songket]]), ''Sigara'' ([[headgear]]), ''Salempang'' ([[sash]]), ''Gelang'' ([[bangle]]) and ''Sapu tangan'' ([[handkerchief]]).

In the present day, the Baju Bodo and Jas Tutu are largely being reserved as a [[formal wear]], the sightings are common during weddings, as well as in other ceremonial and cultural functions.

===Culinary traditions===
[[File:Sanggar Pappek.jpg|thumb|upright|''Sanggara Peppe'', [[wikt:flattened|flattened]] and [[Pisang Goreng|double-fried plantains]], a crispy traditional snack commonly served with sambel]]
The Bugis cuisine constitutes an essential part of its heritage, comprises various culinary styles and recipes frequently associated with the Bugis people. It shares many common gastronomical traditions and characteristics with the surrounding Makassarese, Mandarese and Torajans. Many of the meals are indigenously developed in the island of Sulawesi, with a focus on native ingredients; while others exhibit a notably stronger [[Fusion cuisine|outside influence]]s and customized according to the local [[taste bud|palate]]s.

Foreign cooking techniques in the South Sulawesi cuisine can be seen on the adoption of ''[[Jalangkote]]'', a small [[Frying|fried]] [[pie]] adopted from Portuguese ''[[papeda (food)|papeda]]''. The fillings for ''Jalangkote'' usually consist of [[rice vermicelli]] (denoting [[Chinese cuisine|Chinese influence]]) combined with sliced [[vegetables]], [[boiled egg]]s and [[mincemeat]]. Meanwhile [[Indian cuisine|Indian elements]] are visible and demonstrated in the localised dishes, for instance the creamy ''Gagape'', ''Toppa Lada'' and the spicy ''Juku palumara''.{{sfn|Nabila Qibtiya|2019|p=2}}

There is also a wide array of cuisines that signifies a bolder [[Cuisine#Regional cuisines|endemic origin]]: [[Rice cake#Indonesian|Rice cake]]s are particularly popular with the likes of ''[[Burasa]]''' and ''Tumbu/Lapa-lapa/Langka''.{{sfn|Umrahwati|2018|p=6}}{{sfn|Uli Wahyuliana|2017|p=2}} The rice dumplings are [[Steaming|steamed]] and wrapped in leave containers with [[coconut milk]], thus contributing to its rich and creamy flavor. It is usually served as a substitute for [[white rice]] and eaten together with soups or other side dishes.{{sfn|Umrahwati|2018|p=9}} Another distinguished forms of rice cake in the Bugis-Makassar community includes ''Gogos''{{snd}}[[Roasting|roasted]] [[glutinous rice]] with fish fillings, wrapped in [[banana leaf]]. It is commonly eaten as a snack.{{sfn|Nabila Qibtiya|2019|p=7}}

[[File:Burasa.jpg|thumb|left|A few home-cooked Bugis [[Eid cuisine|classics]] during the ''[[Eid al-Fitr|Hari Raya]]'' celebration. ''[[Burasa]]''' (center); clockwise from top: ''Goré-Goré Daging'', ''Ayam Saus Merah'', ''[[Chicken curry|Nasu Kari]]'' and ''Nasu Likku' ''.]]
The peninsula's long coastline has contributed a great [[fishing industry]] in the region, creating [[Seafood|oceanic produce]] as an important part of the meal.{{sfn|Umrahwati|2018|p=5}} Dishes such as ''Pa'Deme'' ([[anchovies]] [[sambal]]), ''Bajabu'' (''[[serundeng]]''), ''Lawa Bale'' ([[List of raw fish dishes|marinated raw fish]]) and the clear broth soups of ''Nasu Bale'' and ''Nassu Meti'' captures its extensive maritime connection.

In addition to seafood, there is also a diverse culinary traditions with the emphasis on meat, which can be seen in the hearty [[Low-temperature cooking|slow cook]]ed dishes, namely ''Nasu Likku''',{{sfn|Uli Wahyuliana|2017|p=1}} ''Nasu Palekko''{{sfn|Nabila Qibtiya|2019|p=9}} and ''Goré-Goré''. The meals are usually acted as an accompanying side dish to complement the ''Nasi Putih'' (plain white rice), or in other cases, the rice cakes.

[[Banana]] occupied a major importance after rice in the Bugis [[Staple food|staple]], as it is widely cultivated in South Sulawesi.{{sfn|Nabila Qibtiya|2019|p=5}} Aside from being eaten fresh after a meal, Banana-based meals are extensive in the forms of snacks and desserts{{snd}}raging from the sweet tasting ''Berongko'' (steamed Banana [[pudding]]), caramelized ''Sanggara' Balanda'',{{sfn|Uli Wahyuliana|2017|p=2}} to crispy and savory snacks such as ''Sanggara Pappek'' (smashed bananas).

Other popular meals associated with the Bugis includes [[congee]] dishes{{snd}}''Barobbo'' (rice and [[maize|corn]] [[porridge]]) and the [[sago]]-based ''Kapurung''; and traditional ''[[Kue]]s'', notably the ''[[Kue bugis]]'', ''Kue Dange'', ''Kue Sikaporo'' and ''Bolu Peca''.{{sfn|Uli Wahyuliana|2017|p=2}} Due to the extensive and continuous friendly interactions as well as prevalent [[Interethnic marriage|intermarriage]] with the kindred Makassarese people, many of the unique Makassarese meals are also widely enjoyed by the Bugis, including ''[[Coto Makassar]]'', ''Sop Sodara'', ''Pallubasa'', ''Pallu Kacci'', ''Pallumara'' and ''Konro'', or desserts like ''Cucuru' Te'ne'' and ''Es Palu Butong''.{{sfn|Uli Wahyuliana|2017|p=1}}

Beyond their native soil, Burasa' and other Bugis-Makassar traditional cuisines are also commonly presented as a ceremonial dish by their diaspora community. It is prepared as a significant legacy to honor their ancestral roots from the plains of South Sulawesi.

===Weaponry and military traditions===
[[File:Zirah Bugis.jpg|thumb|upright|A Bugis [[Baju Lamina|''baju lamina'']] from the 18th century in the [[National Museum (Malaysia)|National Museum of Malaysia]]; one of the [[armor]]s that aided their historical political expansion throughout insular Southeast Asia.]]
{{blockquote|text=
''Taniya ugi narekko de'na punnai kawali''<br />(A person is not regarded as a Bugis without a Kawali)
|author= Bugis traditional words of wisdom{{sfn|Muslimin|2018|p=2}}
|title=
}}
A plethora of [[blade]]s, [[Knife|knives]] and [[firearm]]s constitute the [[arsenal]] of Bugis-Makassar weaponry. However, the [[Badik]], also known as ''Kawali'', is hailed as the traditional weapon strongly associated with their identity and possessed a revered status in the sociological construct of the Bugis-Makassar society. The item is not solely perceived as a mere [[weapon]], but as an emblem designated to represent the personal character of its owner. It is historically used as a vital tool for [[hunting]] animals and as a [[self-defense]] mechanism.{{sfn|Muslimin|2018|p=2}}

In the traditional Bugis-Makassar understanding, the hierarchal level of Badik is regarded as a second after the [[Kris|Keris]]. A far-cry from the Badik which known to have an almost universal usage throughout all ranks of the society, the ''Keris Pusaka'' (the "Dynasty Keris") is reserved as an important family regalia amongst the elite royal houses in South Sulawesi. Thus, historically the Badik received a prevalent identity as a companion for the Bugis-Makassar man.{{sfn|Muslimin|2018|p=2}}

In the past, Badik is used as a tool of defense to protect an individual and the family honor. The doctrine is largely based on the philosophical interpretation of ''Siri'', a cornerstone of the Bugis-Makassar culture, siri represents a responsibility to maintain the dignity in the society. The concept is historically entranced in the cognitive psyche amongst the people and traditionally become a binding force on the moral values and social system. Badik is also commonly passed from one generation to another, acting as an important family heirloom.{{sfn|Muslimin|2018|p=2}}

[[File:Sigajang Laleng Lipa.jpg|thumb|left|The ancient [[Swordsmanship|sword fighting]] [[duel]] of ''[[Indonesian martial arts#Sitobo Lalang Lipa|Sigajang Laleng Lipa]]'', commonly staged in a single sarong. Both of the contenders are holding a [[Badik]]]]
Another important sword owned by the Bugis is the Keris, also known as ''Tappi''. It has some minor different features in contrast to the Javanese Keris; however, the Bugis Keris is noted to bear a closer anatomical resembles with the Malay-version of the dagger, the item potentially being introduced by the Malays to the people of South Sulawesi. Almost parallel with the Badik, the Keris equally carried a revered symbol amongst many Bugis-Makassar people.{{sfn|Representasi Badik sebagai simbol kearifan lokal Bugis-Makassar|2020}}{{sfn|Pelras|1996|p=80}}{{sfn|Senjata Tradisional Sulawesi Selatan, Ini 8 Alat Khas Suku Bugis|2021}}

In addition to Badik and Keris, they were known to host a multitude of classical armaments. Most of the items are collectively classified under the ''parewa bessi'' (Iron weapons) category made by the Bugis-Makassar blacksmiths. Some of the other notable collections include ''[[Alamang]]'' and ''[[Kalis|Sundang]]'', a long-sword; ''Bessing'', a [[spear]]; ''Kanna'', [[shield]]; Pantu', a traditional [[Stick-fighting|fighting stick]]; [[Baju Rantai|''Waju Rante'']], [[Armour|armor]]; and ''Tado'', a [[trapping]] rope.{{sfn|Senjata Tradisional Sulawesi Selatan, Ini 8 Alat Khas Suku Bugis|2021}}

The art of weapon among the Bugis-Makassar is constantly developed through the millennia. The ancient peoples of South Sulawesi are recorded to have a usage of [[blowgun|blowpipes]] with poisoned [[Dart (missile)|darts]], spears, short swords, kris and rattan [[helmet]]s.{{sfn|Pelras|1996|p=46}} By the early modern era, the Bugis-Makassar gained further exposure on the [[artillery]] knowledge with the introduction of various firearms: [[musket]]s, [[culverin]]s and [[cannon]]s that enhance their warfare and combatant skills. [[Mail and plate armour|Mail armor with metal plates]] (''baju lamina'') is estimated to be used starting from this era, and still being worn until the 19th century.{{sfn|Pelras|1996|p=122}}

The strong mutual relationship between the arms development and its militaristic culture formed the advantageous momentum that fueled to their quest for political advancement and influence outside from the traditional Bugis-Makassar homeland. It become one of the wielding tools that seals their historical figures and status as soldiers, [[Mercenary|mercenaries]], warriors and fighters throughout the maritime realm.

===Traditional architecture===
[[File:TMII Bugis Makassar House.jpg|thumb|The Bugis-Makassar house in [[Taman Mini Indonesia Indah]], [[Jakarta]]]]
In the Bugis society, architecture is regarded as an emblem of philosophy, designed to endorse the occupier belief, faith and understanding about cosmos and universe. It is strongly rooted in its long and rich history, blending elements on the native interpretation of [[cosmology]] with culture, faith, [[mythology]], [[aesthetic]] and functionality. The Bugis architectural style is broadly classed together with the Makassarese, of whom it shares strong architectural features and identity.

Based on the Bugis philosophical understanding, a home is regarded as the legitimate expression of the spiritual [[rite of passage]] as a human being: a place to be born, a place to raised and nurtured as a child, a place to become a husband and wife, and a place to perish. Consequently, the habitation is designed to be solemn, sacred and highly revered. It provides ones with a place for solitude, energy, nourishment, well-being and honour to its dwellers.{{sfn|Syarif, et al.|2017}} The presence of a home in the Bugis society is part-and-parcel with life, hence home ownership is regarded in utmost importance{{snd}}to commemorate life and to become a beacon symbol of life.

[[File:Bugis house.JPG|thumb|left|A traditional Bugis dwelling in South Sulawesi]]
In the Bugis culture, architecture is not only solely perceived as a question of practice, but a subject of [[Theology|theological]] dialogue. The formula of ''Sulapa Eppa'' (the four elements) was interpreted and constructed with such intention.{{sfn|Syarif, et al.|2017}} The layout plan for the Bugis buildings would commonly have a rectangular and symmetrical consistency, the aim is to intergrade with the early Bugis understanding that the universe is in a form of a giant [[rhombus]] and the four ingredients that created the universe (wind, water, fire and earth); together with the four wind directions (north, south, east and west). Thus, the Bugis houses would traditionally faces north, as an origin for positive energy; or towards east, the dawn of light.{{sfn|Mustamin Rahim, et al.|2017}}

[[File:Jl. Jend. Sudirman, Makassar.jpg|thumb|upright|The traditional Bugis-Makassar architectural principles are also widely adopted in many of the contemporary buildings in South Sulawesi]]
The houses were commissioned into three separate levels, signifying the three position of the universe based on the pre-Islamic Bugis interpretation. ''Rakeang'' (the upper world){{snd}}a tribute to the [[heaven]]s above, the [[attic]] is designed to be the apex of the house and it is regarded to be a sacred place to store rice, [[crop]]s and important heirlooms. ''Ale Bola'' (the middle world), appeared for a respect to the human world, thus represented by the living and the common space of the house. ''Awa Bola'' (the [[underworld]]), a place of dark and ferocious, this concept was exemplified by the [[shed]] and where the [[livestock]] are stored beneath the human dwelling.{{sfn|Mustamin Rahim, et al.|2017}}

The concept of ''rupa-tau'' ('likeness of a person') is also extensively explored and adopted in the Bugis architectural principles. This led to the building structured as a grandiose manifestation of an anatomical relationship. The housing framework was monumentally characterized by distinct components based on a human physique: ''Aje-bola'' (the [[foot]]), by the stilts of the house; ''ale-bola'' ([[torso|body]]), the common living space; ''ulu-bola'' (the [[head]]), the roof; and ''posi-bola'' (the [[navel]]) by the middle area of the house.{{sfn|Syarif, et al.|2017}}

The development of the Bugis architecture is originated on the belief that a home is constructed with an optimistic faith for a greater future. Based on the classical Bugis myth and understanding, the stars, skies and constellations held a great divine significance; in response, a human is entrusted to maintain the harmonious arrangement of the universe{{snd}}in order to have a safer and tranquil life, as well as to avoid natural calamities (notably floods, landslides, tornado and earthquake). Thus, such ethos and essences are extensively emulated, absorbed and vividly radiated in the traditional Bugis architectural articulations.{{sfn|Syarif, et al.|2017}}

===Maritime, mercantile and migratory traditions===
[[File:Kapal Nur Al Marege, koleksi pribadi Muhammad Ridwan Alimudin, 2019.jpg|thumb|[[Padewakang]], historically used by the Bugis-Makassar-[[Mandarese people|Mandar]] as a major [[Merchant ship|trading vessel]] before being eclipsed by the [[Palari (boat)|palari]].]]
Across archipelagic Southeast Asia, the Bugis-Makassar earned the reputation as [[sailor]]s, [[navigator]]s and [[Seamanship|seafaring]] traders. Their naval foundation largely coordinated with the extensive [[shipbuilding]] traditions, nautical skills and the dominant presence in the inter-insular trade routes.

Conversely, they too acquired the title as "The Vikings of Southeast Asia".{{sfn|Lamima|2020}} Their extensive maritime and trading expedition has historically bought them to be as one of the notable regional players in the transoceanic journeys to Indochina, Macau, Manila, Papua and northern Australia, together with the Southeast Asian islands that lies between these areas. Their ships were commonly use to carry and transport exotic [[spice]]s, [[sandalwood]], textiles, rice, luxury marine products, [[porcelain]]s, [[pearl]]s and other important goods and materials across the ancient spice trade routes.{{sfn|Lamima|2020}}{{sfn|Munsi Lampe|2014|p=6}}

During the [[Age of Sail]], their seafaring odysseys were largely aided by padewakang, one of the early type of Bugis-Makassar vessel, which later morphed into the palari. Steep in history, the first of such watercraft was born based on the legendary tradition of Sulawesi.{{sfn|Lamima|2020}}

Up until the nineteenth century, the classic Padekawang was traditionally led by a [[captain]], known as ''nakoda'' or ''anakoda''; followed by his [[second-in-command]], the ''juragang''. It is also usual for the ship to have two [[wikt:steersman|steersman]], ''jurumudi''{{snd}} delegated the task on directing the ship's course; two ''jurubatu''{{snd}} [[wikt:depth sounder|sounders]], responsible to measure the depth on approaching the coast, reefs or shoals; and a single [[secretary]]{{snd}} known as ''jurutulisi'', acting as an agent on behalf of the owner of the vessel. The names are largely adopted from the Malay language, with an influence from [[Persian language|Persian]], such as the term of ''[[wikt:nakhoda|nakhoda]]''.{{sfn|Pelras|1996|p=263}}
[[File:Bengkel Pinisi.jpg|thumb|left|A pinisi construction facility in Bulukumba, among the major cradles of ship-making industry in South Sulawesi.]]

In order to identify the course of their maritime routes, the sailors would typically inclined to use a multitude of convergent nautical practice, from determining the [[Sunrise|rising]] and [[Sunset|setting points]] of the [[sun]]; the location [[horizon]], [[star]]s and [[constellation]]s; the marine environment{{snd}}the flow of the oceanic [[Swell (ocean)|swell]], the form of the [[wave]]s and the water appearance; fauna{{snd}}the actions of the fish and the flight arrangement of the birds; the wind directions; and specific [[Geography|geographical]] landmarks.{{sfn|Pelras|1996|p=264}}

The original pinisi-rigged ship (palari), is about {{convert|50|to|70|ft|m|2}} in length overall, with light laden waterline of {{convert|34|to|43|ft|m|2}}.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Gibson-Hill |first=C.A. |date=February 1950 |title=The Indonesian Trading Boats reaching Singapore |journal=Journal of the Malayan Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society |volume=23 |pages=112–113}}</ref> Smaller palari is only about 10 m in length.<ref name=":02">{{Cite journal |last=Liebner |first=Horst H. |date=November 2016 |title=Perahu Nusantara - sebuah presentase bagi Menko Maritim |url=https://www.academia.edu/35282364 |access-date=13 August 2019 |website=Academia}}</ref> A two-[[Mast (sailing)|masted]] sailing vessel, the name "pinisi" derives from the type of [[gaff rig]], use for its configuration. Its unique canted rectangular [[mainsail]]s and [[tripod]] masts give its unparalleled design composition, a departure from other western ships. In the contemporary era, palari is also equipped with [[Engine|motors]] for its seafaring journeys.{{sfn|Mellefont|2018}}

There are many revered shipbuilding centers in the region, including Ara, Tanah Lemo and Bira. However, the Konjo, a subgroup of the Makassarese, are particularly known as one of the respected master builders of [[pinisi]]-rigged ships, enjoying a long-prized tradition of [[watercraft]] and boat-production, a knowledge commonly inherited from fathers to sons for centuries.{{sfn|Lamima|2020}}

[[File:Buginese chart of the East Indian Archipelago - ca. 1820 - UB Utrecht (cropped).jpg|thumb|A map of [[Maritime Southeast Asia]] recorded in the Bugis-Makassar writing system (c.1820)]]
For the Konjos in Bulukumba, the boatmaking identity is deeply rooted to their lives as a precious embodiment of art, culture and rituals. Being a highly dedicated [[wikt:boatsmith|boatsmith]] community, the Konjo people are traditionally restricted from sailing to the seas, as their elders feared that their clan would not return to their homeland, creating a perilous risk of losing their valuable shipbuilding wisdom amongst their kinsmen.{{sfn|Lamima|2020}} Thus in South Sulawesi, the transoceanic sailing responsibility were vastly executed by their closely related brethren — the Bugis and Makassarese.

The rich nautical culture of Bugis-Makassar is equally captured and reinforced by a plethora of ships{{snd}}ranging from ''[[penjajap]]'', warship; [[Pajala (boat)|pajala]], a smaller boat, also used for fishing; palari, another descendant of the padewakang;{{sfn|Mellefont|2018}} [[Lambo (boat)|Lambo]], a trading boat; and the early ships of ''Somba Lete'' and [[Tanja sail|''sompe tanja'']]. These vessels collectively have left a significant impact on the local and regional development.

As the seafaring identity began to take root in the coastal South Sulawesi society, it gradually become a profound icon that navigated their influence and presence in the region. Following the Bugis-Makassar [[Human migration|migratory]] tradition known as ''{{lang|bug|sompe}}'' (to [[sail]]) and ''{{lang|bug|malleke' dapureng}}''; it was here, from among these historical ships, vessels and boats that many Bugis and Makassar man, woman and children braved away from their traditional heartland in search of [[Economic migrant|economic]] pursuits, prosperity and opportunities, while others embarked for an educational experience, adventure, personal dignity, military quest or prestigious political ambitions.{{sfn|Tradisi rantau masyarakat Bugis Makassar|2010}} Thus, most, if not all Bugis in the [[diaspora]] may ultimately traced their ancestral origin to one of the ''{{lang|bug|Pasompe}}''' (a term for people who sailed/ventured beyond their native soil).{{sfn|Lineton|1975|p=173-199}} Tales and trails from the past waves of sails and settlements can still be witnessed until the present day, evidently illustrated by their extensive centuries-old ethnic enclaves and various diaspora communities established throughout the islands and coastal regions of maritime Southeast Asia.

===Rice and agrarian traditions===
{{blockquote|text=
''Rice  is life  for the  Bugis''
|author= [[Leonard Andaya]], Anthropologist{{sfn|Rahmatia, et al.|2020}}
|title=
}}
[[File:Hamparan Sawah Penerima Dampak Longsonran Bawakaraeng 2014 dekat Manimbahoi di Kec Parigi.jpg|thumb|[[Terrace (earthworks)|Terraced]] paddy fields as nestled in the agricultural landscape of the Bugis-Makassar region]]
A visible departure from the extensive [[Maritime history|maritime]] and [[Seamanship|nautical]] culture dominated by their [[coast]]al brethren, the inland Bugis-Makassar country bear witness to its strong [[Agriculture|agricultural]] legacy.{{sfn|Rahmatia, et al.|2020}} Regarded as among the most important [[crop]] amongst the society, rice has been cultivated across the peninsula for centuries. The grain has been deeply ingrained to their agricultural way of life for generations. It is not only hailed as a primary [[food]] source on the [[Diet (nutrition)|diet]], but also woven into the social, legends, theories, economic, [[Politics|political]] and [[ideological]] fabric. In a sense, their traditional identity is also being coexisted by an agrarian culture.

The simple [[grain]] is regarded as among the essence of their traditions, it has indeed enjoyed a complex and long connections with the Bugis-Makassar. The earliest trace of rice in maritime Southeast Asia was found in Ulu Leang Cave, in Maros, South Sulawesi. Dated between 4000 BC to 2000 BC, the grains potentially tied up with the arrival of their Austronesian ancestors to the region, or among the earlier Toalean hunter-gatherer society.{{sfn|Pelras|1996|p=23}}{{sfn|Pelras|1996|p=39}}

Rice serves a nourishment, deeply embedded to their historical development. By the 14th century, their radical transformation from local [[warlord]]s to major kingdoms was largely coincides by the unprecedented [[population boom]] across the peninsula, which in turn being a correlated result intersected from the earlier improvement of the agricultural practices.{{sfn|Pelras|1996|p=111}}{{sfn|Druce|2009}} Blood, sweat and tears have had been shed over the soil in the quest of favorable harvests, for instance during the 16th century, the [[Ajatappareng]] confederation (constituting the Bugis states of Sidenreng, Rappang, Suppa', Bacukiki, Alitta', and Sawitto) was incorporated by the expansionist pursuit by Gowa, driven by their ambitions to control the bountiful local corps of the region.{{sfn|Nani Somba, et al.|2019}}

In their ancient beliefs and understanding, rice was perceived as a symbolism associated with providence and of creation, as well as blessing and [[joy]] by linking ancient customs, [[myth]]ology and the people. The cultivation of the grains has had led to the development of an economic life circle centered primarily around the core of agriculture. Rooted in the pre-Islamic belief system, the ''mappalili'' (paddy growing season) was organized among the Bugis to pray for a plentiful crop season, while the grand harvest festival was held by the agrarian societies act as a joyous thanksgiving conclusion after a successful harvest. Rice is also highly venerated, based on the historical Bugis manual-almanac known as ''Kutika'', only during specific schedules, day and time were permitted for cultivating activities;{{sfn|Rahmatia, et al.|2020}} at home, the rice is traditionally stored at the attic of the house, signifying its zenith position in the social order;{{sfn|Mustamin Rahim, et al.|2017}} while during war, the destruction of rice fields was perceived as a highly forbidden [[taboo]].{{sfn|Rahmatia, et al.|2020}}

The creed of Bugis-Makassar states was undoubtedly built on [[horticulture]] standing as its salient pillar. [[Rice|Rice farming]] also has influenced many other aspects of their old economic activities. During the medieval era, it become one of the earliest main commodities of [[export]]s from the South Sulawesi heartlands to the rest of the insular Southeast Asia.{{sfn|Pelras|1996|p=118}}{{sfn|Druce|2009}}{{sfn|Nani Somba, et al.|2019}} The commodities may also serves as an early guidance to their fundamental mercantile and enterprising skills, before being rapidly evolved into amongst their major tools of trade during their maritime involvement in the regional trade routes.

The rice-reigned supremacy and its strong agrarian foundations of the South Sulawesi people persist until this day. In 2022, the province was estimated to produce 5.4 million tonnes of rice, becoming among the prominent rice bowls in modern-day Indonesia.{{sfn|2022, BPS: Produksi Padi Sulsel Naik Jadi 5.431.021 Ton, Imran Jausi Sebut Dipicu Benih Mandiri|2022}}

===Festivals, celebrations and religious traditions===
The Islamisation of Bugis-Makassar states initiated by Luwu and Gowa in the 17th century has greatly morphed the religious landscape throughout the peninsula.{{sfn|Pelras|1996|p=137}} As a consequence, most of the liturgical festivals by the Bugis are primarily coordinated with the Islamic calendar, albeit embraced with a strong sense on the localized cultural orientations.

The biannual ''Hari Raya'' (eid) celebrations of [[Eid al-Fitr|Idul Fitri]] and [[Eid al-Adha|Idul Adha]] are regarded as the largest festivals for the Bugis. The Idul Fitri (known as ''Maleppe'', meaning "release" in the Bugis language) serves as a triumphal rite after completing a month of [[Fasting in Islam|fasting]] and religious activities during [[Ramadan|Ramadhan]].{{sfn|Hidayat Alsair|2019}} In the Bugis language, the term ''Mallepe'' holds a philosophical symbol as a release from the [[sin]]s and the bad habits of a person.<ref name="Massiara, Tradisi Damai Orang Bugis
">{{citation|date=2023-04-23|title=Massiara, Tradisi Damai Orang Bugis|url=https://tuturkata.com/2023/04/23/massiara-tradisi-damai-orang-bugis/|work=Tuturkata.com|access-date=2024-03-21}}</ref> While Idul Adha is a religious observance commemorating the sacrifice made by [[Abraham in Islam|Ibrahim]] ([[Abraham]]).

A day before eid many Bugis families prepare ''Burasa''' and ''Tumbu'' rice cakes in a tradition known as ''Ma'burasa'' and ''Ma'tumbu''.{{sfn|Ona Mariani|2019}} The tradition of visiting friends, relatives and holding a grand feast for visitors are also central{{snd}}known as [[Lebaran#Halal bi-halal|Massiara]], the visits usually commenced after the eid prayers.<ref name="Massiara, Tradisi Damai Orang Bugis" />

[[File:Mattompang.jpg|thumb|left|Men in formal ''Jas Tutup'' attire in the Royal Courts of Bone at a ''Mattompang'' ceremony]]
Other common traditions during eid includes ''Mabbaca-baca'', a solemn thanksgiving [[dua]] gathering and feast led by the community religious leaders known as '''Puang Anre Guru'' or ''Daeng Imam''.{{sfn|Hidayat Alsair|2019}} A visit the [[Cemetery|final resting place]] of the departed love ones is also a major commonplace during the season, in the custom known as ''Masiara Kuburu'', the [[Lebaran#Visiting graves|visit]] to the grave is regarded as a gesture of love, respect and honour.

Other Islamic holidays Bugis observe include [[Ramadan]] and ''Maulu/ma maulu''' ([[Mawlid]]), honoring the birth of [[Muhammad]], when special ceremonial meals and colorful eggs are given to the mosque attendees; ''Esso Sura'' ([[Ashura]]), remembrance of [[Muharram]], where a special porridge (known as ''Bubu Petu'' and ''Bella Pitunrupa'') are prepared, the day also marked as a major shopping period for the Bugis-Makassar, as many would traditionally buy new house utensils during the Ashura.{{sfn|Mulyadi Ma'ruf|2018}} Furthermore, the Bugis and Makassar families would also arrange ''Massuro Baca'', special ceremonial doa and feast held a week before Ramadhan to remember the departed relatives, as well as a preparation to cleanse the inner-self before the holy month.

Islamic elements are also materialized during celebrations on an individual level. Being a predominantly Muslim community, the act of ''Mabbarazanji/Barzanji'' ([[Mawlid al-Barzanjī]]), communal prayers and praise to Muhammad is regarded as among the focal points during such ceremonies. The Bugis would commonly organized a ''selamatan'' feast for divine favor, protection, thanksgiving and gratitude{{snd}}including [[Islamic marital practices|weddings]], newborn celebration, [[aqiqah]], house construction ceremony, sending a pilgrim for [[umrah]] and [[hajj]], and [[funeral]]s.

The importance of such personal and communal ceremonies collectively act as a testament of their mainstream ethnic character. It serves as a bind, propelled to their rite of passage as a [[Muslims|Muslim]] and a manifestation of their cultural identity. The events also performed as a juxtaposition, intertwined between the essence of [[religion]] and custom; together with a sense of responsibility to solidify their values into the contemporary era.

Historically, there are also some regional events deeply rooted to their ancient beliefs, reflected by their pre-Islamic past, geographical location, local demographic and occupation. In a few agrarian Bugis communities, the grand [[harvest festival]]s of ''Mappangolo Datu Ase'', ''Mappadendang'', ''Manre Sipulung'', ''Maccerak Ase'' and ''Maccerak Rakkapeng'' acted as a thanksgiving and celebratory gesture for the abundance of harvest obtained. Meanwhile, in the [[coast]]al and [[lake]]side communities where fishery industry is regarded to be in the utmost importance, they would commemorate with ''Maccera Tappareng'' and ''Maccerak Tasik''.{{sfn|Halilintar Lathief, et al.|1999|p=50}} However, with the rise of various socioeconomic and educational revolution, together with mass [[Industrialisation|industrialization]] and the introduction of modern [[History of agriculture|farming]] and fishing techniques throughout the 19th and 20th century, the collective impact of these festivals began to waned in favor of a much aligned practice with Islamic understanding among the mainstream Bugis society. Despite so, such regional celebration offered a brief outlook on the past, on a traditional ancient religion of a once agrarian community.

===Musical traditions and performing arts===
[[File:Performing cultural dance.jpg|thumb|A South Sulawesi dance performance]]
Music and dance has long occupied an integral part of the people in the South Sulawesi. It is considered as an ancient art form, pictured as a dramatic and complex encapsulation of the heritage. The Bugis performing arts can be broadly divided into four distinct categories{{snd}}entertainment medium, ritualistic performance, court dance and martial arts.

In the Bugis culture, choreography is regarded as a form of folkloric entertainment. It has enjoyed a long creative industry and maintained a close relationship with the people. It is usually presented during the communal occasions and used as a celebratory expression to commemorate significant events. The best known Bugis dance genre are ''Pajaga'', and the more lively [[Pajoge]]k{{sfn|Halilintar Lathief, et al.|1999|p=123}} — combining the elements of [[Ronggeng]], [[Jaipongan|Jaipong]] and accompanied by a pair of ''gendeng'' ([[drum]]). Other type of dances include [[Zapin|Jeppeng]], having a fusion of stronger Islamic elements; and ''Tari Paduppa'', a traditional welcome dance.

In the past, the performing arts played an extensive role on the Bugis [[ritual]]istic function and observance. During such [[magico-religious]] ceremonies, esoteric energy were present and ancient dance techniques were accomplished by a Bugis [[Shamanism|shaman]], known as ''Bissu''. The depiction was characterized by a combination of spiritual aura and artistic elements to achieve a high level of possession-[[trance]]. The practice of possession used to be conducted by a ''Bissu'' during a vital cultural rite, such as to commemorate the beginning of the ''mappalili'' ([[Paddy field|paddy]] [[growing season]]) or during the important royal functions. Among the well-known ritualistic Bugis performance includes ''Tari Maggiri'', ''Tari Alusu'' and ''Maddewata''.{{sfn|Halilintar Lathief, et al.|1999|pp=53-67}}

[[File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Korthalsluit met twee snaren TMnr 1740-4.jpg|thumb|left|''Kecapi Bugis'', one of the traditional musical instruments for songs and [[storytelling]] ]]
Martial art also serves as an outlook that mirrors the symbolic ideals of its strong [[Militarism|militaristic]] tradition{{snd}}courage, power, heroism, prestige, strength and preparation for [[war]]. Elements of [[Martial arts|martial]] skills were largely drawn from the local fighting culture and being incorporated in a repertoire of Bugis performing arts, such as in ''Manunencak/Mencak Baruga'' (Bugis [[Pencak silat|Pencak Silat]]), ''Mallanca'' and ''Masempek''. A close parallel can equally be observed in the Bugis [[war dance]]. The combatant qualities were emulated to commemorate the fortitude and spirit of the military class. The Bugis war dance of ''Penjaga Welado'', ''Pajaga Gilireng'' and ''Pajaga Mutaro'' extensively captures such rendition.{{sfn|Halilintar Lathief, et al.|1999|pp=105-115}}

Historically enjoyed a royal patronage, the Bugis [[Historical dance|court ballet]] consist of a juxtaposed movement of fast and slow; and a contrast between passive and active, such adaptation can be seen in the Bugis courtly portrayal in ''Pajaga Boneballa Anakdara'', ''Pajaga Lelengbata Tulolo'' and ''Pajaga Lili''.{{sfn|Halilintar Lathief, et al.|1999|pp=80-87}} The artistic styles constitute the essence of Bugis [[Aesthetics|aesthetic]] impulses{{snd}}involving various movements, gestures, poise, balance and music. Historically among the members of Bugis nobility, dance was perceived as a social importance to develop and mold an individual's personal qualities on ''kedo'' ([[manners|mannerism]]) and ''ampe'' ([[Speech act|speech]]) according to the royal standards and etiquettes.{{sfn|Halilintar Lathief, et al.|1999|p=40}}

The Bugis also hosted a multitude of classical instruments, including ''Soling'', [[flute]]s; ''Kacapi'' and ''Talindo'', string musical instruments; ''Jalappa/Kancing-Kancing'', a traditional [[cymbal]]; ''Aloso/Laluso'', a Bugis percussion instrument, similar to [[Shekere]]; ''Gesok–Gesok/Keso–Keso'', a Bugis-styled [[Rebab]]; ''[[Kendang|Gendrang]]'' (not to be mistaken with Makassarese "Ganrang"), a two-headed [[drum]]; and ''Puik Puik/Pui-Pui'', a classical [[trumpet]].{{sfn|Guru Dafa|2022}} As with many Sulawesian musical traditions, the Gendrang occupied a prominent and sacred role in Bugis musical traditions forming the base of many accompaniments, although somewhat less revered compared with the Makassarese. In recent years, Makassarese Ganrang traditions have eroded the education of Bugis Gendrang, although sharing many similarities, such as using multiples drums with different patterns to create syncopation.<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://ojs.unm.ac.id/pakarena/article/view/13064|doi = 10.26858/p.v3i2.13064|title = Klasifikasi Instrumen Gendang Bugis (Gendrang) Dalam Konteks Masyarakat Kabupaten Soppeng Sulawesi Selatan|year = 2020|last1 = Rachmat|first1 = Rachmat|last2 = Sumaryanto|first2 = Totok|last3 = Sunarto|first3 = Sunarto|journal = Jurnal Pakarena|volume = 3|issue = 2|page = 40|s2cid = 226030960|doi-access = free}}</ref>

The Bugis art of dance was predominantly being inherited via an oral tradition from one generation to another. To some extent, each of the artforms serves as an episode to the past and navigated as a kaleidoscopic narration on the complex development of their intricate ethnic identity{{snd}}from the once prevalent ancient ancestral beliefs led by a ''[[Gender in Bugis society|Bissu]]''; the royal court and military traditions during the classical era; the extensive bilateral cultural exchange with the Makassarese; and the subsequent Islamisation of the mainstream Bugis society.

==See also==
{{portal|Indonesia|Malaysia|Singapore}}
* [[Indonesian Malaysians#Bugis|Bugis in Malaysia]], the Bugis diaspora in Malaysia
* [[Malays in Singapore#The Bugis|Bugis in Singapore]], the Bugis diaspora in Singapore
* [[Differences between the Bugis and Makassar people]]
* [[Gender in Bugis society]], the gender interpretation amongst the classical and pre-Islamic Bugis society
* [[List of Bugis people]], a list of notable people of Bugis descent
* ''[[The Bugis]]''
* [[Austronesian expansion]]

== Notes ==
{{Notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

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 | title = Kebiasaan Makanan Khas Suku Bone di Sulawesi Selatan (Makanan Khas Burasa')
 | language = Indonesian
 | publisher =
 | year = 2018
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* {{citation
 | last = Husain, B.
 | display-authors = etal
 | title = Sailing to the Island of the Gods': Bugis Migration in Bali Island
 | publisher = Utopía y Praxis Latinoamericana
 | year = 2020
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* {{citation
 | last = Ho
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 | title = Bugis community
 | publisher = National Library Singapore
 | year = 2013
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* {{citation
 | last = Nabila Qibtiya
 | title = Suguhan Kuliner Tradisioinal Bugis
 | language = Indonesian
 | publisher =
 | year = 2019
 | location =
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* {{citation
 | last = Uli Wahyuliana
 | title = Berburu Kuliner Lebaran di Tanah Bugis
 | language = Indonesian
 | publisher = Kompasiana
 | year = 2017
 | location =
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 |last            = Syarif
 |display-authors = etal
 |title           = Sulapa Eppa As The Basic or Fundamental Philosophy of Traditional Architecture Buginese
 |publisher       = SHS Web of Conferences
 |year            = 2017
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 |ref             = {{harvid|Syarif, et al.|2017}}
}}
* {{citation
 | last=Mustamin Rahim
 | display-authors=etal
 | title=Characteristics of Buginese Traditional Houses and their Response to Sustainability and Pandemics
 | journal=E3S Web of Conferences
 | year=2021
 | volume=328
 | article-number=10015
 | doi=10.1051/e3sconf/202132810015
 | bibcode=2021E3SWC.32810015R
 | s2cid=244938941
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* {{citation
 | last = Pelras
 | first = Christian
 | title = Orality and writing among the Bugis
 | publisher = Penerbit USM
 | year = 2016
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* {{citation
 | last = Macknight
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 | title = The Media of Bugis Literacy: A Coda to Pelras
 | publisher = International Journal of Asia-Pacific Studies
 | year = 2016
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* {{citation
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 | title = Orality, writing and history: The literature of the Bugis and Makasar of South Sulawesi
 | publisher =
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* {{citation
 |last            = Halilintar Lathief
 |display-authors = etal
 |title           = Tari Daerah Bugis
 |language        = Indonesian
 |publisher       = Pustaka Wisata Budaya
 |year            = 1999
 |location        =
 |isbn            =
 |url             = http://repositori.kemdikbud.go.id/8277/1/TARI%20DAERAH%20BUGIS.pdf
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}}
* {{citation
 | last = Hidayat Alsair
 | title = Sarat Nilai Lokal, Ini Tiga Tradisi Iduladha di Sulawesi Selatan
 | work = IDN Times Sulsel
 | language = Indonesian
 | year = 2019
 | location =
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* {{citation
 | last = Ona Mariani
 | title = Tradisi Ma'burasa dan Ma'tumbu Jelang Hari Raya
 | language = Indonesian
 | publisher = Read Times
 | year = 2021
 | location =
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 | ref = {{harvid|Ona Mariani|2019}}
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* {{citation
 | last = Mulyadi Ma'ruf
 | title = Filosofi Beli Alat Dapur di 10 Muharram Tradisi Bugis Makassar
 | language = Indonesian
 | publisher = Pijar News
 | year = 2018
 | location =
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 | url = https://www.pijarnews.com/video-filosofi-beli-alat-dapur-di-10-muharram-tradisi-bugis-makassar/
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* {{citation
 | last =
 | first =
 | title = Representasi Badik sebagai simbol kearifan lokal Bugis-Makassar
 | language = Indonesian
 | publisher = Kumparan Travel
 | year = 2020
 | location =
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 | ref = {{harvid|Representasi Badik sebagai simbol kearifan lokal Bugis-Makassar|2020}}
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* {{citation
 | last = Muslimin
 | title = Sejarah Keris Bugis dan Perjalanan Panjangnya ke Pangkuan Ibu Pertiwi
 | language = Indonesian
 | publisher = Uin Alauddin Makassar
 | year = 2018
 | location =
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 | url = https://kumparan.com/kumparantravel/sejarah-keris-bugis-dan-perjalanan-panjangnya-ke-pangkuan-ibu-pertiwi-1uiOK4DZ77X
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* {{citation
 | last =
 | first =
 | title = Senjata Tradisional Sulawesi Selatan, Ini 8 Alat Khas Suku Bugis
 | language = Indonesian
 | publisher = Kumparan
 | year = 2021
 | location =
 | isbn =
 | url = https://kumparan.com/viral-food-travel/senjata-tradisional-sulawesi-selatan-ini-8-alat-khas-suku-bugis-1wAzn6JTbWe/full
 | ref = {{harvid|Senjata Tradisional Sulawesi Selatan, Ini 8 Alat Khas Suku Bugis|2021}}
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* {{citation
 | last =
 | first =
 | title = Mengenal Senjata Tradisional Sulawesi Selatan, Ada Kawali hingga Tappi
 | language = Indonesian
 | publisher = Makassar Tribunnews
 | year = 2021
 | location =
 | isbn =
 | url = https://makassar.tribunnews.com/2021/05/22/mengenal-senjata-tradisional-sulawesi-selatan-ada-kawali-hingga-tappi
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* {{citation
 | last = Guru Dafa
 | title = Alat Musik Tradisional Bugis
 | language = Indonesian
 | publisher = RumusSoal.com
 | year = 2022
 | location =
 | isbn =
 | url = https://rumussoal.com/alat-musik-tradisional-bugis/
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* {{citation
 | last =  Lamima
 | title =  Phinisi: A symbol of Indonesia's seafaring traditions
 | publisher =  Lamima.com
 | year =  2020
 | location = 
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 | url =  https://www.lamima.com/phinisi-a-symbol-of-indonesias-seafaring-tradition/
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* {{citation
 | last = Munsi Lampe
 | title = Tradisi pelayaran pelaut Bugis-Makassar dan reproduksi wawasan geo-sosio-budaya maritim Nusantara dan global
 | language = Indonesian
 | publisher = Munsi Lampe
 | year = 2014
 | location =
 | isbn =
 | url = https://pdfslide.net/documents/makalah-tradisi-pelayaran-pelaut-bugis-makassar-dan-reproduksi-wawasan-geo-sosio-budaya.html
 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20220408014117/https://pdfslide.net/documents/makalah-tradisi-pelayaran-pelaut-bugis-makassar-dan-reproduksi-wawasan-geo-sosio-budaya.html
 | url-status = usurped
 | archive-date = 8 April 2022
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* {{citation
 | last = Mellefont
 | first = Jeffrey
 | title = Pinisi and the art of boatbuilding in Sulawesi recognised by UNESCO
 | publisher = Australia National Maritime Museum
 | year = 2018
 | location =
 | isbn =
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* {{citation
 | last =
 | first =
 | title = Tradisi rantau masyarakat Bugis Makassar
 | language = Indonesian
 | publisher = Kompasiana
 | year = 2010
 | location =
 | isbn =
 | url = https://www.kompasiana.com/muhlis_lamuru/55001b65a33311a87250fd3a/tradisi-rantau-masyarakat-bugis-makassar
 | ref = {{harvid|Tradisi rantau masyarakat Bugis Makassar|2010}}
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* {{citation
 |last            = Rahmatia
 |display-authors = etal
 |title           = Eco-phenomenology in the local concept of Buginese agriculture based on Kutika manuscript
 |journal         = E3S Web of Conferences
 |publisher       = Universitas Indonesia
 |year            = 2020
 |volume          = 211
 |page            = 01008
 |doi             = 10.1051/e3sconf/202021101008
 |bibcode         = 2020E3SWC.21101008R
 |s2cid           = 229647743
 |url             = https://www.researchgate.net/publication/347169207
 |ref             = {{harvid|Rahmatia, et al.|2020}}
 |doi-access      = free
}}
* {{citation
 |last            = Nani Somba
 |display-authors = etal
 |title           = Mistifikasi ritual sistem pertanian tradisional masyarakat Ajatappareng, Sulawesi Selatan
 |language        = Indonesian
 |publisher       = Jurnal Walennae
 |year            = 2019
 |location        =
 |isbn            =
 |url             = https://www.researchgate.net/publication/338947302
 |ref             = {{harvid|Nani Somba, et al.|2019}}
}}
* {{citation
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 | language = Indonesian
 | publisher = sulselprov.go.id
 | year = 2021
 | location =
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 | ref = {{harvid| 2022, BPS: Produksi Padi Sulsel Naik Jadi 5.431.021 Ton, Imran Jausi Sebut Dipicu Benih Mandiri|2022}}
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* {{citation
 | last = Lineton
 | first = Jacqueline
 | title = Pasompe' Ugi': Bugis Migrants and Wanderers
 | journal = Archipel
 | publisher = Archipel10
 | year = 1975
 | volume = 10
 | pages = 173–201
 | doi = 10.3406/arch.1975.1248
 | url = https://www.persee.fr/doc/arch_0044-8613_1975_num_10_1_1248
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* {{citation
 | last = Hasbi
 | display-authors=etal
 | title = Sappo: Sulapa Eppa Walasuji as the Ideas of Creation Three Dimensional Painting
 | publisher = Dewa Ruci: Jurnal Pengkajian dan Penciptaan Seni
 | year = 2021
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}}
* {{citation
 | last = Nur Azizah
 | title = Realitas Pertukaran Sosial Masyarakat Duri pada Hari Pasar di Baraka Kabupaten Enrekang
 | publisher = Universitas Muhammadiyah Makassar
 | year = 2017
 | location =
 | isbn =
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}}
* {{citation
 | last = Bigalke
 | first = Terance W.
 | title = Tana Toraja: A Social History of an Indonesian People
 | publisher = Singapore University Press
 | year = 2005
 | location = Singapore
 | isbn = 9971-69-313-5
 | url =
}}
{{refend}}

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