View source for Buddhist ethics

{{short description|Ethics in Buddhism}}
[[File:Ashoka%27s Pillar%2C Vaishali.jpg|thumb|The Buddhist king [[Ashoka]] built [[Pillars of Ashoka|pillars]] throughout the [[Indian subcontinent]] inscribed with edicts promoting Buddhist moral virtues and precepts.]]
{{buddhism}}

'''Buddhist ethics''' are traditionally based on the [[Enlightenment in Buddhism|enlightened]] perspective of the [[Buddha]].<ref>Goodman, Charles, "Ethics in Indian and Tibetan Buddhism", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Summer 2021 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), URL = <https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2021/entries/ethics-indian-buddhism/>.
</ref> In [[Buddhism]], ethics or morality are understood by the term ''śīla'' ({{Langx|sa|शील}}) or ''sīla'' ([[Pāli]]). ''Śīla'' is one of three sections of the [[Noble Eightfold Path]]. It is a code of conduct that emulates a natural inborn nature that embraces a commitment to harmony, equanimity, and self-regulation, primarily motivated by [[nonviolence]] or freedom from causing harm. It has been variously described as [[virtue]],<ref>Gethin (1998), p. 170; Harvey (2007), p. 199; Ñā{{IAST|ṇ}}amoli (1999), pp. 3 ''passim''; Nyanatiloka (1988), [http://www.budsas.org/ebud/bud-dict/dic3_s.htm entry for "sīla"]; {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160613033615/http://www.budsas.org/ebud/bud-dict/dic3_s.htm |date=June 13, 2016 }} [http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/study/perfections.html Thanissaro (1999)]; [https://web.archive.org/web/20160613033615/http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/study/perfections.html June 1389; Nyanatiloka (1988)], [http://www.budsas.org/ebud/bud-dict/dic3_s.htm entry for "sīla"]; and Saddhatissa (1987), pp. 54, 56.</ref> moral discipline<ref>Bodhi (2005), p. 153.</ref> uprightness and [[precept]], skillful conduct.

In contrast to the english word "morality" (i.e., obedience, a sense of obligation, and external constraint), Sīla is a resolve to connect with what is believed to be our innate ethical compass. It is an intentional ethical behaviour that is refined and clarified through walking the path toward liberation.

''Sīla'' is one of the [[Threefold Training|three practices]] foundational to Buddhism and the non-sectarian [[Vipassana movement]]; ''sīla,'' ''[[Samadhi#Buddhism|samādhi]]'', and ''[[Prajñā (Buddhism)|paññā]]'' as well as the [[Theravada|Theravadin]] foundations of ''sīla'', ''[[dāna]]'', and ''[[bhavana]]''. It is also the second ''[[Paramita|pāramitā]]''.<ref>Horner, I.B. (trans.) (1975; reprinted 2000). The Minor Anthologies of the Pali Canon (Part III): 'Chronicle of Buddhas' (Buddhavamsa) and 'Basket of Conduct' (Cariyapitaka). Oxford: Pali Text Society. {{ISBN|0-86013-072-X}}</ref> ''Sīla'' is the wholehearted commitment to what is wholesome that grows with experience of practice. Two aspects of ''sīla'' are essential to the training: right "performance" (''caritta''), and right "avoidance" (''varitta''). Honoring the precepts of ''sīla'' is considered a "great gift" (mahadana) to others because it creates an atmosphere of trust, respect, and security. It means that the practitioner poses no threat to anothers life, family, rights, well-being or property.<ref>Living This Life Fully:  Teachings of Anagarika Munindra, by Mirka Knaster Ph.D., Shambhala Publications, USA, 2010. Pg. 67</ref>

Moral instructions are included in Buddhist scriptures or handed down through tradition. Most scholars of Buddhist ethics thus rely on the examination of [[Buddhist scriptures]] and the use of anthropological evidence from traditional Buddhist societies to justify claims about the nature of Buddhist ethics.<ref>Damien Keown ''The Nature of Buddhist Ethics'' Macmillan 1992; Peter Harvey ''An Introduction to Buddhist Ethics'' Cambridge University Press 2000</ref>

== Foundations ==
The universal source for Buddhist ethics are the [[Three Jewels]] of the [[Buddha]], [[Dharma#Buddhism|Dharma]] and [[Sangha (Buddhism)|Sangha]]. The Buddha is seen as the originator  of liberating knowledge and hence is the foremost teacher. The Dharma is both the teachings of the Buddha's path and the truths of these teachings. The Sangha is the community of noble ones (ariya) who practice the Dharma and have attained some knowledge, and can thus provide guidance and preserve the teachings. Having proper understanding of the teachings is vital for proper ethical conduct. The Buddha taught that [[right view]], also referred to as right intention and right action, was a necessary prerequisite for right conduct.

=== The Four Noble Truths ===
The [[Four Noble Truths]] are at the foundation of Buddhist ethics:
* ''[[dukkha]]'' (suffering, incapable of satisfying, painful) is an innate characteristic of existence with each rebirth;<ref name="EB-4NTa">[https://www.britannica.com/topic/Four-Noble-Truths Four Noble Truths: BUDDHIST PHILOSOPHY], Encyclopaedia Britannica, Quote: "The first truth, suffering (Pali: dukkha; Sanskrit: duhkha), is characteristic of existence in the realm of rebirth, called samsara (literally “wandering”)."</ref><ref name=buswell4NTa>{{cite book|title=Encyclopedia of Buddhism|editor=Robert E Buswell Jr|publisher=MacMillan Reference, Thomson Gale|year=2004|isbn=0-02-865718-7|author=Carol Anderson|pages=295–297}}, Quote: "This, bhikkhus, is the noble truth that is suffering. Birth is suffering; old age is suffering; illness is suffering; death is suffering; sorrow and grief, physical and mental suffering, and disturbance are suffering. [...]  In short, all life is suffering, according to the Buddha’s first sermon."</ref><ref name="Keown2013p50">{{cite book|author=Damien Keown|title=Buddhism: A Very Short Introduction|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_QXX0Uq29aoC|year=2013|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-966383-5|pages=50–52}}</ref>
*''[[samudaya]]'' (origin, cause) of this ''dukkha'' is the "craving, desire or attachment";<ref name="EB-4NTb">[https://www.britannica.com/topic/Four-Noble-Truths Four Noble Truths: BUDDHIST PHILOSOPHY], Encyclopaedia Britannica, Quote: "The second truth is the origin (Pali and Sanskrit: samudaya) or cause of suffering, which the Buddha associated with craving or attachment in his first sermon."</ref><ref name=buswell4NTb>{{cite book|title=Encyclopedia of Buddhism|editor=Robert E Buswell Jr|publisher=MacMillan Reference, Thomson Gale|year=2004|isbn=0-02-865718-7|author=Carol Anderson|pages=295–297}}, Quote: "The second truth is samudaya (arising or origin). To end suffering, the four noble truths tell us, one needs to know how and why suffering arises. The second noble truth explains that suffering arises because of craving, desire, and attachment."</ref><ref name="Keown2013p53">{{cite book|author=Damien Keown|title=Buddhism: A Very Short Introduction|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_QXX0Uq29aoC|year=2013|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-966383-5|pages=53–55}}</ref>
*''[[nirodha]]'' (cessation, ending) of this ''dukkha'' can be attained by eliminating all "craving, desire, and attachment";<ref name=buswell4NTc>{{cite book|title=Encyclopedia of Buddhism|editor=Robert E Buswell Jr|publisher=MacMillan Reference, Thomson Gale|year=2004|isbn=0-02-865718-7|author=Carol Anderson|pages=295–297}}, Quote: "The third truth follows from the second: If the cause of suffering is desire and attachment to various things, then the way to end suffering is to eliminate craving, desire, and attachment. The third truth is called nirodha, which means “ending” or “cessation.” To stop suffering, one must stop desiring."</ref><ref name="Keown2013p56">{{cite book|author=Damien Keown|title=Buddhism: A Very Short Introduction|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=_QXX0Uq29aoC|year=2013|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-966383-5|pages=56–58}}</ref>
*''[[Buddhist paths to awakening|magga]]'' (path, [[Noble Eightfold Path]]) is the means to end this ''dukkha''.<ref name=buswell4NTd>{{cite book|title=Encyclopedia of Buddhism|editor=Robert E Buswell Jr|publisher=MacMillan Reference, Thomson Gale|year=2004|isbn=0-02-865718-7|author=Carol Anderson|pages=295–297}}, Quote: "This, bhikkhus, is the noble truth that is the way leading to the ending of suffering. This is the eightfold path of the noble ones: right view, right intention, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration.[..] The Buddha taught the fourth truth, maarga (Pali, magga), the path that has eight parts, as the means to end suffering."</ref><ref name="Keown2013p58">{{cite book|author=Damien Keown|title=Buddhism: A Very Short Introduction|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=_QXX0Uq29aoC|year=2013|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-966383-5|pages=58–60}}</ref>{{sfn|Norman|2003|pp=219, 222}}

The Four Noble Truths express the central problem motivating Buddhist ethics—the need for liberation from suffering. According to the first Noble Truth, worldly existence is fraught with suffering (''dukkha''). ''Dukkha'' is seen to arise from craving, and putting an end to craving can lead to liberation ([[Nirvana (Buddhism)|Nirvana]]). Cravings may be foregone by following the Noble Eightfold Path taught by the Buddha, which includes the ethical elements of right speech, right action and right livelihood. From the point of view of the Four Noble Truths, an action is seen as ethical if it is conductive to the elimination of ''dukkha''. Understanding the truth of ''dukkha'' in life allows one to analyze the factors for its arising, that is craving, and allows us to feel compassion and empathy for others. By appreciating ''dukkha,'' one compares oneself with others and applies the [[Golden Rule]].<ref>Peter Harvey ''An Introduction to Buddhist Ethics'' Cambridge University Press 2000</ref> From the Buddhist perspective, an act is also moral if it promotes spiritual development by conforming to the Eightfold Path and leading to Nirvana. In Mahayana Buddhism, an emphasis is made on the giving of loving kindness for the liberation of all beings, and ''[[bodhisattvas]]'' are believed to work tirelessly for the liberation of all.

=== Karma and rebirth ===
[[File:The wheel of life%2C Trongsa dzong.jpg|thumb|The ''[[bhavacakra]]'' (wheel of life) shows the realms of karmic rebirth, at its hub are the three poisons of greed, hatred and delusion.]]

The principle governing suffering and liberation from it is the law of [[karma]], often understood to involve [[Rebirth (Buddhism)|rebirth]]. Karma literally means "action" and can also refer to the consequences of action.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Garfield |first=Jay |title=Buddhist Ethics |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2022 |page=14}}</ref> Suffering, both in the present and the future, is perpetuated by wrong action and ended by right action. The Buddha is recorded to have stated that right view consisted in believing that (among other things): {{"'}}there is fruit and ripening of deeds well done or ill done': what one does matters and has an effect on one's future; 'there is this world, there is a world beyond': this world is not unreal, and one goes on to another world after death" ([[Majjhima Nikaya|MN]] 117, Maha-cattarisaka Sutta). Although the doctrine of rebirth has been avowed by many Buddhists, it is rejected by many East Asian Buddhists, and some modern scholars regard it as inessential to Buddhist ethics.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Garfield |first=Jay |title=Buddhist Ethics |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2022 |page=25}}</ref>

In the Buddhist conception, Karma can refer to a certain type of moral action which has moral consequences on the actor.<ref name="Keown, Damien pg 5">Keown, Damien; Buddhist Ethics A Very Short Introduction, pg 5.</ref> The core of karma is the mental intention, and hence the Buddha stated "It is intention (cetana), O monks, that I call karma; having willed one acts through body, speech, or mind" ([[Anguttara Nikaya|AN]] 6.63). Therefore, accidentally hurting someone is not bad Karma, but having hurtful thoughts is. Buddhist ethics sees these patterns of motives and actions as conditioning future actions and circumstances – the fruit ([[Phala]]) of one's present actions, including the condition and place of the actor's future life circumstances (though these can also be influenced by other random factors).<ref name="Keown, Damien pg 5" /> One's past actions are said to mold one's consciousness and to leave seeds ([[Bīja]]) which later ripen in the next life. The goal of Buddhist practice is generally to break the cycle, though one can also work for rebirth in a better condition through good deeds.

The root or essence that is the foundation of one's intention is what conditions an action to be good or bad. There are three good roots (non-attachment, benevolence, and understanding) and [[Three poisons (Buddhism)|three negative roots]] (greed, hatred and delusion). Actions which produce good outcomes are termed "[[Merit (Buddhism)|merit]]" (puñña – fruitful, auspicious) and obtaining merit (good karma) is an important goal of lay Buddhist practice. The [[early Buddhist texts]] mention three 'bases for effecting karmic fruitfulness' (''puñña-kiriya-vatthus''): giving (dana), moral virtue (sila) and meditation (bhāvanā).<ref>Peter Harvey ''An Introduction to Buddhist Ethics'' Cambridge University Press 2000, page 19.</ref> One's state of mind while performing good actions is seen as more important than the action itself. The Buddhist Sangha is seen as the most meritorious "field of merit". Negative actions accumulate bad karmic results, though one's regret and attempts to make up for it can ameliorate these results.

=== Precepts ===
[[File:Dennis Genpo Merzel Jukai (Shasui).jpg|thumb|In the [[Zen Buddhist]] initiation ceremony of [[Buddhist initiation ritual#Sōtō school|Jukai]], initiates take up the [[Bodhisattva Precepts]].]]
{{Main|Five Precepts}}
The foundation of Buddhist ethics for laypeople is [[The Five Precepts]] which are common to all Buddhist schools. The precepts or "five moral virtues" (''pañca-silani'') are not commands but a set of voluntary commitments or guidelines,{{sfn|Keown |2003 |page=268 }} to help one live a life in which one is happy, without worries, and able to meditate well. The precepts are supposed to prevent suffering and to weaken the effects of greed, hatred and delusion. They were the basic moral instructions which the Buddha gave to laypeople and monks alike. Breaking one's sīla as pertains to sexual conduct introduces harmfulness towards one's practice or the practice of another person if it involves uncommitted relationship.<ref name="Peter Harvey 2001, pages 195-196">Stewart McFarlane in Peter Harvey, ed., ''Buddhism.'' Continuum, 2001, pages 195-196.</ref> When one "goes for refuge" to the Buddha's teachings one formally takes the five precepts,{{sfn |Terwiel |2012 |p=181}} which are:<ref name="bodhimonastery">{{cite web|title=Bodhi Monastery: the Five Precepts|url=http://www.bodhimonastery.net/bm/precepts.html|access-date=2011-03-14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101123211604/http://bodhimonastery.net/bm/precepts.html|archive-date=2010-11-23|url-status=dead}}</ref>

# I undertake the training rule to abstain from taking life;
# I undertake the training rule to abstain from taking what is not given;
# I undertake the training rule to abstain from sexual misconduct;
# I undertake the training rule to abstain from false speech;
# I undertake the training rule to abstain from liquors, wines, and other intoxicants(traditional also the inclusion of acrid herbs and food), which are the basis for heedlessness.

Buddhists often take the precepts in formal ceremonies with members of the monastic Sangha, though they can also be undertaken as private personal commitments.{{sfn |Harvey |2000 |p=80}} Keeping each precept is said to develop its opposite positive virtue.{{sfn|Edelglass|2013|p=479}} Abstaining from killing for example develops kindness and compassion,{{sfn |Harvey |2000 |p=68}} while abstaining from stealing develops non-attachment, honesty and trustworthiness.{{sfn |Gwynne |2017 |loc=The Buddhist Pancasila}} The precepts have been connected with [[utilitarianism]], and [[deontological|deontology]]{{sfn|Keown|2013 |page=618}} and [[virtue ethics|virtue]] approaches to ethics.{{sfn|Edelglass|2013|p=481}} They have been compared with human rights because of their universal nature.{{sfn |Keown |2012 |pages=31{{en dash}}4}}{{sfn |Seeger |2010 |p=78}}{{Sfn |Ledgerwood |Un |2010 |p=541}}{{sfn |Seeger |2010 |pp=78, 85}}

Undertaking and upholding the five precepts is based on the principle of [[ahimsa|non-harming]] ([[Pāli]] and [[Sanskrit]]: {{Transliteration|sa|ahiṃsa}}).{{sfn|Keown|2013 |page=616}} The [[Pali Canon]] recommends one to compare oneself with others, and on the basis of that, not to hurt others.{{sfn |Harvey |2000 |pages=33, 71, 120}} Compassion{{sfn |Ratanakul |2007 |page=241 }} and a belief in [[karma (Buddhism)|karmic retribution]]{{sfn |Horigan |1996 |page=276}}form the foundation of the precepts.

The first precept consists of a prohibition of killing, both humans and all animals. Scholars have interpreted Buddhist texts about the precepts as an opposition to and prohibition of capital punishment,{{sfn |Alarid |Wang |2001 |pages=236{{en dash}}7}} suicide, abortion{{sfn |Keown |2016a |p=213}}{{sfn |Perrett |2000 |page=110}} and euthanasia.{{sfn |Keown |2016b |page=170}} The second precept prohibits theft. The third precept refers to adultery in all its forms, and has been defined by modern teachers with terms such as ''sexual responsibility'' and ''long-term commitment''.<!--71-2--> The fourth precept involves falsehood spoken or committed to by action, as well as malicious speech, harsh speech and gossip.<!--74, 76-->{{sfn |Harvey |2000 |pp=71{{en dash}}2, 74, 76}} The fifth precept prohibits intoxication through alcohol, drugs or other means.{{sfn |Gwynne |2017 |loc=The Buddhist Pancasila}}{{sfn |Wijayaratna |1990 |pages=166{{en dash}}7}} Early Buddhist texts nearly always condemn alcohol,{{sfn |Harvey |2000 |p=77}} and so do Chinese Buddhist post-canonical texts.{{sfn |Harvey |2000 |pp=77{{en dash}}8}}{{sfn |Benn |2005 |pages=225{{en dash}}6}} In practice however, many [[Householder (Buddhism)|lay Buddhists]] do not adhere to this precept and drinking is common in many Buddhist majority countries.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Neumaier |first1=Eva |title=Buddhism: Māhayāna Buddhism - Worldmark encyclopedia of religious practices |date=2006 |publisher=Thomson Gale |location=Detroit, Mich. |isbn=978-0-7876-9390-9 |page=78}}</ref>{{sfn |Terwiel |2012 |p=185}} Buddhist attitudes toward smoking differ per time and region, but are generally permissive.{{sfn |Harvey |2000 |p=79}}{{sfn |Vanphanom |Phengsavanh |Hansana |Menorath |2009 |page=100}} In modern times, traditional Buddhist countries have seen revival movements to promote the five precepts.{{sfn|Ledgerwood|2008|page=153}}<ref>{{cite news|script-title=th:39 ล้านคนร่วมหมู่บ้านศีล 5 สมเด็จพระมหารัชมังคลาจารย์ ย้ำทำต่อเนื่อง|trans-title=39 million people have joined ''Villages Practicing Five Precepts'', Somdet Phra Maharatchamangalacharn affirms it should be continued|url=https://www.thairath.co.th/content/969738|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171121085832/https://www.thairath.co.th/content/969738|archive-date=21 November 2017|url-status=live|work=[[Thai Rath]]|publisher=Wacharapol|date=11 March 2017|language=th}}</ref> As for the West, the precepts play a major role in Buddhist organizations.{{sfn |Kaza |2000 |page=24}}

There is also a more strict set of precepts called the eight precepts which are taken at specific religious days or religious retreats. The [[eight precepts]] encourage further discipline and are modeled on the monastic code. In the [[eight precepts]], the third precept on sexual misconduct is made more strict and becomes a precept of celibacy. The three additional rules of the Eight Precepts are:<ref name="bodhimonastery" />
<ol start="6">
<li>"I accept the training rule to abstain from food at improper times." (e.g. no solid foods after noon, and not until dawn the following day)</li>
<li>"I accept the training rule (a) to abstain from dancing, singing, instrumental music, and shows, and (b) from the use of jewelry, cosmetics, and beauty lotions."</li>
<li>"I accept the training rule to abstain from the use of high and luxurious beds and seats."</li>
</ol>

[[Samanera|Novice-monks]] use the [[Ten Precepts (Buddhism)|ten precepts]] while fully ordained Buddhist monks also have a larger set of monastic precepts, called the [[Prātimokṣa]] (227 rules for monks in the Theravādin recension). Monks are supposed to be celibate and are also traditionally not allowed to touch money. The rules and code of conduct for monks and nuns is outlined in the [[Vinaya]]. The precise content of the [[vinayapitaka|scriptures on ''vinaya'']] (''vinayapiṭaka'') differ slightly according to different schools, and different schools or subschools set different standards for the degree of adherence to the ''vinaya''.

In [[Mahayana Buddhism]], another common set of moral guidelines are the [[Bodhisattva vows]] and the [[Bodhisattva Precepts]] or the "Ten Great Precepts". The Bodhisattva Precepts which is derived from the Mahayana [[Brahmajala Sutra (Mahayana)|Brahmajala Sutra]] include the Five precepts with some other additions such as the precept against slandering the Buddha's teachings. These exist above and beyond the existing monastic code, or lay follower precepts.<ref name="bodiford">{{cite book | last = Bodiford | first = William M. | author-link=William Bodiford|title = Soto Zen in Medieval Japan (Studies in East Asian Buddhism) | publisher = University of Hawaii Press | year = 2008 | isbn = 978-0-8248-3303-9 | pages=22–36}}</ref> The Brahmajala Sutra also includes a list of 48 minor precepts which prohibit the eating of meat, storing of weapons, teaching for the sake of profit, abandoning Mahayana teachings and teaching non Mahayana Dharma. These precepts have no parallel in [[Theravada|Theravāda]] Buddhism.

=== Ten wholesome actions ===
Another common formulation of Buddhist ethical action in the early Buddhist texts is the "path of the ten good actions" or "ten skilled karma paths" (Pali: ''dasa-kusala-kammapatha,'' Sanskrit: ''daśa-kuśala-karmapatha'') which are "in accordance with [[Dharma (Buddhism)|Dharma]]".<ref>Bhikkhu Khantipalo, The Wheel of Birth and Death, Collected Wheel Publications Volume X: Numbers 132–151</ref><ref>Schweiker, William (ed.) The Blackwell Companion to Religious Ethics, p. 292.</ref><ref>T. H. Perera, The Way of the Noble, Buddhist Publication Society Kandy, Sri Lanka, The Wheel Publication No. 126</ref><ref>Piya Tan, The Path of Awakening The way, the life and the liberation of the noble eightfold path, 2016, Singapore, p. 57.</ref>

These are divided into three bodily actions (''kaya kamma''), four verbal actions (''vaci kamma'') and three mental actions (''mano kamma'') all of which are said to cause "unskillful qualities to decline while skillful qualities grow".<ref>Pa Auk Sayadaw, The workings of Kamma, p. 117.</ref> These ten paths are discussed in suttas such as ''[[Majjhima Nikaya]]'' MN 41 (''Sāleyyaka Sutta''), and MN 114:<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://suttacentral.net/mn114/en/sujato|title=MN 114, Sujato (Trans), SuttaCentral|website=SuttaCentral|access-date=2018-10-18}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.wisdompubs.org/book/middle-length-discourses-buddha/selections/middle-length-discourses-41-saleyyaka-sutta|title=MN 41{{!}}The Middle Length Discourses of the Buddha – Selections {{!}} Wisdom Publications|website=www.wisdompubs.org|language=en|access-date=2018-10-18|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181019001636/https://www.wisdompubs.org/book/middle-length-discourses-buddha/selections/middle-length-discourses-41-saleyyaka-sutta|archive-date=2018-10-19|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Bodily actions:

# "Someone gives up killing living creatures", they "renounce the rod and the sword", "They're scrupulous and kind, living full of compassion for all living beings."
# "They give up stealing. They don't, with the intention to commit theft, take the wealth or belongings of others from village or wilderness."
# "They give up sexual misconduct. They don't have sexual relations with women who have their mother, father, both mother and father, brother, sister, relatives, or clan as guardian. They don't have sexual relations with a woman who is protected on principle, or who has a husband, or whose violation is punishable by law, or even one who has been garlanded as a token of betrothal."

Verbal actions:

# "A certain person gives up lying. They're summoned to a council, an assembly, a family meeting, a guild, or to the royal court, and asked to bear witness: 'Please, mister, say what you know.' Not knowing, they say 'I don't know.' Knowing, they say 'I know.' Not seeing, they say 'I don't see.' And seeing, they say 'I see.' So they don't deliberately lie for the sake of themselves or another, or for some trivial worldly reason."
# "They give up divisive speech. They don't repeat in one place what they heard in another so as to divide people against each other. Instead, they reconcile those who are divided, supporting unity, delighting in harmony, loving harmony, speaking words that promote harmony."
# "They give up harsh speech. They speak in a way that's mellow, pleasing to the ear, lovely, going to the heart, polite, likable and agreeable to the people."
# "They give up talking nonsense. Their words are timely, true, and meaningful, in line with the teaching and training. They say things at the right time which are valuable, reasonable, succinct, and beneficial."

Mental actions:

# "It's when someone is content. They don't covet the wealth and belongings of others: 'Oh, if only their belongings were mine!' They have a kind heart and loving intentions: 'May these sentient beings live free of enmity and ill will, untroubled and happy!{{'"}}
# "It's when someone is content, and lives with their heart full of contentment. They are loving, and live with their heart full of love. They're kind, and live with their heart full of kindness."
# "It's when someone has such a view: 'There is meaning in giving, sacrifice, and offerings. There are fruits and results of good and bad deeds. There is an afterlife. There are duties to mother and father. There are beings reborn spontaneously. And there are ascetics and brahmins who are well attained and practiced, and who describe the afterlife after realizing it with their own insight.{{'"}}
These ten paths are also commonly taught in [[Mahayana]] and [[Vajrayana]] Buddhism as foundational ethical teachings.<ref>{{Cite web |title=daśa-kuśala-karmapatha |url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095701767 |access-date=2023-10-21 |website=Oxford Reference |language=en }}</ref>

=== Bases of meritorious actions ===
Yet another common ethical list in the Pali tradition is the "ten bases of meritorious action" (''Dasa Puñña-kiriya Vatthu'').<ref name=":0">Bhikkhu Khantipalo, The Advantages of Merit, Number 38 in "Collected Bodhi Leaves Volume II: Numbers 31 to 60".</ref><ref name=":1">K. Sri Dhammananda Maha Thera, [http://www.buddhanet.net/pdf_file/whatbelieve.pdf What Buddhists Believe expanded 4th edition, 2002], p. 218.</ref><ref name=":2">Nyanatiloka Thera, Buddhist Dictionary: Manual of Buddhist Terms and Doctrines, p. 160.</ref> As noted by [[Nyanatiloka]] Thera, some texts ([[Itivuttaka]] 60) only mention three of these but later [[Atthakatha|Pali commentaries]] expanded these to ten, and the list of ten is a popular list in [[Theravada]] countries.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3">Crosby, Kate (2013), Theravada Buddhism: Continuity, Diversity, and Identity, Wiley-Blackwell, pp. 118-119.</ref> [[Itivuttaka|Ittivuttaka]] #60 says:<blockquote>Bhikkhus, there are these three grounds for making merit. What three? The ground for making merit consisting in giving, the ground for making merit consisting in virtue, and the ground for making merit consisting in mind-development. These are the three.</blockquote><blockquote>One should train in deeds of merit, that yield long-lasting happiness: Generosity, a balanced life, developing a loving mind. By cultivating these three things, deeds yielding happiness, the wise person is reborn in bliss, in an untroubled happy world.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://suttacentral.net/iti60/en/ireland|title=Itivuttaka 60, Ireland (trans.) SuttaCentral|website=SuttaCentral|access-date=2018-10-18}}</ref></blockquote>According to Nyanatiloka, [[Digha Nikaya]] 30 also mentions several related meritorious behaviors.<ref name=":2" /> D.N. 30 mentions various exemplary meritorious actions done by the Buddha such as:<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://suttacentral.net/dn30/en/sujato|title=DN 30, Sujato (trans.) SuttaCentral|website=SuttaCentral|access-date=2018-10-18}}</ref><blockquote>...good conduct by way of body, speech, giving and sharing, taking precepts, observing the sabbath, paying due respect to mother and father, ascetics and brahmins, honoring the elders in the family, and various other things pertaining to skillful behaviors.

Truth, principle, self-control, and restraint; giving, harmlessness, delighting in non-violence...

giving and helping others, kindly speech, and equal treatment, such action and conduct as brought people together...</blockquote>The later expanded listing of ten bases is as follows:<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" />

* [[Dāna|Giving or charity]] (''dāna''), This is widely done by giving "the four requisites" to monks; food, clothing, shelter, and medicine. However giving to the needy is also a part of this.
* Morality (''sīla''), Keeping the five precepts, generally non-harming.
* [[Bhavana|Mental cultivation]] (''bhāvanā'').
* Paying due [[respect]] to those who are worthy of it (''apacāyana''), showing appropriate deference, particularly to the Buddha, Dhamma and Sangha, and to seniors and parents. Usually done by placing the hands together in [[Añjali Mudrā]], and sometimes bowing.
* Helping others perform good deeds (''veyyāvacca''), looking after others.
* [[Transfer of merit|Sharing of merit after doing some good deed]] (''anumodana'')
* Rejoicing in the merits of others (''pattanumodana''), this is common in communal activities.
* Teaching the [[Dharma (Buddhism)|Dhamma]] (''dhammadesana''), the gift of Dhamma is seen as the highest gift.
* Listening to the Dhamma (''dhammassavana'')
* Straightening one's own [[View (Buddhism)|views]] (''ditthujukamma)''

=== Key values and virtues ===
[[File:Monks in Thailand.JPG|thumb|Giving (Dana) is an important Buddhist virtue. The community of monastics is seen as the most meritorious field of karmic fruitfulness.]]
{{Buddhist Philosophy sidebar}}
Following the precepts is not the only dimension of Buddhist morality, there are also several important virtues, motivations and habits which are widely promoted by Buddhist texts and traditions. At the core of these virtues are the three roots of non-attachment (araga), benevolence (advesa), and understanding (amoha).

One list of virtues which is widely promoted in Buddhism are the [[Pāramitā]]s (perfections) – [[Dāna]] (generosity), [[Śīla|Sīla]] (proper conduct), [[Nekkhamma]] (renunciation), [[Prajñā (Buddhism)|Paññā]] (wisdom), [[Vīrya|Viriya]] (energy), [[Kshanti|Khanti]] (patience), [[Sacca]] (honesty), [[Adhiṭṭhāna]] (determination), [[Mettā]] (Good-Will), [[Upekkha|Upekkhā]] (equanimity).

The Four divine abidings ([[Brahmaviharas]]) are seen as central virtues and intentions in Buddhist ethics, psychology and meditation. The four divine abidings are [[Maitrī|good will]], [[Karuṇā|compassion]], [[Mudita|empathetic joy]], and [[Upekkha|equanimity]]. Developing these virtues through meditation and right action promotes happiness, generates good merit and trains the mind for ethical action.

An important quality which supports right action is Heedfulness ([[Appamada]]), a combination of energy/effort ([[Viriya]]) and Mindfulness. [[Mindfulness]] is an alert presence of mind which allows one to be more aware of what is happening with one's intentional states. Heedfulness is aided by 'clear comprehension' or 'discrimination' ([[Sampajañña]]), which gives rise to moral knowledge of what is to be done. Another important supporting quality of Buddhist morality is [[Faith in Buddhism|Trust or Confidence]] in the teachings of the Buddha and in one's own ability to put them into practice. [[Prajñā (Buddhism)|Wisdom]] and Understanding are seen as a prerequisite for acting morally. Having an understanding of the true nature of reality is seen as leading to ethical actions. Understanding the truth of [[Anatta|not-self]] for example, allows one to become detached from selfish motivations and therefore allows one to be more altruistic. Having an understanding of the workings of the mind and of the law of karma also makes one less likely to perform an unethical action.

The Buddha promoted 'self-respect' ([[Hri (Buddhism)|Hri]]) and Regard for consequences ([[Apatrapya]]), as important virtues. Self-respect is what caused a person to avoid actions which were seen to harm one's integrity and Ottappa is an awareness of the effects of one's actions and sense of embarrassment before others.

Giving ([[Dāna]]) is seen as the beginning of virtue in Theravada Buddhism and as the basis for developing further on the path. In Buddhist countries, this is seen in the giving of alms to Buddhist monastics but also extends to generosity in general (towards family, friends, coworkers, guests, animals).<ref>Peter Harvey ''An Introduction to Buddhist Ethics'' Cambridge University Press 2000, page 62.</ref> Giving is said to make one happy, generate good merit as well as develop non-attachment, therefore it is not just good because it creates good karmic fruits, but it also develops one's spiritual qualities. In Buddhist thought, the cultivation of [[Dana (Buddhism)|dana]] and ethical conduct will themselves refine consciousness to such a level that rebirth in one of the lower hells is unlikely, even if there is no further Buddhist practice. There is nothing improper or un-Buddhist about limiting one's aims to this level of attainment.<ref name="Peter Harvey 2001, pages 195-196" />

An important value in Buddhist ethics is non-harming or non-violence ([[ahimsa]]) to all living creatures from the lowest insect to humans which is associated with the first precept of not killing. The Buddhist practice of this does not extend to the extremes exhibited by [[Jainism]] (in Buddhism, unintentional killing is not karmically bad), but from both the Buddhist and Jain perspectives, non-violence suggests an intimate involvement with, and relationship to, all living things.<ref>Carl Olson, ''The Different Paths of Buddhism'' p.73</ref>

The Buddha also emphasized that 'good friendship ([[Kalyāṇa-mittatā]]), good association, good intimacy' was the whole, not the half of the holy life ([[Samyutta Nikaya|SN]] 45.2). Developing strong friendships with good people on the spiritual path is seen as a key aspect of Buddhism and as a key way to support and grow in one's practice.

In [[Mahayana Buddhism]], another important foundation for moral action is the [[Bodhisattva]] ideal. Bodhisattvas are beings which have chosen to work towards the salvation of all living beings. In Mahayana Buddhist texts, this path of great compassion is promoted as being superior to that of the [[Arhat]] because the Bodhisattva is seen as working for the benefit of all beings.<ref>Peter Harvey ''An Introduction to Buddhist Ethics'' Cambridge University Press 2000, page 130.</ref> A Bodhisattva is one who arouses a powerful emotion called [[Bodhicitta]] (mind of enlightenment) which is a mind which is oriented towards the awakening of oneself and all beings.

== Issues ==

=== Killing ===
[[File:Saito Musashi-bo Benkei - tales of the wars of the Gempei, being the story of the lives and adventures of Iyo-no-Kami Minamoto Kuro Yoshitsune and Saito Musashi-bo Benkei the warrior monk (1910) (14780268451).jpg|thumb|Japanese illustration of Iyo-no-Kami Minamoto Kuro Yoshitsune and [[Benkei|Saito Musashi-bo Benkei]], the Buddhist [[Sohei|warrior monk]]]]

The first precept is the abstaining from the taking of life, and the Buddha clearly stated that the taking of human or animal life would lead to negative karmic consequences and was non conductive to liberation. Right livelihood includes not trading in weapons or in hunting and butchering animals. Various suttas state that one should always have a mind filled with compassion and loving kindness for all beings, this is to be extended to hurtful, evil people as in the case of [[Angulimala]] the murderer and to every kind of animal, even pests and vermin (monks are not allowed to kill any animal, for any reason). Buddhist teachings and institutions therefore tend to promote peace and compassion, acting as safe havens during times of conflict.<ref>Peter Harvey ''An Introduction to Buddhist Ethics'' Cambridge University Press 2000, pg 239.</ref> In spite of this, some Buddhists, including monastics such as Japanese [[Sohei|warrior monks]] have historically performed acts of violence. In China, the [[Shaolin Monastery]] developed a [[martial arts]] tradition to defend themselves from attack.

In Mahayana Buddhism, the concept of skillful means ([[upaya]]) has in some circumstances been used to excuse the act of killing, if it is being done for compassionate reasons. This form of "compassionate killing" is allowed by the ''Upaya-kausalya sutra'' and the ''Maha-Upaya-kausalya sutra'' only when it "follows from virtuous thought."<ref>Peter Harvey ''An Introduction to Buddhist Ethics'' Cambridge University Press 2000, pg 135.</ref> Some texts acknowledge the negative karmic consequences of killing, and yet promote it out of compassion. The ''[[Yogacarabhumi-sastra|Bodhisattva-bhumi]]'', a key Mahayana text, states that if a Bodhisattva sees someone about to kill other Bodhisattvas, they may take it upon themselves to kill this murderer with the thought that:

"If I take the life of this sentient being, I myself may be reborn as one of the creatures of hell. Better that I be reborn a creature of hell than that this living being, having committed a deed of immediate retribution, should go straight to hell."<ref>Peter Harvey ''An Introduction to Buddhist Ethics'' Cambridge University Press 2000, pg 137.</ref>

If then, the intention is purely to protect others from evil, the act of killing is sometimes seen as meritorious.

==== War ====
{{Main|Ahimsa#Buddhism}}
{{See also|Criticism of Buddhism#War and violence}}
[[File:Museum of Ethnology Vienna 002.JPG|thumb|Statue portrait of [[5th Dalai Lama]]]]

The Buddhist analysis of conflict begins with the '[[Three poisons (Buddhism)|Three Poisons]]' of greed, hatred and delusion. Craving and attachment, the cause of suffering, is also the cause of conflict. Buddhist philosopher [[Shantideva]] states in his ''Siksasamuccaya'': "Wherever conflict arises among living creatures, the sense of possession is the cause". Craving for material resources as well as grasping to political or religious views is seen as a major source of war. One's attachment to self-identity, and identification with tribe, nation state or religion is also another root of human conflict according to Buddhism.<ref>Peter Harvey ''An Introduction to Buddhist Ethics'' Cambridge University Press 2000, pg 240.</ref>

The Buddha promoted [[non-violence]] in various ways, he encouraged his followers not to fight in wars and not to sell or trade weapons. The Buddha stated that in war, both victor and defeated suffer: "The victor begets enmity. The vanquished dwells in sorrow. The tranquil lives happily, abandoning both victory and defeat" ([[Dhammapada]], 201). Buddhist philosopher [[Candrakīrti]] wrote that soldiery was not a respectable profession: "the sacrifice of life in battle should not be respected, since this is the basis for harmful actions."<ref name=Goodman>[https://web.archive.org/web/20190318123323/https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2014/entries/ethics-indian-buddhism/ Goodman, Charles, "Ethics in Indian and Tibetan Buddhism", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2014 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.)] .</ref> The [[Brahmajala Sutra (Mahayana)|Mahayana Brahmajala Sutra]] states that those who take the [[Bodhisattva vows]] should not take any part in war, watch a battle, procure or store weapons, praise or approve of killers and aid the killing of others in any way. In his [[Abhidharma-kosa]], [[Vasubandhu]] writes that all soldiers in an army are guilty of the killing of the army, not just those who perform the actual killing.<ref>Peter Harvey ''An Introduction to Buddhist Ethics'' Cambridge University Press 2000, pg 254.</ref> Modern Buddhist peace activists include The [[14th Dalai Lama]], [[Thich Nhat Hanh]], [[Sulak Sivaraksa]], [[A. T. Ariyaratne]], [[Preah Maha Ghosananda]] and [[Nichidatsu Fujii]].

While [[pacifism]] is the Buddhist ideal, Buddhist states and kingdoms have waged war throughout history and Buddhists have found ways to justify these conflicts. The [[5th Dalai Lama]] who was installed as the head of Buddhism in Tibet by [[Gushri Khan]] after the [[Khoshut Khanate|Oirat invasion of Tibet]] (1635–1642), praised the acts of the Khan and said that he was an emanation of the great Bodhisattva [[Vajrapani]].<ref name=Goodman /> Under the fifth Dalai Lama and the powerful Gelug Regent Sonam Chophel (1595–1657), treasurer of the Ganden Palace, the Tibetan kingdom launched invasions of [[Bhutan]] (c. 1647, ending in failure) and [[Ladakh]] (c. 1679, which regained previously lost Tibetan territory) with Mongol aid.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://iias.asia/sites/default/files/IIAS_NL39_1213.pdf|title=Samten G. Karmay, The Great Fifth, IIAS Newsletter #39 December 2005}}</ref>

Another example is that of Buddhist [[Sohei|warrior monks]] in [[feudal Japan]] who sometimes committed organized acts of war, protecting their territories and attacking rival Buddhist sects. During the late [[Heian Period]], the [[Tendai]] school was a particularly powerful sect, whose influential monasteries could wield armies of monks. A key text of this sect was the [[Mahāyāna Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra]], which contains passages allowing the use of violence for the defense of the Dharma.<ref>Peter Harvey ''An Introduction to Buddhist Ethics'' Cambridge University Press 2000, pg 265.</ref> The [[Ashikaga period]] saw military conflict between the Tendai school, [[Jōdo Shinshū]] school and the [[Nichiren]] Buddhists. [[Zen Buddhism]] was influential among the [[samurai]], and their [[Bushido]] code.

During [[World War II]] almost all [[Japanese Buddhism|Japanese Buddhists temples]] strongly supported Japanese imperialism and militarization.<ref>Gier, Nicholas, F. [http://www.webpages.uidaho.edu/ngier/budjapnat.htm Buddhism and Japanese Nationalism: A sad chronicle of complicity] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161010184129/http://www.webpages.uidaho.edu/ngier/budjapnat.htm |date=October 10, 2016 }}</ref><ref>{{Citation | last =Victoria | first =Brian Daizen | year =2006 | title =Zen at war | place =Lanham e.a. | publisher =Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc. | edition=Second}}</ref><ref>{{Citation | last =Victoria | first =Brian Daizen | year =2010 | title =The "Negative Side" of D. T. Suzuki's Relationship to War | journal =The Eastern Buddhist |volume=41 |issue=2 |pages=97–138 | url =http://www.thezensite.com/ZenEssays/CriticalZen/DTSuzukiandWar.pdf}}*</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Stone |first=Jacqueline |title=Millennialism, Persecution, and Violence: Historical Cases |title-link=Millennialism, Persecution, and Violence |publisher=[[Syracuse University Press]] |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-8156-0599-7 |editor-last=Wessinger |editor-first=Catherine |editor-link=Catherine Wessinger |language=en |chapter=Japanese ''Lotus'' Millennialism: From Militant Nationalism to Contemporary Peace Movements |page=265}}</ref><ref>Otani Eiichi, "Missionary Activities of Nichiren Buddhism in East Asia", in: "Modern Japanese Buddhism and Pan-Asianism", The 19th World Congress of the International Association for the History of Religions, Tokyo, March 28, 2005, pp.21–22 [https://web.archive.org/web/20120211104653/http://homepage1.nifty.com/tkawase/osigoto/mjbpa.pdf#page=12 PDF]</ref><ref>Kawase Takaya, "The Jodo Shinshu Sectś Missionary Work in Colonial Korea"; in: "Modern Japanese Buddhism and Pan-Asianism", The 19th World Congress of the International Association for the History of Religions, Tokyo, March 28, 2005, pp.6–7 [https://web.archive.org/web/20120211104653/http://homepage1.nifty.com/tkawase/osigoto/mjbpa.pdf#page=12 PDF]</ref> The Japanese Pan-Buddhist Society (Myowa Kai) rejected criticism from Chinese Buddhists, stating that "We now have no choice but to exercise the benevolent forcefulness of 'killing one in order that many may live{{'"}} (issatsu tashō) and that the war was absolutely necessary to implement the [[dharma]] in Asia.

==== Abortion ====
{{Main|Buddhism and abortion}}
[[File:Zojoji 01.jpg|thumb|Jizō statues at [[Zojo-ji]] temple in [[Tokyo]]]]

There is no single [[Buddhist]] view concerning abortion, although traditional Buddhism rejects abortion because it involves the deliberate destroying of a human life and regards human life as starting at conception. Further, some Buddhist views can be interpreted as holding that life exists before conception because of the never ending cycle of life.<ref name="bbc">"[http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/buddhism/buddhistethics/abortion.shtml Abortion: Buddhism] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150910102909/http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/buddhism/buddhistethics/abortion.shtml |date=September 10, 2015 }}." ''BBC Religion & Ethics.'' Retrieved January 15, 2008.</ref> The traditional Buddhist view of rebirth sees consciousness as present in the embryo at conception, not as developing over time. In the [[Vinaya]] ([[Theravada]] and [[Sarvastivada]]) then, the causing of an abortion is seen as an act of killing punishable by expulsion from the monastic [[Sangha (Buddhism)|Sangha]].<ref>Peter Harvey ''An Introduction to Buddhist Ethics'' Cambridge University Press 2000, page 313.</ref> The [[Abhidharma-kosa]] states that "life is there from the moment of conception and should not be disturbed for it has the right to live".<ref>Harvey, Peter, ''An Introduction to Buddhist Ethics: Foundations, Values and Issues'', p. 339.</ref>

One of the reasons this is seen as an evil act is because a human rebirth is seen as a precious and unique opportunity to do good deeds and attain liberation. The [[Jataka]] stories contain tales of women who perform abortions being reborn in a [[Naraka (Buddhism)|hell]]. In the case where the mother's life is in jeopardy, many traditional Buddhists agree that abortion is permissible. This is the only legally permissible reason for abortion in [[Sri Lanka]], and is also a view accepted in the Tibetan tradition, as argued by Ganden Tri Rinpoche.<ref>Peter Harvey ''An Introduction to Buddhist Ethics'' Cambridge University Press 2000, page 320.</ref> In the case of rape, however, most Buddhists argue that following an act of violence by allowing 'another kind of violence towards another individual' would not be ethical. Aborting a fetus that is malformed is also seen as immoral by most Buddhists.<ref>Peter Harvey ''An Introduction to Buddhist Ethics'' Cambridge University Press 2000, page 322.</ref>

Those practicing in [[Japan]] and the [[United States]] are said to be more tolerant of abortion than those who live elsewhere.<ref name="barnhart">Barnhart, Michael G. (1995). [http://jbe.gold.ac.uk/5/barnh981.html Buddhism and the Morality of Abortion] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061212072421/http://jbe.gold.ac.uk/5/barnh981.html |date=December 12, 2006 }}. ''Journal of Buddhist Ethics, 5.'' Retrieved August 10, 2006.</ref> In Japan, women sometimes participate in [[Mizuko kuyo]] (水子供養 — lit. Newborn Baby Memorial Service) after an induced abortion or an abortion as the result of a [[miscarriage]]; a similar Taiwanese ritual is called ''[[yingling gongyang]]''. In China abortion is also widely practiced, but in Tibet it is very rare. Thus while most Buddhists would agree that abortion is wrong, they are less likely to push for laws banning the practice. The [[Dalai Lama]] has said that abortion is "negative", but there are exceptions. He said, "I think abortion should be approved or disapproved according to each circumstance."<ref name="Dreifus">{{cite news |author=[[Claudia Dreifus]] |title=The Dalai Lama |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1993/11/28/magazine/the-dalai-lama.html?pagewanted=all&src=pm |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=November 28, 1993 |access-date=July 3, 2012 }}</ref>

While abortion is problematic in Buddhism, contraception is generally a non-issue.

==== Suicide and euthanasia ====
{{Main|Buddhism and euthanasia}}
[[File:Thích Quảng Đức self-immolation.jpg|thumb|Thích Quảng Đức's self-immolation during the [[Buddhist crisis]]]]

Buddhism understands life as being pervaded by [[Dukkha]], as unsatisfactory and stressful. Ending one's life to escape present suffering is seen as futile because one will be repeatedly reborn. One of the three forms of craving is craving for annihilation ([[Taṇhā#Vibhava-tanha (craving not to be)|vibhava tanha]]), and this form of craving is the root of future suffering. Dying with an unwholesome and agitated state of mind is seen as leading to a bad rebirth, so [[suicide]] is seen as creating negative karma.<ref>Peter Harvey ''An Introduction to Buddhist Ethics'' Cambridge University Press 2000, page 287.</ref> Ending one's life is also seen as throwing away the precious opportunity to generate positive karma. While suicide does not seem to be interpreted as a breaking of the first precept (not killing other beings) it is still seen as a grave and unwholesome action.<ref name="Peter Harvey 2000, page 288">Peter Harvey ''An Introduction to Buddhist Ethics'' Cambridge University Press 2000, page 288.</ref>

In [[Theravada Buddhism]], for a monk to praise the advantages of death, including simply telling a person of the miseries of life or the bliss of dying and going to heaven in such a way that he/she might feel inspired to commit suicide or simply pine away to death, is explicitly stated as a breach in one of highest vinaya codes regarding the prohibition of harming life, hence it will result in automatic expulsion from [[Sangha (Buddhism)|Sangha]].<ref>Pruitt & Norman, ''The Patimokkha'', 2001, Pali Text Society, Lancaster, Defeat 3</ref>

Buddhism sees the experience of dying as a very sensitive moment in one's spiritual life, because the quality of one's mind at the time of death is believed to condition one's future rebirth.<ref name="Peter Harvey 2000, page 288" /> The Buddhist ideal is to die in a calm but conscious state, while learning to let go. Dying consciously, without negative thoughts but rather joyously with good thoughts in mind is seen as a good transition into the next life. Chanting and reciting Buddhist texts is a common practice; in Tibet the [[Bardo Thodol]] is used to guide the dying to a good rebirth.<ref name="Peter Harvey 2000, page 288" />

Traditional Buddhism would hold [[euthanasia]], where one brings about the death of a suffering patient (whether or not they desire this) so as to prevent further pain, as a breach of the first precept.<ref>Peter Harvey ''An Introduction to Buddhist Ethics'' Cambridge University Press 2000, page 295.</ref> The argument that such a killing is an act of compassion because it prevents suffering is unacceptable to traditional Buddhist theology because it is seen to be deeply rooted in delusion. This is because the suffering being who was euthanized would be reborn and having to suffer due to their karma (even though not all suffering is due to karma), and hence killing them does not help them escape suffering.<ref>Peter Harvey ''An Introduction to Buddhist Ethics'' Cambridge University Press 2000, page 296.</ref> The [[Abhidharma-kosa]] clearly states that the killing of one's sick and aged parents is an act of delusion. The act of killing someone in the process of death also ruins their chance to mindfully experience pain and learn to let go of the body, hence desire for euthanasia would be a form of aversion to physical pain and a craving for non-becoming. According to [[Kalu Rinpoche]] however, choosing to be removed from life support is karmically neutral.<ref>Peter Harvey ''An Introduction to Buddhist Ethics'' Cambridge University Press 2000, page 301.</ref> The choice not to receive medical treatment when one is terminally ill is then not seen as morally reprehensible, as long as it does not arise from a feeling of aversion to life. This would also apply to not resuscitating a terminal patient.

However, there are exceptions to the injunction against suicide. Several Pali suttas contain stories where self-euthanizing is not seen as unethical by the Buddha, showing that the issue is more complex. These exceptions, such as the story of the monk Channa and that of the monk Vakkali, typically deal with advanced Buddhist practitioners. In these exceptional cases, both Channa and Vakkali are both said to be enlightened [[arhats]] and euthanized themselves in a calm and detached state of mind.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.westernbuddhistreview.com/vol4/suicide_as_a_response_to_suffering.html|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160406054748/http://www.westernbuddhistreview.com/vol4/suicide_as_a_response_to_suffering.html|url-status=dead|title=At wood, Michael. Suicide as A Response to Suffering.|archivedate=April 6, 2016}}</ref>

In East-Asian and Tibetan Buddhism, the practice of [[self-immolation]] developed. In China, the first recorded self-immolation was by the monk Fayu (d. 396).<ref>Benn, James A. (2007), [https://books.google.com/books?id=dWL6EEkL8goC Burning for the Buddha: self-immolation in Chinese Buddhism], University of Hawaii Press, 9–10.</ref> According to James A. Benn, this tended to be much more common during times of social and political turmoil and Buddhist persecution.<ref>Benn (2007), 199.</ref> It was often interpreted in Buddhist terms as a practice of heroic renunciation.<ref>Wilson, Liz (2004). "Perspectives on the body" (PDF). In Buswell, Robert E. Encyclopedia of Buddhism. New York [u.a.]: Macmillan Reference USA, Thomson Gale. pp. 65–6. {{ISBN|0-02-865720-9}}.</ref> This practice was widely publicized during the [[Vietnam War]] and have also continued as a form [[Self-immolation protests by Tibetans in China|of protest by Tibetans against the Chinese government]].

==== Capital punishment ====
{{Main|Religion and capital punishment#Buddhism}}
Buddhism places great emphasis on the sanctity of life and hence in theory forbids the death penalty. However, capital punishment has been used in most historically Buddhist states. The first of the [[Five Precepts]] (Panca-sila) is to abstain from destruction of life. Chapter 10 of the [[Dhammapada]] states:

:"Everyone fears punishment; everyone fears death, just as you do. Therefore do not kill or cause to kill. Everyone fears punishment; everyone loves life, as you do. Therefore do not kill or cause to kill".

Chapter 26, the final chapter of the Dhammapada, states "Him I call a [[brahmin]] who has put aside weapons and renounced violence toward all creatures. He neither kills nor helps others to kill". These sentences are interpreted by many Buddhists (especially in the West) as an injunction against supporting any legal measure which might lead to the death penalty. However, almost throughout history, countries where Buddhism has been the official religion (which have included most of the [[Far East]] and [[Indochina]]) have practiced the death penalty. One exception is the abolition of the death penalty by the [[Emperor Saga]] of [[Japan]] in 818. This lasted until 1165, although in private manors executions conducted as a form of retaliation continued to be performed.

=== Animals and the environment ===
{{Main|Animals in Buddhism}}
[[File:Buddha Worshipped in Jungle by Animals - Middle Architrave - Rear Side - East Gateway - Stupa 1 - Sanchi Hill 2013-02-21 4462.JPG|thumb|The Buddha, represented by the [[Bodhi tree]], attended by animals, [[Sanchi]] vihara]]

Buddhism does not see humans as being in a special moral category over animals or as having any kind of God given dominion over them as [[Christianity]] does.<ref>Peter Harvey ''An Introduction to Buddhist Ethics'' Cambridge University Press 2000, pg 150.</ref> Humans are seen as being more able to make moral choices, and this means that they should protect and be kind to animals who are also suffering beings who are living in [[samsara]]. Buddhism also sees humans as part of nature, not as separate from it. [[Thich Nhat Hanh]] summarizes the Buddhist view of harmony with nature thus:

<blockquote>We classify other animals and living beings as nature, acting as if we ourselves are not part of it. Then we pose the question 'How should we deal with Nature?' We should deal with nature the way we should deal with ourselves! We should not harm ourselves; we should not harm nature...Human beings and nature are inseparable.<ref>Peter Harvey ''An Introduction to Buddhist Ethics'' Cambridge University Press 2000, pg 151.</ref></blockquote>

Early Buddhist monastics spent a lot of time in the forests, which was seen as an excellent place for meditation and this tradition continues to be practiced by the monks of the [[Thai Forest Tradition]].

==== Vegetarianism ====
{{Main|Buddhist vegetarianism}}
There is a divergence of views within Buddhism on the need for vegetarianism, with some schools of Buddhism rejecting such a claimed need and with most Buddhists in fact eating meat. Many [[Mahayana]] Buddhists – especially the Chinese, Vietnamese and most Korean traditions – strongly oppose meat-eating on [[scriptural]] grounds.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://online.sfsu.edu/~rone/Buddhism/BuddhismAnimalsVegetarian/BuddhistVegetarian.htm|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120911135953/http://online.sfsu.edu/~rone/Buddhism/BuddhismAnimalsVegetarian/BuddhistVegetarian.htm|url-status=dead|title=Buddhist Resources on Vegetarianism and Animal Welfare|archivedate=September 11, 2012}}</ref>

The first precept of Buddhism focuses mainly on direct participation in the destruction of life. This is one reason that the [[Gautama Buddha|Buddha]] made a distinction between killing animals and eating meat, and refused to introduce vegetarianism into monastic practice. While early Buddhist texts like the [[Pali Canon]] frown upon hunting, butchering, fishing and 'trading in flesh' (meat or livestock) as professions, they do not ban the act of eating meat. Direct participation also includes ordering or encouraging someone to kill an animal for you.

The Buddhist king [[Ashoka]] promoted vegetarian diets and attempted to decrease the number of animals killed for food in his kingdom by introducing 'no slaughter days' during the year. He gave up hunting trips, banned the killing of specific animals and decreased the use of meat in the royal household. Ashoka even banned the killing of some vermin or pests. His example was followed by later Sri Lankan kings.<ref>Peter Harvey ''An Introduction to Buddhist Ethics'' Cambridge University Press 2000, page 158.</ref> One of Ashoka's rock edicts states:
<blockquote>Here (in my domain) no living beings are to be slaughtered or offered in sacrifice...Formerly, in the kitchen of Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, hundreds of thousands of animals were killed every day to make curry. But now with the writing of this Dhamma edict only three creatures, two peacocks and a deer are killed, and the deer not always. And in time, not even these three creatures will be killed.<ref>The Edicts of King Asoka an English rendering by Ven. S. Dhammika © 1994, {{cite web |url=http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/dhammika/wheel386.html#rock14 |title=The Edicts of King Asoka |access-date=2011-09-01 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160510060618/http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/dhammika/wheel386.html#rock14 |archive-date=2016-05-10 }}</ref></blockquote>
Many Buddhists, especially in East Asia, believe that Buddhism advocates or promotes [[vegetarianism]]. While Buddhist theory tends to equate killing animals with killing people (and avoids the conclusion that killing can sometimes be ethical, e.g. defense of others), outside of the Chinese, Korean, Vietnamese and some Japanese monastic traditions, most Buddhists do eat meat in practice;<ref name="Dharma Data: Vegetarianism">{{Cite web|url=http://www.buddhanet.net/e-learning/dharmadata/fdd21.htm|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20161109235226/http://www.buddhanet.net/e-learning/dharmadata/fdd21.htm|url-status=dead|title=Buddhist Studies: Vegetarianism|archivedate=November 9, 2016|website=www.buddhanet.net}}</ref> there is however, a significant minority of Buddhist laypersons in the aforementioned traditions that maintain vegetarianism on a set schedule and a smaller minority who are full-time Buddhist vegetarians.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.fivepeaks.org/english/calendar/guanyin%20vegetarian.pdf|title= 2020 Buddhist Calendar |access-date=2020-01-04}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.fivepeaks.org/english/calendar/vegetarian.htm|title= Mahayana Buddhist Vegetarian Observances|access-date=2020-01-04}}</ref> There is some controversy surrounding whether or not the Buddha himself died from eating rancid pork.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.hsuyun.com/vegetarian.html|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305033324/http://www.hsuyun.com/vegetarian.html|url-status=dead|title=hsuyun.com|archivedate=March 5, 2016|website=www.hsuyun.com}}</ref> While most Chinese and Vietnamese monastics are vegetarian,<ref name="Dharma Data: Vegetarianism" /> vegetarian Tibetans are rare, due to the harsh Himalayan climate.<ref name="Dharma Data: Vegetarianism" /> Japanese lay people tend to eat meat, but monasteries tend to be vegetarian.<ref name="Dharma Data: Vegetarianism" /> The [[Tenzin Gyatso|Dalai Lama]], after contracting [[hepatitis B]], was advised by doctors to switch to a high animal-protein diet.<ref>{{cite book| author =Dalai Lama| title =Freedom in exile: the autobiography of the Dalai Lama| publisher =HarperOne| year =1991| pages =[https://archive.org/details/freedominexilea000bsta/page/184 184]–185| url =https://archive.org/details/freedominexilea000bsta| url-access =registration| quote =dalai lama hepatitis.| isbn = 0-06-098701-4}}</ref> The [[Dalai Lama]] eats vegetarian every second day, so he effectively eats a vegetarian diet for six months of the year.<ref>[[Norm Phelps|Phelps, Norm]]. (2004). ''The Great Compassion: Buddhism and Animal Rights''. Lantern Books.</ref> In the West, vegetarianism among Buddhists is also common.

In the [[Pāli|Pali]] version of the [[Tripitaka]], there are number of occasions in which the Buddha ate meat as well as recommending certain types of meat as a cure for medical conditions. On one occasion, a general sent a servant to purchase meat specifically to feed the Buddha. The Buddha declared that:
{{blockquote|
Meat should not be eaten under three circumstances: when it is seen or heard or suspected (that a living being has been purposely slaughtered for the eater); these, [[Jivaka]], are the three circumstances in which meat should not be eaten, Jivaka! I declare there are three circumstances in which meat can be eaten: when it is not seen or heard or suspected (that a living being has been purposely slaughtered for the eater); Jivaka, I say these are the three circumstances in which meat can be eaten.|Jivaka Sutta}}

The Buddha held that because the food is given by a donor with good intentions, a monk should accept this as long as it is pure in these three respects. To refuse the offering would deprive the donor of the positive karma that giving provides. Moreover, it would create a certain conceit in the monks who would now pick and choose what food to eat. The Buddha did state however that the donor does generate bad karma for himself by killing an animal. In Theravada Buddhist countries, most people do eat meat, however.

While there is no mention of Buddha endorsing or repudiating vegetarianism in surviving portions of [[Pali]] [[Tripitaka]] and no Mahayana sutras explicitly declare that meat eating violates the first precept, certain [[Mahayana sutras]] vigorously and unreservedly denounce the eating of meat, mainly on the ground that such an act violates the bodhisattva's compassion. The sutras which inveigh against meat-eating include the Mahayana version of the ''Nirvana Sutra,'' the ''Shurangama Sutra,'' the ''Brahmajala Sutra,'' the ''Angulimaliya Sutra,'' the ''Mahamegha Sutra,'' and the ''Lankavatara Sutra,'' as well as the Buddha's comments on the negative karmic effects of [[meat consumption]] in the ''Karma Sutra''. In the [[Mahayana Mahaparinirvana Sutra]], which presents itself as the final elucidatory and definitive Mahayana teachings of the Buddha on the very eve of his death, the Buddha states that "the eating of meat extinguishes the seed of Great Kindness", adding that all and every kind of meat and fish consumption (even of animals found already dead) is prohibited by him. He specifically rejects the idea that monks who go out begging and receive meat from a donor should eat it: "... it should be rejected ... I say that even meat, fish, game, dried hooves and scraps of meat left over by others constitutes an infraction ... I teach the harm arising from meat-eating." The Buddha also predicts in this sutra that later monks will "hold spurious writings to be the authentic Dharma" and will concoct their own sutras and lyingly claim that the Buddha allows the eating of meat, whereas in fact he says he does not. A long passage in the [[Lankavatara Sutra]] shows the Buddha speaking out very forcefully against meat consumption and unequivocally in favor of vegetarianism, since the eating of the flesh of fellow sentient beings is said by him to be incompatible with the compassion that a Bodhisattva should strive to cultivate. In several other Mahayana scriptures, too (e.g., the Mahayana [[jatakas]]), the Buddha is seen clearly to indicate that meat-eating is undesirable and karmically unwholesome.

==== Environment ====
Forests and jungles represented the ideal dwelling place for early Buddhists, and many texts praise the forest life as being helpful to meditation. Monks are not allowed to cut down trees as per the Vinaya, and the planting of trees and plants is seen as karmically fruitful. Because of this, Buddhist monasteries are often small nature preserves within the modernizing states in East Asia. The species ''[[Ficus religiosa]]'' is seen as auspicious, because it is the same kind of tree that the Buddha gained enlightenment under.

In [[Mahayana Buddhism]], some teachings hold that trees and plants have [[Buddha nature]]. [[Kukai]] held that plants and trees, along with rocks and everything else, were manifestations of the 'One Mind' of [[Vairocana]] and [[Dogen]] held that plant life ''was'' Buddha nature.

In pre-modern times, environmental issues were not widely discussed, though [[Ashoka]] banned the burning of forests and promoted the planting of trees in his edicts. [[Bhikkhu Bodhi]], an American Theravada monk, has been outspoken about the issue of environmental crisis. Bodhi holds that the root of the current ecological crisis is the belief that increased [[Production (economics)|production]] and [[Consumption (economics)|consumption]] to satisfy our material and sensual desires leads to well-being. The subjugation of nature is directly opposed to the Buddhist view of non-harming and dwelling in nature. Buddhist activists such as Ajahn Pongsak in Thailand and the [[Sarvodaya Shramadana Movement]] have worked for reforestation and environmental protection. The Dalai Lama also professes the close relationship of human beings and nature, saying that since humans come from nature, there is no point in going against it. He advocates that a clean environment should be considered a basic human right and that it is our responsibility as humans to ensure that we do all we can to pass on a healthy world to those who come after us.<ref>{{cite web|title=A Clean Environment Is a Human Right|url=http://www.dalailama.com/messages/environment/clean-environment/|publisher=[[14th Dalai Lama]]|date=2019-06-23}}</ref>

=== Gender issues ===
{{Main|Women in Buddhism}}
[[File:Tibetan Nuns Volunteering Earthquake Zone.jpeg|thumb|Buddhist nuns from the Tibetan tradition, volunteering in Kyegundo (Tibet Earthquake zone)]]

In pre-Buddhist Indian religion, women were seen as inferior and subservient to men. Buddha's teachings tended to promote gender equality as the Buddha held that women had the same spiritual capacities as men did. According to [[Isaline Blew Horner]], women in Buddhist India: "commanded more respect and ranked as individuals. They enjoyed more independence, and a wider liberty to guide and follow their own lives."<ref>IB Horner, Women Under Primitive Buddhism, 1930, 82.</ref> Buddha gave the same teachings to both sexes, praised various female lay disciples for their wisdom and allowed women to become monastics ([[Bhikkhuni]]s) at a time when this was seen as scandalous in India, where men dominated the spiritual professions. The two chief female disciples of the Buddha were [[Khema]] and [[Uppalavanna]]. The Buddha taught that women had the same [[soteriological]] potential as men, and that gender had no influence on one's ability to advance spiritually to nirvana. In the early Buddhist texts, female enlightened [[Arhats]] are common. Buddhist nuns are however bound by an extra 8 precepts not applicable to Buddhist monks called [[The Eight Garudhammas]]. The authenticity of these rules is highly contested; they were supposedly added to the ([[bhikkhuni]]s) [[Vinaya]] "to allow more acceptance" of a monastic Order for women, during the Buddha's time but can be interpreted as a form of [[gender discrimination]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.dhammadharini.net/dhamma-talks-from-the-bhikkhuni-sangha/aranya-bodhi-hermitage/non-historicity-of-the-eight-garudhammas|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131103030748/http://www.dhammadharini.net/dhamma-talks-from-the-bhikkhuni-sangha/aranya-bodhi-hermitage/non-historicity-of-the-eight-garudhammas|url-status=dead|title=On the Apparent Non-historicity of the Eight Garudhammas Story|archivedate=November 3, 2013}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.bhikkhuni.net/library/anaalayo-gender-discrimination-canon.html|title=Alliance for Bhikkhunis - Gender Discrimination in the Pali Canon|date=July 26, 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100726221345/http://www.bhikkhuni.net/library/anaalayo-gender-discrimination-canon.html |archive-date=2010-07-26 }}</ref> Alan Sponberg argues that the early Buddhist sangha sought social acceptance through 'institutional [[androcentrism]]' as it was dependent on material support from lay society. Because of this Sponberg concludes: "For all its commitment to inclusiveness at the doctrinal level, institutional Buddhism was not able to (or saw no reason to) challenge prevailing attitudes about gender roles in society."<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.nku.edu/~gartigw/teaching_files/Sponberg,%20Alan%20%20(1992)%20-%20Attitudes%20toward%20Women%20and%20the%20Feminine%20in%20Early%20Buddhism.pdf|title=Sponberg, Attitudes toward Women and the Feminine in Early Buddhism, 1992|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160804174747/http://www.nku.edu/~gartigw/teaching_files/Sponberg,%20Alan%20%20(1992)%20-%20Attitudes%20toward%20Women%20and%20the%20Feminine%20in%20Early%20Buddhism.pdf |archive-date=2016-08-04 }}</ref>
The pre-Mahayana texts also state that while women can become Arhats, they cannot become a [[Buddhahood#Samyaksambuddha|Samyaksambuddha]] (a Buddha who discovers the path by himself), [[Chakravartin]]s (Wheel turning king), a [[Śakra (Buddhism)|Ruler of heaven]], a [[Mara (demon)|Mara]] devil or a [[Brahmā (Buddhism)|Brahama god]].<ref>Peter Harvey ''An Introduction to Buddhist Ethics'' Cambridge University Press 2000, page 371-72.</ref>

The [[Therigatha]] is a collection of poems from elder Buddhist nuns, and one of the earliest texts of women's literature. Another important text is the Therī-[[Apadāna]], which collects the biographies of eminent nuns. One such verses are those of the nun Soma, who was tempted by [[Mara (demon)|Mara]] when traveling in the woods. Mara states that women are not intelligent enough to attain enlightenment, Soma replies with a verse which indicates the insignificance of gender to spirituality:

:"What does womanhood matter at all
:When the mind is concentrated well,
:When knowledge flows on steadily
:As one sees correctly into Dhamma.
:One to whom it might occur,
:'I'm a woman' or 'I'm a man'
:Or 'I'm anything at all' —
:Is fit for Mara to address."<ref>Bhikkhu Bodhi, Discourses of the Ancient Nuns (Bhikkhuni-samyutta) © 1997, {{cite web|url=http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/bodhi/bl143.html |title=Discourses of the Ancient Nuns: (Bhikkhuni-samyutta) |access-date=2008-12-27 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160420152439/http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/bodhi/bl143.html |archive-date=2016-04-20 }}</ref>

[[File:Haishangguanyin.jpg|thumb|The [[Guan Yin of the South Sea of Sanya]] is the largest statue of a woman in the world.]]
In [[Mahayana Buddhism]], Bodhisattvas such as [[Tara (Buddhism)|Tara]] and [[Guanyin]] are very popular female deities. Some [[Vajrayana|Buddhist Tantric]] texts include female consorts for each heavenly Buddha or Bodhisattva. In these Tantric couples, the female symbolizes wisdom ([[Prajñā (Buddhism)|prajna]]) and the male symbolizes skillful means ([[upaya]]).<ref>Peter Harvey ''An Introduction to Buddhist Ethics'' Cambridge University Press 2000, page 363.</ref> The union of these two qualities is often depicted as sexual union, known as [[yab-yum]] (father-mother).

In [[East Asia]], the idea of [[Buddha nature]] being inherent in all beings is taken to mean that, spiritually at least, the sexes are equal, and this is expressed by the [[Śrīmālādevī Siṃhanāda Sūtra|Lion's Roar of Queen Srimala sutra]]. Based on this ideal of Buddha nature, the Chinese Chan ([[Zen]]) school emphasized the equality of the sexes. [[Dahui Zonggao]] (1089–1163) of the Chinese [[Rinzai school|Linji school]] said of women in Buddhism: "For mastering the truth, it does not matter whether one is male or female, noble or base."<ref>Peter Harvey ''An Introduction to Buddhist Ethics'' Cambridge University Press 2000, page 366.</ref> The Japanese founder of [[Soto Zen]], [[Dogen]] wrote: "If you wish to hear the Dharma and put an end to pain and turmoil, forget about such things as male and female. As long as delusions have not yet been eliminated, neither men nor women have eliminated them; when they are all eliminated and true reality is experienced, there is no distinction of male and female."<ref>Francis Harold Cook, Francis Dojun Cook, Eihei Dogen; How to Raise an Ox: Zen Practice as Taught in Master Dogen's Shobogenzo, page 105.</ref>

The attitude of Buddhists towards gender has been varied throughout history as it has been influenced by each particular culture and belief system such as [[Confucianism]] (which sees women as subservient) and [[Hinduism]]. The Theravadin commentator [[Buddhaghosa]] (5th century CE) for example, seems to have been influenced by his [[Brahmin]] background in stating that rebirth as a male is higher than rebirth as a female.<ref>Peter Harvey ''An Introduction to Buddhist Ethics'' Cambridge University Press 2000, page 370.</ref> Some Mahayana sutras such as the 'Sutra on Changing the Female Sex' and the 'Questions of the Daughter Pure Faith' also echo this idea. For various historical and cultural reasons such as wars and invasions, the orders of ordained Buddhist nuns disappeared or was never introduced in Southeast Asia and Tibet, though they slowly started being reintroduced by nuns such as [[Ayya Khema]], [[Dhammananda Bhikkhuni]], [[Tenzin Palmo]] and [[Thubten Chodron]]. Until very recently, China, Taiwan and Korea were the only places where fully ordained bhiksuni lineages still existed. An international conference of Buddhist nuns was held in February 1987 at [[Bodh Gaya]] and saw the formation of 'Sakyadhita' (Daughters of the Buddha) the International Association of Buddhist Women which focuses on helping Buddhist nuns throughout the world.<ref>Peter Harvey ''An Introduction to Buddhist Ethics'' Cambridge University Press 2000, page 400.</ref>

=== Relationships ===
The Buddha placed much importance on the cultivation of good will and compassion towards one's parents, spouse, friends and all other beings. Buddhism strongly values harmony in the family and community. Keeping the five precepts and having a generous attitude (Dana) is seen as the foundation for this harmony. An important text, seen as the lay people's Vinaya (code of conduct) is the [[Sigalovada Sutta]] which outlines wrong action and warns against the squandering of wealth. The [[Sigalovada Sutta]] outlines how a virtuous person "worships the six directions" which are parents (East), teachers (South), wife (West), and friends and colleagues (North), and the two vertical directions as: ascetics and Brahmins (Up) and the Servants (Down). The text elaborates on how to respect and support them, and how in turn the Six will return the kindness and support. The relationships are based on reciprocation, and it is understood one has no right to expect behavior from others unless one also performs good acts in his favor.

Parents for example, are to be respected and supported with the understanding that they are to have provided care and affection to oneself. In marriage, the sutta states that a householder should treat his wife by "being courteous to her, by not despising her, by being faithful to her, by handing over authority to her, by providing her with adornments." while in return the wife "performs her duties well, she is hospitable to relations and attendants, she is faithful, she protects what he brings, she is skilled and industrious in discharging her duties."<ref>Narada Thera (trans), Sigalovada Sutta: The Discourse to Sigala The Layperson's Code of Discipline, {{cite web |url=http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/dn/dn.31.0.nara.html |title=Sigalovada Sutta: The Discourse to Sigala |access-date=2012-06-06 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160518095524/http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/dn/dn.31.0.nara.html |archive-date=2016-05-18 }}</ref> The Buddha also stated that a wife and husband are to be each other's best friend (parama sakha). While monogamy is the predominant model for marriage, Buddhist societies have also practiced and accepted [[polygamy]] and [[polyandry]].<ref>Peter Harvey An Introduction to Buddhist Ethics Cambridge University Press 2000, page 101.</ref> Buddhism sees marriage not as sacred but as a secular partnership and hence has no issue with divorce.

=== Sexuality{{anchor|Sexual misconduct}} ===
{{Main|Buddhism and sexuality}}
The Third (or sometimes Fourth) of the [[Five Precepts]] of Buddhism states that one is to refrain from "[[sexual misconduct]]", which has various interpretations, but generally entails any sexual conduct which is harmful to others, such as rape, molestation and often adultery, although this depends on the local marriage and relationship customs. Buddhist [[monk]]s and [[nun]]s of most traditions are not only expected to refrain from all sexual activity but also take [[vows of celibacy]].

==== Sexual orientation ====
{{Main|Buddhism and sexual orientation}}
Among the Buddhist traditions there is a vast diversity of opinion about [[homosexuality]], and in interpreting the precedents which define "sexual misconduct" generally. Though there is no explicit condemnation of homosexuality in Buddhist sutras, be it [[Theravada]], [[Mahayana]] or [[Mantrayana]], societal and community attitudes and the historical view of practitioners have established precedents. Some ''[[Sangha (Buddhism)|sangha]]'' equate homosexuality with scriptural sexual misconduct prohibited by the [[Five Precepts]]. Other ''sangha'' hold that if sexuality is compassionate and/or consensual and does not contravene vows, then there is no karmic infraction, irrespective of whether it is same-sex or not. Buddhist communities in Western states as well as in Japan generally tend to be accepting of homosexuality. In Japan, homosexual relations among Buddhist samurai and clergy were actually quite common. Male homosexuality between clergy was especially common in the Tantric [[Shingon Buddhism|Shingon school]].<ref>Peter Harvey ''An Introduction to Buddhist Ethics'' Cambridge University Press 2000, page 427.</ref>

According to the [[Pāli Canon]] and [[Āgama (Buddhism)|Āgama]] (the Early Buddhist scriptures), there is no saying that same or opposite gender relations have anything to do with sexual misconduct,<ref name="cunda kammaraputta sutta">{{cite web|title=Cunda Kammaraputta Sutta|trans-title=To Cunda the Silversmith|others=Translated from the Pali by Thanissaro Bhikkhu|publisher=Access to Insight|year=1997|id=[[Anguttara Nikaya|AN]] 10.176|url=http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/an/an10/an10.176.than.html| access-date = 2011-03-14|quote=Abandoning sensual misconduct, he abstains from sensual misconduct. He does not get sexually involved with those who are protected by their mothers, their fathers, their brothers, their sisters, their relatives, or their Dhamma; those with husbands, those who entail punishments, or even those crowned with flowers by another man}}</ref><ref>[http://www.dhammatalks.net/suttacentral/sc/zh/ma128.html 優婆塞經] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170218064551/http://www.dhammatalks.net/suttacentral/sc/zh/ma128.html |date=2017-02-18 }}(Upāsaka Sutra from Madhyam āgama):復次，舍梨子！白衣聖弟子離邪婬、斷邪婬，彼或有父所護，或母所護，或父母所護，或兄弟所護，或姉妹所護，或婦父母所護，或親親所護，或同姓所護，或為他婦女，有鞭罰恐怖，及有名雇債至華鬘親，不犯如是女。彼於邪淫淨除其心，白衣聖弟子善護行，此第三法</ref> and some Theravada monks express that same-gender relations do not violate the rule to avoid sexual misconduct, which means not having sex with someone underage (thus protected by their parents or guardians), someone betrothed or married and who have taken vows of religious celibacy.<ref>* {{cite web|author1=Ajahn Punnadhammo|title=Same Sex Marriage|url=http://www.arrowriver.ca/torStar/samesex.html|quote=The lay man is told to abstain from sex with "unsuitable partners" defined as girls under age, women betrothed or married and women who have taken vows of religious celibacy. This is clear, sound advice and seems to suggest that sexual misconduct is that which would disrupt existing family or love relationships. This is consonant with the general Buddhist principle that that which causes suffering for oneself or others is unethical behaviour. ("Unskillful behaviour" would be closer to the original.) There is no good reason to assume that '''''homosexual relations which do not violate this principle''''' should be treated differently. }}
* {{cite book|author1=Somdet Phra Buddhaghosacariya|title=Uposatha Sila The Eight-Precept Observance|date=1993|url=http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/nanavara/uposatha.html}}There are '''four factors of the third precept''' (kamesu micchacara)
#agamaniya vatthu — that which should not be visited (the 20 groups of women).
#asmim sevana-cittam — the intention to have intercourse with anyone included in the above-mentioned groups.
#sevanap-payogo — the effort at sexual intercourse.
#maggena maggappatipatti — sexual contact through that adhivasanam effort.
* {{cite book|author1=Bhikkhu Bodhi|title=Going for Refuge & Taking the Precepts (The Five Precepts)|date=1981|publisher=Buddhist Publication Society|url=http://bodhimonastery.org/going-for-refuge-taking-the-precepts.html#prec2}}</ref>

Some later traditions, like [[Shantideva]] and [[Gampopa]], feature restrictions on non-vaginal sex (including homosexuality). A medieval commentary of the [[Digha Nikaya]] mentions examples of immorality in society, and one of the examples is homosexuality, whereas this has no basis in the Sutta.<ref>{{cite web|last=Sujato|first=Ajahn|author-link=Ajahn Sujato|title=Why Buddhists Should Support Marriage Equality|url=https://sujato.wordpress.com/2012/03/21/1430/|date=2012-03-20}}</ref> Other Buddhist texts such as the [[Abhidharma-kosa]] and the [[Jataka tales]] make no mention of homosexuality in this regard. According to Jose Ignacio Cabezon, Buddhist cultures' attitudes towards homosexuality have generally been neutral.<ref>Peter Harvey ''An Introduction to Buddhist Ethics'' Cambridge University Press 2000, page 423.</ref>

While both men and women can be ordained, [[hermaphrodites]] are not allowed by the [[Vinaya]]. According to the ancient texts this is because of the possibility that they will seduce monks or nuns.<ref>Peter Harvey ''An Introduction to Buddhist Ethics'' Cambridge University Press 2000, page 413.</ref>
The Vinaya also prevents ''[[Buddhism and sexual orientation#Paṇḍakas|pandakas]]'' from becoming monastics, which have been defined as "without testicles" and generally referred to those who lacked the normal (usually physical) characteristics of maleness (in some cases it refers to women who lack the normal characteristics of femaleness). This rule was established by the Buddha after a pandaka monk broke the Vinaya precepts by having relations with others. Therefore, it seems that pandakas were initially allowed into the Sangha. Later Buddhist texts like the [[Milinda Panha]] and the [[Abhidharma-kosa]] see pandakas as being spiritually hindered by their sexuality and mental defilements.

=== Economic ethics ===
[[File:Bhutan Gross National Happiness.jpg|thumb|[[Bhutan]]'s government promotes the concept of '[[Gross National Happiness]]' (GNH), based on Buddhist spiritual values.]]
{{Main|Buddhist economics}}
Buddha's teachings to laypeople included advice on how to make their living and how to use their wealth. The Buddha considered the creation of wealth to be praiseworthy, so long as it was done morally,<ref name="Peter Harvey 2000, page 187">Peter Harvey ''An Introduction to Buddhist Ethics'' Cambridge University Press 2000, page 187 {{ISBN|0521556406}}</ref> in accordance with right livelihood, one of the elements of the Noble Eightfold Path, and which refers to making one's living without killing, being complicit in the suffering of other beings (by selling weapons, poison, alcohol or flesh) or through lying, stealing or deceit.<ref>Peter Harvey ''An Introduction to Buddhist Ethics'' Cambridge University Press 2000, page 188 {{ISBN|0521556406}}</ref>

The Sigalovada Sutta states that a master should look after servants and employees by: "(1) by assigning them work according to their ability, (2) by supplying them with food and with wages, (3) by tending them in sickness, (4) by sharing with them any delicacies, (5) by granting them leave at times" ([[Digha Nikaya]] 31). Early Buddhist texts see success in work as aided by one's spiritual and moral qualities.

In the Adiya Sutta the Buddha also outlined several ways in which people could put their 'righteously gained' wealth to use:<ref>AN 5.41, Adiya Sutta: Benefits to be Obtained (from Wealth) translated from the Pali by Thanissaro Bhikkhu, {{cite web|url=http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/an/an05/an05.041.than.html |title=Adiya Sutta: Benefits to be Obtained (from Wealth) |access-date=2015-12-02 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160420202447/http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/an/an05/an05.041.than.html |archive-date=2016-04-20 }}</ref>
#Providing 'pleasure & satisfaction' to themselves, their mother & father, their children, spouse, slaves, servants, & assistants.
#Providing 'pleasure & satisfaction' to their friends and associates.
#Warding off calamities coming from fire, flood, kings, thieves, or hateful heirs, and keeps himself safe.
#Performs five oblations/offerings: to relatives, guests, the dead, kings, & devas.
#Giving of offerings to priests ([[brahmins]]) and contemplatives (monks).

The Buddha placed much emphasis on the virtue of giving and sharing, and hence the practice of donating and charity are central to Buddhist economic ethics. Even the poor are encouraged to share, because this brings about greater spiritual wealth: "If beings knew, as I know, the results of giving & sharing, they would not eat without having given, nor would the stain of selfishness overcome their minds. Even if it were their last bite, their last mouthful, they would not eat without having shared, if there were someone to receive their gift."<ref>Itivuttaka: The Group of Ones translated from the Pali by Thanissaro Bhikkhu, {{cite web |url=http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/kn/iti/iti.1.001-027.than.html |title=Itivuttaka: The Group of Ones |access-date=2015-12-02 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160518095639/http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/kn/iti/iti.1.001-027.than.html |archive-date=2016-05-18 }}</ref> The modern growth of [[Engaged Buddhism]] has seen an emphasis on social work and charity. Buddhist aid and activist organizations include [[Buddhist Global Relief]], Lotus Outreach, [[Buddhist Peace Fellowship]], Piyarra Kutta, [[International Network of Engaged Buddhists]], The [[Tzu Chi]] Foundation, Nonviolent Peaceforce, and [[Zen Peacemakers]].

Buddhist texts promote the building of public works which benefit the community and stories of Buddhist Kings like [[Ashoka]] are used as an example of lay people who promoted the public welfare by building hospitals and parks for the people. The Buddha's chief lay disciple, the rich merchant [[Anathapindika]] ('Feeder of the Poor') is also another example of a virtuous layperson who donated much of his wealth for the benefit of others and was thus known as the "foremost disciple in generosity". Early Buddhist texts do not disparage merchants and trade, but instead promote enterprise as long as it is done ethically and leads to the well-being of the community. The gold standard for rulers in Buddhism is the ideal wheel turning king, the [[Chakravartin]]. A Chakravartin is said to rule justly, giving to the needy and combating poverty so as to prevent social unrest. A Chakravartin does not fight wars for gain but only in defense of the kingdom, he accepts immigrants and refugees, and builds hospitals, parks, hostels, wells, canals and rest houses for the people and animals.<ref>Peter Harvey ''An Introduction to Buddhist Ethics'' Cambridge University Press 2000, page 198.</ref> [[Mahayana Buddhism]] maintains that lay Bodhisattvas should engage in social welfare activities for the good and safety of others.<ref>Peter Harvey ''An Introduction to Buddhist Ethics'' Cambridge University Press 2000, page 191.</ref> In the lands of Southern Buddhism, Buddhist monasteries often became places were the poor, destitute, orphaned, elderly can take shelter. Monasteries often provided education and took care of the sick, and therefore are also centers of social welfare for the poor.

[[Robert Thurman]], in his discussion of [[Nagarjuna]]'s ''Precious Garland Ratnavali'' sees the Mahayana Buddhist tradition as politically supporting "a [[welfare state]] ...a rule of compassionate [[socialism]]".<ref>Thurman, Robert. Social and Cultural rights in Buddhism, {{cite web|url=http://enlight.lib.ntu.edu.tw/FULLTEXT/JR-MISC/misc30574.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=2015-12-02 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161020222155/http://enlight.lib.ntu.edu.tw/FULLTEXT/JR-MISC/misc30574.pdf |archive-date=2016-10-20 }}</ref> Prominent [[Buddhist socialism|Buddhist socialists]] include the [[14th Dalai Lama#Economics and political stance|14th Dalai Lama]], [[Buddhadasa]], [[B. R. Ambedkar]], [[U Nu]], [[Girō Seno'o]] and Lin Qiuwu.<ref>Charles B. Jones, Buddhism and Marxism in Taiwan: Lin Qiuwu's Religious Socialism and Its Legacy in Modern Times, {{cite web |url=http://www.globalbuddhism.org/1/jones001.html |title=Buddhism and Marxism in Taiwan: Lin Qiuwu's Religious Socialism and Its Legacy in Modern Times |access-date=2015-12-02 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304200527/http://www.globalbuddhism.org/1/jones001.html |archive-date=2016-03-04 }}</ref> Others such as [[Neville Karunatilake]], [[E. F. Schumacher]], Padmasiri De Silva, [[Prayudh Payutto]] and [[Sulak Sivaraksa]] have promoted a [[Buddhist economics]] that does not necessarily define itself as socialist but still offers a critique of modern [[consumer capitalism]]. [[E. F. Schumacher]] in his "Buddhist economics" (1973) wrote: "Buddhist economics must be very different from the economics of modern materialism, since the Buddhist sees the essence of civilisation not in a multiplication of human wants but in the purification of human character."

While modern economics seeks to satisfy human desires, Buddhism seeks to reduce our desires and hence Buddhist economics would tend to promote a sense of [[anti-consumerism]] and [[simple living]]. In his ''Buddhist Economics: A Middle Way for the Market Place'', [[Prayudh Payutto]] writes that consumption is only a means to an end which is 'development of human potential' and 'well being within the individual, within society and within the environment'. From a Buddhist perspective then, 'Right consumption' is based on [[well-being]] while 'wrong consumption' is the need to 'satisfy the desire for pleasing sensations or ego-gratification'.<ref>Payutto, Buddhist Economics A Middle Way for the Market Place, chapter three. {{cite web|url=http://www.urbandharma.org/udharma2/becono3.html |title=Buddhist Economics... Part 3 |access-date=2015-12-02 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161024024539/http://www.urbandharma.org/udharma2/becono3.html |archive-date=2016-10-24 }}</ref> Similarly, [[Sulak Sivaraksa]] argues that "the religion of [[consumerism]] emphasizes greed, hatred and delusion" which causes anxiety and that this must be countered with an ethic of satisfaction<ref>Peter Harvey ''An Introduction to Buddhist Ethics'' Cambridge University Press 2000, page 220.</ref> Modern attempts to practice Buddhist economics can be seen in the [[Sarvodaya Shramadana Movement]] and in the [[Gross National Happiness]] economics of Bhutan.

While Buddhism encourages wealth gained ethically,<ref name="Peter Harvey 2000, page 187"/> it sees greed and craving for riches as negative, and praises contentment as 'the greatest wealth'. [[Poverty]] and debt are seen as causes of suffering, immorality, and social unrest if they prevent one from having basic necessities and peace of mind. For laypeople, Buddhism promotes the middle way between a life of poverty and a materialistic or consumerist life in which one is always seeking to enrich oneself and to buy more things.<ref>Peter Harvey ''An Introduction to Buddhist Ethics'' Cambridge University Press 2000, page 195.</ref> For Buddhist laypersons then, to be Buddhist does not mean to reject all material things, but, according to Sizemore and Swearer: "it specifies an attitude to be cultivated and expressed in whatever material condition one finds oneself. To be non-attached is to possess and use material things but not to be possessed or used by them. Therefore, the idea of non-attachment applies all across Buddhist society, to laymen and monk alike."<ref>Russell F. Sizemore and Donald K. Swearer, "Introduction" to Sizemore and Swearer, eds., Ethics, Wealth and Salvation: A Study in Buddhist Social Ethics (Columbia, South Carolina: University of South Carolina, 1990), p. 2.</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Ahimsa]]
* [[Buddhism and violence]]
* [[Buddhist monasticism]]
* [[Culture of Buddhism]]
* [[Eight precepts]]
* [[Five precepts]]
* [[Noble Eightfold Path]]
* {{section link|Forgiveness|Buddhism}}
* [[Sacca-kiriya]]
* [[Refuge (Buddhism)|Three Refuges]]
* [[Threefold Training]]
* [[Pali]]
* [[View (Buddhism)]]

== Citations ==
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{{refend}}

== External links ==
*''[https://web.archive.org/web/20190803024339/http://www.bps.lk/olib/wh/wh014_Narada_Everymans-Ethics--Four-Discourses-of-Buddha.pdf Everyman's Ethics: Four discourses by the Buddha] by [[Narada Thera]] (BPS Wheel Publication No. 14)
*''[https://web.archive.org/web/20211022010304/https://www.bps.lk/olib/wh/wh175_Jayatilleke_Ethics-in-Buddhist-Perspective.pdf Ethics in Buddhist Perspective]'' by [[K.N. Jayatilleke]] (BPS Wheel Publication No. 175 / 176)
*''[https://web.archive.org/web/20240607090135/https://www.bps.lk/olib/wh/wh259_Bodhi_Nourishing-the-Roots--Essays-on-Buddhist-Ethics.pdf Nourishing the Roots and Other Essays on Buddhist Ethics]'' by [[Bhikkhu Bodhi]] (BPS Wheel Publication No. 259 / 260)
* [https://www.wisdomlib.org/hinduism/book/a-history-of-indian-philosophy-volume-1/d/doc209748.html {{IAST|Sīla}} and {{IAST|Samādhi}}], Surendranath Dasgupta, 1940
*[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ethics-indian-buddhism/ Ethics in Indian and Tibetan Buddhism]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20080802032521/http://buddhism.2be.net/Sila Sila] as explained in the Buddhist Encyclopedia.

{{Buddhism topics}}
{{Ethics}}

[[Category:Buddhist ethics| ]]
[[Category:Buddhism and society|Ethics]]
[[Category:Buddhist practices|Ethics]]