View source for Buddhism in Japan

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{{Infobox religious group
| group         = Buddhism in Japan
| flag          = 
| flag_caption  = 
| image         = Le Grand Bouddha du Kotoku-in (Kamakura, Japon) (42096289494).jpg
| image_upright    = 
| image_caption = The Great Buddha ([[Amitābha|Amida]]) ({{transliteration|ja|[[Daibutsu]]}}) at [[Kōtoku-in]], [[Kamakura]], in [[Kanagawa Prefecture]], [[Japan]] ([[National Treasure (Japan)|National Treasure]]) 
| population    = Estimates vary, from {{Circa|'''46 million'''|lk=yes}} or '''36%''' (Government est., 2022)<ref name ="shukyo23"/> to under 20% (JGSS Research Center, 2017).<ref name="Iwai 2017">{{cite report|first=Noriko|last=Iwai|date=11 October 2017|title=Measuring religion in Japan: ISM, NHK and JGSS|publisher=JGSS Research Center|url=https://www.pewresearch.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/7/2017/11/Religion20171117.pdf#page=15|access-date=1 July 2020|archive-date=11 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201111205740/https://www.pewresearch.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/7/2017/11/Religion20171117.pdf#page=15|url-status=live}}</ref>
| founder       = 
| regions       = [[Prefectures of Japan|Throughout Japan]]
| tablehdr      = 
| religions     = [[File:Dharma Wheel.svg|18px]] [[Buddhism]] (mostly [[East Asian Buddhism]])
| scriptures    = 
| languages     = [[Japanese language|Japanese]] and [[Languages of Japan|other languages]]
| related-c     = 
| website       =
| notes         =
}}
{{JapaneseBuddhism}}
{{Buddhism}}

[[Buddhism]] was first established in [[Japan]] in the 6th century CE.<ref name="Bowring, Richard John-2005">{{cite book |last=Bowring |first=Richard John |title=The religious traditions of Japan, 500–1600 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge, UK |year=2005 |pages=15–17 |isbn=0-521-85119-X}}</ref><ref name="Sources of Japanese tradition">{{cite book |author1=Dykstra, Yoshiko Kurata |author2=De Bary, William Theodore |title=Sources of Japanese tradition |publisher=Columbia University Press |location=New York |year=2001 |page=[https://archive.org/details/sourcesofjapanes00colu/page/100 100] |isbn=0-231-12138-5 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/sourcesofjapanes00colu/page/100 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Bowring, Richard John|title=The religious traditions of Japan, 500–1600|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2005|isbn=0-521-85119-X|location=Cambridge, UK|pages=16–17}}</ref> Most of the Japanese Buddhists belong to new schools of Buddhism which were established in the [[Kamakura period]] (1185－1333).<ref name ="shukyo23">{{cite web|url=https://www.bunka.go.jp/tokei_hakusho_shuppan/hakusho_nenjihokokusho/shukyo_nenkan/pdf/r05nenkan.pdf#page=65|title=文化庁 宗教年鑑 令和5年版|page=51|publisher=[[Agency for Cultural Affairs]]|date=2023-12-28|access-date=2024-03-17}}</ref> During the [[Edo period]] (1603–1868), Buddhism was controlled by the [[Tokugawa shogunate|feudal Shogunate]]. The [[Meiji period]] (1868–1912) saw a strong response against Buddhism, with persecution and a forced separation between Buddhism and [[Shinto]] (''[[Shinbutsu bunri]]'').

The largest sects of Japanese Buddhism are [[Pure Land Buddhism#Japanese Pure Land|Pure Land Buddhism]] with 22 million believers, followed by [[Nichiren Buddhism]] with 10 million believers, [[Shingon Buddhism]] with 5.4 million, [[Japanese Zen|Zen Buddhism]] with 5.3 million, [[Tendai Buddhism]] with 2.8 million, and only about 700,000 for the [[Nanto Rokushū|six old schools]] established in the [[Nara period]] (710－794).<ref name="shukyo23" />

== History ==
===Early Buddhism (5th-13th century)===
==== Arrival and initial spread of Buddhism ====
{{see also | Silk Road transmission of Buddhism#Northern transmission|Sinicization}}
Originating in India, Buddhism arrived in Japan by first [[Silk Road transmission of Buddhism|making its way to China and Korea through the Silk Road]] and then traveling by sea to the [[Japanese archipelago]].<ref>Hoffman, Michael, "[http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/fl20100314x2.html Buddhism's arrival, Shinto's endurance] {{Webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20120717071657/search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/fl20100314x2.html |date=2012-07-17 }}", ''[[The Japan Times]]'', March 14, 2010, p. 7.</ref> Though often overlooked in Western academia, Buddhism was transmitted through trade routes across South East Asia in addition to the Sinophere.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Holcombe |first=Charles |date=1999 |title=Trade-Buddhism: Maritime Trade, Immigration, and the Buddhist Landfall in Early Japan |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/606111 |journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society |volume=119 |issue=2 |pages=280–292 |doi=10.2307/606111 |jstor=606111 |issn=0003-0279|url-access=subscription }}</ref> As such, early Japanese Buddhism is strongly influenced by [[Chinese Buddhism]] and [[Korean Buddhism]], which were influenced by Indian [[Mahayana Buddhism]]. Though most scholars date the introduction of Buddhism to the middle of the sixth century, Deal and Ruppert note that immigrants from the Korean Peninsula, as well as merchants and sailors who frequented the mainland, likely brought Buddhism with them independent of the transmission as recorded in court chronicles.{{sfnp|Deal|Ruppert|2015|p=18}} Some Japanese sources mention this explicitly. For example, the [[Heian Period]] ''[[Fusō Ryakuki]]'' (Abridged Annals of Japan), mentions a foreigner known in Japanese as Shiba no Tatsuto, who may have been Chinese-born, [[Baekje]]-born, or a descendant of an immigrant group in Japan. He is said to have built a thatched hut in Yamato and enshrined an object of worship there. Immigrants like this may have been a source for the Soga clan's later sponsorship of Buddhism.<ref>Deal & Ruppert (2015) pp. 21-23.</ref>

The ''[[Nihon Shoki]]'' (''Chronicles of Japan'') provides a date of 552 for when King [[Seong of Baekje|Seong]] of [[Baekje]] (now western [[South Korea]]) sent a mission to [[Emperor Kinmei]] that included an image of the [[Buddha Shakyamuni]], ritual banners, and [[sutra]]s. This event is usually considered the official introduction of Buddhism to Japan.<ref name="Sources of Japanese tradition"/><ref name="Bowring, Richard John-2005"/> Other sources, however, give the date of 538 and both dates are thought to be unreliable. However, it can still be said that in the middle of the sixth century, Buddhism was introduced through official diplomatic channels.<ref>Deal & Ruppert (2015) pp. 19-22.</ref>

According to the ''Nihon Shoki'', after receiving the Buddhist gifts, the Japanese emperor asked his officials if the Buddha should be worshipped in Japan. They were divided on the issue, with [[Soga no Iname]] (506–570) supporting the idea while [[Mononobe no Okoshi]] and Nakatomi no Kamako worried that the [[kami]] of Japan would become angry at this worship of a foreign deity. The ''Nihon Shoki'' then states that the emperor allowed only the Soga clan to worship the Buddha, to test it out.<ref>Deal & Ruppert (2015) p. 14.</ref>

Thus, the powerful [[Soga clan]] played a key role in the early spread of Buddhism in the country. Their support, along with that of immigrant groups like the [[Hata clan]], gave Buddhism its initial impulse in Japan along with its first temple (Hōkō-ji, also known as [[Asuka-dera|Asukadera]]).<ref>Deal & Ruppert (2015) pp. 19-26.</ref> The Nakatomi and Mononobe, however, continued to oppose the Soga, blaming their worship for disease and disorder. These opponents of Buddhism are even said to have thrown the image of the Buddha into the Naniwa canal. Eventually outright war erupted. The Soga side, led by [[Soga no Umako]] and a young [[Prince Shōtoku]], emerged victorious and promoted Buddhism on the archipelago with support of the broader court.

Based on traditional sources, Shōtoku has been seen as an ardent Buddhist who taught, wrote on, and promoted Buddhism widely, especially during the reign of [[Empress Suiko]] (554 – 15 April 628). He is also believed to have sent envoys to China and is even seen as a spiritually accomplished [[bodhisattva]] who is the true founder of Japanese Buddhism. Modern historians have questioned much of this, seeing most of it as a constructed [[hagiography]].<ref>Deal & Ruppert (2015) pp. 27-29.</ref> A popular quote attributed to Shōtoku that became foundational for Buddhist belief in Japan is translated as "The world is vain and illusory, and the Buddha's realm alone is true."<ref>{{Cite book |title=A History of Japanese religion |date=2001 |publisher=Kosei Pub |isbn=978-4-333-01917-5 |editor-last=Kasahara |editor-first=Kazuo |edition=1st English |location=Tokyo |editor-last2=McCarthy |editor-first2=Paul |editor-last3=Sekimori |editor-first3=Gaynor}}</ref> Regardless of his actual historical role, however, it is beyond doubt that Shōtoku became an important figure in Japanese Buddhist lore beginning soon after his death if not earlier.

Taoist traditions of immortality and becoming a ''[[Xian (Taoism)|xian]]'' made it to Japan in the times of early Buddhism, but Buddhism absorbed them. "[U]nder Buddhist influence," these stories were "associated with certain ascetic monks who were devoted to the [[Lotus Sutra]]."<ref>{{Cite book |title=Japanese Tales |publisher=Pantheon Books |year=1987 |isbn=978-0-394-52190-9 |editor-last=Tyler |editor-first=Royall |editor-link=Royall Tyler (academic) |edition=1st |series=Pantheon Fairy Tale and Folklore Library |location=New York |pages=xxx |translator-last=Tyler |translator-first=Royall}}</ref>

==== Asuka Buddhism (552–645) ====

[[Asuka period|Asuka-period]] (538 to 710) Buddhism (''Asuka bukkyō'') refers to Buddhist practice and thought that mainly developed after 552 in the [[Nara Basin|Nara Basin region]].<ref>Deal & Ruppert (2015) pp. 29-31.</ref> Buddhism grew here through the support and efforts of two main groups: immigrant kinship groups like the Hata clan (who were experts in Chinese technology as well as intellectual and material culture), and through aristocratic clans like the Soga.<ref>Deal & Ruppert (2015) pp. 30-32.</ref>

Immigrant groups like the Korean monks who supposedly instructed Shōtoku introduced Buddhist learning, administration, ritual practice and the skills to build Buddhist art and architecture. They included individuals like [[Ekan]] (dates unknown), a [[Koguryŏ]] priest of the Madhyamaka school, who (according to the ''Nihon Shoki'') was appointed to the highest rank of primary monastic prelate (''sōjō'').<ref>Deal & Ruppert (2015) pp. 31-32.</ref>

Aside from the Buddhist immigrant groups, Asuka Buddhism was mainly the purview of aristocratic groups like the Soga clan and other related clans, who patronized clan temples as a way to express their power and influence. These temples mainly focused on the performance of rituals which were believed to provide magical effects, such as protection.<ref name="Deal-8">Deal & Ruppert (2015) pp. 32-34.</ref> During this period, Buddhist art was dominated by the style of [[Tori Busshi]], who came from a Korean immigrant family.<ref name="Deal-8"/>

{{Gallery
|title=
|width=
|lines=
|File:Shotoku Taishi k.jpg|Painting on silk of the semi-legendary [[Prince Shōtoku]], first major sponsor of Buddhism in Japan
|File:Asuka dera daibutsu.jpg|The Great Buddha of Asuka-dera, oldest Buddha statue in Japan, and an example of the Tori style

|File:GUZE Kannon Horyuji.JPG|The Yumedono Kannon, another example of Tori style
}}

==== Hakuhō Buddhism (645–710) ====
[[Hakuhō period|Hakuhō]] (673 through 686) Buddhism (Hakuhō refers to [[Emperor Tenmu]]) saw the official patronage of Buddhism being taken up by the Japanese imperial family, who replaced the Soga clan as the main patrons of Buddhism. Japanese Buddhism at this time was also influenced by Tang dynasty (618–907) Buddhism.<ref name="Deal-2">Deal & Ruppert (2015) p. 45</ref> It was also during this time that Buddhism began to spread from the [[Yamato Province]] to the other regions and islands of Japan.<ref name="Deal-2" /> An important part of the centralizing reforms of this era (the [[Taika reforms]]) was the use of Buddhist institutions and rituals (often performed at the palace or capital) in the service of the state.<ref>Deal & Ruppert (2015) p. 46</ref>

The imperial government also actively built and managed the Buddhist temples as well as the monastic community.<ref>Deal & Ruppert (2015) pp. 48-49</ref> The Nihon Shoki states that in 624 there were 46 Buddhist temples.<ref>Deal & Ruppert (2015) pp. 49-50</ref> Some of these temples include [[Kawara-dera|Kawaradera]] and [[Yakushiji]]. Archeological research has also revealed numerous local and regional temples outside of the capital.<ref>Deal & Ruppert (2015) p. 50</ref> At the state temples, Buddhist rituals were performed in order to create merit for the royal family and the well-being of the nation. Particular attention was paid to rituals centered around Buddhist sutras (scriptures), such as the ''[[Golden Light Sutra]]''.<ref>Deal & Ruppert (2015) p. 51</ref> The monastic community was overseen by the complex and hierarchical imperial Monastic Office (''sōgō''), who managed everything from the monastic code to the color of the robes.<ref>Deal & Ruppert (2015) p. 53</ref>

==== Nara Buddhism (710–794) ====
{{main|Nanto Rokushū}}
[[File:200730_Model_of_Yakushi-ji.jpg|thumb|A model of Yakushi-ji, a major imperial temple of Nara]]
[[File:200730_Model_of_the_garan_of_Todaiji_seen_from_north_side.jpg|thumb|Model of the [[Shichidō garan|garan]] of Todai-ji seen from the north side]]
[[File:Japan_070416_Todaiji_10.jpg|thumb|Todai-ji's Great Buddha ([[Daibutsu]])]]

In 710, [[Empress Genmei|Empress Genme]] moved the state capital to [[Heijōkyō]], (modern [[Nara (city)|Nara]]) thus inaugurating the [[Nara period]]. This period saw the establishment of the ''[[Provincial temple|kokubunji]]'' system, which was a way to manage provincial temples through a network of national temples in each province.<ref>Deal & Ruppert (2015) pp. 54-56</ref> The head temple of the entire system was [[Tōdai-ji]] (completed in 752).<ref>Deal & Ruppert (2015) p. 59</ref>

Nara state sponsorship saw the development of the six great Nara schools, called {{nihongo|''Nanto Rokushū''|南都六宗|lit. the Six Sects of the Southern Capital}}, all were continuations of Chinese Buddhist schools. The temples of these schools became important places for the study of Buddhist doctrine.<ref>Deal & Ruppert (2015) pp. 55-56</ref> The six Nara schools were: ''[[Risshū (Buddhism)|Ritsu]]'' ([[Vinaya]]), ''Jōjitsu'' ([[Tattvasiddhi]])'', [[Kusha-shū]]'' ([[Abhidharmakosha]]), ''Sanronshū'' ([[East Asian Mādhyamaka]]), ''Hossō'' ([[East Asian Yogācāra]]) and ''[[Kegon]]'' ([[Huayan]]).<ref>{{cite encyclopedia| last = Powers| first = John| title = Japanese Buddhism| encyclopedia = A Concise Encyclopedia of Buddhism| volume = 1| pages = 103–107| publisher = Oneworld Publications| location = Oxford| year = 2000}}</ref>

These schools were centered around the capital where great temples such as the [[Asuka-dera]] and [[Tōdai-ji]] were erected. The most influential of the temples are known as the "[[Nanto Shichi Daiji|seven great temples of the southern capital]]" (''Nanto Shichi Daiji''). The temples were not exclusive and sectarian organizations. Instead, temples were apt to have scholars versed in several of schools of thought. It has been suggested that they can best be thought of as "study groups".<ref>Deal & Ruppert (2015) p. 56</ref>

State temples continued the practice of conducting numerous rituals for the good of the nation and the imperial family. Rituals centered on scriptures like the ''Golden Light'' and the ''[[Lotus Sūtra]]''.<ref>Deal & Ruppert (2015) p. 58</ref> Another key function of the state temples was the transcription of Buddhist scriptures, which was seen as generating much merit.<ref>Deal & Ruppert (2015) pp. 59-60</ref> Buddhist monastics were firmly controlled by the state's monastic office through an extensive monastic code of law, and monastic ranks were matched to the ranks of government officials.<ref>Deal & Ruppert (2015) p. 60</ref> It was also during this era that the ''Nihon Shoki'' was written, a text which shows significant Buddhist influence. The monk Dōji (?–744) may have been involved in its compilation.<ref name="Deal-3">Deal & Ruppert (2015) pp. 60-61</ref>

The elite state sponsored Nara Buddhism was not the only type of Buddhism at this time. There were also groups of unofficial monastics or priests (or, self-ordained; ''shido sōni'') who were either not formally ordained and trained through the state channels, or who chose to preach and practice outside of the system. These "unofficial" monks were often subject to state punishment.<ref name="Deal-3" /> Their practice could have also included Daoist and indigenous kami worship elements. Some of these figures became immensely popular and were a source of criticism for the sophisticated, academic and bureaucratic Buddhism of the capital.

==== Early Heian Period Buddhism (794–950) ====
[[File:Culto do chá p25.png|thumb|upright|An illustration of Saichō with tea leaves. He is known for having introduced tea to Japan.]]
[[File:Toshi-ya_00.jpg|thumb|''[[Sanjūsangen-dō]] in Kyoto,'' a print of a Tendai temple, by [[Toyoharu]], {{circa|1772–1781}}]]
During the [[Heian period]], the capital was shifted to [[Kyoto]] (then known as [[Heiankyō]]) by [[emperor Kanmu]], mainly for economic and strategic reasons. As before, Buddhist institutions continued to play a key role in the state, with Kanmu being a strong supporter of the new Tendai school of [[Saichō]] (767–822) in particular.<ref>Deal & Ruppert (2015) pp. 68-69</ref> Saichō, who had studied the Tiantai school in China, established the influential temple complex of [[Enryakuji]] at [[Mount Hiei]], and developed a new system of monastic regulations based on the [[Bodhisattva Precepts|bodhisattva precepts]].<ref>Deal & Ruppert (2015) p. 72</ref> This new system allowed Tendai to free itself from direct state control.<ref>Deal & Ruppert (2015) p. 73</ref>

Also during this period, the [[Shingon]] ( Ch. Zhenyan; "True Word", from Sanskrit: "[[Mantra]]") school was established in the country under the leadership of [[Kūkai]]. This school also received state sponsorship and introduced esoteric [[Vajrayana]] (also referred to as ''[[mikkyō]]'', "secret teaching") elements.<ref>Deal & Ruppert (2015) pp. 68-71, 85</ref>

The new Buddhist lineages of Shingon and Tendai also developed somewhat independently from state control, partly because the old system was becoming less important to Heian aristocrats.<ref>Deal & Ruppert (2015) p. 70</ref> This period also saw an increase in the official separation between the different schools, due to a new system that specified the particular school which an imperial priest (''nenbundosha'') belonged to.<ref>Deal & Ruppert (2015) pp. 68-70</ref>

==== Later Heian Period Buddhism (950–1185) ====
[[Image:Kuya Portrait.JPG|thumb|upright|Statue of Kūya by [[Kōshō (sculptor)|Kōshō]], son of [[Unkei]], dating to the first decade of the thirteenth century. The six syllables of the [[nembutsu]], ''na-mu-a-mi-da-butsu'', are represented literally by six small Amida figures streaming from Kūya's mouth. ]]

During this period, there was a consolidation of a series of annual court ceremonies (''nenjū gyōji'').<ref>Deal & Ruppert (2015) p. 87</ref> Tendai Buddhism was particularly influential, and the veneration of the ''Lotus Sūtra'' grew in popularity, even among the low class and non-aristocratic population, which often formed religious groups such as the "Lotus holy ones" (''hokke hijiri'' or ''jikyōja'') and [[Shugendō|mountain ascetics (''shugenja'')]].<ref>Deal & Ruppert (2015) pp. 90-92</ref> [[Shugendō]] is an example of the fusion of [[Shinto]] [[mountain worship]] and Buddhism. The aim of Shugendo practitioners is to save the masses by acquiring supernatural powers through rigorous training while walking through steep mountains.<ref name="jimon">{{Cite web|title=Exoteric Buddhism, Esoteric Buddhism, and Shugendo - 顕教・密教・修験道|url=http://www.tendai-jimon.jp/trainee/index.html|url-status=live|website=www.tendai-jimon.jp|publisher=Tendaijimon Sect|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201221152905/http://www.tendai-jimon.jp/trainee/index.html|access-date=4 April 2024|archive-date=21 December 2020}}</ref><ref name="masayasu">{{Cite web |url=https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/jjhg1948/41/6/41_6_512/_pdf |title=The Formation and its Meaning of the 75-sacred-place View in the Omine Sacred Mountain Area |author=Masayasu Oda|publisher=|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190502160622/https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/jjhg1948/41/6/41_6_512/_pdf |access-date=4 April 2024|archive-date=2 May 2019 }}</ref>

Furthermore, during this era, new Buddhist traditions began to develop. While some of these have been grouped into what is referred to as "new Kamakura" Buddhism, their beginning can actually be traced to the late Heian. This includes the practice of Japanese [[Pure Land Buddhism]], which focuses on the contemplation and chanting of the ''[[nenbutsu]]'', the name of the Buddha [[Amitābha|Amida (Skt. Amitābha)]], in hopes of being reborn in the [[Buddha field]] of [[Sukhāvatī]]. This practice was initially popular in Tendai monasteries but then spread throughout Japan.<ref>Deal & Ruppert (2015) pp. 87, 91-93</ref> Texts discussing miracles associated with the Buddhas and bodhisattvas became popular in this period, along with texts which outlined death bed rites.<ref>Deal & Ruppert (2015) pp. 92-96</ref>

During this period, some Buddhist temples established groups of warrior-monks called [[Sōhei]]. This phenomenon began in Tendai temples, as they vied for political influence with each other.{{sfnp|Snelling|1987|p=178}} The [[Genpei war]] saw various groups of warrior monks join the fray.

There were also semi-independent clerics (who were called shōnin or hijiri, "holy ones") who lived away from the major Buddhist monasteries and preached to the people. These figures had much more contact with the general populace than other monks.<ref>Deal & Ruppert (2015) pp. 91-93</ref> The most well known of these figures was [[Kūya]] (alt. Kōya; 903–972), who wandered throughout the provinces engaging in good works (''sazen''), preaching on nembutsu practice and working with local Buddhist cooperatives (''zenchishiki'') to create images of bodhisattvas like Kannon.<ref>Deal & Ruppert (2015) pp. 92-94</ref>
[[File:Sōgyō_Hachiman.jpg|thumb|upright|A scroll depicting the kami Hachiman dressed as a Buddhist monk, an example of ''[[Shinbutsu-shūgō]]'' ("syncretism of kami and buddhas").]]
Another important development during this era was that Buddhist monks were now being widely encouraged by the state to pray for the salvation of Japanese ''[[kami]]'' (divine beings in Shinto). The merging of Shinto deities with Buddhist practice was not new at this time. Already in the eighth century, some major Shinto shrines (''[[jingūji]]'') included Buddhist monks which conducted rites for shinto divinities. One of the earliest such figures was "great Bodhisattva [[Hachiman]]" (Hachiman daibosatsu) who was popular in [[Kyūshū]].<ref>Deal & Ruppert (2015) pp. 95-97</ref>

Popular sites for pilgrimage and religious practice, like [[Kumano Kodō|Kumano]], included both kami worship and the worship of Buddhas and bodhisattvas, which were often associated with each other. Furthermore, temples like Tōdai-ji also included shrines for the worship of kami (in Tōdai-ji's case, it was the kami Shukongōjin that was enshrined in its rear entryway).<ref>Deal & Ruppert (2015) pp. 98-100</ref>

Buddhist monks interpreted their relationship to the kami in different ways. Some monks saw them as just worldly beings who could be prayed for. Other saw them as manifestations of Buddhas and bodhisattvas. For example, the Mt. Hiei monk Eryō saw the kami as "traces" (suijaku) of the Buddha. This idea, called [[Honji suijaku|essence-trace (''honji-suijaku'')]], would have a strong influence throughout the medieval era.<ref>Deal & Ruppert (2015) pp. 87, 95-97</ref>
[[Image:Heike-Nokyo-Chapter-12-Lotus-Sutra.png|thumb|Sutra art from the ''Heike-Nôkyô'', chapter 12.]]
The copying and writing of Buddhist scripture was a widespread practice in this period. It was seen as producing [[Merit (Buddhism)|merit]] (good karma). Artistic portraits depicting events from the scriptures were also quite popular during this era. They were used to generate merit as well as to preach and teach the doctrine. The "Enshrined Sutra of the [[Taira clan|Taira Family]]" (''Heikenōkyō''), is one of the greatest examples of Buddhist visual art from this period. It is an elaborately illustrated Lotus Sūtra installed at [[Itsukushima Shrine]].<ref>Deal & Ruppert (2015) pp. 99-102</ref>

The Buddhist liturgy of this era also became more elaborate and performative. Rites such as the Repentance Assembly (''keka'e'') at [[Hōjōji]] developed to include elaborate music, dance and other forms of performance. Major temples and monasteries such as the royal [[Hosshō-ji|Hosshōji]] temple and Kōfukuji, also became home to the performance of [[Sarugaku]] theater (which is the origin of [[Noh|Nō Drama]]) as well as ennen ("longevity-enhancing") arts which included dances and music. Doctrinally, these performative arts were seen as [[Upaya|skillful means (''hōben'', Skt. ''upaya'')]] of teaching Buddhism. Monks specializing in such arts were called yūsō ("artistic monks").<ref>Deal & Ruppert (2015) pp. 100-104</ref>

Another way of communicating the Buddhist message was through the medium of poetry, which included both Chinese poetry ([[Kanshi (poetry)|kanshi]]) and Japanese poetry ([[Waka (poetry)|waka]]). An example of Buddhist themed waka is Princess Senshi's (964–1035) ''Hosshin waka shū'' (Collection of Waka of the Awakening Mind, 1012). The courtly practice of rōei (performing poetry to music) was also taken up in the Tendai and Shingon lineages. Both monks and laypersons met in poetry circles (''kadan'') like the [[Ninnaji]] circle which was patronized by Prince Shukaku (1150–1202).<ref>Deal & Ruppert (2015) pp. 101-103</ref>

=== Kamakura Buddhism (1185–1333) - new schools of Buddhism===
The [[Kamakura period]] (1185–1333) was a period of crisis in which the control of the country moved from the imperial aristocracy to the [[samurai]]. In 1185 the [[Kamakura shogunate]] was established at [[Kamakura]].{{sfnp|Snelling|1987|p=181}} 
[[File:Honen shonin eden - Public preach.jpg|thumb|An illustration of Hōnen preaching]]
[[File:Ninsho (Shomyoji).jpg|thumb|upright|Ninshō]]
This period saw the development of new Buddhist lineages or schools which have been called "Kamakura Buddhism" and "New Buddhism". All of the major founders of these new lineages were ex-Tendai monks who had trained at Mt. Hiei and had studied the exoteric and esoteric systems of Tendai Buddhism. During the Kamakura period, these new schools did not gain as much prominence as the older lineages, with the possible exception of the highly influential [[Rinzai]] Zen school.<ref>Deal & Ruppert (2015) pp. 113-115</ref>

Among the founders of the forty-six sects in Japanese Zen, sixteen were Chinese masters, fifteen were Japanese masters who traveled to China during the reign of the [[Song dynasty]], and another fifteen were Japanese masters who visited China during the reign of the [[Yuan dynasty]].<ref>{{cite book |author1=Yu-hsiu Ku |title=History of Zen|publisher=Springer Nature|year=2016 |page=xii |isbn= 978-981-10-1129-0|url=https://terebess.hu/zen/mesterek/7.pdf}}</ref>

The new schools include Pure Land lineages like [[Hōnen|Hōnen's]] (1133–1212) [[Jōdo shū]] and [[Shinran|Shinran's]] (1173–1263) [[Jōdo Shinshū]], both of which focused on the practice of chanting the name of Amida Buddha. These new Pure Land schools both believed that Japan had entered the era of the decline of the Dharma (''[[mappō]]'') and that therefore other Buddhist practices were not useful. The only means to liberation was now the faithful chanting of the nembutsu.<ref>Deal & Ruppert (2015) pp. 117-118</ref> This view was critiqued by more traditional figures such as [[Myōe|Myō'e]] (1173–1232).

Another response to the social instability of the period was an attempt by certain monks to return to the proper practice of Buddhist precepts as well as meditation. These figures include figures like the Kōfukuji monk [[Jōkei (monk)|Jōkei]] (1155–1213) and the Tendai monk Shunjō (1166–1227), who sought to return to the traditional foundations of the Buddhist path, ethical cultivation and meditation practice.<ref>Deal & Ruppert (2015) p. 121</ref>

Other monks attempted to minister to marginalized low class groups. The Kegon-Shingon monk Myō'e was known for opening his temple to lepers, beggars, and other marginal people, while precept masters such as [[Eison]] (1201–1290) and [[Ninshō]] (1217–1303) were also active in ministering and caring for ill and marginalized persons, particularly those outcast groups termed "non-persons" (''[[hinin]]''). Deal & Ruppert (2015) p.&nbsp;122 Ninshō established a medical facility at [[Gokuraku-ji (Kamakura)|Gokurakuji]] in 1287, which treated more than 88,000 people over a 34-year-period and collected Chinese medical knowledge.<ref>Deal & Ruppert (2015) pp. 122-123</ref>

Another set of new Kamakura schools include the two major [[Zen]] schools of Japan (Rinzai and [[Sōtō]]), promulgated by monks such as [[Eisai]] and [[Dōgen]], which emphasize liberation through the insight of meditation (zazen). Dōgen (1200–1253) began a prominent meditation teacher and abbot. He introduced the [[Chan Buddhism|Chan]] lineage of [[Caodong]], which would grow into the Sōtō school. He criticized ideas like the [[Three Ages of Buddhism|final age of the Dharma]] (''mappō''), and the practice of [[apotropaic]] prayer.<ref>Deal & Ruppert (2015) pp. 123-124</ref> 
[[File:Nichiren_exiled.jpg|thumb|A 20th century depiction of the banishment of Nichiren in 1261.]]
Additionally, it was during this period that monk [[Nichiren]] (1222–1282) began teaching his exclusively ''[[Lotus Sutra]]'' based Buddhism, which he saw as the only valid object of devotion in the age of mappō. Nichiren believed that the conflicts and disasters of this period were caused by the wrong views of Japanese Buddhists (such as the followers of Pure Land and esoteric Buddhism).<ref>Deal & Ruppert (2015) pp. 124-126</ref> Nichiren faced much opposition for his views and was also attacked and exiled twice by the Kamakura state.

===Muromachi period (1336–1573) and Azuchi–Momoyama period (1573–1603)===

==== Late Medieval Buddhism (1336–1467) ====

During this period, the new "Kamakura schools" continued to develop and began to consolidate themselves as unique and separate traditions. However, as Deal and Ruppert note, "most of them remained at the periphery of Buddhist institutional power and, in some ways, discourse during this era."<ref>Deal & Ruppert (2015) p. 135</ref> They further add that it was only "from the late fifteenth century onward that these lineages came to increasingly occupy the center of Japanese Buddhist belief and practice." The only exception is [[Rinzai]] Zen, which attained prominence earlier (13th century).<ref name="Deal-4">Deal & Rupert (2015) pp. 135-136</ref> Meanwhile, the "old" schools and lineages continued to develop in their own ways and remained influential.<ref name="Deal-4" />

The new schools' independence from the old schools did not happen all at once. In fact, the new schools remained under the old schools' doctrinal and political influence for some time. For example, Ōhashi Toshio has stressed how during this period, the Jōdo sect was mainly seen as a subsidiary or temporary branch sect of Tendai. Furthermore, not all monks of the old sects were antagonistic to the new sects.<ref>Deal & Ruppert (2015) pp. 139-141</ref>

During the height of the medieval era, political power was decentralized and shrine-temple complexes were often competing with each other for influence and power. These complexes often controlled land and multiple manors, and also maintained military forces of warrior monks which they used to battle with each other.<ref>Deal & Ruppert (2015) pp. 136-137</ref> In spite of the instability of this era, the culture of Buddhist study and learning continued to thrive and grow.<ref name="Deal-7">Deal & Ruppert (2015) pp. 142-144</ref>

Furthermore, though there were numerous independent Buddhist schools and lineages at this time, many monks did not exclusively belong to one lineage and instead traveled to study and learn in various temples and seminaries. This tendency of practicing in multiple schools or lineages was termed ''shoshū kengaku''. It became much more prominent in the medieval era due to the increased social mobility that many monks enjoyed''.''<ref>Deal & Ruppert (2015) pp. 151-153</ref>    
[[File:TofukujiSanmon.jpg|thumb|The main gate of Tōfuku-ji, the oldest ''[[sanmon]]'' in Japan.]]
Both the [[Kamakura shogunate]] (1192–1333) and the [[Ashikaga shogunate]] (1336–1573) supported and patronized the "[[Five Mountain System|Five Mountains culture]]" (''Gozan Jissetsu Seido'') of [[Rinzai]] Zen. This Rinzai Zen tradition was centered on the ten "Five Mountain" temples (five in Kyoto and five in Kamakura). Besides teaching zazen meditation, they also pursued studies in esoteric Buddhism and in certain art forms like calligraphy and poetry. A pivotal early figure of Rinzai was [[Enni Ben'en]] (1202–1280), a high-ranking and influential monk who was initiated into Tendai and Shingon. He then traveled to China to study Zen and later founded [[Tōfuku-ji|Tōfukuji]].<ref name="Deal-7"/>

The Tendai and Shingon credentials of Rinzai figures such as Enni show that early Zen was not a lineage that was totally separate from the other "old" schools.<ref>Deal & Ruppert (2015) pp. 143-145</ref> Indeed, Zen monastic codes feature procedures for "worship of the Buddha, funerals, memorial rites for ancestral spirits, the feeding of hungry ghosts, feasts sponsored by donors, and tea services that served to highlight the bureaucratic and social hierarchy."<ref>Deal & Ruppert (2015) pp. 143-146</ref>  
[[File:Tenryuji_Kyoto41n4592.jpg|thumb|[[Tenryū-ji|Tenryū-ji's]] Sōgen Pond, designed by [[Musō Soseki]].]]
Medieval Rinzai was also invigorated by a series of Chinese masters who came to Japan during the [[Song dynasty]], such as [[Yishan Yining]] (1247–1317). Issan influenced the Japanese interest in Chinese literature, calligraphy and painting. The [[Japanese literature]] of the Five Mountains (''[[Gozan Bungaku]]'') reflects this influence. One of his students was [[Musō Soseki]], a Zen master, calligraphist, poet and garden designer who was granted the title "national Zen teacher" by Emperor [[Go-Daigo]].<ref>Deal & Ruppert (2015) pp. 145-146</ref> The Zen monk poets [[Sesson Yūbai]] and [[Kokan Shiren]] also studied under Issan.<ref name="Louis-Frédéric">Louis-Frédéric, Käthe Roth. [https://books.google.com/books?id=p2QnPijAEmEC&dq=yishan+yining&pg=PA402 Japan encyclopedia.] Harvard University Press, 2005. {{ISBN|0-674-01753-6}}, {{ISBN|978-0-674-01753-5}} Стр. 402</ref> Shiren was also a historian who wrote the Buddhist history ''[[Genkō Shakusho|Genkō shakusho]]''. [[Ikkyū Sōjun]] (1394–1481) was a poet who influenced many Japanese work in Zen Buddhism although there is little evidence of his own wakas, and was influenced by Issan.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Vallor |first=Molly |date=May 2016 |title=Waka and Zen in Medieval Japan |url=https://compass.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/rec3.12196 |journal=Religion Compass |language=en |volume=10 |issue=5 |pages=101–117 |doi=10.1111/rec3.12196 |issn=1749-8171|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

The Royal court and elite families of the capital also studied the classic Chinese arts that were being taught in the five mountain Rinzai temples. The shogunal families even built Zen temples in their residential palaces. The five mountain temples also established their own printing program (''Gozan-ban'') to copy and disseminate a wide variety of literature that included records of Zen masters, the writings of [[Tang poets]], [[Confucian classics]], Chinese dictionaries, reference works, and medical texts.<ref>Deal & Ruppert (2015) pp. 145-147</ref>   
[[File:Hansobo Shrine.jpg|thumb|The Hansōbō shrine, a Shinto shrine at the Rinzai temple of [[Kenchō-ji]].]]
It is also during this period that true lineages of "Shintō" kami worship begin to develop in Buddhist temples complexes, lineages which would become the basis for institutionalized Shintō of later periods. Buddhists continued to develop theories about the relationship between kami and the Buddhas and bodhisattvas. One such idea, ''[[gongen]]'' ("provisional manifestation")'','' promoted the worship of kami as manifest forms of the Buddhas.<ref>Deal & Ruppert (2015) pp. 149-151</ref> A group of Tendai monks at Mt. Hiei meanwhile incorporated ''[[hongaku]]'' thought into their worship of the kami Sannō, which eventually came to be seen as the source or "original ground" (''honji'') of all Buddhas (thereby reversing the old ''[[honji suijaku]]'' theory which saw the Buddha as the ''honji''). This idea can be found in the work of the Hiei monk Sonshun (1451–1514).<ref>Deal & Ruppert (2015) pp. 149-152</ref>

==== Late Muromachi-Period Buddhism (1467–1603) - Ōnin War====
[[File:Kinkaku-ji.jpg|thumb|right|[[Kinkaku-ji]], ("the Temple of the Golden Pavilion'), is a Rinzai Zen temple built in the [[Muromachi period]] (c. 1397) and destroyed during the Onin War (it was later rebuilt).]]

Beginning with the devastating [[Ōnin War|Ōnin War (1467–1477)]], the late [[Muromachi period]] saw the devolution of central government control and the rise of regional [[samurai]] warlords called ''[[daimyō]]s'' and the so called "warring states era" (''[[Sengoku period|Sengokuki]]''). During this era of widespread warfare, many Buddhist temples and monasteries were destroyed, particularly in and around Kyoto. Many of these old temples would not be rebuilt until the 16th and 17th centuries.<ref>Deal & Ruppert (2015) p. 172</ref>

During this period, the new Kamakura schools rose to a new level of prominence and influence. They also underwent reforms in study and practice which would make them more independent and would last centuries. For example, it was during this period that the True Pure Land monk [[Rennyo]] (1415–1499) forged a large following for his school and rebuilt [[Honganji]]. He reformed devotional practices with a focus on Shinran and [[honzon]] scrolls inscribed with the nembutsu. He also made widespread use of the Japanese vernacular.<ref>Deal & Ruppert (2015) pp. 176-179</ref>

The Zen lineages were also widely disseminated throughout the country during this era. A key contributing factor to their spread (as well as to the spread of Pure Land temples) was their activity in funerals and mortuary rituals. Some temple halls were reconstructed with a focus on mortuary rites (sometimes for a specific family, like the [[Tokugawa clan|Tokugawa]]) and were thus known as mortuary temples (''[[bodaiji]]'').<ref>Deal & Ruppert (2015) pp. 177-180</ref> Furthermore, during this era, schools like Soto Zen, the Hokke (Nichiren) schools and Rennyo's Pure land school also developed comprehensive curricula for doctrinal study, which allowed them to become more self sufficient and independent schools and eliminated the need for their monks to study with other schools.<ref>Deal & Ruppert (2015) pp. 179-182</ref>

There was also a decrease in the ritual schedule of the royal court. Because of this, Buddhist Temples which did survive this period had to turn to new ways of fundraising. Aside from mortuary duties, this also included increasing public viewings (''[[kaichō]]s'') of hidden or esoteric images.<ref>Deal & Ruppert (2015) pp. 172-173</ref>

[[File:大坂本願寺.jpg|thumb|right|A model of [[Ishiyama Hongan-ji]] in Osaka, one of the main fortress-temple complex of the True Pure Land (''Jōdo Shinshū'') "Devoted League" (''Ikko-Ikki'').]]
[[File:Utagawa_Yoshifuji_-_The_Battle_of_Ishiyama_Hongan-ji.jpg|thumb|right|The Battle of Ishiyama Hongan-ji, by Utagawa Yoshifuji]]

This era also saw the rise of militant Buddhist leagues (''ikki''), like the [[Ikkō-ikki|Ikko Ikki]] ("Single Minded" Pure Land Leagues) and [[Hokke-ikki]] (Nichirenist "Lotus" Leagues), who rose in revolt against samurai lords and established self-rule in certain regions. These leagues would also sometimes go to war with each other and with major temples. The [[Hokke-ikki]] managed to destroy the Ikko Ikki's [[Yamashina Mido|Yamashina Honganji]] temple complex and take over much of Kyoto in the 1530s. They eventually came into conflict with the Tendai warrior monks of Enryakuji in what became known as the Tenbun Period War, in which all 21 major Hokke (Nichiren) temples were destroyed, along with much of Kyoto.<ref name="Deal">Deal & Ruppert (2015) pp. 179-181</ref>

The Tendai warrior monks and the Ikko Ikki leagues remained a major political power in Japan until their defeat at the hands of [[Oda Nobunaga]] (1534–1582), who subjugated both the Tendai monks at Mt Hiei and then the Ikko Ikki, in the [[Ishiyama Hongan-ji War|Ishiyama Honganji War]] (1570–1580) .<ref>Deal & Ruppert (2015) pp. 181-183</ref>

During the mid-sixteenth century westerners first began to arrive in Japan, introducing new technologies, as well as [[Christianity in Japan|Christianity]]. This led to numerous debates between Christians and Buddhists, such as the so-called "Yamaguchi sectarian debates" (''yamaguchi no shūron'').<ref name="Deal"/>

=== Edo (Tokugawa)-Period (1603–1868) ===
After the [[Sengoku]] period of war, Japan was re-united by the [[Tokugawa Shogunate]] (1600–1868) who ran the country through a feudal system of regional ''daimyō''. The Tokugawa also banned most foreigners from entering the country. The only western traders to be allowed were the Dutch at the island of [[Dejima]].{{sfnp|Snelling|1987}}

During the seventeenth century, the [[Tokugawa Iemitsu|Tokugawa shōgun Iemitsu]] set into motion a series of reforms which sought to increase state control of religion (as well as to eliminate Christianity). Iemitsu's reforms developed what has been called the head–branch system (''hon-matsu seido'') and the temple affiliation system (''jidan''; alt. ''danka seido''). This system made use of already existing Buddhist institutions and affiliations, but attempted to bring them under official government control and required all temples to be affiliated with a government recognized lineage.<ref>Deal & Ruppert (2015) pp. 184-186</ref> In general, the [[Tendai]], [[Jōdo-shū|Pure Land]], and [[Shingon]] sects were treated more favourably than the [[True Pure Land]] and [[Nichiren Shōshū|Nichiren]] sects because the latter had a history of inciting socio-political disturbances in the 16th century.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Makoto|first1=Hayashi|last2=Amstutz|first2=Galen|date=2012|title=General Education and the Modernization of Japanese Buddhism|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/44362468|journal=The Eastern Buddhist|volume=43|issue=1/2|pages=137|jstor=44362468|issn=0012-8708|access-date=2021-09-13|archive-date=2021-09-13|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210913000058/https://www.jstor.org/stable/44362468|url-status=live}}</ref>

Buddhist leaders often worked with the government, providing religious support for their rule. For example, the Zen monk [[Takuan Sōhō]] (1573–1645) suggested that the spirit of [[Tokugawa Ieyasu]], was a kami (divine spirit). He also wrote a book on zen and martial arts (''[[The Unfettered Mind]]'') addressed to the samurai. Meanwhile, [[Suzuki Shōsan]] would even call the Tokugawa shōgun a "holy king" (''shōō'').<ref name="Deal-11">Deal & Ruppert (2015) pp. 188-190</ref>

In the [[Edo period]], Buddhist institutions procured funding through various ritual means, such as the sale of talismans, posthumous names and titles, prayer petitions, and medicine.<ref name="Deal-12">Deal & Ruppert (2015) pp. 199-201</ref> The practice of pilgrimage was also prominent in the Edo Period. Many temples and holy sites like [[Mt. Kōya]], [[Konpira-san|Mt. Konpira]] and Mt. Ōyama ([[Sagami Province]]) hosted Buddhist pilgrims and mountain ascetics throughout the era.<ref name="Deal-13">Deal & Ruppert (2015) pp. 193-195</ref>
[[File:Portrait_of_Ingen_Ryūki_by_Kita_Genki.jpg|thumb|Portrait of Chinese monk Yinyuan ([[Ingen]]), who founded the Ōbaku school]]
During the 17th century, the [[Ōbaku]] lineage of Zen would be introduced by [[Ingen]], a Chinese monk. Ingen had been a member of the [[Linji school]] in Ming China. This lineage, which promoted the dual practice of zazen and nembutsu, would be very successful, having over a thousand temples by the mid-18th century.<ref name="Deal-11"/>

Meanwhile, a new breed of public preachers was beginning to frequent public spaces and develop new forms of preaching. These include Pure Land monk [[Anrakuan Sakuden|Sakuden]] (1554–1642), who is seen as an originator of [[Rakugo|Rakugo humor]] and wrote the ''Seisuishō'' (Laughs to Wake You Up), which is a collection of humorous anecdotes. Other traveling preachers of the era who made use of stories and narratives include the Shingon-Ritsu monk Rentai (1663–1726) and the Pure Land monk [[Asai Ryōi]] (d. 1691).<ref>Deal & Ruppert (2015) pp. 190-192</ref>

[[Hakuin Ekaku]] (1685–1768) laid a strong emphasis on kōan training as the original pedagogical means of his tradition, combining it with a somatic practice by drawing on ideas from Chinese medicine and Daoism. Hakuin also criticized the mixing of Zen and Pure Land.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Feleppa |first=Robert |date=January 2012 |title=Hakuin's Zen: Turbulence and Insight |url=http://www.japanstudies.org/ |journal=Japan Studies Association Journal |volume=10 |pages=47–66 |issn=1530-3527 |via=[[EBSCO Information Services|EBSCOhost]] }}</ref> His views became influential in the [[Meiji era|Meji-period]] (1868–1912), when his dharma-heirs came to dominate the Japanese Rinzai-school.

[[File:錦画製造之図.jpg|thumb|''Making Prints'', by Hosoki Toshikazu c. 1879]]
[[File:JIGAGE E SHŌ 1814 Buddha sees all.jpg|thumb|Illustration of a book published in 1814]]
During the Edo period, there was an unprecedented growth of print publishing (in part due to the support of the Tokugawa regime), and the creation and sale of printed Buddhist works exploded. The Tendai monk [[Tenkai]], supported by Iemitsu, led the printing of the Buddhist "canon" (''issaikyō,'' i.e. ''[[The Tripiṭaka]]''). Deal & Ruppert (2015) pp.&nbsp;184–186 Also notable was the publication of an exceptionally high quality reprint of the Ming-era ''Tripiṭaka'' by [[Tetsugen Doko]], a renowned master of the Ōbaku school.<ref name="Buddhanet">Japan Buddhist Federation, Buddhanet [http://www.buddhanet.net/nippon/nippon_partI.html "A Brief History of Buddhism in Japan", accessed 30/4/2012] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201105231938/http://www.buddhanet.net/nippon/nippon_partI.html |date=2020-11-05 }}</ref> An important part of the publishing boom were books of Buddhist sermons called ''kange-bon'' or ''dangi-bon.''<ref name="Deal-13"/>

With the support of the Shogunate, Buddhist scholasticism also thrived during the Edo period, and the major Buddhist schools established new systems of scholastic study in their schools' seminaries (''danrin'').<ref name="Deal-12"/> Examples include the [[Kantō Jūhachi Danrin|18 Jōdo school danrin]] in [[Kantō]], which were patronized by the Tokugawa family, the most prominent being [[Zōjō-ji|Zōjōji]]. The True Pure Land lineages established an extensive seminary system which constituted what would eventually become [[Ryukoku University|Ryūkoku University.]] There was also a renaissance of Sanskrit studies in the Shingon school, led by figures such as Jōgon (1639–1702) and Jiun Sonja (1718–1804). Meanwhile, in Sōtō Zen, scholars led by [[Menzan Zuihō]] (1683–1769) undertook a major attempt to publish and study the works of Dōgen.<ref name="Deal-5">Deal & Ruppert (2015) pp. 200-202</ref>

Also during this time there was a widespread movement among many Buddhist sects to return to the proper use of Buddhist precepts. Numerous figures in the Ōbaku, Shingon, Shingon-risshū, Nichiren, Jōdo shū and Soto schools participated in this effort to tighten and reform Buddhist ethical discipline.<ref name="Deal-5" />

===Meiji period (1868–1912)===
[[File:Nagane Tanaka Haibutsu Kishaku.jpg|thumb|Buddhist temple bells being smelted for bronze during the ''haibutsu kishaku'']]
After the [[Meiji Restoration]] in 1868, the new imperial government adopted a strong anti-Buddhist attitude. A new form of pristine [[Shinto]], shorn of all Buddhist influences, was promoted as the state religion, an official state policy known as ''[[shinbutsu bunri]]'' (separating Buddhism from Shinto), which began with the ''Kami and Buddhas Separation Order'' (''shinbutsu hanzenrei'') of 1868.<ref>Deal & Ruppert (2015) pp. 211-213</ref> The ideologues of this new Shinto sought to return to a pure Japanese spirit, before it was "corrupted" by external influences, mainly Buddhism. They were influenced by national study (''[[kokugaku]]'') figures like [[Motoori Norinaga]] (1730–1801) and [[Hirata Atsutane]] (1776–1843), both of whom strongly criticized Buddhism.<ref>Deal & Ruppert (2015) pp. 210-211</ref> The new order dismantled the combined temple-shrine complexes that had existed for centuries. Buddhists priests were no longer able to practice at Shinto shrines and Buddhist artifacts were removed from Shinto shrines.<ref name="Deal-14">Deal & Ruppert (2015) pp. 212-214</ref>

This sparked a popular and often violent movement to eradicate Buddhism, which was seen as backwards and foreign and associated with the corrupt Shogunate. There had been much pent-up anger among the populace because the Tokugawa [[Danka system|''danka'' system]] forced families to affiliate themselves with a Buddhist temple, which included the obligation of monetary donations. Many Buddhist temples abused this system to make money, causing an undue burden on their parishioners.<ref name="review">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120207151137/http://www.let.leidenuniv.nl/history/itinerario/bookreviews-16.html Paul B. Watt, Review of ''Nam-Lin Hur, Death and Social Order in Tokugawa Japan: Buddhism, Anti-Christianity, and the Danka System''], Internet Archive</ref><ref name="hur">Nam-Lin Hur, ''Death and social order in Tokugawa Japan: Buddhism, anti-Christianity, and the danka system,'' Harvard University Asia Center, 2007; pp. 1-30 (The Rise of Funerary Buddhism in Tokugawa Japan). [https://web.archive.org/web/20120331070517/http://www.fas.harvard.edu/~asiactr/publications/pdfs/Hur%20intro.pdf Internet archive]</ref>

This religious persecution of Buddhism, known as ''[[haibutsu kishaku]] (''literally: ''"abolish Buddhism and destroy [[Gautama Buddha|Shākyamuni]]"''), saw the destruction and closure of many Buddhist institutions throughout Japan as well as the confiscation of their land, the forced laicization of Buddhist monks and the destruction of Buddhist books and artifacts.<ref>{{Cite journal|jstor=2719461|author1-link=Jacqueline Stone|last=Stone|first=Jacqueline|title=Reviewed work: Of Heretics and Martyrs in Meiji Japan: Buddhism and Its Persecution, James Edward Ketelaar|journal=Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies|year=1993|volume=53|issue=2|pages=582–598|doi=10.2307/2719461}}</ref> In some instances, monks were attacked and killed.<ref name="Deal-14"/>

The violence spread to every region of the country. [[Japanologist]] Martin Collcutt believes Japanese Buddhism was on the verge of total eradication.<ref name="Breen">{{cite book|last=John Breen|title=Shinto in History: Ways of the Kami|date=July 2000|publisher=University of Hawaii Press|isbn=978-0-8248-2363-4|editor=Mark Teeuwen|editor-link=Mark Teeuwen|location=Honolulu|page=230|oclc=43487317|author-link=John Breen (scholar)}}</ref> It is estimated that 40,000 Buddhist temples were destroyed, and in certain places the percentage of Buddhist temples destroyed reached 80%.<ref>{{cite book|author=Jørn Borup|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rz2wCQAAQBAJ&q=japan+destroyed+40,000+temples&pg=PA21|title=Japanese Rinzai Zen Buddhism: Myōshinji, a living religion|date=25 February 2008|isbn=9789047433095|page=21| publisher=BRILL |access-date=19 January 2021|archive-date=14 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114104226/https://books.google.com/books?id=rz2wCQAAQBAJ&q=japan+destroyed+40,000+temples&pg=PA21|url-status=live}}</ref> The intensity of the destruction depended on the region, and the most violent times of haibutsu kishaku lasted between 1869 and 1871.

The government edict of April 1872 ended the status of the Buddhist precepts as state law and allowed monks to marry, to eat meat and stopped the regulation of tonsure and dress.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Jaffe |first1=Richard |title=Meiji Religious Policy, Soto Zen and the Clerical Marriage Problem |journal=Japanese Journal of Religious Studies |date=1998 |volume=24 |issue=1–2 |page=46 |url=http://nirc.nanzan-u.ac.jp/nfile/2645 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141119103916/http://nirc.nanzan-u.ac.jp/nfile/2645 |archive-date=November 19, 2014 }}</ref> The result of this law (over the course of about four decades) was that most Buddhist priests in Japan marry and many temples became hereditary holdings within a family.<ref name="Deal-10">Deal & Ruppert (2015) pp. 213-215.</ref>

Anti-Buddhist government policies and religious persecution put many Buddhist institutions on the defensive against those who saw it as the enemy of the Japanese people.<ref>Yoshiharu Tomatsu, [https://web.archive.org/web/20130927065314/http://www.inebnetwork.org/thinksangha/tsangha/tomatsusec.html The Secularization of Japanese Buddhism]: "The Priest as Profane Practitioner of the Sacred". Presented at the American Academy of Religion, Philadelphia, November 16, 1995</ref><ref name="Deal-15">Deal & Ruppert (2015) p. 209.</ref> This led Japanese Buddhist institutions to re-examine and re-invent the role of Buddhism in a modernizing Japanese state which now supported [[state Shintō]].<ref name="Deal-15"/> There were a broad range of reform strategies and movements which aimed at positioning Buddhism as a useful partner to a modernizing Japan. This included clerical reform to tighten discipline as well as reforms concerning doctrine and practice. Some Buddhists sought to modernize Buddhist thought by combining it with Western science and philosophy.<ref name="Deal-10"/>

This reformed "new Buddhism" (''shin bukkyō'') was often promoted by laypersons, such as Sakaino Kōyō (1871–1933) and Takashima Beihō (1875–1949) who founded the Shin Bukkyōto Dōshikai (New Buddhist Friends' Association) in 1899 and promoted social justice activities.<ref name="Deal-16">Deal & Ruppert (2015) pp. 214-216</ref> The New Buddhists often joined Japanese nationalist patriotism with Buddhist virtues. Some new Buddhist organizations fully embraced [[Japanese nationalism]], such as the ''[[Kokuchūkai]]'' (Pillar of the Nation Society) of [[Tanaka Chigaku]] (1861–1939), who promoted Japanese Imperialism as a way to spread the message of the Lotus Sutra. Another new Buddhist society was the ''Keii-kai'' (Woof and Warp Society, founded in 1894), which was critical of doctrinal rigidity of traditional Buddhism and championed what they termed "free investigation" (jiyū tōkyū) as a way to respond to the rapid changes of the time.<ref>Deal & Ruppert (2015) pp. 214-218</ref>

[[Kiyozawa Manshi]]'s ''Seishin-shugi'' (Spiritualism) movement promoted the idea that Buddhists should focus on self-cultivation without relying on organized Buddhism or the state. Kiyozawa and his friends lived together in a commune called Kōkōdō (Vast Cavern), and published a journal called ''Seishinkai'' (Spiritual World).<ref name="Deal-16"/> Other Buddhists focused on adherence to the ten precepts, such as Shaku Unshō who created formed a lay organization known as the ''Jūzen-kai'' (Association for the Ten Precepts).<ref>Deal & Ruppert (2015) pp. 215-217</ref>

An influential figure of Buddhist reform during this period was the philosopher [[Inoue Enryō]] (1858–1919). A graduate of [[Tokyo Imperial University]], he is known for his [[critique of Christianity]] as well as for his ideas on reforming Buddhist institutions. He sought to interpret Buddhist thought through a more rational lens and drew on [[Western philosophy]] as well as the teachings of the historical Buddha to do so. He was a prolific author of around 120 books, including ''Shinri kinshin'' (The Guiding Principle of Truth) and ''Bukkyō katsu ron'' (Enlivening Buddhism). In 1904 he inaugurated the [[Tetsugaku-dō Park|Tetsugaku-dō]] (Hall of Philosophy), which was dedicated to Shakyamuni, Confucius, Socrates, and Kant. He also advocated for social welfare activities.<ref>Deal & Ruppert (2015) pp. 216-218</ref>

It was also during the [[Meiji era]] that Japanese Buddhist studies as an academic field began. This was sparked by the overseas travel of Japanese scholars to Western universities and encountered Buddhist textual studies there, particularly the study of [[Indian Buddhism]] and its languages ([[Sanskrit]] and [[Pali]]). This led to some Japanese Buddhists to question the orthodoxy of Japanese Buddhist traditions.<ref>Deal & Ruppert (2015) pp. 219-221</ref> However, the Japanese government at this time was hesitant to give Buddhism any significant influence over public education, and as a result Buddhist studies was classed under ''philosophy'' rather than ''religion'', and terms such as "Indian studies" was favoured over "Buddhist studies."<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Makoto|first1=Hayashi|last2=Amstutz|first2=Galen|date=2012|title=General Education and the Modernization of Japanese Buddhism|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/44362468|journal=The Eastern Buddhist|volume=43|issue=1/2|pages=141|jstor=44362468|issn=0012-8708|access-date=2021-09-13|archive-date=2021-09-13|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210913000058/https://www.jstor.org/stable/44362468|url-status=live}}</ref>

One of the first such Japanese academics was [[Nanjo Bunyu|Nanjō Bunyū]] (1849–1927), who studied Sanskrit at Oxford with [[Max Müller]] and later took a position at Tokyo Imperial University. Meanwhile, [[Murakami Senshō]] (1851–1929) focused on the study of Sanskrit and Pali texts and the history of Buddhism. He focused on the universal values of world Buddhism and wrote critically regarding the historical bias of Japanese Buddhism in works such as ''Daijō bussetsu ron hihan'' (A Critique of the Theory that Mahayana Is the Direct Teaching of the Historical Buddha, 1903).<ref name="Deal-17">Deal & Ruppert (2015) pp. 220-222</ref>

There were also a number of new Buddhist movements that grew popular in the Meiji period through 1945. Some of the most influential of these were the Nichirenist/Lotus movements of [[Sōka Gakkai]], [[Reiyūkai]], and [[Risshō Kōseikai]]. They focused on active proselytization and worldly personal benefits.<ref name="Deal-17"/>

===War time Buddhism (1931–1945)===
{{See also|Buddhism and violence|Zen at War||}}
During the "fifteen year war" (beginning with the [[Japanese invasion of Manchuria|invasion of Manchuria]] in 1931 and ending with the [[surrender of Japan]] in 1945), most Japanese Buddhist institutions supported militarization of Japan.{{sfnp|Victoria|1997|p={{page needed|date=June 2024}}}}<ref>Gier, Nicholas, F. [http://www.webpages.uidaho.edu/ngier/budjapnat.htm Buddhism and Japanese Nationalism: A sad chronicle of complicity] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161010184129/http://www.webpages.uidaho.edu/ngier/budjapnat.htm |date=2016-10-10 }}</ref><ref>{{Citation |last=Victoria |first=Brian Daizen |year=2010 |title=The "Negative Side" of D. T. Suzuki's Relationship to War |journal=The Eastern Buddhist |volume=41 |issue=2 |pages=97–138 |url=http://www.thezensite.com/ZenEssays/CriticalZen/DTSuzukiandWar.pdf |access-date=2013-08-22 |archive-date=2012-01-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120120155528/http://www.thezensite.com/ZenEssays/CriticalZen/DTSuzukiandWar.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Stone |first=Jacqueline |title=Millennialism, Persecution, and Violence: Historical Cases |title-link=Millennialism, Persecution, and Violence |publisher=[[Syracuse University Press]] |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-8156-0599-7 |editor-last=Wessinger |editor-first=Catherine |editor-link=Catherine Wessinger |language=en |chapter=Japanese ''Lotus'' Millennialism: From Militant Nationalism to Contemporary Peace Movements |page=265}}</ref><ref>Otani Eiichi, "Missionary Activities of Nichiren Buddhism in East Asia", in: "Modern Japanese Buddhism and Pan-Asianism", The 19th World Congress of the International Association for the History of Religions, Tokyo, March 28, 2005, pp. 21–22 [https://web.archive.org/web/20120211104653/http://homepage1.nifty.com/tkawase/osigoto/mjbpa.pdf#page=12 PDF]</ref><ref>Kawase Takaya, "The Jodo Shinshu Sectś Missionary Work in Colonial Korea"; in: "Modern Japanese Buddhism and Pan-Asianism", The 19th World Congress of the International Association for the History of Religions, Tokyo, March 28, 2005, pp. 6–7 [https://web.archive.org/web/20120211104653/http://homepage1.nifty.com/tkawase/osigoto/mjbpa.pdf#page=12 PDF]</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Klautau|first=Orion|date=2017|title=The Question of Quintessence: Buddhism in Wartime Japanese Academia|url=https://web.tohoku.ac.jp/modern-japan/klautau-the-question-of-quintessence-2017/|journal=Belief and Practice in Imperial Japan and Colonial Korea|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|pages=137–152|access-date=2019-10-28|archive-date=2019-10-28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191028140652/https://web.tohoku.ac.jp/modern-japan/klautau-the-question-of-quintessence-2017/|url-status=live}}</ref>

Japanese Buddhist support for [[Japanese colonial empire|imperialism]] and [[Japanese militarism|militarism]] was rooted in the Meiji era need for Buddhists to show that they were good citizens that were relevant to Japan's efforts to modernize and become a major power. Some Buddhists, like Tanaka Chigaku, saw the war as a way to spread Buddhism. During the [[Russo-Japanese War]], Buddhist leaders supported the war effort in different ways, such as by providing chaplains to the army, performing rituals to secure victory and working with the families of fallen soldiers. During the fifteen-year war, Japanese Buddhists supported the war effort in similar ways, and Buddhist priests became attached to Imperial army regiments.<ref name="Deal-9">Deal & Ruppert (2015) pp. 222–225</ref>

The Myōwakai (Society for Light and Peace), a transsectarian Buddhist organization, was a strong supporter of the war effort who promoted the idea of "benevolent forcefulness" which held that "war conducted for a good reason is in accord with the great benevolence and compassion of Buddhism."<ref name="Deal-9"/> Another right-wing Buddhist organization during the war was [[Nisshō Inoue]]'s terrorist organization "[[League of Blood Incident|league of blood]]" (''ketsumeidan''), which attempted to carry out a series of assassinations, culminating in the assassination of [[Prime Minister of Japan|Prime Minister]] [[Inukai Tsuyoshi]], an event known as the "[[May 15 Incident]]".

During the war, the Japanese government sought to further tighten its control over Buddhist institutions. They attempted to force Buddhist schools to remove from their doctrines any language or idea that revealed anything less than full allegiance to the emperor or that diminished the significance of Shintō kami. This included parts of the writings of medieval Buddhist founders like Shinran and Nichiren who had written that it is sometimes good to criticize rulers if they go against the Dharma.<ref name="Deal-18">Deal & Ruppert (2015) pp. 224–226</ref>

Buddhists were also forced to venerate talismans from the [[Ise Grand Shrine|Isse Shrine]], and there were serious consequences for those who refused. For example, during the 1940s, "leaders of both Honmon Hokkeshu and Sōka Gakkai were imprisoned for their defiance of wartime government religious policy, which mandated display of reverence for state Shinto."<ref>Stone, Jaqueline I. (2003). In: Buswell, Robert E. ed. Encyclopedia of Buddhism, New York: Macmillan Reference Lib. {{ISBN|0028657187}}, p. 598</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Métraux|first=Daniel A.|year=1986|title=The Sōka Gakkai's search for the realization of the world of Risshō ankokuron|url=https://nirc.nanzan-u.ac.jp/nfile/2324|url-status=live|journal=Japanese Journal of Religious Studies|volume=13|issue=1|page=40|doi=10.18874/jjrs.13.1.1986.31-61|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160321013550/https://nirc.nanzan-u.ac.jp/nfile/2324|archive-date=2016-03-21|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="American Cultures p. 61">Religion and American Cultures, An Encyclopedia, vol 1 p. 61 {{ISBN|157607238X}}</ref> A few individuals who directly opposed war were targeted by the government. These include the Rinzai priest Ichikawa Hakugen,<ref>Ives, Christopher (2009). ''Imperial-Way Zen'', University of Hawaiì Press</ref> and Itō Shōshin (1876–1963), a former Jōdo Shinshū priest.<ref name="Deal-18"/>

=== Since 1945 ===
At the end of the [[World War II]], Japan was [[Air raids on Japan|devastated by the allied bombing campaigns]], with most cities in ruins. The [[Occupation of Japan|occupation government]] abolished state Shinto, establishing [[freedom of religion]] and a [[separation of religion and state]] which became an official part of the [[Constitution of Japan|Japanese constitutional amendment]] in 1947.<ref>Deal & Ruppert (2015) pp. 231-232</ref>

This meant that Buddhist temples and institutions were now free to associate with any religious lineage or to become independent if doctrinal or administrative differences proved too much. One example is when [[Hōryūji]] temple became independent from the Hossō lineage and created its own Shōtoku denomination.<ref name="Deal-6">Deal & Ruppert (2015) pp. 232-234</ref>

The Japanese populace was aware of Buddhist involvement in aiding and promoting the war effort. Because of this, Buddhist lineages have engaged in acts of repentance for their wartime activities. Buddhist groups have been active in the post-war peace movement.<ref name="Deal-6" />

Buddhist temples in post-war Japan experienced difficult times. There was much damage to be repaired and there was little funding for it. In the 1950s, the situation slowly improved, especially for those temples that could harness tourism and other ways of procuring funding. However, post-war land reforms and an increasingly mobile and urban population meant that temples lost both parishioners and land holdings.<ref>Deal & Ruppert (2015) pp. 232-233</ref>

In the 1960s, many temples were focused solely on providing services like funerals and burials. In 1963, Tamamuro Taijō coined the term sōshiki bukkyō (funerary Buddhism), to describe the ritualistic formalism of temple Buddhism in postwar Japan that was often divorced from people's spiritual needs.<ref>Nika Efanova (2013), [https://web.archive.org/web/20131016085339/http://skemman.is/stream/get/1946/14904/35435/1/BA_Thesis_Nika_Efanova.pdf Funeral Buddhism: A Religion in Crisis], B.A. Thesis, University of Iceland, School of Humanities, Japanese Language and Culture</ref> Post-war Japan has seen a decline in traditional temple Buddhism, with roughly 100 Buddhist organizations disappearing every year.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20131113103338/http://www.nytimes.com/2008/07/14/world/asia/14japan.html?pagewanted=all&_r=3& In Japan, Buddhism, long the religion of funerals, may itself be dying out] by [[Norimitsu Onishi]], ''[[International Herald Tribune]], 14 July 2008''</ref><ref name="yearbook">{{cite book|last=Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications|title=Japan Statistical Yearbook 2014|year=2013|publisher=Nihon Tōkei Kyōkai|location=Tōkyō|url=http://www.stat.go.jp/data/nenkan/index2.htm|language=ja|access-date=2013-12-03|archive-date=2013-12-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131205040506/http://www.stat.go.jp/data/nenkan/index2.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> Still, around 90% of Japanese funerals are conducted according to Buddhist rites.<ref>{{cite web|title=Japanese funeral|url=http://traditionscustoms.com/death-rites/japanese-funeral|work=traditionscustoms.com|access-date=2009-11-07|archive-date=2017-06-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170627233715/http://traditionscustoms.com/death-rites/japanese-funeral|url-status=dead}}</ref>
[[File:Soka_Gakkai_(new_head_office_1).jpg|thumb|Soka Gakkai's Tokyo headquarters]]
[[File:Vowz Band 坊主バンド 2023.jpg|thumb|Vowz Band (A group of Buddhist monks who use rock music to spread message<ref name="BBC 3 July 2013">BBC News "[https://www.bbc.com/news/av/world-asia-23156929 Japanese monks use rock music to spread message]" (Tim Allman reports. 2013-07-03)</ref>) ]]
During the post-war period, in contrast to traditional temple Buddhism, Buddhist based [[Japanese new religions]] grew rapidly, especially the Nichiren/Lotus Sūtra based movements like Sōka Gakkai and Risshō Kōseikai (which are today the largest lay Buddhist organizations in Japan).<ref>Deal & Ruppert (2015) pp. 233-235</ref> Soka Gakkai "... grew rapidly in the chaos of post war Japan<ref name="American Cultures p. 61"/> from about 3000 members in 1951 to over 8 million members" in 2000,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www2.kenyon.edu/Depts/Religion/Fac/Adler/Reln275/soka-gakkai.htm |title=A Sect's Political Rise Creates Uneasiness in Japan |work=kenyon.edu |access-date=2013-10-13 |archive-date=2014-11-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141113004846/http://www2.kenyon.edu/Depts/Religion/Fac/Adler/Reln275/soka-gakkai.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> and has established schools, colleges and a university, as well as cultural institutions.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.soka.ac.jp/en/index.html |publisher=Soka University |title=Discover your potential 自分力の発見 |work=soka.ac.jp |access-date=2013-10-13 |archive-date=2013-10-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131005170217/http://www.soka.ac.jp/en/index.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

A study about the reason for the growth in lay believers and increased engagement in society attributes the cause to [[Nichiren]] teachings of 'social responsibility':  "In the tradition of Nichiren Buddhism, however, we find the [[Lotus Sutra]] linked to a view of social responsibility that is distinctive".<ref>{{cite web |title=When Disobedience is Filial and Resistance is Loyal: The Lotus Sutra and Social Obligations in the Medieval Nichiren Tradition |last=Stone |first=Jacqueline I. |year=2002 |page=262 |access-date=2020-10-20 |url=http://www.princeton.edu/~jstone/Articles%20on%20the%20Lotus%20Sutra%20Tendai%20and%20Nichiren%20Buddhism/When%20Disobedience%20is%20Filial%20and%20Resistance%20is%20Loyal%20-%20The%20Lotu.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150104115138/http://www.princeton.edu/~jstone/Articles%20on%20the%20Lotus%20Sutra%20Tendai%20and%20Nichiren%20Buddhism/When%20Disobedience%20is%20Filial%20and%20Resistance%20is%20Loyal%20-%20The%20Lotu.pdf |archive-date=2015-01-04 |url-status=live}} Via {{cite web |title=Articles on the Lotus Sutra, Tendai, and Nichiren Buddhism |website=Jacqueline I. Stone |publisher=Princeton University |url=http://www.princeton.edu/~jstone/lotus-sutra-tendai-nichiren.html |access-date=2015-01-04 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150104034316/http://www.princeton.edu/~jstone/lotus-sutra-tendai-nichiren.html |archive-date=2015-01-04}}</ref> According to an academic study, lay believers of Buddhism "...{{nbsp}}offer an alternative view of Japan where their form of Buddhism would form the religious foundation of a peaceful and psychologically and materially enriched society".<ref>The Soka Gakkai and Human Security, D. Metraux, p. 49, Virginia Review of Asian Studies, Mary Baldwin College</ref>

In the 1970s, during a period of rapid [[Japanese economic miracle|social and economic change]], there was a wave of new religious movements that were called "new new religions" (''shin shin shūkyō''). While the new religions tended to be Nichiren focused, the "new new" Buddhist religions tend to be influenced by numerous other Buddhist traditions. Buddhist new new religions include the [[Agon Shu|Agon shū]] (Āgama School), [[Gedatsukai]] (Enlightenment Society, drawing from Shingon and Shinto), and [[Shinnyoen]] (Garden of True Thusness, a Shingon-based religion).<ref>Deal & Ruppert (2015) pp. 235-237</ref> [[Aum Shinrikyō]], the most notorious of these new new religions, is a dangerous cult responsible for the [[Tokyo gas attack]].

The [[Postwar Japan|post-war era]] also saw a new philosophical movements among Buddhist intellectuals called the [[Kyoto school]], since it was led by a group of Kyoto University professors, mainly [[Nishida Kitarō]] (1870–1945), [[Tanabe Hajime]] (1885–1962), and [[Nishitani Keiji]] (1900–1991). These thinkers drew from Western philosophers like Kant, Hegel and Nietzsche and Buddhist thought to express a new perspective. Another intellectual field that has attracted interest is [[Critical Buddhism]] (''hihan bukkyō''), associated with Sōtō Zen priests like Hakamaya Noriaki (b. 1943) and Matsumoto Shirō (b. 1950), who criticized certain key ideas in Japanese Mahayana (mainly [[Buddha nature]] and [[original enlightenment]]) as being incompatible with the Buddha's [[Anattā|not-self]] doctrine. Critical Buddhists have also examined the moral failings of Japanese Buddhism, such as support for nationalist violence and social discrimination.<ref>Deal & Ruppert (2015) pp. 237-239</ref>

==Schools==
[[File:Portable shrine with 30 guardian deities, Japan.jpg|thumb|Portable shrine from the 1600s with 30 guardian deities and an invocation to the Lotus Sutra. Buddhism and kami worship were closely associated in Japan until they were separated in the late 1800s.]] 
Japanese Buddhism is very diverse with numerous independent schools and temple lineages (including the "old" Nara schools and the "new" Kamakura schools) that can be traced back to ancient and medieval Japan, as well as more recent Japanese New Religious movements and modern lay organizations.

According to the religious statistics of 2023 by the [[Agency for Cultural Affairs]] of Japan, the [[religious corporation]] under the jurisdiction of the [[Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology]] in Japan had 129 million believers, of which 46 million were Buddhists and most of them were believers of new schools of Buddhism which were established in the [[Kamakura period]] (1185－1333). The number of believers of each sect is approximately 22 million for [[Pure Land Buddhism#Japanese Pure Land|Pure Land Buddhism]], 10 million for [[Nichiren Buddhism]], 5.4 million for [[Shingon Buddhism]], 5.2 million for [[Japanese Zen|Zen Buddhism]], 2.8 million for [[Tendai Buddhism]], and only about 700,000 for the old schools, which were established in the [[Nara period]] (710－794).<ref name ="shukyo23"/>

An old saying regarding the schools of Buddhism in relation to the different classes is:
{{Blockquote
|text=The Tendai is for the royal family, the Shingon for the nobility, the Zen for the warrior classes, and the Jodo for the masses.<ref>{{cite book |last=Hase |first=Mikiso |date= April 17, 2018|title=Premodern Japan: A Historical Survey |publisher=Routledge}}</ref>
}}

=== Nara Buddhism ===
{{main|Nanto Rokushū}}
[[File:Kofukuji12st5s3200.jpg|thumb|right|[[Kōfuku-ji]], the national headquarters of the Hossō school]]
[[File:Todaiji18s3200.jpg|thumb|right|[[Tōdai-ji]], the head temple of the Kegon school]]
[[File:Yakushiji Nara03s3s4350.jpg|thumb|right|The Golden Hall (''[[Main Hall (Japanese Buddhism)|kondō]]'') at [[Yakushi-ji]]]]
The Six [[Nara period|Nara]] Schools are the oldest Buddhist schools in Japan.<ref>Deal & Ruppert (2015) pp. 56-57.</ref> These schools came to Japan from [[Korea]] and [[China]] during the late 6th and early 7th centuries. They are associated with the ancient capital of [[Heijō-kyō]] (present-day [[Nara, Nara|Nara]]), where they founded the famed "[[Nanto Shichi Daiji|seven great temples of the southern capital]]" (''Nanto Shichi Daiji'' 南都七大寺).

* {{nihongo|'''[[Kegon|Kegon Buddhism]]'''|華厳宗|Kegon-shū}}, introduced to Japan around 736 by the Indian monk [[Bodhisena]]. The school focused on the ''[[Avatamsaka Sutra]]'', a compilation of numerous [[sutras]], as well as on the works of [[Huayan]] patriarchs on the [[Interpenetration (Buddhism)|interpenetration]] of all [[dharma|phenomena]] (or "dharmas" in the specifically Buddhist sense).
* {{nihongo|'''Hossō Buddhism'''|法相宗|Hossō-shū}}, introduced to Japan in 654 by Japanese monk [[Dōshō]], who had travelled to China to study under [[Xuanzang]].<ref name="Dumoulin">[[Heinrich Dumoulin]], James W. Heisig, Paul F. Knitter, ''Zen Buddhism: A History'', p. 5. [[World Wisdom]], Inc, 2005, {{ISBN|978-094153290-7}}.</ref> The school focused on the ''[[East Asian Yogācāra|Yogācāra]]'' philosophy of [[Asanga]] and [[Vasubandhu]] on mastering the [[consciousness]] and [[mind]].
* {{nihongo|'''Sanron Buddhism'''|三論宗|Sanron-shū}}, introduced to Japan around 625 by the [[Goguryeo]] monk [[Hyegwan]]. The school focused on the ''[[East Asian Mādhyamaka|Mādhyamaka]]'' philosophy of [[Nāgārjuna]] and [[Āryadeva]] on the [[Madhyamaka|emptiness]] of all [[dharma|phenomenon]].
* {{nihongo|'''[[Risshū (Buddhism)|Risshū Buddhism]]'''|律宗|Risshū-shū}}, introduced to Japan around 753 by the Chinese monk [[Jianzhen]]. The school focused on the ''[[Dharmaguptaka]]'' translation of the ''[[Vinaya]]'' and on strict adherece to ''[[Pratimokṣa]]'' monastic rules.
* {{nihongo|'''Jōjitsu Buddhism'''|成実宗|Jōjitsu-shū}}, introduced to Japan around 625 by the [[Goguryeo]] monk Ekwan.{{sfnp|Takakusu|2002|p=76}} The school focused on the ''[[Tattvasiddhi|Satyasiddhi-Śāstra]]'', a text of [[Abhidharma]] by the philosopher Harivarman. It was never a truly independent school, instead it was studied along with Sanron doctrine.
* {{nihongo|'''[[Kusha-shū|Kusha Buddhism]]'''|倶舎宗|Kusha-shū}}, a [[Sarvāstivāda]] school focused on the ''[[Abhidharmakośakārikā|Abhidharmakośabhaṣya]]'', a text of [[Abhidharma]] by the philosopher [[Vasubandhu]]. It was never a truly independent school, instead it was studied along with Hossō doctrine.

=== Heian Buddhism ===
{{see also|Mikkyo}}
Eventually, the increasing power of Six Nara Schools and their influence in politics started to overwhelm the city of Nara. This forced [[Emperor Kanmu]] to relocate the capital, moving it to [[Heian-kyō]] (present-day [[Kyoto]]). It also directly encouraged the creation of the [[Tendai]] school, founded by [[Saichō]], and the [[Shingon]] school, founded by [[Kūkai]].

* '''{{Nihongo|[[Tendai Buddhism]]|天台宗|Tendai-shū}}''' is a branch of the [[Tiantai Buddhism]] introduced to Japan by [[Saichō]] in 805, who also introduced tantric elements into the tradition. The primary text of Tendai Buddhism is the ''[[Lotus Sutra]]'', but the ''[[Nirvana Sutra]]'' and esoteric works like the {{nihongo|''[[Mahavairocana Sutra]]''|大日経|Dainichikyō}} and {{nihongo|''[[Vajrasekhara Sutra]]''|金剛頂経|Kongōchōkyō}} are also important. The Lotus Sutra is also central to Tendai esoteric teachings.
* '''{{Nihongo|[[Shingon Buddhism]]|真言宗|Shingon-shū}}''' is a branch of the [[Vajrayana Buddhism]] introduced to Japan by [[Kūkai]] in 816, who traveled to China and studied the [[Chinese Esoteric Buddhism|Chinese Mantrayana tradition]]. Shingon is based mainly on two tantric scriptures, the ''Mahavairocana Sutra'' and the ''Vajrasekhara Sutra''. [[Dainichi Nyorai]] is central to Shingon esoteric teachings.

Additionally, this period saw the development of '''[[Shugendō]]''', an eclectic tradition which brought together Buddhist and ancient [[Shinto]] elements. It was founded by [[En no Gyōja]] (役行者, ''"En the ascetic"'').

=== Kamakura Buddhism ===
[[File:Chionin31n3200.jpg|thumb|right|[[Chion-in]], the head temple of [[Jōdo-shū]].]]
[[File:Eiheiji map.jpg|thumb|right|A traditional map of [[Eihei-ji]], the main temple of the [[Sōtō]] school.]]
[[File:Hiroshige Temple compound on a hill.jpg|thumb|right|A print of the [[Nichiren Shū]] temple [[Ikegami Honmon-ji]] by [[Hiroshige]].]]
[[File:Daruma-Bodhidharma.jpg|thumb|Bodhidharma ([[Chinese characters|Chinese]]: 達磨; [[Hiragana]]: だるま; [[Rōmaji]]: ''Daruma''), painted by [[Miyamoto Musashi]], swordsman artist and philosopher close to [[Takuan Soho]] monk of the Rinzai school (linked to the [[Samurai|samurai caste]]) founded by the 28th Patriarch.]]
During the [[Kamakura period]], many Buddhist schools (classified by scholars as "New Buddhism" or ''Shin Bukkyo''), as opposed to "Old Buddhism" ''(Kyū Bukkyō)''.

* '''[[Pure Land Buddhism#Japanese Pure Land|Pure Land Buddhism]]''', which focuses on [[Nembutsu]] practice, chanting the name of [[Amida Buddha]], so as to be reborn in the [[Pure Land]].
** The '''[[Jōdo-shū]]''' founded by [[Hōnen]] (1133–1212).
** The '''[[Jōdo Shinshū]]''' founded by [[Shinran]] (1173–1263).
** The '''[[Ji-shū]]''' founded by [[Ippen]] (1239–1289).
** The '''[[Yuzu Nembutsu|Yūzū-Nembutsu-shū]]''' founded by [[Ryōnin]] (1072–1132).
* '''[[Japanese Zen|Zen Buddhism]]''', originating from Chinese [[Chan Buddhism]], focuses on [[Zazen]] meditation.
** The '''[[Rinzai Zen]]''' founded by [[Eisai]] (1141–1215), a Japanese line of the Chinese [[Linji school]], emphasizes [[Kōan]] practice.
** The '''[[Sōtō Zen]]''' founded by [[Dōgen]] (1200–1253), a Japanese line of the Chinese [[Caodong school]], emphasizes [[Shikantaza]] practice.
** The '''[[Ōbaku|Ōbaku Zen]]''' introduced by [[Ingen]] in 1654, incorporates elements of [[Nembutsu]] practice.
* '''[[Nichiren Buddhism]]''', founded by [[Nichiren]] (1222–1282) which focuses on the Lotus Sutra and [[Odaimoku]] practice, chanting the name of the Lotus Sutra.
** The '''[[Nichiren-shū]]''', venerates and reveres the [[Eternal Buddha|Shakyamuni Buddha of the Essential Teachings]].
** The '''[[Nichiren Shōshū]]''', venerates and reveres the [[Dai Gohonzon|Dai Gohonzon of the High Sanctuary of the Essential Teachings]].

=== New religious movements ===
There are various Japanese new religious movements which can be considered Buddhist sects, the largest of these are lay Nichiren Buddhist groups such as [[Soka Gakkai]], [[Reiyūkai]], [[Risshō Kōsei Kai|Risshō Kōsei-kai]] and lay Zen Buddhist groups such as [[Sanbo Kyodan]] and FAS Society. But there are other new movements such as [[Agon Shu|Agon Shū]] (阿含宗, ''"Agama School"''), a Buddhist school which focuses on studying the ''[[Āgama (Buddhism)|Agamas]]'', a collection of [[Early Buddhist texts|early Buddhist scriptures.]]

==Cultural influence==

===Societal influence===
During the Kamakura (1185–1333) and Muromachi (1336–1573) periods, Buddhism and Buddhist institutions had a great influence on Japanese society. Buddhist institutions were used by the shogunate to control the country. During the Edo (1600–1868) this power was constricted, to be followed by persecutions at the beginning of the [[Meiji era]] (1868–1912).{{sfnp|Snelling|1987}} Buddhist temples played a major administrative role during the [[Edo period]], through the [[Danka system|Danka]] or ''terauke'' system. In this, Japanese citizens were required to register at their local Buddhist temples and obtain a certification (''terauke''), which became necessary to function in society. At first, this system was put into place to suppress [[Christianity in Japan|Christianity]], but over time it took on the larger role of census and population control.

===Artistic influence===
[[File:WindGods.JPG|thumb|upright=1.6|Iconographical evolution of the Wind God.<br/>
Left: Greek wind god from [[Hadda, Afghanistan]], 2nd century.<br />
Middle: wind god from [[Kizil Caves]], [[Tarim Basin]], 7th century.<br />
Right: Japanese wind god [[Fūjin]], 17th century.]]
Japanese Buddhist art started to develop as soon as the country converted to Buddhism in 548. Some tiles from the [[Asuka period]] (shown above), the first period following the conversion of the country to Buddhism, display a strikingly classical style, with ample Hellenistic dress and realistically rendered body shape characteristic of [[Greco-Buddhist art]].

Buddhist art became extremely varied in its expression. Many elements of Greco-Buddhist art remain to this day however, such as the [[Hercules]] inspiration behind the [[Nio (Buddhism)|Nio]] guardian deities in front of Japanese Buddhist temples, or representations of the Buddha reminiscent of Greek art such as the Buddha in [[Kamakura]].{{refn|group=lower-alpha|Katsumi Tanabe: "Needless to say, the influence of Greek art on Japanese Buddhist art, via the Buddhist art of Gandhara and India, was already partly known in, for example, the comparison of the wavy drapery of the Buddha images, in what was, originally, a typical Greek style" (Katsumi Tanabe, "Alexander the Great, East-West cultural contacts from Greece to Japan", p. 19)}}

====Deities====
{{main|Japanese Buddhist pantheon}}
[[File:Heracles-Shukongoshin.JPG|thumb|upright=1.6|Iconographical evolution from the Greek god [[Heracles]] to the Japanese god Shukongōshin. From left to right:<br />
1) Heracles (Louvre Museum).<br />
2) Heracles on coin of [[Greco-Bactrian]] king [[Demetrius I of Bactria|Demetrius I]].<br />
3) [[Vajrapani]], the protector of the Buddha, depicted as Heracles in the Greco-Buddhist art of [[Gandhara]].<br />
4) [[Shukongōshin]], manifestation of [[Vajrapani]], as protector deity of Buddhist temples in Japan.]]
Various other Greco-Buddhist artistic influences can be found in the Japanese Buddhist pantheon, the most striking being that of the Japanese wind god [[Fūjin]]. In consistency with Greek iconography for the wind god [[Boreas]], the Japanese wind god holds above his head with his two hands a draping or "wind bag" in the same general attitude.{{refn|group=lower-alpha|Katusmi Tanabe: "The Japanese wind god images do not belong to a separate tradition apart from that of their Western counter-parts but share the same origins. (...) One of the characteristics of these Far Eastern wind god images is the wind bag held by this god with both hands, the origin of which can be traced back to the shawl or mantle worn by Boreas/Oado." (Katsumi Tanabe, "Alexander the Great, East-West cultural contacts from Greece to Japan", p. 21)}} The abundance of hair has been kept in the Japanese rendering, as well as exaggerated facial features.

Another Buddhist deity, Shukongōshin, one of the wrath-filled protector deities of Buddhist temples in Japan, is also an interesting case of transmission of the image of the famous Greek god Heracles to East Asia along the [[Silk Road]]. Heracles was used in Greco-Buddhist art to represent [[Vajrapani]], the protector of the Buddha, and his representation was then used in China and Japan to depict the protector gods of Buddhist temples.{{refn|group=lower-alpha|Katsumi Tanabe: "The origin of the image of Vajrapani should be explained. This deity is the protector and guide of the Buddha Sakyamuni. His image was modelled after that of Hercules. (...) The Gandharan Vajrapani was transformed in Central Asia and China and afterwards transmitted to Japan, where it exerted stylistic influences on the wrestler-like statues of the Guardian Deities ([[Nio (Buddhism)|Nio]])." (Katsumi Tanabe, "Alexander the Great, East-West cultural contacts from Greece to Japan", p. 23)}}

====Artistic motifs====
[[File:NaraVines&Grapes.JPG|thumb|Vine and grape scrolls from Nara, 7th century.]]
The artistic inspiration from Greek floral scrolls is found quite literally in the decoration of Japanese roof tiles, one of the only remaining element of wooden architecture throughout centuries. The clearest ones are from the 7th century Nara temple building tiles, some of them exactly depicting vines and grapes. These motifs have evolved towards more symbolic representations, but essentially remain to this day in many Japanese traditional buildings.{{refn|group=lower-alpha|The transmission of the floral scroll pattern from West to East is presented in the regular exhibition of Ancient Japanese Art, at the [[Tokyo National Museum]].}}

===Architecture and temples===
{{main|List of National Treasures of Japan (temples)|Japanese Buddhist architecture}}
[[Soga no Umako]] built Hōkō-ji, the first temple in Japan, between 588 and 596. It was later renamed as [[Asuka-dera]] for [[Asuka, Yamato|Asuka]], the name of the capital where it was located. Unlike early [[Shinto shrine]]s, early [[Buddhist temple]]s were highly ornamental and strictly symmetrical. The early [[Heian period]] (9th–10th century) saw an evolution of style based on the [[mikkyō]] sects Tendai and [[Shingon Buddhism]]. The [[Daibutsuyō]] style and the [[Zenshūyō]] style emerged in the late 12th or early 13th century.

==Holidays==
The following Japanese Buddhist holidays are celebrated by most, if not all, major Buddhist traditions:<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=List of Japanese Buddhist Holidays|url=http://japanlifeandreligion.com/2008/10/19/japanese-buddhist-holidays/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101104050232/http://japanlifeandreligion.com/2008/10/19/japanese-buddhist-holidays/ |archive-date=2010-11-04 |access-date=19 January 2021|website=japanlifeandreligion.com}}</ref>

* '''Jan. 1st''' – [[Japanese New Year]] (''Shōgatsu'').
* '''Feb. 15th''' – [[Nirvana Day]] (''Nehan-e''). The day at the Buddha was said to have died into [[Parinirvana]] (his final vanishing).
* '''Mar. 20th''' – ''[[Higan]]-e'', the [[Spring equinox (northern hemisphere)|Spring Equinox]] celebration.
* '''Apr. 8th''' – [[Buddha's Birthday|Buddha's Birthday ''(Hanamatsuri'')]], i.e. Kanbutsu-e (潅仏会) or ''Busshō-e'' (仏生会).
* '''July – Aug.''' – ''[[Obon Festival]],'' a festival to [[Veneration of the dead|honor the spirits of one's ancestors]].
* '''Sept. 21st, approximately''' – ''[[Higan]]-e'', the Autumnal Equinox celebration.
* '''Dec. 8th''' –  [[Bodhi Day]] (''Shaka-Jōdō-e'' or just ''Jōdō-e''), this celebrated the [[Bodhi|awakening]] of the Buddha.
* '''Dec. 31st''' – ''Jōya-e'' or ''Sechibun-e'', the end of the year celebration.

Some holidays are specific to certain schools or traditions. For example, Zen Buddhist traditions celebrate ''Daruma-ki'' on October 15 to commemorate the life of [[Bodhidharma]].

==Demographics==
{{see also|Religion in Japan|}}

According to statistics by the Agency for Cultural Affairs in 2023, the [[religious corporation]] under the jurisdiction of the [[Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology]] in Japan had 129 million believers, of which 46 million were Buddhists. Most of them were believers of new schools of Buddhism which were established in the [[Kamakura period]] (1185－1333).<ref name="shukyo23" /> According to these statistics, the largest sects of Japanese Buddhism are the [[Jōdo-shū|Jōdo Buddhists]] with 22 million believers, followed by the [[Nichiren]] Buddhists with 10 million believers.<ref name="shukyo23" />

There are a wide range of estimates; the [[Pew Research Center]] estimated 36.2% of the population in 2010 practiced Buddhism.<ref name="pewforum.org">{{cite web|publisher=[[Pew Research Center]]|url=https://www.pewforum.org/2012/12/18/global-religious-landscape-buddhist/|title=Global Religious Landscape: Buddhists|date=December 18, 2012|access-date=July 1, 2020|archive-date=January 28, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180128214858/http://www.pewforum.org/2012/12/18/global-religious-landscape-buddhist/|url-status=live}}</ref> The Japanese General Social Survey placed the figure at less than 20% of the population in 2017. The 2013 Japanese National Character Survey showed that roughly 70% of the population do not adhere to any religious beliefs.<ref name="Iwai 2017"/> Another survey indicates that about 60% of Japanese families have a [[butsudan]] (Buddhist shrine) in their homes.<ref>Japanese Saints: Mormons in the Land of the Rising Sun, John Patrick Hoffmann, Lexington Books, 2007 p. 37</ref> According to a 2012 Pew Research study, Japan has the [[Buddhism by country#By country|third largest Buddhist population]] in the world, after [[Chinese Buddhism|China]] and [[Buddhism in Thailand|Thailand]].<ref name="PewDec2012">{{cite web|url=http://www.pewforum.org/2012/12/18/global-religious-landscape-exec/|title=The Global Religious Landscape|date=December 2012|publisher=Pew Research Center|access-date=5 November 2018|archive-date=26 December 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181226054851/http://www.pewforum.org/2012/12/18/global-religious-landscape-exec/|url-status=live}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Buddhism|Japan}}
* [[Buddhist deities]]
* [[Buddhist modernism]]
* [[Buddhist philosophy]]
* [[Greater India]]
* [[History of Buddhism]]
* [[Ichibata Yakushi Kyodan]]
* [[Kanjin]]
* [[Nara National Museum]]
* [[Religion in Japan]]
* [[Shinbutsu kakuri]]

==Notes==
{{reflist|group=lower-alpha|2}}

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

===Works cited===
{{refbegin}}
*{{cite book |last1=Deal |first1=William E. |last2=Ruppert |first2=Brian |title=A Cultural History of Japanese Buddhism |year=2015 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-4051-6701-7}}
* {{cite book |last=Snelling |first=John |author-link=John Snelling |year=1987 |title=The Buddhist Handbook: A Complete Guide to Buddhist Teaching and Practice |place=London |publisher=Century Paperbacks |isbn=978-0-7126-1554-9 |url=https://archive.org/details/buddhisthandbook0000snel_k1x4 |url-access=registration}}
* {{cite book |last=Takakusu |first=Junjirō |author-link=Takakusu Junjiro |title=The Essentials of Buddhist Philosophy |year=2002 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-1592-6 |url=https://archive.org/details/essentialsofbudd0000taka |url-access=registration}}
* {{cite book |last=Victoria |first=Brian |author-link=Brian Victoria |year=1997 |title=Zen at War |place=New York & Tokyo |publisher=Weatherhill |edition=1st |isbn=978-0-8348-0405-0 |url=https://archive.org/details/zenatwar0000vict |url-access=registration}}
{{refend}}

==Further reading==
{{refbegin}}
*{{cite book |first=Micah L. |last=Auerback |title=A Storied Sage: Canon and Creation in the Making of a Japanese Buddha |place=Chicago |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=2016 |ref=none}}
*{{cite book |last=Covell |first=Stephen G. |year=2006 |title=Japanese Temple Buddhism: Worldliness in a Religion of Renunciation |place=Honolulu |publisher=University of Hawaiʻi Press |isbn=0-8248-2967-0 |ref=none}}
*{{cite book |first=Melissa Anne-Marie |last=Curley |title=Pure Land, Real World: Modern Buddhism, Japanese Leftists, and the Utopian Imagination |place=Honolulu |publisher=University of Hawaiʻi Press |year=2017 |ref=none}}
*{{cite book |author-link=Charles Eliot (diplomat) |last=Eliot |first=Charles |title=Japanese Buddhism |place=London |publisher=Kegan Paul |year=2005 |isbn=0-7103-0967-8 |orig-year=1935 |ref=none}}
*{{cite book |editor1-first=Joshua A. |editor1-last=Fogel |editor2-first=Matthew |editor2-last=Fraleigh |title=Sino-Japanese Reflections: Literary and Cultural Interactions Between China and Japan in Early Modernity |year=2022 |publisher=Boston |isbn=978-3-11-077692-8 |ref=none}}
*{{cite book |last=Kawanami |first=Hiroko |chapter=Japanese Nationalism and the Universal Dharma |editor-first=Ian |editor-last=Harris |title=Buddhism and Politics in Twentieth-Century Asia |place=London/New York |publisher=Continuum |year=1999 |pages=105–126 |isbn=978-0-8264-5178-1 |ref=none}}
*{{cite book |editor1-first=Richard |editor1-last=King |editor2-first=Cody |editor2-last=Poulton |editor3-first=Katsuhiko |editor3-last=Endo |title=Sino-Japanese Transculturation: From the Late Nineteenth Century to the End of the Pacific War |year=2012 |publisher=Lexington Books |isbn=978-0-7391-7150-9 |ref=none}}
*{{cite book |editor-first=Gereon |editor-last=Kopf |title=The Dao Companion to Japanese Buddhist Philosophy |place=Dordrecht |publisher=Springer |year=2019 |ref=none}}
*{{cite book |last1=Matsunaga |first1=Daigan |last2=Matsunaga |first2=Alicia |year=1996a |title=Foundation of Japanese Buddhism: The Aristocratic Age |volume=1 |place=Los Angeles & Tokyo |publisher=Buddhist Books International |isbn=0-914910-26-4 |ref=none}}
*{{cite book |last1=Matsunaga |first1=Daigan |last2=Matsunaga |first2=Alicia |year=1996b |title=Foundation of Japanese Buddhism:The Mass Movement |volume=2 |place=Los Angeles & Tokyo |publisher=Buddhist Books International |isbn=0-914910-28-0 |ref=none}}
*{{cite book |first=Bunyiu |last=Nanjio |year=1886 |url=https://archive.org/details/shorthistoryoftw00nanjrich |url-access=registration |title=A Short History of the Twelve Japanese Buddhist Sects |place=Tokyo |publisher=Bukkyo-sho-ei-yaku-shupan-sha |isbn=978-0-524-01800-2 |ref=none}}
*{{cite book |last=Qian |first=Nanxiu  |year=2019 |title=Reexamining the Sinosphere: Cultural Transmissions and Transformations in East Asia |publisher=Cambria Press |isbn=978-1-62196-483-4 |ref=none}}
*{{cite book |first=Mark |last=Rowe |title=Bonds of the Dead: Temples, Burial, and the Transformation of Contemporary Japanese Buddhism |place=Chicago |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=2011 |ref=none}}
*{{cite journal |last=Sharf |first=Robert H. |title=The Zen of Japanese Nationalism |journal=History of Religions |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=1–43 |date=August 1993 |doi=10.1086/463354 |s2cid=161535877 |url=http://www.thezensite.com/ZenEssays/HistoricalZen/Zen_of_Japanese_Nationalism.html |access-date=2012-04-28 |archive-date=2020-12-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201229174255/http://www.thezensite.com/ZenEssays/HistoricalZen/Zen_of_Japanese_Nationalism.html |url-status=live |ref=none|url-access=subscription }}
*{{cite book |first=James Mark |last=Shields |title=Critical Buddhism: Engaging with Modern Japanese Buddhist Thought |place=Farnham |publisher=Ashgate |year=2011 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |last=Tamura |first=Yoshiro |year=2005 |title=Japanese Buddhism, A Cultural History |publisher=Kosei Publishing |isbn=4-333-01684-3 |ref=none}}
{{refend}}

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