View source for British cuisine

{{Short description|Culinary traditions of the United Kingdom}}
{{Use British English|date=May 2020}}
{{Cuisine of Britain}}
{{Culture of the United Kingdom}}

'''British cuisine''' consists of the cooking traditions and practices associated with the United Kingdom, including the regional cuisines of [[English cuisine|England]], [[Scottish cuisine|Scotland]], [[Welsh cuisine|Wales]], and [[Northern Irish cuisine|Northern Ireland]]. British cuisine has its roots in the cooking traditions of the indigenous [[Celts]], however it has been significantly influenced and shaped by subsequent waves of conquest, notably that of the [[Roman conquest of Britain|Romans]], [[Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain|Anglo-Saxons]], [[Viking activity in the British Isles|Vikings]], and the [[Norman Conquest|Normans]]; waves of migration, notably immigrants from [[British Indians|India]], [[British Bangladeshis|Bangladesh]], [[British Pakistanis|Pakistan]], [[British Jamaicans|Jamaica]] and the wider [[British African-Caribbean people|Caribbean]], [[British Chinese|China]], [[Italians in the United Kingdom|Italy]], [[South Africans in the United Kingdom|South Africa]], and [[Eastern Europe]], primarily [[Poles in the United Kingdom|Poland]]; and exposure to increasingly globalised trade and connections to the [[Anglosphere]], particularly the [[United States]], [[Canada]], [[Australia]], and [[New Zealand]].

Highlights and staples of British cuisine include the [[Sunday roast|roast dinner]], the [[full breakfast]], [[Shepherd's pie]], [[Toad in the hole]], and [[Fish and chips|fish and chips]]; a highly diverse variety of both savoury and sweet [[Pie|pies]], [[Cake|cakes]], [[Tart|tarts]], and [[Pastry|pastries]]; foods influenced by immigrant populations such as [[Curry in the United Kingdom|curry]] and [[Bolognese sauce#Spaghetti bolognese|spaghetti bolognese]]; traditional desserts such as [[trifle]], [[scone|scones]], [[apple pie]], [[sticky toffee pudding]], and [[Victoria sponge cake]]; and a large variety of [[List of British cheeses|cheese]], [[Beer in the United Kingdom|beer, ale, and stout]], and [[Cider in the United Kingdom|cider]].

In larger cities with multicultural populations,{{Citation needed|date=March 2025}} a vibrant culinary scene exists influenced by [[global cuisine]]. The modern phenomenon of television [[celebrity chef|celebrity chefs]] began in the United Kingdom with [[Philip Harben]]. Since then, the celebrity chef scene has produced an array of well-known British chefs who have wielded considerable influence on modern British and global cuisine, such as [[Marco Pierre White]], [[Gordon Ramsay]], [[Jamie Oliver]], [[Heston Blumenthal]], [[Rick Stein]], [[Nigella Lawson]], [[Hugh Fearnley-Whittingstall]], and [[Fanny Cradock]].

==History==

=== Celtic origins and Roman conquest ===
British cuisine has its roots in the cooking practices of the indigenous [[Celts]]. [[Celtic fields|Celtic agriculture]] and animal breeding practices produced a wide variety of foodstuffs, such as [[grain]], [[fruit]], [[vegetables]], and [[cattle]]. Archaeological evidence of [[cheese]] production can be seen as early as 3,800 BC,<ref>{{Cite web |title=The History of Cheese Making |url=https://www.english-heritage.org.uk/visit/inspire-me/history-of-cheese#:~:text=The%20first%20evidence%20of%20processing,on%20sherds%20of%20ancient%20pottery. |access-date=16 January 2025 |website=English Heritage |language=en-UK}}</ref> while [[bread]] from cereal grains was being produced as early as 3,700 BC.<ref name="bfed">{{cite web |url=http://www.bakersfederation.org.uk/antiquity.aspx |title="Bread in Antiquity", Bakers' Federation website |publisher=Bakersfederation.org.uk |access-date=3 June 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100420002939/http://www.bakersfederation.org.uk/antiquity.aspx |archive-date=20 April 2010 }}</ref> Ancient Celts fermented apples to produce [[cider]], as recorded by [[Julius Caesar]] during his [[Julius Caesar's invasions of Britain|attempted invasions of Britain]] in 55-54 BC.<ref>{{Cite web |title=History of Cider {{!}} WSU Cider {{!}} Washington State University |url=https://cider.wsu.edu/history-of-cider/ |access-date=6 September 2022 |website=WSU Cider |language=en-US}}</ref>

[[Strabo]] records that [[Celtic Britons]] cultivated [[millet]], [[herbs]], and [[root vegetables]], and practised [[Beekeeping|apiculture]] to produce [[honey]]. Trade with Celtic [[Gauls]] in what is now modern-day [[France]] and the [[Low Countries]], as well as with the [[Roman Republic]] following its [[Gallic Wars|conquest of Gaul]], introduced grains such as [[wheat]], [[oats]], and [[rye]]. [[Barley]] was grown to produce [[porridge]] and malt for [[beer]], while [[flax]] was grown for its [[Linseed oil|oil]]. [[Vicia faba|Broad beans]], [[Chenopodium album|wild spinach]], [[herbs]], and primitive [[parsnip|parsnips]] were the primary sources of vegetables and [[Greens (vegetable)|greens]] in Celtic Britain. 

According to [[Julius Caesar]], Celtic Britons domesticated [[cattle]], which were symbols of status and wealth, [[sheep]] and [[goats]] for their meat and milk; and, to a lesser extent, pigs for [[ham]]. Caesar notes that Celts also domesticated [[Greylag goose|geese]], [[chickens]], and [[hares]], but it is unclear whether they were kept for food or for religious rituals due to the association with Celtic deities. Trade with [[Ancient Rome|Romans]] also led to the import of [[Ancient Rome and wine|wine]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Farming in Celtic Britain |url=https://www.roman-britain.co.uk/the-celts-and-celtic-life/farming-in-celtic-britain/ |access-date=16 January 2025 |website=Roman Britain |language=en-UK}}</ref>

In 43 AD, the [[Roman Empire]] invaded and began its [[Roman conquest of Britain|conquest of Britain]], eventually encompassing all of modern-day [[England]], [[Wales]], and parts of southern [[Scotland]]. The Roman conquest brought a culinary renaissance to the island, importing many foodstuffs which were hitherto unknown to Celtic Britons, including fruits such as [[figs]], [[Mespilus germanica|medlars]], [[grapes]], [[pears]], [[cherries]], [[plums]], [[damsons]], [[mulberries]], [[Date (fruit)|dates]], [[olives]], [[vegetable marrows]], and [[cucumbers]]; vegetables such as [[carrots]], [[celery]], [[asparagus]], [[endives]], [[turnips]], [[cabbages]], [[leeks]], [[radishes]], [[onions]], [[shallots]], and [[artichokes]]; nuts, seeds, and pulses such as [[Sweet chestnut|sweet chestnuts]], [[lentils]], [[peas]], [[pine nuts]], [[almonds]], [[walnuts]], and [[sesame]]; and herbs and spices such as [[garlic]], [[basil]], [[parsley]], [[borage]], [[chervil]], [[thyme]], [[common sage]], [[sweet marjoram]], [[summer savory]], [[black pepper]], [[ginger]], [[cinnamon]], [[rosemary]], [[mentha|mint]], [[coriander]], [[chives]], [[dill]], and [[fennel]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Food and Diet in Roman Britain |url=https://htt.herefordshire.gov.uk/herefordshires-past/the-romano-british-period/food-and-diet-in-roman-britain/ |access-date=17 January 2025 |website=Herefordshire Council: Herefordshire Through Time |date=2 March 2015 |language=en-UK}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Romans: Food and Health |url=https://www.english-heritage.org.uk/learn/story-of-england/romans/food-and-health/ |access-date=16 January 2025 |website=English Heritage |language=en-UK}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Roman Food in Britain |url=https://www.historic-uk.com/HistoryofBritain/Roman-Food-in-Britain/ |access-date=16 January 2025 |website=Historic UK: The History and Heritage Accommodation Guide |language=en-UK}}</ref> Produced foods such as [[sausages]] were also imported,{{sfn|Davidson|2014|p=717}}<ref name=HickmanSausage>{{cite news |last1=Hickman |first1=Martin |title=The secret life of the sausage: A great British institution |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/food-and-drink/features/the-secret-life-of-the-sausage-a-great-british-institution-422185.html |work=The Independent |access-date=15 April 2015 |date=30 October 2006}}</ref> along with new animals, including [[rabbits]],<ref>"[https://web.archive.org/web/20061211130559/http://www.britarch.ac.uk/ba/ba86/news.shtml archive Unearthing the ancestral rabbit]", ''British Archaeology'', Issue 86, January/February 2006</ref> [[pheasants]], [[peacocks]], [[guinea fowl]], and possibly [[fallow deer]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Food and Diet in Roman Britain |url=https://htt.herefordshire.gov.uk/herefordshires-past/the-romano-british-period/food-and-diet-in-roman-britain/ |access-date=17 January 2025 |website=Herefordshire Council: Herefordshire Through Time |date=2 March 2015 |language=en-UK}}</ref>

Roman colonists were able to [[Wine from the United Kingdom|grow wine]] in vineyards as far north as [[Northamptonshire]] and [[Lincolnshire]], and the longevity of Roman occupation is credited as creating the wine industry in Britain.<ref name="Keys 1999">{{cite news |last1=Keys |first1=David |title=Veni, vidi, viticulture - remains of Roman vineyards found in UK |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/science/veni-vidi-viticulture-remains-of-roman-vineyards-found-in-uk-738723.html |access-date=17 September 2021 |work=[[The Independent]] |date=16 November 1999}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Roman Food in Britain |url=https://www.historic-uk.com/HistoryofBritain/Roman-Food-in-Britain/ |access-date=16 January 2025 |website=Historic UK: The History and Heritage Accommodation Guide |language=en-UK}}</ref> The importance of [[seafood]] to the Roman diet led to its increasing popularity in Britain, particularly [[shellfish]] such as [[oysters]]. The quality of oysters from [[Colchester]] in particular became prized in [[Rome]] as a delicacy.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Roman Food in Britain |url=https://www.historic-uk.com/HistoryofBritain/Roman-Food-in-Britain/ |access-date=16 January 2025 |website=Historic UK: The History and Heritage Accommodation Guide |language=en-UK}}</ref> After the [[end of Roman rule in Britain]] and the subsequent collapse of the [[Western Roman Empire]], the use of  more exotic food items,lessened. After the Roman period, British cuisine predominately consisted of vegetables, cereals, and meats such as mutton.<ref>{{Cite news |date=7 July 2022 |title=Moveable Feast; British cuisine has admittedly had its indifferent times but these are history. |pages=25 |work=The Times [London, England]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Medieval cuisine what did people eat in the middle ages |url=https://oxfordre.com/foodstudies/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780197762530.001.0001/acrefore-9780197762530-e-37?d=%2F10.1093%2Facrefore%2F9780197762530.001.0001%2Facrefore-9780197762530-e-37&p=emailA2BFYTlKTER1E}}</ref>

=== The Middle Ages ===

Shortly after the end of Roman rule in Britain, the Germanic [[Anglo-Saxons]] began conquering and colonising the island. The Anglo-Saxons introduced [[bacon]] to Britain during this period; rural families had their own recipes for curing and smoking bacon, while urban residents would purchase bacon from [[butchers]] who developed their own curing methods. Residents in [[London]] had access to a particularly diverse range of bacon products from across Britain.<ref>{{cite web |title=History Of Bacon |url=https://englishbreakfastsociety.com/history-of-bacon.html|access-date=19 September 2021 |publisher=English Breakfast Society }}</ref> Anglo-Saxons helped to entrench [[stews]], [[broth|broths]], and [[soups]] into British cuisine, along with an early form of the [[crumpet]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Campbell|first1=Bruce M. S.|last2=Hagen|first2=Ann|date=November 1995|title=A Second Handbook of Anglo-Saxon Food and Drink: Production and Distribution.|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2598138|journal=The Economic History Review|volume=48|issue=4|pages=818|doi=10.2307/2598138|jstor=2598138 |issn=0013-0117|url-access=subscription}}</ref> Bread and butter became common fare, and the English in particular gained a reputation for their liberal use of melted butter as a sauce with meat and vegetables.<ref>{{Cite web |title=McGee, Harold (2004). On Food and Cooking: The Science and Lore of the Kitchen. New York City: Scribner. ISBN 978-0-684-80001-1. LCCN 2004058999. OCLC 56590708. |url=https://catalog.loc.gov/vwebv/search?searchCode=LCCN&searchArg=2004058999&searchType=1&permalink=y |access-date=2024-04-10 |website=catalog.loc.gov}}</ref> [[Ale]] was a popular drink of choice among the nobility and peasantry alike,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Campbell|first1=Bruce M. S.|last2=Hagen|first2=Ann|date=November 1995|title=A Second Handbook of Anglo-Saxon Food and Drink: Production and Distribution.|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2598138|journal=The Economic History Review|volume=48|issue=4|pages=818|doi=10.2307/2598138|jstor=2598138 |issn=0013-0117|url-access=subscription}}</ref> and [[mead]] production increased around Christian monasteries. [[Danes|Danish]] and other [[North Germanic peoples|Scandinavian]] invaders during the [[Viking Age]] introduced techniques for smoking and drying [[fish]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Traditional English Food |url=https://www.secretfoodtours.com/blog/traditionnal-english-food/ |access-date=17 January 2025 |website=Secret Food Tours |date=18 December 2022 |language=en-UK}}</ref>

After the [[Norman Conquest]] in 1066, the Normans reintroduced many spices and continental influences that had been lost after the departure of the Romans.<ref name="Spencer">{{cite book |title=British Food: An Extraordinary Thousand Years of History |first=Colin |last=Spencer |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-231-13110-0 |publisher=[[Columbia University Press]]}}{{pages needed|date=January 2018}}</ref> Many of the modern English words for foodstuffs, such as beef, pork, mutton, gravy, jelly, mustard, onion, herb, and spice are derived from [[Old French]] words introduced by the Normans.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Normans at Our Table |url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/page/104 |access-date=17 January 2025 |website=Oxford Reference |language=en-UK}}</ref> Though eating habits and cooking methods remained largely unchanged, pig farming intensified under the Norman dynasty.<ref>{{Cite web |title=How Did the Norman Conquest Change English Cuisine? |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/after-norman-conquest-england-ate-more-pork-180975268/ |access-date=17 January 2025 |website=Smithsonian Magazine |language=en-UK}}</ref> The [[Crusades]] and trade with [[Arab]] [[Muslim]] empires introduced foods such as [[Orange (fruit)|oranges]] and [[sugarcane]] to Britain.<ref name="everwon3">{{cite web|url=http://www.open2.net/everwondered_food/history/history_timeline3.htm  |title="Food History Timeline", BBC/Open University |date=18 November 2004 |access-date=3 June 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041118084945/http://www.open2.net/everwondered_food/history/history_timeline3.htm |archive-date = 18 November 2004}}</ref><ref>Lee, J.R. "Philippine Sugar and Environment", Trade Environment Database (TED) Case Studies, 1997 [http://www.american.edu/TED/philsug.htm]</ref>

It was during the late 14th century that the first [[cookery book]]s began to emerge, notably the English book the ''[[Forme of Cury]]'',{{efn|Cury here means cooking, related to French ''cuire'', to cook.}} containing recipes from the court of [[Richard II of England|Richard II]].{{sfn|Dickson Wright|2011|p=46}} The recipes it describes are diverse and sophisticated, with a wide variety of ingredients such as [[capon]], [[pheasant]], [[almonds]], [[cinnamon]], [[ginger]], [[cloves]], [[date (fruit)|dates]], [[pine nuts]], [[saffron]], [[Mace (spice)|mace]], [[nutmeg]] and [[sugar]]. It also describes foods such as [[gingerbread]], and [[sweet and sour]] sauces.{{sfn|Dickson Wright|2011|pp=52-53}} Elaborate stews such as [[dillegrout]] became commonly served at the coronations of English monarchs.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Clarkson|first=Janet|title=Soup : a global history|date=2010|publisher=Reaktion|isbn=978-1-86189-774-9|location=London|pages=113–114|oclc=642290114}}</ref> It was during the middle ages that many staples of British cuisine began to develop, such as the [[apple pie]],<ref>''[[The Forme of Cury]]'', section Servicium de Pissibus (''i.e.'' fasting recipes), [https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/8102/pg8102-images.html#:~:text=XXIII.%20FOR%20TO%20MAKE%20TARTYS%20IN%20APPLIS. item XXIII]</ref> an early [[cheesecake]] (called ''sambocade''),<ref name="j1">{{Cite journal |last=Wilson |first=C. |year=2002 |title=Cheesecakes, Junkets, and Syllabubs |journal=Gastronomica |volume=2 |issue=4 |page=19 |doi=10.1525/gfc.2002.2.4.19}}</ref><ref name="The Forme of Curry">{{Cite book |last=Pegge |first=Samuel |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S1VEBQAAQBAJ&q=sambocade |title=The Forme of Cury, a Roll of Ancient English Cookery |date=2014-12-11 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-108-07620-3 |language=en}}</ref> [[custard]],<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Hieatt |first1=Constance |title=Curye on Inglysch: English culinary manuscripts of the fourteenth century (including the forme of cury) <!--London, EETS SS 8, 1985--> |last2=Butler |first2=Sharon}}</ref><ref name="AustinT">{{Cite book |title=Two Fifteenth-Century Cookery Books <!--London, EETS OS 91, 1888--> |date=1964 <!--Harleian MSS 279 and 4016--> |editor-last=Austin |editor-first=Thomas}}</ref> [[mince pies]],<ref name="Timbsp149">{{Harvnb|Timbs|1866|p=149}}</ref><ref name="Johnp78">{{Harvnb|John|2005|p=78}}</ref> [[pasty|pasties]],<ref>{{cite book|last=Nuttall|first=P Austin|title=A classical and archæological dictionary of the manners, customs, laws, institutions, arts, etc. of the celebrated nations of antiquity, and of the middle ages|year=1840|location=London|page=555|publisher=Whittaker and Company|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=V-gDAAAAQAAJ&dq=Yarmouth+pasties&pg=PA555|access-date=23 March 2023|archive-date=4 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230404115121/https://books.google.com/books?id=V-gDAAAAQAAJ&dq=Yarmouth+pasties&pg=PA555|url-status=live}}</ref> and various forms of meat [[pies]].

=== Tudor & Stuart era ===

The dawn of the [[Tudor dynasty]] following the [[Wars of the Roses]] coincided with the European discovery of the [[New World]], the initiation of the [[Columbian exchange]], and globalisation of trade, which opened up Britain to a range of new foodstuffs not seen since the Roman conquest. Foods from the New World included grains such as [[maize]];<ref>{{cite book |last=Earle |first=Rebecca |author-link=Rebecca Earle |title=The Body of the Conquistador: Food, Race, and the Colonial Experience in Spanish America, 1492–1700 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |year=2012 |pages=17, 144, 151}}</ref> fruits such as avocados,<ref name="Crosby 2001">{{harvnb|Crosby|2001}}</ref> chili peppers<ref name="Collingham 2006">{{cite book |last=Collingham |first=Lizzie |author-link=Lizzie Collingham |title=Curry: A Tale of Cooks and Conquerors |url=https://archive.org/details/curry00lizz |url-access=registration |year=2006 |chapter=Vindaloo: the Portuguese and the chili pepper |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |location=Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-988381-3 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/curry00lizz/page/47 47–73]}}</ref> chocolate,<ref name="Mintz McNeil 2018 plants">{{cite web |last1=Mintz |first1=S. |last2=McNeil |first2=S. |title=Origins of Plants |url=https://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/active_learning/explorations/columbus/columbian_answers_plants.cfm |publisher=University of Houston |access-date=15 July 2024 |date=2018}}</ref> [[cranberries]], [[guavas]],<ref name="Mintz McNeil 2018 plants"/> [[papayas]],<ref name="Crosby 2001"/> [[pineapples]],<ref name="Crosby 2001"/> [[cucurbita|squashes]],<ref name="Crosby 2001"/> and [[tomatoes]];<ref name="Crosby 2001"/> vegetables such as potatoes,<ref name="Crosby 2001"/> [[cassavas]],<ref name="Crosby 2001"/> and sweet potatoes;<ref name="Crosby 2001"/> legumes such as [[peanut|peanuts]]<ref name="Mintz McNeil 2018 plants"/> and [[Navy bean|haricot beans]],<ref>{{cite journal |title=Origin and evolution of common bean: past events and recent trends |author=Paul Gepts |journal=[[HortScience]] |date=December 1998 |volume=33 |issue=7 |pages=1124–1130 |doi=10.21273/HORTSCI.33.7.1124 |doi-access=free }}</ref> spices such as vanilla;<ref name="nashville">{{cite web |url=http://www.herbsocietynashville.org/gardening.htm |title=The Life of Spice |author=The Herb Society of Nashville |publisher=The Herb Society of Nashville |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110920205115/http://www.herbsocietynashville.org/gardening.htm |archive-date=20 September 2011 |url-status=dead |quote=Following Montezuma's capture, one of Cortés' officers saw him drinking "chocolatl" (made of powdered cocoa beans and ground corn flavored with ground vanilla pods and honey). The Spanish tried this drink themselves and were so impressed by this new taste sensation that they took samples back to Spain.' and 'Actually it was vanilla rather than the chocolate that made a bigger hit and by 1700 the use of vanilla was spread over all of Europe. Mexico became the leading producer of vanilla for three centuries. – Excerpted from 'Spices of the World Cookbook' by McCormick and 'The Book of Spices' by Frederic Rosengarten, Jr}}</ref> and animals, most notably turkeys.{{sfn|Davidson|2014|p=836}} The growth of the global [[Spice trade#Age of Discovery: a new route and a New World|spice trade]], now dominated by rapidly expanding European empires, led to the re-proliferation of black pepper, nutmeg, [[cloves]], [[mace (spice)|mace]], and cinnamon in British cookery. 

The late 15th century saw the development of well-known alcoholic beverage [[Scotch whisky]].<ref name="ERoS">{{Cite book |title=Exchequer Rolls of Scotland 1494–95 |volume=10 |page=487 |quote=Et per liberacionem factam fratri Johanni Cor per perceptum compotorum rotulatoris, ut asserit, de mandato domini regis ad faciendum aquavite infra hoc compotum viij bolle brasii.}}</ref> It was during the early 16th century that cookery books printed using the [[printing press]] became more widely available, notably ''[[The Boke of Cokery]]'' printed at the turn of the century in 1500 by [[Richard Pynson]], and ''[[The Good Huswifes Jewell]]'' towards the end of the century in 1585 by [[Thomas Dawson (cook)|Thomas Dawson]]. Under the Tudor dynasty in England and Wales, and the [[Stuart dynasty]] in Scotland, British cuisine became more refined and grew more sophisticated. Recipes began to emphasise a balance of sweet and sour flavours,{{sfn|Lehmann|2003|pp=30–35}} butter became a key ingredient in sauces, reflecting a trend seen in France that continued in subsequent centuries,{{sfn|Lehmann|2003|pp=30–35}} and herbs such as thyme, used only sparingly in the medieval period, began to replace spices as flavourings.{{sfn|Lehmann|2003|pp=30–35}} 

Throughout the Tudor period, fruits such as apples, [[gooseberries]], grapes, oranges, and plums were commonly eaten.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Brears |first1=Peter |title=Cooking and Dining in Tudor and Early Stuart England |date=2015 |publisher=Prospect Books |isbn=9781909248328 |location=London |page=20}}</ref> The main source of carbohydrates in British diets remained [[bread]], and its composition reflected one's socio-economic class: the peasantry ate bread made from [[rye]] or coarse [[wheat]], the emerging middle class of prosperous tenants ate a yeoman's bread made of [[whole grain|wholemeal]], while the most expensive bread was made of white [[wheat]] flour.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Hanson |first=Marilee |date=2015 |title=Tudor England Food And Drink |url=https://englishhistory.net/tudor/tudor-england-food-drink/ |access-date=2016-03-16 |website=englishhistory.net}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Fox |first1=Adam |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.7722/j.ctt2jbm0w.13 |title=Remaking English Society: Social Relations and Social Change in Early Modern England |last2=Hindle |first2=Steve |date=2013 |publisher=Boydell & Brewer |isbn=9781782041047 |pages=165–188 |jstor=10.7722/j.ctt2jbm0w.13 |access-date=30 March 2023}}</ref> Meat consumption grew rapidly throughout the 16th century as the price of meat fell, and poorer families who would have rarely enjoyed meat a century before now had wider access to it. Commoners living by rivers or along the coast ate seafood that was plentiful to the waters surrounding Britain, such as [[haddock]], [[sole (fish)|sole]], cod, oysters, [[whitebait]], and [[cockle (bivalve)|cockles]], while the wealthier classes ate [[sturgeon]], seals, crab, lobster, salmon, trout, and shrimp. Commoners ate whatever meat they could hunt, such as rabbit, blackbirds, chicken, ducks, and pigeons.<ref name="Primary Facts 2013">{{Cite web|url=http://primaryfacts.com/476/tudor-food-and-drink-facts-and-information/|title=Tudor Food and Drink: Facts and Information {{!}} Primary Facts|website=primaryfacts.com|date=14 January 2013 |access-date=2016-03-16}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://tudorhistory.org/topics/food/menu.html|title=The Medieval Menu|website=tudorhistory.org|access-date=2016-03-16}}</ref>

The nobility consumed fresh meat in such vast quantities that it constituted approximately 75% of their diet. For example, the quantities of meat procured for the court of [[Elizabeth I of England|Elizabeth I]] in just one year included 8,200 sheep, 2,330 deer, 1,870 pigs, 1,240 oxen, 760 calves, and 53 wild boar.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.hrp.org.uk/hampton-court-palace/history-and-stories/tudor-food-and-eating/#gs.jsx6yo|title=Tudor Food and Eating|website=Historic Royal Places|date=17 January 2025 |access-date=2025-01-17}}</ref> [[Pies]] became an important staple as both food and for court theatrics; the [[nursery rhyme]] "[[Sing a Song of Sixpence]]", with its lyrics "Four and Twenty blackbirds / Baked in a pie. // When the pie is opened, the birds began to sing", refers to the conceit of placing live birds under a pie crust just before serving at a banquet.<ref name=Cocker>{{cite book |last=Cocker |first=Mark |author2=Mabey, Richard |author2-link=Richard Mabey |title=[[Birds Britannica]] |year=2005 |publisher=[[Chatto & Windus]] |isbn=978-0-7011-6907-7 |pages=349–353}}</ref>{{sfn|Dickson Wright|2011|p=105}} Nobles ate costlier or more unusual varieties of meat, such as swans, lamb and mutton, veal, beef, heron, [[pheasant]], [[partridge]], [[quail]], [[peafowl]], geese, boar, and [[venison]].<ref name="Primary Facts 2013" /> Royal banquets during the court of [[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]] included unusual meats such as [[conger eel]] and [[porpoise]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.hrp.org.uk/hampton-court-palace/history-and-stories/tudor-food-and-eating/#gs.jsx6yo|title=Tudor Food and Eating|website=Historic Royal Places|date=17 January 2025 |access-date=2025-01-17}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://tudorhistory.org/topics/food/menu.html|title=The Medieval Menu|website=tudorhistory.org|access-date=2016-03-16}}</ref>

Desserts and sweet foods grew rapidly as European demand for sugar ballooned during the 16th century. Sweets in British cuisine at this time included pastry-based foods such as [[tarts]], sweet [[flan (pie)|flans]], and [[custards]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://tudorhistory.org/topics/food/menu.html|title=The Medieval Menu|website=tudorhistory.org|access-date=2016-03-16}}</ref> The 16th century saw the emergence of sweet foods such as the [[fruit fool]], most commonly made with gooseberries, sugar, and [[clotted cream]];<ref name=OED>''Oxford English Dictionary'', second edition, 1989.</ref><ref>Garmey, Jane. Great British Cooking: A Well Kept Secret. New York: Random House, 1981</ref> [[syllabubs]], a dessert made with milk or cream, sugar, and wine,{{sfn|Davidson|2014|p=800}} and [[trifle]], at the time a thick [[cream]] flavoured with [[sugar]], [[ginger]], and [[rosewater]].<ref>{{Cite book |author=Gray, Annie |url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/1129384439 |title=The official Downton Abbey cookbook |date=17 September 2019 |isbn=978-1-68188-369-4 |oclc=1129384439}}</ref> Trifle has remained a staple of British cuisine and is a popular sweet dish today. [[Scones]] and [[shortbread]] developed in Scotland at this time; though shortbread had been known since the 12th century, it was refined into its modern form during the reign of [[Mary, Queen of Scots]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.freshways.co.uk/a-brief-history-of-the-scone/#:~:text=Scones%20are%20thought%20to%20have,into%20four%20or%20six%20wedges.|title=A Brief History of the Scone|website=Freshways|date=17 January 2025 |access-date=2025-01-17}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=History of Shortbread|url=http://www.englishteastore.com/shortbread-history.html|publisher=English Tea Store|access-date=10 February 2015}}</ref> As trade with [[Southeast Asia]] increased, widespread eating of rice became more common, though it was usually in the form of a dessert, giving rise to [[rice pudding]] in Britain.<ref>{{cite web|title=A Timeline of Food in Britain|url=https://www.english-heritage.org.uk/visit/places/stonehenge/history-and-stories/history/food-and-feasting-at-stonehenge/food-timeline/#:~:text=1485%E2%80%931603Tudor%20Period,the%20form%20of%20a%20pudding.|publisher=English Heritage|access-date=17 January 2025}}</ref> 

During the Stuart dynasty into the 17th century, trade with Africa, India, and China increased, largely through private interests, namely the [[East India Company]]. Fruits such as bananas became more commonplace,<ref>[http://www.bermuda-online.org/flowers.htm Forbes, K.A. "Bermuda's Flora"] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070403002633/http://www.bermuda-online.org/flowers.htm |date=3 April 2007 }}</ref> however it was the introduction of tea that would have a much more profound effect on British culinary habits. Tea remained quite expensive until the 18th century, and it was only consumed by wealthier middle class individuals and those in the nobility before that time.<ref>{{cite episode |title=Tea |series=[[In Our Time (BBC Radio 4)|In Our Time]] |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p004y24y |network=[[BBC Radio 4]] |airdate=29 April 2004 |access-date=7 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150411023701/http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p004y24y |archive-date=11 April 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref> Coffee, a drink derived from the beans of a plant native to [[Yemen]], was introduced to Europe through Italy, and became highly successful in the mid-to-late 17th century.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.realcoffee.co.uk/Article.asp?Cat=history&page=3 |title="Coffee in Europe", The Roast & Post Coffee Company |publisher=Realcoffee.co.uk |access-date=3 June 2010}}</ref> Coffee houses sprang up across Britain; one, Oxford's [[Queen's Lane Coffee House]], established in 1654, is still open today as the oldest continually-serving coffee house in Europe.{{sfn|Pendergrast|2001|page=9}}<ref>{{Cite web |date=January 19, 2022 |title=Oxford's Oldest Coffee Houses |url=https://www.lovebritishhistory.co.uk/2022/01/oxfords-oldest-coffee-houses.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220813152347/https://www.lovebritishhistory.co.uk/2022/01/oxfords-oldest-coffee-houses.html |archive-date=13 August 2022 |access-date=2023-05-06 |website=[[Love British History]] |language=en}}</ref> Owing to the growing appreciation of sweet foods in Britain, the [[sponge cake]], which would later become a defining food of the [[Victorian era]] and [[afternoon tea]], had its start in the early 17th century, which mixed flour, sugar, and eggs, seasoned with [[anise]] and [[coriander]] seeds.<ref name=cake>{{cite book |last=Humble |first=Nicola |title=Cake: A Global History}}</ref> The alcoholic beverage [[rum]], produced from [[molasses]] throughout the Caribbean and North America, came to be associated with the British [[Royal Navy]] at this time, when they captured the valuable sugar-producing island of [[Jamaica]] in 1655.{{sfn|Blue|2004|p=77}}

=== Georgian era ===

In 1707, the kingdoms of England (which included Wales) and Scotland united to form a new country, the [[Kingdom of Great Britain]]. For the vast majority of the 18th century, the new British nation was ruled by the [[House of Hanover]] under the [[Georgian era|Georgian dynasty]]. During this time, the British deepened their influence in India, displacing the Dutch and French as the preeminent European power in southeast Asia. Increasing British domination of global trade, cheapening of ingredients hitherto affordable only to wealthier individuals, and a burgeoning middle class led to many innovations in British cuisine, influenced by foods the British encountered in India.

The 18th century saw a revolution in English cookery books, notably ''[[The Compleat Housewife]]'' in 1727 by [[Eliza Smith (writer)|Eliza Smith]] and ''[[The Art of Cookery Made Plain and Easy]]'' twenty years later by writer [[Hannah Glasse]], which became a best seller for a century. Glasse's book not only heavily influenced British cuisine, but also early [[American cuisine]], with copies owned by [[Benjamin Franklin]], [[Thomas Jefferson]], and [[George Washington]].<ref name="Rountree2003">{{cite book|last=Rountree |first=Susan Hight |title=From a Colonial Garden: Ideas, Decorations, Recipes |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BgUUYWMBf2EC&pg=RA1-PR2 |year=2003 |publisher=Colonial Williamsburg |isbn=978-0-87935-212-7 |page=1}}</ref> The book contains the first known recipe in English for [[Curry in the United Kingdom|curry]], which called for chicken to be fried in butter, ground [[turmeric]], [[ginger]], and [[black pepper|pepper]], then stewed with cream and lemon juice added before serving, resembling the modern dish [[butter chicken]].<ref>{{cite web |last1=Kelley |first1=Laura |title=Indian Curry Through Foreign Eyes #1: Hannah Glasse |url=https://www.silkroadgourmet.com/curry-through-foreign-eyes-1-glasse/ |publisher=Silk Road Gourmet |access-date=24 March 2015 |date=14 April 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180206165357/https://www.silkroadgourmet.com/curry-through-foreign-eyes-1-glasse/ |archive-date=6 February 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref> Dishes that would become staples of British cuisine well into the 21st century were first mentioned in Glasse's book, such as [[Yorkshire pudding]],<ref>{{cite news|title=Yorkshire pudding wrap: Reinventing the humble delicacy|agency=BBC Leeds & West Yorkshire|date=22 September 2017|quote=According to Yorkshire food historian Peter Brears, the recipe first appeared in a book called The Art Of Cookery by Hannah Glasse in 1747. She *whisper* came from Northumberland.}}</ref> [[Hamburger|burgers]] (called "Hamburgh sausage"),<ref>{{cite web |last1=Stradley |first1=Linda |title=Hamburgers - History and Legends of Hamburgers |url=http://whatscookingamerica.net/History/HamburgerHistory.htm |website=What's Cooking America |access-date=25 March 2015 |date=2004 |archive-date=22 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150322000227/http://whatscookingamerica.net/History/HamburgerHistory.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> the addition of [[gelatin dessert|jelly]] into [[trifle]],<ref name=Phipps>{{cite news|last1=Phipps|first1=Catherine|title=No such thing as a mere trifle|url=https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/wordofmouth/poll/2009/dec/21/perfect-trifle-jelly|newspaper=[[The Guardian]]|access-date=20 December 2015|date=21 December 2009|archive-date=22 December 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151222145543/http://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/wordofmouth/poll/2009/dec/21/perfect-trifle-jelly|url-status=live}}</ref> and [[piccalilli]].<ref>H. Glasse, ''Art of Cookery'', 6th Ed. 1758, ([https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_xJdAAAAAIAAJ/page/n412 <!-- quote=Paco. --> page 377])</ref>

Pies and other hearty snack-type foods continued to develop in variety and popularity, favoured by hunters as an easy, portable lunch. Glasse describes a "[[Cheshire]] [[pork pie]]", a pie filled with layers of [[pork loin]] and apples, sweetened with sugar and filled with [[white wine]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Recreating Hannah Glasse's Cheshire Pork Pie |url=https://tccunha.ca/blogs/blog/recreating-hannah-glasses-cheshire-pork-pie |website=Timbrell Cockburn Cunha |access-date=20 January 2025 |date=2020 }}</ref> The [[sandwich]], now a global staple with countless varieties though originally referring to [[roast beef]] between two slices of toasted bread, and named for [[John Montagu, 4th Earl of Sandwich]], gained widespread popularity in the 18th century. Montagu reputedly ordered the food during late-night sessions in [[casino|gambling houses]], as it could be eaten without the need for cutlery, allowing him to continue his gambling uninterrupted.<ref name="What's Cooking America">[http://whatscookingamerica.net/History/SandwichHistory.htm What's Cooking America], ''Sandwiches, History of Sandwiches''. 2 February 2007.</ref><ref name="BBC News Online">{{cite news| title = Sandwich celebrates 250th anniversary of the sandwich | url = https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-kent-18010424 |work = [[BBC News Online]] | date = 12 May 2012 | access-date = 18 May 2012}}</ref> With the [[Industrial Revolution]] rapidly developing during the 18th century in Britain and the growth of a new, industrial urban-based [[working class]], the demand for fast, portable, and inexpensive meals grew considerably, leading to the ubiquitous adoption of the sandwich.<ref name=encyc>''Encyclopedia of Food and Culture'', Solomon H. Katz, editor (Charles Scribner's Sons: New York) 2003</ref> Similar foods previously reserved for the upper class also started gaining popularity with the working class in other parts of the country, such as the [[Cornish pasty]], favoured by miners in Cornish tin mines, working to fuel Britain's growing industry.<ref>{{cite book | title=Cornish Saints & Sinners | author=Harris, J Henry | year=2009 | publisher=Wildside Press LLC | page=195 | isbn=9781434453679 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZRDxG44Thg4C&pg=PA195}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/2460056/The-history-of-the-Cornish-pasty.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220112/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/2460056/The-history-of-the-Cornish-pasty.html |archive-date=12 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live | title=The History of the Cornish Pasty | access-date=2 March 2011 | author=Devlin, Kate | date=25 July 2008 | newspaper=The Daily Telegraph}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref name="grigson">[[Jane Grigson|Grigson, Jane]] (1993) ''English Food''. Penguin Books, p. 226</ref> Tavern-style foods which became culinary classics developed during this time, notably [[Welsh rarebit]], consisting of toasted bread topped with a sauce made of cheese, ale, and mustard.<ref>[[Hannah Glasse|Glasse, Hannah]], ''The Art of Cookery made Plain and Easy, ...by a Lady'' (London: L. Wangford, c. 1775), p. 190. [https://archive.org/stream/artcookerymadep02glasgoog#page/n232/mode/2up]</ref>

[[Roast beef]] became an entrenched staple of British culinary identity in the 18th century, so much so that a French nickname for the British (more specifically the English) is "les Rosbifs" (the roast beefs).<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/2913151.stm|title=Why do the French call the British 'the roast beefs'?|date=3 April 2003|access-date=25 November 2014|work=BBC News}}</ref> It was during the late 18th century that roast beef gained its association with the [[Sunday roast]] dinner, a cornerstone of British cuisine. Families would place a cut of meat into the oven with root vegetables such as potatoes, turnips, and parsnips before attending the [[Lord's Day|Sunday church service]]. Upon their return, the meal would be cooked, and the juices from the roast was then used to make a [[gravy]] to pour on top of the dinner.<ref name=Hill2007>{{cite news| url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2007/aug/19/britishidentity.lifeandhealth | location=London | work=The Guardian | first=Amelia | last=Hill | title=How Friday saved the Sunday roast | date=19 August 2007|access-date=30 January 2011}}</ref> Though roast beef is most strongly associated with the traditional Sunday roast dinner, other meats are more commonly used today, such as chicken, lamb, pork, and sometimes duck, goose, [[Gammon (meat)|gammon]], turkey, or other game birds.<ref>[http://www.ivillage.co.uk/food/tools/recipefinder/display_recipe/0,,4102,00.html Classic Roast Dinner<!-- Bot generated title -->] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100212231744/http://www.ivillage.co.uk/food/tools/recipefinder/display_recipe/0,,4102,00.html |date=12 February 2010 }}</ref> With the Industrial Revolution increasingly mechanising food production and advancing food science, the world's first commercial bacon processing plant was opened in Wiltshire by John Harris in the 1770s. Today, [[Wiltshire cure|Wiltshire cured]] bacon is prized in Britain for its quality.<ref>>{{Citation  | title = The Cure for Bacon Lovers  | work = [[The Independent]]  | publisher = Independent Print Limited  | date = 26 February 2000  | url = https://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/food-and-drink/features/the-cure-for-bacon-lovers-726169.html  | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090519221809/http://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/food-and-drink/features/the-cure-for-bacon-lovers-726169.html  | url-status = dead  | archive-date = May 19, 2009  | access-date =11 June 2011}}</ref> Amateur plant breeder Thomas Edward Knight of Downton, near Salisbury, England, developed the world's first sweet-tasting pea.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Pea Facts |url=https://peas.org/pea-facts/ |access-date=2024-04-10 |website=Yes Peas!}}</ref>

Poorer households attempting to extend the longevity of their meat stores made them into savoury batter puddings, giving rise to the classic dish [[Toad in the hole]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |url=https://theculturetrip.com/europe/united-kingdom/england/articles/how-toad-in-the-hole-got-its-name/ |title=How Toad-in-the-Hole Got Its Name |last=Lavelle |first=Emma |date=20 June 2017 |website=culture trip |access-date=27 September 2018}}</ref> Originally the dish used beef and pigeon, however it is most commonly associated today with sausages, served with vegetables and [[onion gravy]].<ref name="Baines2014">{{cite book |author=Emily Ansara Baines |title=The Unofficial Downton Abbey Cookbook: From Lady Mary's Crab Canapes to Daisy's Mousse Au Chocolat--More Than 150 Recipes from Upstairs and Downstairs |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=n76YCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA213 |date=3 October 2014 |publisher=F+W Media, Inc. |isbn=978-1-4405-8291-2 |pages=213–}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Hyslop |first1=Leah |title=Potted histories: toad in the hole |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/foodanddrink/10185830/Potted-histories-toad-in-the-hole.html |access-date=9 September 2016 |work=Telegraph |date=24 July 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |first=India |last=Mandelkern |title=The Secret History of Toad-in-a-Hole |work=Homo Gastronomicus |date=11 October 2012 |url=http://homogastronomicus.blogspot.com/2012/10/toad-in-hole-revisited.html |access-date=3 May 2020}}</ref> [[Scouse (food)|Scouse]], essentially a beef and root vegetable stew, developed along similar lines of thrift. The name, derived from ''[[lobscouse]],'' is the origin of the term "Scouser", a nickname for people from [[Liverpool]], due to the association of the dish with that city, particularly sailors.<ref name="FC">{{Cite web |last=Cloake |first=Felicity |author-link=Felicity Cloake |date=2019-10-30 |title=How to cook the perfect scouse – recipe |url=https://www.theguardian.com/food/2019/oct/30/how-to-make-the-perfect-scouse-stew-hotpot-recipe-felicity-cloake |website=The Guardian|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200502160919/https://www.theguardian.com/food/2019/oct/30/how-to-make-the-perfect-scouse-stew-hotpot-recipe-felicity-cloake |archive-date=2 May 2020 }}</ref> Sailors engaged in trade in Asia returned with knowledge of savoury sauces used as condiments. Eliza Smith subsequently published the first recipe for [[ketchup]], a [[mushroom ketchup|mushroom]] variety which used anchovies and horseradish.<ref name="JASNA">{{Cite magazine |last=Mitchell |first=Christine M. |date=2010 |title=Book Review: The Handy Homemaker, Eighteenth-Century Style |url=http://www.jasna.org/bookrev/br261p22.pdf |url-status=dead |magazine=JASNA News |issue=Spring 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101010004203/http://jasna.org/bookrev/br261p22.pdf |archive-date=10 October 2010 |access-date=26 March 2015}}</ref> British ketchup consequently used mushrooms rather than tomatoes as the primary ingredient, and was prepared extensively by British colonists in the [[Thirteen Colonies]].<ref name="Cooke">{{Cite book |last=Cooke |first=Mordecai Cubitt |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.214851 |title=British Edible Fungi |date=1891 |publisher=Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner & Company Limited |location=London |pages=[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.214851/page/n214 201]–206}}</ref><ref name="Bell">{{cite book |title=Masquerade: Essays on Tradition and Innovation Worldwide |editor-first=Deborah |editor-last=Bell |chapter=The (Super) Hero's Masquerade |first=Ron |last=Naversen |pages=217''ff'' |publisher=McFarland |year=2015 |isbn=978-0-7864-7646-6}}</ref><ref name="Branston">{{Cite book |last=Branston |first=Thomas F. |url=https://archive.org/details/handbookpractic00brangoog |title=The Hand-Book of Practical Receipts of Every-Day Use |date=1857 |publisher=Lindsay & Blakiston |location=Philadelphia |pages=[https://archive.org/details/handbookpractic00brangoog/page/n141 148]–149}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Smith |first=Andrew F. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hAq_EvcAIW4C&pg=PA16 |title=Pure Ketchup: A History of America's National Condiment, with Recipes |date=1996 |publisher=University of South Carolina Press |isbn=1-57003-139-8 |location=Columbia, South Carolina |pages=16–17}}</ref> [[Chutney]], a type of preserved [[relish]] developed in India, gained huge popularity in Britain, particularly with the working class who desired ever more exotic flavours in their diet.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://mamellada.gr/history-of-chutney/|title=History of Chutney|date=2018-08-12|website=Mamellada|language=en-US|access-date=2020-04-01}}</ref>

The British penchant for sweet foods continued throughout the Georgian era. The staple of [[bread and butter pudding]], a baked custard-based dish made with bread, butter, currants, cream, eggs, and nutmeg, was first described in 1728 by Eliza Smith.<ref>''[[The compleat housewife]]: or, accomplished gentlewoman's companion: being a collection of upwards of five hundred of the most approved receipts ... With copper plates ... To which is added, a collection of near two hundred family receipts of medicines: ...'' By [[Eliza Smith (writer)|E---- S----]]. Second Edition, 1728, p81</ref> Adapting earlier recipes of Portuguese [[quince cheese|quince paste]], the Scots invented the modern form of [[marmalade]]; an easily spreadable fruit preserve made from [[bitter orange]].<ref name="Henry">Diana Henry (2012). "Salt Sugar Smoke: How to preserve fruit, vegetables, meat and fish". Hachette UK,</ref> [[Eccles cake|Eccles cakes]], a small flaky pastry filled with currants, emerged in the late 18th century, which still retains some popularity today particularly in [[Manchester]] and [[Lancashire]].<ref>{{cite web | title = The history behind (and recipe for) Eccles Cakes | publisher = Salford City Council | url = http://www.salford.gov.uk/living/yourcom/salfordlife/aboutsalford/salfordlocalhistory/localhistory-eccles/ecclescakes.htm | access-date = 2007-04-10 | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070312074513/http://www.salford.gov.uk/living/yourcom/salfordlife/aboutsalford/salfordlocalhistory/localhistory-eccles/ecclescakes.htm | archive-date = 2007-03-12 }}</ref> [[Suet pudding]], a boiled, steamed, or baked pudding of wheat flour, [[suet]], dried fruits, and spices developed during this time, and become popular fare.<ref name=Lehmann>{{cite book |author=Lehmann, Gilly |date=2003 |title=The British Housewife |location=Totnes |publisher=Prospect Books |pages=83, 198–199}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Kettilby |first1=Mary |title=A Collection of above Three Hundred Receipts in Cookery, Physick and Surgery; For the Use of all Good Wives, Tender Mothers, and Careful Nurses |url=https://archive.org/details/b30514976_0002 |publisher=Richard Wilkin |date=1714}}</ref>

The [[Battle of Plassey|British conquest of India]] led to the acquisition of the large [[History of tea in India|Indian tea industry]], resulting in tea becoming cheaper to import than coffee. The ease of tea production compared to coffee{{sfn|Pendergrast|2001|page=13}} led to tea becoming a [[Tea in the United Kingdom|British staple]], spreading through all classes, becoming a prominent feature of modern [[British culture]] and identity.<ref name="Smith">Woodruff D. Smith, "Complications of the Commonplace: Tea, Sugar, and Imperialism". ''Journal of Interdisciplinary History'' (Autumn 1992), 259–277.</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=A very British beverage: Why us Brits just love a cuppa|url=http://www.express.co.uk/life-style/food/529175/Why-Brits-love-a-cup-of-tea|agency=Express|date=23 September 2016}}</ref> [[Gin]], an alcoholic beverage introduced into Britain in the latter half of the 17th century, exploded in popularity throughout the first half of the 18th century, and became extremely popular with the lower classes. Its popularity and heavy consumption was such that the British Parliament passed five major Acts to control the consumption of the drink.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=Iqs_AAAAYAAJ&q=compound+waters&pg=RA1-PA91 The Complete English Tradesman, Vol. 2, Page 91 Daniel Defoe, 1727]</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Dillon|first1=Patrick|title=Gin: The Much-Lamented Death of Madam Geneva: The Eighteenth-Century Gin Craze|date=2002|publisher=Review|location=London|isbn=1-932112-25-1|page=228}}</ref>

=== Victorian era ===

[[Queen Victoria|Victoria]] ascended the throne in 1837 and ruled until 1901.<ref>{{Citation |last=Gander |first=Kashmira |title=Queen Elizabeth II to become Britain's longest reigning monarch, surpassing Queen Victoria |date=26 August 2015 |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/people/queen-elizabeth-ii-to-become-britains-longest-reigning-monarch-surpassing-queen-victoria-10473729.html |work=The Daily Telegraph |place=London |access-date=9 September 2015 |archive-date=19 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150919003603/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/people/queen-elizabeth-ii-to-become-britains-longest-reigning-monarch-surpassing-queen-victoria-10473729.html |url-status=live}}</ref>{{sfn|Plunkett|2012|page=2}} The longevity of her reign helped entrench many culinary traditions and trends. For example, she developed a love of Indian chutneys and curry, and ordered curry twice a week on average. The trend became popular among the aristocracy and, in turn, spread throughout society.<ref>{{Citation |last=Thomas |first=Louis |title=Variety is the Spice of Life: Challenging The Great Myth of Spices in British Cuisine |date= 4 August 2021|url=https://www.eatecollective.com/journal/spices-in-british-cuisine |work=Eate Collective |access-date=23 January 2025 }}</ref>

Emerging social changes also influenced the growth and development of British cuisine. Writers such as American-born [[Elizabeth Robins Pennell]] helped to re-cast cooking not as a duty, but as a valuable creative pursuit by framing cooking as a "high art practised by geniuses", encouraging upper and middle class Victorian women to express their own culinary creativity for the first time.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=u6hBDgAAQBAJ&pg=PT158 |title=The Recipe Reader: Narratives - Contexts - Traditions |last=Floyd, Janet.|date=2003|publisher=Ashgate|others=Forster, Laurel, 1962-|isbn=1351883194|location=Aldershot, Hants, England|oclc=619863875}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/457150789|title=The recipe reader : narratives, contexts, traditions|last=Floyd, Janet.|date=2010|publisher=University of Nebraska Press|others=Forster, Laurel, 1962-|isbn=9780803233614|location=Lincoln|oclc=457150789}}</ref> This tied into the growth of the [[middle class]] in Victorian Britain as wealth poured in from all over the Empire, and industrialisation spread into food production which cheapened ingredients, allowing more people to purchase goods previously reserved only for the very wealthy. Middle class women, in lieu of being able to afford servants and private cooks, began to make more elaborate dishes to impress guests at dinner parties.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/974642023|title=The recipe reader : narratives, contexts, traditions|others=Forster, Laurel., Floyd, Janet,, Forster, Laurel, 1962-|isbn=9781351883191|location=London|oclc=974642023}}</ref>

Britain's rapid industrialisation and urbanisation in the 19th century impacted people of all socio-economic classes. Wealthy aristocrats began to have their evening meal later in the day, but still took lunch at midday. Consequently, shortly after Victoria's ascension to the throne, one of her [[Lady of the Bedchamber|ladies-in-waiting]], [[Anna Russell, Duchess of Bedford|Anna Maria Russell]], began to ask for tea, bread, and cake to be delivered to her room. The habit soon spread among the aristocracy, birthing a new tradition of [[afternoon tea]].<ref>{{cite web |last1=Marks |first1=Tasha |title=The tea-rific history of Victorian afternoon tea {{!}} British Museum |url=https://www.britishmuseum.org/blog/tea-rific-history-victorian-afternoon-tea |website=[[British Museum]] |access-date=30 December 2023 |language=en |date=14 August 2020}}</ref> Industrialisation helped reduce costs of ingredients thanks to mass-production, and pared-down versions of lavish meals characteristic of the upper class began to reach the middle and working class, such as the [[Full breakfast|cooked full breakfast]], usually composed of fried sausage or bacon, cooked eggs, assorted sides and toast, which grew in popularity during the Victorian era.<ref>O’Connor, K. (2009). Cuisine, nationality and the making of a national meal: The English breakfast. In Nations and their histories: Constructions and representations (pp. 157-171). London: Palgrave Macmillan UK.</ref>

Throughout the 19th century, [[Spanish and Portuguese Jew|Iberian Jewish immigrants]] in London introduced their method of coating fish in flour, and later [[Batter (cooking)|a mix of flour and water]], before frying in oil.<ref>{{cite book|first1=Claudia|last1=Roden|title=The Book of Jewish Food: An Odyssey from Samarkand to New York|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LIgrAAAAYAAJ|publisher=Knopf|date=1996 |isbn=0-394-53258-9|via=Google Books}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last = Marks | first = Gil | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ux2lGKCKVPYC&pg=PA82 |title = The world of Jewish cooking: more than 500 traditional recipes from Alsace to Yemen | publisher = Simon & Schuster | year = 1999 | isbn = 0-684-83559-2}}</ref> Fish, which was plentiful, affordable, and [[Friday fast|widely eaten on Fridays]], led to the opening of the first [[fish and chip shop]] by Eastern European Jewish immigrant Joseph Malin.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2003/jan/19/foodanddrink.restaurants|title=Enduring Love |access-date=19 January 2003 | work=The Guardian | location=London | first=Jay | last=Rayner | date=3 November 2005 | quote=In 1860 a Jewish immigrant from Eastern Europe called Joseph Malin opened the first business in London's East End selling fried fish alongside chipped potatoes which, until then, had been found only in the Irish potato shops.}}</ref> Combining fried fish with [[French fries|chips]], often served with [[mushy peas]] and [[tartare sauce]] as [[fish and chips]], proved to be an incredibly popular and affordable [[takeaway food]] among the [[working class]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p039pr7c?intc_type=promo&intc_location=sport&intc_campaign=fishandchips&intc_linkname=radio4_fac_audioclip1|title=Did fish and chips come from the north of England?|date=30 November 2015 |publisher=BBC Radio 4}}</ref> The popularity of the dish has led to it being termed one of Britain's [[national dish|national dishes]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Black |first1=Les |title=New Ethnicities and Urban Culture |date=1996 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tZn7AQAAQBAJ&pg=PA15 |publisher=Routledge |location=Oxford |isbn=1-85728-251-5 |access-date=14 February 2019 |page=15}}</ref>

The British staple of stewed meats further developed into more distinct dishes in the Victorian era. [[Lancashire hotpot]], a dish served in the north-west of England around Liverpool and Manchester, consisting of a mutton or lamb stew topped with sliced potatoes and baked in a heavy pot, developed as a distinct regional dish.<ref>"To Viscount Sandon, MP", ''The Liverpool Telegraph'', 9 November 1836, p. 6</ref> Like the [[Sunday roast]], Lancashire hotpot could be left to cook slowly while the family worked, making it a popular choice for the growing working class.<ref name=rs>Shipperbottom, p. 1224</ref> While a slowly steamed suet pudding of stewed beef had been common in British cuisine since the 18th century,<ref>Davidson, p. 754</ref> it was not until the mid-19th century that cooks began to add [[Kidney (food)|kidneys]], forming the [[steak and kidney pudding]].<ref>{{cite news |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |title=What is doing in London? |url=https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0001319/18390811/007/0001 |newspaper=Bell's New Weekly Messenger |location=England |date=11 August 1839 |access-date=19 March 2018 |via=British Newspaper Archive |url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>Grigson, p. 243</ref> Initially more of a regional dish, its ease of preparation and popularity led to it becoming recognised as a traditional British dish.<ref>Grigson, p. 243</ref>

The continuing need for inexpensive and portable foods for the predominately industrial and urban working class, which had boosted the popularity of foods such as the [[Cornish pasty]] and the [[sandwich]], led to the popularising of the [[sausage roll]], consisting of seasoned sausage meat wrapped in puff pastry and baked golden-brown. While meats wrapped in dough were known in [[Ancient Greece]] and [[Ancient Rome|Rome]], it was not until the 19th century that the sausage roll became widely available.<ref>{{cite news |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |title=Bury, Sept 20, 1809 |url=https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000156/18090920/007/0002 |newspaper=Bury and Norwich Post |location=England |date=20 September 1809 |access-date=19 March 2018 |via=British Newspaper Archive |url-access=subscription }}</ref> Sausage rolls remain an indelible aspect of British culture and a widely popular snack food; the British bakery chain [[Greggs]] sells approximately 140 million of them every year.<ref name=telegraphgreggsvat>{{cite news|last=Wallop|first=Harry|title=Budget 2012: Greggs sausage rolls to be hit|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/newsbysector/retailandconsumer/9158703/Budget-2012-Greggs-sausage-rolls-to-be-hit.html|access-date=26 March 2012|newspaper=The Daily Telegraph|date=22 March 2012}}</ref> 

It was during this time that mass-produced [[condiments]] became available thanks to industrialised food production. [[Worcestershire sauce]], a [[Fermentation in food processing|fermented]] sauce made primarily of [[anchovies]], vinegar, [[tamarind]], and spices which had its roots in Ancient Roman [[garum]] and [[mushroom ketchup]], was developed by chemists [[Lea & Perrins|John Wheeley Lea and William Henry Perrins]] in the early 19th century.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Zuras |first1=Matthew |title=The Murky, Salty Mystery of Worcestershire Sauce |url=https://www.epicurious.com/ingredients/history-of-worcestershire-sauce |website=Epicurious |publisher=Condé Nast |access-date=1 March 2023 |date=11 January 2023 |archive-date=1 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230301100333/https://www.epicurious.com/ingredients/history-of-worcestershire-sauce |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>Keogh, Brian (1997) ''The Secret Sauce: a History of Lea & Perrins'' {{ISBN|978-0-9532169-1-8}}</ref> Today, Lea & Perrins remains the world's largest brand of Worcestershire sauce.<ref name=Heinz_Acq>{{Cite news|url=https://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20050816005517/en/Heinz-Acquires-Leading-Sauce-Brands-Including-Lea|title=Heinz Acquires Leading Sauce Brands, Including Lea & Perrins(R), From Groupe Danone for US$820 Million; Transaction Accelerates Growth in Global Condiments and Sauces|access-date=2018-02-24|language=en|archive-date=25 February 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180225065027/https://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20050816005517/en/Heinz-Acquires-Leading-Sauce-Brands-Including-Lea|url-status=live}}</ref> In the early 19th century, Royal chefs produced [[brown sauce]], typically made of tomatoes and molasses. [[A.1. Sauce]] was first developed in Royal kitchens,<ref>{{cite book| last= Morris| first= Evan |year= 2004| title= From Altoids to Zima: the surprising stories behind 125 brand names| publisher= Simon and Schuster |isbn= 978-0-7432-5797-8}}</ref> however it fell out of favour in the British domestic market, though it has enjoyed enduring popularity in American cuisine as a steak sauce.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.marketwatch.com/story/after-50-years-a1-steak-sauce-ends-exclusive-relationship-with-beef-drops-steak-from-name-and-friends-other-foods-2014-05-15 |title=After 50 Years, A.1. Steak Sauce Ends Exclusive Relationship With Beef, Drops 'Steak' From Name And Friends Other Foods |website= MarketWatch.com |url-status= dead| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20141110203259/https://www.marketwatch.com/story/after-50-years-a1-steak-sauce-ends-exclusive-relationship-with-beef-drops-steak-from-name-and-friends-other-foods-2014-05-15| archive-date= 2014-11-10 |date=2014-05-15 |access-date=2021-05-17}}</ref> [[HP Sauce]], named after the Houses of Parliament, made from tomatoes, [[molasses]], vinegar, and spices was introduced in the late 19th century and became so popular it is now regarded as an iconic sauce of British cuisine.<ref>[[BBC News]] 9 May 2006 [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/west_midlands/4754351.stm '''Great British' sauce heads abroad'']. Retrieved 12 March 2008.</ref>

The British love of sweet foods spurred increasing innovation in the field of desserts. The world's first documented recipe for the [[ice cream cone]] was published by English writer [[Agnes Marshall]], consisting of baked almonds.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://whatscookingamerica.net/History/IceCream/IceCreamCone.htm|title=History of Ice Cream Cone|last=Stradley|first=Linda|publisher=What's Cooking America|access-date=2008-05-13}}</ref> Marshall is consequently considered the inventor of the ice cream cone.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Weiss |first=Laura B. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fjxfkqnSFiQC |title=Ice Cream: A Global History |date=2012 |publisher=Reaktion Books |isbn=978-1-86189-992-7 |location=London |pages=74–75 |language=en}}</ref> [[Battenberg cake]], made by baking yellow and pink almond sponge cakes before being cut and arranged into a chequered pattern, held together by jam and covered with [[marzipan]], originated in the late 19th century,<ref>{{cite journal| last = Cook| first = Sarah| title = Battenberg Cake| date = March 2011| journal = Good Housekeeping| publisher = BBC| url = http://www.bbcgoodfood.com/recipes/1120657/battenberg-cake| access-date = 10 May 2015}}</ref> purportedly named for the marriage of [[Princess Victoria of Hesse and by Rhine|Princess Victoria]], [[Queen Victoria|Queen Victoria's]] granddaughter, to [[Prince Louis of Battenberg]] in 1884.<ref name="Nevin">{{Cite web| title= Minor British Institutions: Battenberg cake| date= 2010-11-13| website= The Independent| language= en-GB| url= https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/this-britain/minor-british-institutions-battenberg-cake-2130492.html| access-date= 2016-05-03}}</ref> The first printed recipe for [[Eton mess]] was published in 1893, a traditional dessert consisting of a mixture of strawberries, sweet [[meringue]], and whipped cream.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Marlborough House and Its Occupants: Present and Past|author=Arthur Henry Beavan|year=1896|page=162}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author1=Darra Goldstein|author2=Sidney Mintz|author3=Michael Krondl|author4=Laura Mason|title=The Oxford Companion to Sugar and Sweets|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jbi6BwAAQBAJ&pg=PA243|year=2015|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-931339-6|pages=243–}}</ref> [[Madeira wine]], popular in England in the mid-19th century, directly influenced the development of [[Madeira cake]], a light sponge or butter cake traditionally flavoured with lemon,<ref>{{cite web|title=English Madeira Cake|url=http://www.cookitsimply.com/recipe-0010-0o12363.html|year=2010|access-date=17 April 2015|work=cookitsimply}}</ref> as an accompaniment to eat with the wine.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Pastry Chef's Companion: A Comprehensive Resource Guide for the Baking and Pastry Professional|first1=Glenn|last1=Rinsky|first2=Laura|last2=Halpin Rinsky|publisher=John Wiley and Sons|year=2008|isbn=978-0-470-00955-0|page=170}}</ref> [[Jam roly-poly]], a simple dessert made of flat-rolled [[suet pudding]] spread with [[jam]] and rolled-up, similar to a [[Swiss roll]], then steamed or baked and served with custard first emerged in the early 19th century.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/food-and-drink/features/what-it-s-like-to-be-a-recipe-tester-culinary-secrets-celebrity-chefs-foibles-and-what-happens-if-a6695476.html|title=What it's like to be a recipe tester: Culinary secrets, celebrity chefs' foibles, and what happens if you make a mistake|author=Debora Robertson|date=17 October 2015|work=The Independent|access-date=15 February 2016}}</ref> Its affordability, ease of production, and popularity led to it becoming a modern British classic.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Enfield |first=Lizzie |date=2013-03-25 |title=The joys of jam roly-poly, a very British pudding |url=https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/wordofmouth/2013/mar/25/joys-jam-roly-poly-british-pudding |access-date=2025-05-03 |work=The Guardian |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077}}</ref>

Throughout the mid 19th century, innovations in food preservation and production allowed the mass-production of [[chocolate]] as a food, as opposed to primarily a drink.{{sfn|Panayi|2010|p=213}} British [[Quakers]], who were opposed to alcohol as a cause of moral sin, began to champion chocolate as an ethical alternative.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.quaker.org.uk/blog/quakers-and-chocolate#:~:text=Part%20of%20the%20reason%20that,to%20Quakers%20of%20the%20time |title=A quick history of chocolate and Quakerism |publisher=Quakers in Britain }}</ref> Quakers came to establish three household chocolate brands which became worldwide names: [[J. S. Fry & Sons|Fry's]],<ref>{{cite magazine |last1=Bensen |first1=Amanda |title=A Brief History of Chocolate |url=http://www.smithsonianmag.com/arts-culture/a-brief-history-of-chocolate-21860917/?no-ist |magazine=Smithsonian |access-date=19 April 2015 |date=1 March 2008}}</ref> [[Rowntree's]],<ref>{{cite web|title=History |url=http://www.nestle.co.uk/aboutus/history |publisher=Nestlé |access-date=19 April 2015}}</ref> and notably, [[Cadbury|Cadbury's]],<ref>{{cite magazine |last1=Bensen |first1=Amanda |title=A Brief History of Chocolate |url=http://www.smithsonianmag.com/arts-culture/a-brief-history-of-chocolate-21860917/?no-ist |magazine=Smithsonian |access-date=19 April 2015 |date=1 March 2008}}</ref> the latter of which would become the world's second-largest confectionary brand.<ref>[http://www.confectionerynews.com/Markets/Top-10-confectionery-brands-globally "Top 10 confectionery brands globally"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170612192727/http://www.confectionerynews.com/Markets/Top-10-confectionery-brands-globally |date=12 June 2017 }}. ''Confectionery News''.</ref>

As [[gin]] regained popularity fears of a return to the [[Gin Craze]] led to the [[Beerhouse Act 1830|Beerhouse Act]], which aimed to promote beer as a safer alternative and encourage the creation of controlled venues for workers in rapidly expanding industrial centres.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.amlwchhistory.co.uk/beer_houses.htm |title=Beer Houses |publisher=AMLWCH History |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071217154839/http://www.amlwchhistory.co.uk/beer_houses.htm |archive-date=17 December 2007 }}</ref> The Act spurred a proliferation of [[public houses]] and increased beer consumption. As the 19th century progressed, many establishments underwent lavish refurbishment to compete with [[gin palaces]], and to distinguish themselves from one another, further solidifying alcohol consumption as an integral part of British culture.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Dillon|first1=Patrick|title=Gin: The Much-Lamented Death of Madam Geneva: The Eighteenth-Century Gin Craze|date=2002|publisher=Review|location=London|isbn=1-932112-25-1|page=228}}</ref>

=== 20th century ===
{{further|English cuisine#Twentieth century}}
The [[haute cuisine]] of the late Victorian era and early 20th century was heavily influenced by [[French cuisine]], with groundbreaking chefs such as [[Escoffier]] recruited by the [[Savoy Hotel]] in London.<ref name=dnb>Ashburner, F.[http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/50441 "Escoffier, Georges Auguste (1846–1935)"], ''Oxford Dictionary of National Biography'', Oxford University Press, 2004; online edition, May 2006, accessed 17 September 2009</ref> However, British cuisine for much of the 20th century was severely impacted by the effects of [[Rationing in the United Kingdom|rationing]] during the [[First World War|First]] and [[Second World War|Second World Wars]]. The latter half of the First World War saw voluntary rationing, which limited the average citizen to a daily 1,680 calorie-ration of butter or margarine, sugar, tea, jam, bacon, and meat. Unlike elsewhere in Europe, bread was not rationed.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Otter |first1=Chris |title=Diet for a large planet |date=2020 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |location=US |isbn=978-0-226-69710-9 |pages=152–3}}</ref> During the war, average energy intake decreased by only 3%, but protein intake by 6%.<ref>Beckett, ''The Home Front 1914–1918'' pp. 380–382</ref> Rationing after the First World War was not lifted in full until 1921, over three years after the war's end.

Rationing during the Second World War was much more significant, widespread, and tightly controlled by the state. Rationing continued for nearly a full decade after the war, and restrictions were made stricter in 1947 than during the war itself. As a result, many children of the [[Silent Generation|Silent]] and [[Baby Boomers|Boomer]] generations were raised without access to many previously common ingredients. For example, in 1942, many young children when questioned about bananas did not believe they were a real fruit.<ref>Reagan, Geoffrey. ''Military Anecdotes'' (1992) pp. 19 & 20. Guinness Publishing {{ISBN|0-85112-519-0}}</ref> Bread was not rationed until after the war ended, but was replaced by a "national loaf" of wholemeal which was found to be mushy and grey.<ref>{{cite book |first=Angus |last=Calder |title=The people's war: Britain 1939–45 |year=1992 |pages=276–277 |edition=New |publisher=Pimlico |isbn=978-0-7126-5284-1}}</ref> Fish was not rationed, but [[List of requisitioned trawlers of the Royal Navy (WWII)|hundreds of fishing trawlers]] were requisitioned for military use by the [[Royal Navy]] and fish supplies dropped by nearly one-third compared to pre-war levels, resulting in increased prices at fishmongers.<ref>{{cite book |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |title=Fisheries in War Time: Report on the Sea Fisheries of England and Wales by the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries for the Years 1939–1944 Inclusive |publisher=H.M. Stationery Office |year=1946}}</ref> Owing to its popularity and morale-boosting [[comfort food]] qualities, [[fish and chips]] was one of the few dishes not subject to rationing.<ref>{{cite news |last=Alexander |first=James |date=18 December 2009 |title=The unlikely origin of fish and chips |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/8419026.stm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131112111032/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8419026.stm |archive-date=2013-11-12 |access-date=16 July 2013 |work=[[BBC]]}}</ref> Though not rationed, most alcoholic drinks except beer were scarce, and there was a ban on importing sugar for brewing. Many pubs in 1945 ran out of pint glasses, as glass itself was in short supply and many patrons wishing to celebrate the end of the war at their local would recall a lengthy wait to be served; owing to wait on patrons finishing drinks so as their glass could be washed and reused.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.morningadvertiser.co.uk/Article/2019/02/12/What-did-pubs-do-during-World-War-1-and-World-War-2|title=How the pub survived the World Wars|last=morningadvertiser.co.uk|website=morningadvertiser.co.uk|date=12 February 2019|language=en-GB|access-date=2019-12-19|archive-date=15 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200515140517/https://www.morningadvertiser.co.uk/Article/2019/02/12/What-did-pubs-do-during-World-War-1-and-World-War-2|url-status=live}}</ref>

Restaurants were initially exempt from rationing, but this policy was subsequently reversed after public outrage that "luxury" foods were being enjoyed by wealthier classes while the rest of the population were subject to tightly-controlled rationing. The Government subsequently introduced new restrictions on restaurants; capping prices, limiting the serving time of meals, and limiting the ingredients that could be used.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article38329257 |work=Army News |place=Darwin, Australia |date=14 May 1942 |title=British food control |publisher=[[Trove]] |access-date=10 August 2015 |archive-date=16 June 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240616172648/https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/38329257 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Keesing's Contemporary Archives |volume=IV |date=June 1942 |page=5,224}}</ref> A standard weekly ration by the war's end consisted of 4oz (113g) of bacon, 8oz of sugar, 2oz of loose tea, 2oz of cheese, 2lb of marmalade (or 1lb of either preserves or sugar), 2oz of butter, 4oz of margarine, and 2oz of lard. Additionally, 12oz of [[Confectionary|sweets]] were allowed on a monthly basis.

There was an allowance for vegetarians, who in exchange for surrendering their meat coupons, could receive double rations (an extra 2oz) of cheese instead.{{sfn|Home Front Handbook|pp=46–47}} 

After the war ended, rationing was kept in place, partially to help feed people in European areas whose economies had been virtually destroyed by the fighting, but also because resources were unavailable to expand food production and imports. Frequent strikes, critically by dock workers, only exacerbated the dire situation.<ref>{{cite book |first=Marguerite |last=Patten |author-link=Marguerite Patten |publisher=[[Hamlyn (publishers)|Hamlyn]] |title=Feeding the Nation |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-600-61472-2}}</ref> The most common form of rationing fraud, was people using ration books of those who had died as a means to acquire extra food.<ref>{{cite book|title=Sucking Eggs|first=Patricia|last=Nicol|publisher=Vintage Books|place=London|year=2010|isbn=9780099521129|url=https://archive.org/details/suckingeggswhaty0000nico/page/n3/mode/2up|url-access=registration}}</ref> In the years following the war, the bacon ration was cut by a quarter,<ref>''[[The Daily Telegraph]]'' 23 May 1945, reprinted on p. 34 of ''Daily Telegraph'' Saturday 23 May 2015</ref> and poor harvests resulted in the introduction of potato rationing,<ref>{{cite book|title=Sucking Eggs|first=Patricia|last=Nicol|publisher=Vintage Books|place=London|year=2010|isbn=9780099521129|url=https://archive.org/details/suckingeggswhaty0000nico/page/n3/mode/2up|url-access=registration}}</ref> Due to the [[austerity]] measures that were kept in place or expanded (with the exception of the new [[National Health Service]]) by the postwar [[Attlee ministry|Labour government]], the [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservatives]] rallied support from disgruntled housewives that led them to victory at the [[1951 United Kingdom general election|1951 general election]].<ref>[[Ina Zweiniger-Bargielowska]], "Rationing, austerity and the Conservative party recovery after 1945", ''Historical Journal'' (1994) 37#1 pp. 173–197</ref> The Conservative government formally abolished rationing entirely in 1954,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/july/4/newsid_3818000/3818563.stm|title=1954: Housewives celebrate end of rationing|date=1954-07-04|publisher=BBC|access-date=23 August 2017|archive-date=7 March 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080307130512/http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/july/4/newsid_3818000/3818563.stm|url-status=live}}</ref> although the effects of rationing severely impacted the food production industry for decades to come. For example, cheese production virtually ground to a halt, and some varieties of British cheese came close to disappearing altogether; with the cheese industry not fully recovering until the 1990s.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.cooksinfo.com/government-cheddar-cheese |title=Government Cheddar Cheese |work=CooksInfo.com |access-date=13 July 2011 |archive-date=15 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210215085850/https://www.cooksinfo.com/government-cheddar-cheese |url-status=live }}</ref>

Wartime rationing and subsequent food scarcity at a time when British culinary traditions were strong, likely contributed to a sharp decline of the international reputation of British cuisine.{{sfn|Dickson Wright|2011|pp=417–424}} The ''Good Food Guide'' in the 1960s described the food of the previous decade as "intolerable" due to food shortages of even simple ingredients such as butter, cream, and meat.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Warde |first=Alan |date=June 2009 |title=Imagining British Cuisine |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2752/175174409x400710 |journal=Food, Culture & Society |volume=12 |issue=2 |pages=151–171 |doi=10.2752/175174409x400710 |s2cid=144058987 |issn=1552-8014|url-access=subscription }}</ref> 

Rationing helped to spur innovation in recipes as food shortages compelled creativity. The natural sweetness of carrots, a vegetable whose consumption was promoted by the Government, were favoured as an alternative to sugar. [[Carrot cake]], though it had its origins in a late-sixteenth-century recipe,<ref>{{cite book |author=A. W. |title=A Book of Cookrye: Very Necessary for All Such as Delight Therin |year=1591 |publisher=Edward Allde |url=https://jducoeur.org/Cookbook/Cookrye.html}}</ref> exploded in popularity across Britain.<ref>{{cite web |work=[[The Food Timeline]] |first=Lynne |last=Olver |author-link=Lynne Olver |url=http://www.foodtimeline.org/foodcakes.html#carrotcake |title=Cake History Notes |access-date=2012-01-01}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Capucine |date=2019-09-11 |title=#Toutsavoir : la fabuleuse histoire du Carrot Cake |url=https://www.petitcote.fr/post/la-fabuleuse-histoire-du-carrot-cake |access-date=2023-01-31 |website=Petit Côté |language=fr}}</ref> [[Crumble]], a sweet dish of baked fruit filling topped with a [[streusel]] grew in popularity during and after the war, due to the topping being easier and less expensive to produce compared to pastry.<ref>{{cite news |first=Hugh |last=Fearnley-Whittingstall |date=18 October 2008 |publication-place=London |newspaper=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2008/oct/18/crumble-cobbler-recipes |title=Simply the best |access-date=14 March 2010 |archive-date=1 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201001004527/https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2008/oct/18/crumble-cobbler-recipes |url-status=live }}</ref> The [[Ploughman's lunch]], initially a simple rustic meal of bread, cheese, beer, and pickled onions emerged in the 1950s,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.oed.com/bbcwords/ploughman-new.html |title=ploughman (draft revision) |access-date=29 April 2009 |date=January 2006 |work=OED Online |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford OX2 6DP, United Kingdom |quote=[1958 Times 29 Apr. (Beer in Britain Suppl.) p. xiv/2 In a certain inn to-day you have only to say, 'Ploughboy's Lunch, please,' and for a shilling there is bread and cheese and pickled onions to go with your pint, and make a meal seasoned with gossip, and not solitary amid a multitude.] |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070708181211/http://oed.com/bbcwords/ploughman-new.html |archive-date=8 July 2007 }}</ref> though it didn't achieve widespread popularity until the 1970s where it was favoured due to its simplicity, ease of preparation, and high profit margin due to it not containing meat; though modern variations of the meal include [[pork pies]].<ref name=handc71>Lippert, "The choice is cheese", ''Hotelier and Caterer'', v.22 (1989), 71</ref> The [[Bakewell tart]], a variant of the [[Bakewell pudding]], made of a shortcrust pastry shell beneath layers of jam, [[frangipane]], and topped with flaked almonds developed in the 20th century.<ref name="bakewellonline">{{cite web|url=http://bakewellonline.co.uk/documents/the_history_of_the_bakewell_pudding/ |title=The Bakewell Pudding |website=Bakewell Online |access-date=5 December 2015}}</ref>{{sfn|Davidson|2014|p=54}} The [[sticky toffee pudding]], now a widely-popular dessert of a [[muffin]]-like sponge cake covered in a [[toffee]] [[sauce]] made from cream and dark sugars, served with custard or vanilla ice cream, developed in the north-west of England, where it is seem as a regional culinary symbol.<ref>{{cite web |last1=MacEacheran |first1=Mike |title=The contentious origins of England's famous pudding |date=16 July 2021 |url=https://www.bbc.com/travel/article/20210715-the-contentious-origins-of-englands-famous-pudding |publisher=BBC |access-date=24 February 2022}}</ref>

==== Anglo-Indian cuisine ====
{{Main|Anglo-Indian cuisine}}
Throughout the 1970s onwards, huge waves of migration to Britain came from [[India]], [[Pakistan]], and [[Bangladesh]]. Many of these immigrants were recruited to fulfill the labour shortages that resulted from the Second World War. [[British Indians]] became a distinct ethnic identity in Britain who began to incorporate their own culinary traditions to a new market. In 1951, there were only 30,000 persons of Indian descent and 10,000 of Pakistani descent living in Britain. By the turn of the millennium in 2001, there were 1,053,411 persons of Indian descent, 747,000 of Pakistani descent, and 283,063 of Bangladeshi descent living in Britain, representing a significant portion of Britain's foreign-born or foreign descent population.<ref>{{cite book|title=Muslim Britain: Communities under Pressure|chapter=Britain's Muslim population: An overview|pages=18–30|year=2005|first=Ceri|last=Peach|editor-first=Tahir|editor-last=Abbas|location=London|publisher=[[Zed Books]]|isbn=1-84277-449-2}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=GDMTeC_WB0oC&pg=PA23 | title = Muslim Britain: Communities under pressure | isbn = 978-1-84277-449-6 | last1 = Abbas | first1 = Tahir | year = 2005| publisher = Zed Books }}</ref> Hungry for more exotic flavours that had disappeared during wartime rationing and keen to feed a diversifying clientele, Indian restaurants that had previously only catered to Indians began adapting classic Indian recipes for the British palette, and "going for an Indian" became a popular dining and takeaway option for a population recovering from the impact of war.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.southalabama.edu/history/faculty/rogers/357/articles/Going%20for%20an%20Indian.pdf |publisher=southalabama.edu |last=Buettner |first=Elizabeth |title="Going for an Indian": South Asian Restaurants and the Limits of Multiculturalism in Britain |access-date=11 October 2015}}</ref>

[[Coronation chicken]], a dish created for the coronation of [[Queen Elizabeth II]] in 1953, drew on Britain's historic Indian influence, by preparing boneless chicken mixed in a curry of [[cumin]], [[turmeric]], ginger, cream, and dried apricots or [[Sultana (grape)|sultanas]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=The real... Coronation Chicken |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/foodanddrink/recipes/5428598/The-real...-Coronation-Chicken.html |access-date=2023-08-20 |website=www.telegraph.co.uk|date=4 June 2009 }}</ref> The dish remains a popular sandwich filling to this day.<ref>{{cite news | author=The Sunday Times | url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/life_and_style/food_and_drink/recipes/article1980009.ece | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081204083947/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/life_and_style/food_and_drink/recipes/article1980009.ece | url-status=dead | archive-date=4 December 2008 | title=Coronation Chicken | website=Times Online | access-date=1 October 2007  | location=London | date=1 July 2007}}</ref> [[Chicken tikka masala]], likely created by Bangladeshi chefs in the early 1960s,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Thaker |first1=Aruna |last2=Barton |first2=Arlene |title=Multicultural Handbook of Food, Nutrition and Dietetics |date=2012 |publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons]] |isbn=9781405173582 |page=74 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YF1YCg5Ig-EC&pg=PA74}}</ref> a dish of [[chicken tikka]] marinated in spiced yoghurt then roasted, served in a sauce typically made of pureed tomatoes, cream, [[coconut cream]] and a [[Spice mix#Masala|masala]] spice mix, similar to [[butter chicken]], developed as a distinctly unique Anglo-Indian dish.<ref>{{cite web|last=Irwin|first=Heather|url=https://www.sonomamag.com/a-butter-chicken-vs-tikka-masala-showdown-at-cumin-in-santa-rosa/|title=A Butter Chicken Vs. Tikka Masala Showdown at Cumin in Santa Rosa|work=Sonoma Magazine|date=September 2019|accessdate=2021-04-11}}</ref> Its popularity has led it to being termed a "true British national dish".<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2001/apr/19/race.britishidentity |title=Robin Cook's chicken tikka masala speech |newspaper=The Guardian |access-date=19 April 2001 | date=25 February 2002 | location=London}}</ref> A British version of [[Balti (food)|balti cuisine]], a type of curry popular in Northern India and Pakistan based on garlic, onions, turmeric, and [[garam masala]] stir-fried in vegetable oil (as opposed to [[ghee]] and simmered as in Indian cuisine)<ref>{{cite web |last1=Warwicker |first1=Michelle |title=What makes the Birmingham Balti unique? |work=BBC News |date=19 June 2012 |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-birmingham-18494918 |publisher=BBC |access-date=15 November 2015 |quote="People like (it)... sizzling and hot and with the naan bread," said Mohammed Arif, owner of Adil Balti and Tandoori Restaurant, in the Balti Triangle in Birmingham. Mr Arif claims to be first man to introduce the ''balti'' to Britain—after bringing the idea from Kashmir—when he opened his restaurant in 1977. He said that before he "recommended the ''balti'' in the UK" in the late '70s, "there was different curry" in Britain, "not like this fresh cooking one".}}</ref> was developed in [[Birmingham]] in 1977.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.hindu.com/thehindu/mp/2003/07/17/stories/2003071700130200.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041226192245/http://www.hindu.com/thehindu/mp/2003/07/17/stories/2003071700130200.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=26 December 2004|title=Baltistan's mystery food|work=[[The Hindu]]|date=17 July 2003|access-date=18 April 2013}}</ref> 

British Indian dishes are largely based on the [[Madras curry]] sauce, the name referring to the region of India where spices were obtained as opposed to an actual dish, and dishes are varied by modifying the base sauce.<ref>"Every restaurant has a large pan of this sauce always at hand, with the recipe varying only slightly from Chef to Chef. It forms the base of all Restaurant curries from the very mild to the very hot and spicy." Khris Dillon ''The Curry Secret'' {{ISBN|0-7160-0809-2}}</ref> [[Vindaloo]], for example, was adapted in British cuisine from a Portuguese dish as a spicier version of the standard "medium" restaurant curry sauce, with the addition of vinegar, potatoes, and chilli peppers, and is often the spiciest dish on British Indian menus.<ref>{{cite book |title=The New Curry Bible |author=Pat Chapman |author-link=Pat Chapman (food writer) |year=2004 |publisher=Metro Publishing Ltd |location=London, UK |isbn=978-1-84358-087-4 |pages=118–121}}</ref> A poll by [[YouGov]] in 2016 found that the most popular Indian dish in Britain was the [[korma]] (selected by 18% of respondents), followed by [[chicken tikka masala]], [[jalfrezi]], [[Madras curry|madras]], [[rogan josh]], [[biryani]], [[Balti (food)|balti]], [[bhuna]], [[dupiaza]], and [[vindaloo]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://yougov.co.uk/society/articles/17092-poppadominant-korma-revealed-be-britains-favourite|title=Poppadominant: korma revealed to be Britain's favourite curry|website=yougov.co.uk|date=29 November 2016|language=en-GB|access-date=2025-01-25}}</ref> [[Indian cuisine]] is now the most popular foreign cuisine in Britain.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.menu2menu.com/italfigs.html |title=Italian Food: Facts, Figures, History & Market Research |access-date=31 January 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080111103544/http://www.menu2menu.com/italfigs.html |archive-date=11 January 2008 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.caterersearch.com/Articles/2005/06/27/301079/market-snapshot-ethnic-food.html |title=Caterersearch: Market snapshot – Ethnic food |access-date=31 January 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080208150143/http://www.caterersearch.com/Articles/2005/06/27/301079/market-snapshot-ethnic-food.html |archive-date=8 February 2008 }}</ref>

==== British Chinese cuisine ====
{{Main|British Chinese cuisine}}
Like Indian food, hunger for more exotic flavours spurred the development of a distinct version of [[Chinese cuisine]] that had been adapted for British tastes.<ref>{{cite web | author=刘小卓 | title=Britain's love affair with Chinese food - World | website=Chinadaily.com.cn | date=13 August 2018 | url=http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/a/201808/13/WS5b7166e0a310add14f385812.html | language=zh | access-date=14 June 2020}}</ref> British rule over [[Hong Kong]] and the [[New Territories]] became an integral part of international shipping routes, and many European companies enlisted Southern Chinese men as sailors, who in turn resettled in Britain.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sulan Masing |first=Anna |date=18 May 2023 |title=Why has British Chinese food shocked the US? |url=https://www.bbc.com/travel/article/20230517-why-has-british-chinese-food-shocked-the-us |access-date=26 May 2023 |website=[[BBC]] |language=en}}</ref> As with Indian immigrants, Britain recruited large numbers of Chinese peoples in the 1950s and 1960s to fill the labour void that had been created as a result of the war. Consequently the number of Chinese food establishments doubled, with a large portion of these catering to non-Chinese clientele.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sulan Masing |first=Anna |date=18 May 2023 |title=Why has British Chinese food shocked the US? |url=https://www.bbc.com/travel/article/20230517-why-has-british-chinese-food-shocked-the-us |access-date=26 May 2023 |website=[[BBC]] |language=en}}</ref> These restaurants were largely operated by Hong Kongers who had resettled in Britain.<ref>{{cite web |title=Chinese restaurants |url=https://www.bl.uk/learning/timeline/item107673.html |access-date=16 June 2020 |website=The British Library}}</ref> 

Many [[fish and chip shops]], particularly in Liverpool, were operated by Chinese immigrants,<ref>{{Cite news |last=Murphy |first=Catherine |date=11 May 2019 |title=Why it's a Liverpool thing to go to a chippy and order Chinese |url=https://www.liverpoolecho.co.uk/whats-on/whats-on-news/only-liverpool-you-go-chippy-16256493 |language=en}}</ref> which resulted in [[curry sauce]] and [[French fries|chips]], staple foods in British chip shops, being incorporated into Anglicised Chinese food in a departure from authentic Chinese cuisine.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sulan Masing |first=Anna |date=18 May 2023 |title=Why has British Chinese food shocked the US? |url=https://www.bbc.com/travel/article/20230517-why-has-british-chinese-food-shocked-the-us |access-date=26 May 2023 |website=[[BBC]] |language=en}}</ref> British Chinese restaurants have developed original recipes, such as [[Crispy duck|crispy duck pancakes]] as a variation on peking duck;<ref>{{cite web|title       = Savour the success from aromatic|publisher   = Cherry Valley|url         = http://www.cherryvalley.co.uk/our-company/media-centre/press-releases/savour-the-success-from-aromatic|access-date  = 5 October 2007|archive-url  = https://web.archive.org/web/20090202091552/http://www.cherryvalley.co.uk/our-company/media-centre/press-releases/savour-the-success-from-aromatic|archive-date = 2 February 2009}}</ref> ''jar jow'', a stir-fried dish of sliced [[char siu]], bamboo shoots, onions, and green peppers seasoned with chilli powder and tomato paste;<ref>{{cite web | last=Dunlop | first=Fuchsia | title=How the British-Chinese takeaway took off | website=Financial Times | date=19 March 2021 | url=https://www.ft.com/content/d94c22f6-90e2-4bda-b5a0-5f89e565b1c3| access-date=4 April 2021}}</ref> and [[salt and pepper chips]], made of chips stir-fried with [[five-spice powder]], peppers, and onions.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Bona |first=Marta |date=23 January 2020 |title=The Chinese Chippy Delicacy the Rest of the World Is Missing Out On |url=https://www.vice.com/en/article/salt-pepper-chips-liverpool-food/ |access-date=25 August 2023 |website=Vice |language=en}}</ref> However, American-style Chinese dishes such as [[chop suey]] and [[Chow mein#American Chinese cuisine|Americanised chow mein]] have become more popular, as well as increasingly authentic Chinese dishes.<ref>{{cite web | title=Meet the people shaking up Chinese cuisine in the UK | website=Hospitality News | date=9 January 2020 | url=https://www.bighospitality.co.uk/Article/2020/01/09/Meet-the-people-shaking-up-Chinese-cuisine-in-the-UK | access-date=14 June 2020}}</ref>

British Chinese cuisine is considered a major component of British cuisine owing to its widespread popularity;<ref>{{cite web | title=Chinese Food in Britain Has Come a Long Way Since the 80s | website=Chinese Food in Britain Has Come a Long Way Since the 80s | date=9 July 2014 | url=https://www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/nick-jones/chinese-food-in-britain-has-come-a-long-way-since-the-80s_b_5569966.html | access-date=14 June 2020}}</ref> in 2017, over 80% of Londoners reported having been to a [[Chinese takeaway]].<ref>{{cite web |last=Sukhadwala |first=Sejal |date=12 April 2017 |title=How Long Have Londoners Been Eating Chinese Food For? |url=https://londonist.com/london/how-london-got-a-taste-for-chinese-food |access-date=14 June 2020 |website=Londonist}}</ref> By the end of the century, virtually every city, town, and village in Britain had at least one Chinese takeaway or restaurant.<ref>{{cite web |date=9 October 2023 |title=A Closer Look at the UK Takeaway Trends |url=https://mealzo.co.uk/blogs/statista/a-closer-look-at-the-uk-takeaway-trends |access-date=25 January 2025 |website=Mealzo}}</ref>

==== Foreign influence and modern British cuisine ====

Writers such as [[Elizabeth David]], who from 1950 produced evocative books beginning with ''[[A Book of Mediterranean Food]]'' featuring ingredients which were then virtually impossible to find in Britain, helped increase Britain's appetite for foreign cuisine.{{sfn|Panayi|2010|pp=191–195}} David helped to inspire [[Italian cuisine]] to become the most popular [[Mediterranean cuisine]] in Britain. While Italian restaurants had operated in Britain before the Second World War, they served generalised [[haute cuisine]]. It was only after the war that cheaper Italian coffee bars appeared, trading on their Italian identity and selling cheap and rustic Italian dishes such as [[minestrone]] soup, [[spaghetti]], and [[pizza]]. From the early 1960s, [[trattoria]] restaurants offered more elaborate dishes such as [[lasagne]] verdi al forno, which is baked lasagne coloured with spinach.{{sfn|Panayi|2010|pp=117–118, 166–167}} [[Pizza Express]], now a multinational pizza restaurant chain, was founded in 1965 in London by [[Peter Boizot]].<ref>{{cite news |author=Chris Blackhurst |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/mr-pizza-and-all-that-jazz-profile-peter-boizot-1285293.html |title=Mr Pizza and all that jazz; Profile: Peter Boizot – Life and Style |work=The Independent |date=26 January 1997 |access-date=28 January 2015 |location=London |archive-date=19 December 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141219002828/http://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/mr-pizza-and-all-that-jazz-profile-peter-boizot-1285293.html |url-status=live }}</ref> The popularity of Italian food in Britain has led to an increasing demand for more authentic Italian cuisine, as with Indian and Chinese food.<ref>{{cite web |date=20 November 2020 |title=Britain's love affair with Italian cuisine explained |url=https://www.specialityfoodmagazine.com/food-and-drink/britains-love-affair-with-italian-cuisine-explained |access-date=25 January 2025 |website=Specialty Food}}</ref> Other Mediterranean influences include [[Greek cuisine|Greek]] [[moussaka]], [[feta]], and [[taramasalata]], [[Turkish cuisine|Turkish]] [[doner kebab|doner]] and [[shish kebab|shish]] kebabs, and [[Middle Eastern cuisine|Levantine]] [[hummus]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Salter |first=Katy |title=The British love affair with hummus |newspaper=[[The Guardian]] |date=7 August 2013 |url=https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/shortcuts/2013/aug/07/british-love-affair-with-hummus}}</ref> [[French cuisine]] in Britain is predominately expressed as a haute cuisine restricted to expensive restaurants, although some inexpensive French [[Bistros|bistros]] operate in Britain.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://observer.guardian.co.uk/foodmonthly/story/0,,907913,00.html |title=Haute Cuisine |work=The Observer |date=9 March 2003 |access-date=31 January 2008 |location=London}}</ref> From the 1980s onwards, [[Thai cuisine|Thai]] and [[Vietnamese cuisine|Vietnamese]] cuisine began to gain popularity in Britain.{{sfn|Panayi|2010|pp=170–172, 201–203}}

From the 1970s, as foreign holidays, increasing numbers of foreign-style restaurants, and increasing accessibility to a wider range of fresh ingredients widened the popularity of foreign cuisine, there was an increased push to recognise a distinctly unique British cuisine. The [[English Tourist Board]] campaigned for restaurants to include more traditional and regional British dishes on their menus. In the 1980s and particularly the 1990s, this developed into a style of cooking known as "Modern British" as an effort to construct a national cuisine for the tourist industry, reinterpreting classic British dishes and fusing them with foreign influence.<ref>{{cite web |title=A Brief Guide To Modern British Cuisine |url=https://colosseodoncaster.com/news/a-brief-guide-to-modern-british-cuisine/ |access-date=25 January 2025 |website=Ristorante Italiano Colosseo}}</ref> 

Some British dishes became more associated with a distinctly British haute cuisine such as [[Beef Wellington]], a dish of flash-seared [[beef tenderloin]] coated in [[English mustard]], and a [[duxelles]] of mushrooms, onions, herbs, and black pepper, sometimes bound with [[prosciutto]] or [[Pâté|pâté]], and wrapped in either shortcrust or puff pastry, brushed with egg-wash and baked.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Oliver |first1=Jamie |title=Epic beef wellington recipe |url=https://www.jamieoliver.com/recipes/beef/beef-wellington/ |access-date=25 January 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Blanc |first1=Raymond |title=Beef Wellington |url=https://www.raymondblanc.com/recipes/beef-wellington/ |access-date=25 January 2025}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Beef wellington |url=https://www.bbcgoodfood.com/recipes/beef-wellington |access-date=2024-01-18 |website=BBC Good Food |language=en}}</ref>

==== Celebrity chefs ====

The modern phenomenon of television "celebrity chefs" began in Britain with [[Philip Harben]] and [[Fanny Cradock]], who appeared on television shows throughout the 1950s to the 1970s.<ref>{{cite news|last=Zendle|first=Miriam|title=First celebrity chef story adapted for screen|url=http://www.digitalspy.co.uk/tv/news/a32700/first-celebrity-chef-story-adapted-for-screen.html|access-date=8 March 2012|newspaper=Digital Spy|date=10 May 2006|archive-date=15 June 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110615145602/http://www.digitalspy.co.uk/tv/news/a32700/first-celebrity-chef-story-adapted-for-screen.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Toward the end of the century in the 1980s and 1990s, with greater public access to radio and television, the phenomenon reached new heights when gaining a [[Michelin star]] increased the profile and reputation of chefs. [[Marco Pierre White]] became the youngest chef in the world, as well as the first British chef, to achieve three Michelin stars,<ref>{{cite news|title=I made Ramsay weep, says top chef White|url=http://www.scotsman.com/news/entertainment/i-made-ramsay-weep-says-top-chef-white-1-1128344|access-date=18 March 2012|newspaper=The Scotsman|date=31 July 2006}}</ref> a record he held for 8 years,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.foodandwine.com/news/massimiliano-alajmos-michelin-star-restaurants|title=Massimiliano Alajmo's Michelin Star Restaurants|website=Food & Wine}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.yorkshirepost.co.uk/news/big-interview-leeds-s-own-enfant-terrible-of-british-cooking-marco-pierre-white-1-8646004|title=Big interview: Leeds's own enfant terrible of British cooking Marco Pierre White|work=The Yorkshire Post|access-date=6 February 2018}}</ref> and has been dubbed as the first true celebrity chef.<ref>{{cite news|last=Johnson|first=Richard|title=White Heat|url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/life_and_style/food_and_drink/article2181961.ece|access-date=14 February 2011|newspaper=The Times|date=5 August 2007|location=London, UK |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081014015118/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/life_and_style/food_and_drink/article2181961.ece |archive-date=14 October 2008 }}</ref> White's popularity made him a household name, and one of his cookbooks, ''[[White Heat (book)|White Heat]],'' has been described as "possibly the most influential recipe book of the last 20 years".<ref>{{cite news|last=Rayner|first=Jay|title=The Man with the Dough|newspaper=Observer Food Monthly|publisher=Guardian Newspapers Limited|date=10 July 2005|url=https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2005/jul/10/foodanddrink.features12|access-date=14 December 2016|archive-date=7 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170807023527/https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2005/jul/10/foodanddrink.features12|url-status=live}}</ref> 

One of White's protégés, [[Gordon Ramsay]], achieved considerable success in London which led to the commissioning of ''[[Boiling Point (miniseries)|Boiling Point]]'', following Ramsay's [[Restaurant Gordon Ramsay|eponymous solo restaurant]].<ref>{{cite news|title=Gordon Ramsay: Chef terrible|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/1448742.stm|access-date=18 March 2012|newspaper=BBC News|date=20 July 2001|archive-date=15 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230415013554/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/1448742.stm|url-status=live}}</ref> Ramsay's aggressive and fiery persona contributed to his success with a wide variety of other television shows, and he consequently became one of the most influential chefs in the world.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Christopher|first1=David P.|title=British Culture: An Introduction|date=2015|publisher=Routledge|page=187}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Television chefs stir appetite for culinary change|url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2004/jun/23/britishidentity.foodanddrink|agency=The Guardian|date=10 November 2016|access-date=10 November 2016|archive-date=15 June 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180615111750/https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2004/jun/23/britishidentity.foodanddrink|url-status=live}}</ref> Ramsay's restaurants have earned a total of 17 Michelin stars, the third highest for a single chef in the world.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.escoffier.edu/blog/world-food-drink/which-chefs-have-earned-the-most-michelin-stars/|title=Which Chefs Have Earned the Most Michelin Stars?|website=Auguste Escoffier School of Culinary Arts|date=23 January 2025 }}</ref>

Dedicated food-related television channels and programming such as the [[Good Food Channel]] and [[Ready Steady Cook]] led to chefs such as [[Rick Stein]], [[Jamie Oliver]], [[Ainsley Harriott]], [[Gary Rhodes]], [[Delia Smith]], [[Nigella Lawson]], [[Nigel Slater]], [[Keith Floyd]], and [[Simon Hopkinson]] becoming household names.{{sfn|Panayi|2010|pp=191–195}}<ref>{{cite web|title = Celebrity Chefs|url = http://goodfood.uktv.co.uk/|publisher = UKTV Good Food Channel|access-date = 18 March 2012|archive-date = 9 September 2019|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190909211520/https://goodfood.uktv.co.uk/|url-status = dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |author=Pile, Stephen |title=How TV concocted a recipe for success |url=https://www.pressreader.com/uk/the-daily-telegraph/20061016/282063387459485 |work=The Daily Telegraph |date=16 October 2006}}</ref>

=== 21st century ===

British cuisine has continued to evolve throughout the 21st century. Some of Britain's more classic dishes have fallen out of favour with the modern British public. A 2021 survey by Mortar Research found more than 28% of Britons had never eaten [[toad in the hole]], and many traditional dishes and ingredients were believed to be imaginary by the following margins: 20% for toad in the hole, 18% for [[spotted dick]], 13% for [[Eton mess]], 11% for [[bangers and mash]] and [[Scotch egg]]s, and 10% for [[black pudding]]. However, other classic foods remained popular, with 90% having eaten a [[Cornish pasty]] at some point in their lives.<ref>{{cite web |title=Are we losing our love of classic British dishes? |publisher=BBC Food |access-date=15 October 2021 |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/food/articles/classic_british_dishes |date=29 September 2021}}</ref> Snack foods such as sausage rolls also remain popular, with the bakery chain [[Greggs]] selling 140 million per year.<ref>{{cite news|last=Wallop|first=Harry|title=Budget 2012: Greggs sausage rolls to be hit|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/newsbysector/retailandconsumer/9158703/Budget-2012-Greggs-sausage-rolls-to-be-hit.html|access-date=26 March 2012|newspaper=The Daily Telegraph|date=22 March 2012}}</ref>

Eating habits and recipes have been affected by rising [[vegetarianism]] and [[veganism]]; a 2021 [[YouGov]] survey found 8% of Britons were now eating a plant-based diet, and more than a third said they were interested in becoming vegan.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Tapper |first=James |date=25 December 2021 |title=No meat please, we're British: now a third of us approve of vegan diet |language=en-GB |work=The Observer |url=https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2021/dec/25/no-meat-please-were-british-now-a-third-of-us-approve-of-vegan-diet |access-date=6 December 2023 |issn=0029-7712}}</ref> In 2023, government reports found that meat and fish consumption were at their lowest levels since record-keeping began in 1974.<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Goodier |first1=Michael |last2=Sunnemark |first2=Viktor |date=24 October 2023 |title=UK meat consumption at lowest level since records began, data reveals |language=en-GB |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2023/oct/24/uk-meat-consumption-lowest-level-since-record-began-data-reveal |access-date=6 December 2023 |issn=0261-3077}}</ref> 

Debora Robertson, writing in ''[[The Daily Telegraph]]'', argues that all aspects of British cuisine has undergone a culinary revolution, shedding the spectres of wartime rationing and post-war food scarcity, and its standards now rivals that of France.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Robertson |first=Debora |date=3 September 2022 |title=Sorry, France, but British cuisine has taken the shine off your Michelin stars; French exchange The home of gastronomy is no longer all it's cracked up to be, says Debora Robertson, while the UK has undergone something of a culinary revolution. |pages=17 |work=[[The Daily Telegraph]] |location=London}}</ref> This has been reflected in the number of [[Michelin star|Michelin starred]] restaurants in Britain: the 2024 Michelin Guide awarded 9 restaurants in Britain with the coveted three stars, with six of them in [[London]] alone,{{Efn|These include: [[Restaurant Gordon Ramsay]], [[Alain Ducasse at The Dorchester]], [[Sketch (restaurant)|Sketch]], [[Clare Smyth|Core by Clare Smyth]], [[Hélène Darroze|Hélène Darroze at The Connaught]], and [[The Ledbury]]}} more than any other city in the world except for [[Paris]] and [[Tokyo]].{{Efn|Paris has 10, and Tokyo 12. [[Hong Kong]] has 7 three-starred restaurants, but is a special administrative region of China, and not a city.}}<ref>{{cite web | url=https://guide.michelin.com/us/en/restaurants/3-stars-michelin | title=MICHELIN Restaurants – the MICHELIN Guide }}</ref> In 2010, [[The Waterside Inn]] in [[Bray, Berkshire|Bray]] became the first restaurant outside of France to retain three Michelin stars for a quarter of a century.<ref>{{cite news|last=Kapur|first=Sonia|title=Waterside Inn celebrates 25yrs of three-star quality|url=http://www.maidenhead-advertiser.co.uk/news/article-16326-waterside-inn-celebrates-25yrs-of-three-star-quality/|newspaper=Maidenhead Advertiser|date=20 May 2010|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120314110123/http://www.maidenhead-advertiser.co.uk/news/article-16326-waterside-inn-celebrates-25yrs-of-three-star-quality/|archivedate=14 March 2012|df=dmy-all}}</ref> [[The Fat Duck]], a three-Michelin-star restaurant, also in Bray, was named the world's best restaurant in 2005.<ref>{{cite web|title=2005 Award Winners|url=http://www.theworlds50best.com/past-winners/2005-award-winners/|publisher=The World's 50 Best Restaurants|access-date=21 September 2012|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121027190727/http://www.theworlds50best.com/past-winners/2005-award-winners/|archive-date=27 October 2012|df=dmy-all}}</ref> As of the 2024 guide, there are 185 restaurants in Britain with at least one Michelin star; 165 in England, 11 in Scotland, 6 in Wales, and 3 in Northern Ireland, only 75 fewer than the entirety of the [[United States]].{{Efn|The Michelin Guide does not distinguish [[Northern Ireland]] as separate from [[Ireland]], and treats the entire island as one entity for Guide purposes. There are 3 restaurants in [[Belfast]] with Michelin stars.}}<ref>{{cite web | url=https://guide.michelin.com/us/en/restaurants/3-stars-michelin | title=MICHELIN Restaurants – the MICHELIN Guide }}</ref>

The late 1990s and particularly the early 21st century saw a major shift in British [[pub]]s. While many pubs had a long tradition of serving food, owing to their historic heritage as traveller's inns, most pubs were solely drinking establishments and little emphasis was placed on food, other than simple meals such as sandwiches, and bar snacks, usually [[pork rind|pork scratchings]], [[pickled eggs]], [[potato chip|crisps]], and peanuts. These foods with their strong emphasis on salt, which dries out the mouth, were specifically intended to increase beer sales.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://rememberwhen.gazettelive.co.uk/2009/08/pub-grub.html |title=Nostalgia: Latest Nostalgia pieces from Gazette Live |publisher=Rememberwhen.gazettelive.co.uk |access-date=9 March 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140328223728/http://rememberwhen.gazettelive.co.uk/2009/08/pub-grub.html |archive-date=28 March 2014}}</ref> By the turn of the century with the widespread introduction of [[microwave oven]]s and [[frozen food]], the quality of food pubs served declined but variety increased, with most pubs serving [[Meat pie|steak and ale pie]], [[shepherd's pie]], [[fish and chips]], [[bangers and mash]], [[Sunday roast]], [[ploughman's lunch]], [[chicken tikka masala]], and [[Pasty|pasties]], as well as foods typically indicative of other cultures, such as [[Hamburger|burgers]], [[Buffalo wing|chicken wings]], [[lasagne]] and [[chilli con carne]].<ref>{{cite news | url = http://www.brooklynpaper.com/stories/28/18/28_18spikehill2.html | title = Better Pub Grub | work = The Brooklyn Paper | first = Tina | last = Barry | date = 29 April 2005 | access-date = 22 July 2013 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130512202047/http://www.brooklynpaper.com/stories/28/18/28_18spikehill2.html | archive-date = 12 May 2013}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news | url = https://www.mirror.co.uk/news/uk-news/pub-grub-gets-out-of-pickle-548350 | title = Pub grub gets out of pickle | date = 27 June 2005 | access-date = 22 July 2013 | work = The Mirror | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140525195553/http://www.mirror.co.uk/news/uk-news/pub-grub-gets-out-of-pickle-548350 | archive-date = 25 May 2014}}</ref>

In 1991 the term ''gastropub'', a [[portmanteau]] of "[[gastronomy]]" and "pub", was coined when David Eyre and Mike Belben took over The Eagle pub in London.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thefreelibrary.com/American+gastropub%3a+what%27s+in+a+name%3f-a0164160489 |title=American gastropub: what's in a name? |work=Art Culinaire |publisher=The Free Library |date=Spring 2007 |access-date=23 July 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080513174405/http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0JAW/is_84/ai_n19187661 |archive-date=13 May 2008 |url-status=dead |df=dmy }}</ref> [[Gastropub]]s are defined as pubs that serve high-quality food comparable with a restaurant, with a near equal emphasis on eating and drinking.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Canavan |first=Hillary Dixler |date=2014-12-05 |title=Gastropubs, From London Trend to American Phenomenon |url=https://www.eater.com/2014/12/5/7329279/gastropubs-history-explained |access-date=2025-01-30 |website=Eater |language=en}}</ref> Gastropubs caused a significant shift in British dining and pub culture,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thefreelibrary.com/American+gastropub%3a+what%27s+in+a+name%3f-a0164160489 |title=American gastropub: what's in a name? |work=Art Culinaire |publisher=The Free Library |date=Spring 2007 |access-date=23 July 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080513174405/http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0JAW/is_84/ai_n19187661 |archive-date=13 May 2008 |url-status=dead |df=dmy }}</ref> with the term being added to ''Merriam Webster's Collegiate Dictionary'' in 2012,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.merriam-webster.com/info/newwords12.htm|title=A Sample of New Dictionary Words for 2012|access-date=16 August 2012}}</ref> and the gastropub concept being exported overseas where it found significant popularity in the United States<ref>{{cite news|title=New York Develops a Taste for Gastropubs|first=David|last=Farley|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|date=24 May 2009|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/05/22/AR2009052201105.html}}</ref> and Canada.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://blogs.theprovince.com/2014/05/15/spinnakers-at-30-how-canadas-first-brewpub-diversified-to-thrive-part-1/ |title=Spinnakers craft beer brewpub, Victoria, turns 30 &#124; Brewed Awakening &#124; the Province |access-date=25 February 2015 |archive-date=25 February 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150225225412/http://blogs.theprovince.com/2014/05/15/spinnakers-at-30-how-canadas-first-brewpub-diversified-to-thrive-part-1/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> The renewed emphasis on food quality in gastropubs has led many to be awarded [[Michelin Guide|Michelin stars]]: the gastropub [[The Hand & Flowers]] in [[Marlow, Buckinghamshire|Marlow]] became the first pub to ever be awarded two Michelin stars.<ref>{{cite news|last=Davies|first=Caroline|title=Hand & Flowers becomes first pub to win two Michelin stars|url=https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2011/oct/06/hand-flowers-two-michelin-stars|accessdate=6 February 2012|newspaper=The Guardian|date=6 October 2011}}</ref>

The popularity and growth of gastropubs has been such that, in 2011, ''[[The Good Food Guide]]'' suggested that there was no longer any need to distinguish traditional pubs from gastropubs in any meaningful way, and the term had become irrelevant.<ref>{{cite book | url = http://www.thegoodfoodguide.co.uk/news/gastropub-rip | chapter = Gastropub RIP | title = The Good Food Guide | date = 4 September 2011 | access-date = 22 July 2013 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130517210046/http://www.thegoodfoodguide.co.uk/news/gastropub-rip | archive-date = 17 May 2013}}</ref> Gastropubs have attracted criticism, however, from those arguing that they have [[gentrification|gentrified]] traditional pubs, causing them to lose their quaint character.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/foodanddrink/restaurants/3322965/Is-the-gastropub-making-a-meal-of-it.html|title=Is the gastropub making a meal of it?|work=[[The Daily Telegraph]]|date=24 November 2005|access-date=10 July 2008|last=Norrington-Davies|first=Tom|location=London}}</ref> 

In recent years, there has been a growing movement to revive traditional British bread-making. Chef [[Michel Albert Roux|Michel Roux Jr]] highlighted the decline of artisanal baking in Britain, and the need to return to traditional methods. Roux has emphasised the importance of making bread with simple, natural ingredients and the benefits of supporting local, independent bakeries. He hopes that public awareness and consumer choices will help preserve this aspect of Britain's culinary heritage.<ref>{{Cite web |title=BBC - BBC Food blog: Great British Food Revival: The lost art of bread-making |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/blogs/food/2011/03/great-british-revival-the-lost.shtml |access-date=2024-07-24 |website=www.bbc.co.uk |language=en}}</ref>

== Popular dishes ==
[[File:Sunday roast - roast beef 1.jpg|thumb|A [[Sunday roast]] of [[roast beef]], roast potatoes, vegetables and [[Yorkshire pudding]]]]
According to a 2025 survey by YouGov, the most popular British food is fish and chips  which 89% of Brits say they like, closely followed by roast chicken.  Apple crumble and [[Sponge cake|Victoria sponge]] are the most popular sweet foods, while Banoffee pie is the least popular.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The most popular dishes |url=https://yougov.co.uk/ratings/consumer/popularity/british-dishes/all}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Favourite desserts |url=https://www.breville.co.uk/service-and-support/blog/UK-favourite-desserts-revealed.html}}</ref>

Curries are a large part of British cuisine, with cooks in the United Kingdom creating curries distinct to the country. [[Chicken tikka masala]], which comprises 15 per cent of orders in British Indian restaurants, was called "a true British national dish" by the Foreign Secretary Robin Cook in 2001.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Britain's favourite dish - let's go for a curry |url=http://britishheritage.com/lets-go-for-a-curry/ |access-date=30 November 2022 |website=British Heritage |language=en}}</ref> Generally, [[Curry in the United Kingdom|British curries]] are thicker and sweeter than their Indian counterparts. Furthermore, curry sauces in Britain are interchangeable between meats, while in India different meats have non-interchangeable sauces.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Anand |first=Anjum |date=21 April 2010 |title=Sweet and murky: the British curry |url=http://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2010/apr/21/british-curry-india-tikka-masala |access-date=30 November 2022 |website=The Guardian |language=en}}</ref> A key ingredient to a British curry is [[curry powder]], a "British concoction" of spices.<ref>{{Cite web |date=16 March 2016 |title=The Indian curry is merely a figment of the British colonial imagination |url=https://qz.com/india/639435/the-indian-curry-is-merely-a-figment-of-the-british-colonial-imagination/ |access-date=30 November 2022 |website=Quartz |language=en}}</ref>

== National cuisines ==

=== English ===
{{main|English cuisine}}

[[English cuisine]] has distinctive attributes of its own, but also shares much with wider British cuisine, partly through the importation of ingredients and ideas from [[North America]], [[China]], and [[India]] during the time of the [[British Empire]] and as a result of [[World War II|post-war]] [[Immigration to the United Kingdom since 1922|immigration]]. Some traditional meals, such as [[sausage]]s, bread and [[cheese]], roasted and stewed meats, [[meat pie|meat]] and [[game pie]]s, boiled vegetables and broths, and [[freshwater fish|freshwater]] and [[saltwater fish]] have ancient origins. The 14th-century English cookery book, the ''[[Forme of Cury]]'', contains recipes for these, and dates from the royal court of [[Richard II]].<ref>[[Clarissa Dickson Wright|Dickson Wright, Clarissa]] (2011) ''A History of English Food''. London: Random House. {{ISBN|978-1-905-21185-2}}. Pages 46, 52-53<!--Middle ages-->, 363-365<!--Indian and Jewish immigrants affecting cuisine--></ref>

=== Northern Irish ===
{{main|Northern Irish cuisine}}

Northern Ireland's culinary heritage has its roots in the staple diet of generations of farming families—bread and potatoes.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://planetradio.co.uk/downtown/local/news/15-amazing-traditional-ni-food-drink-love |title=Downtown Radio website |work=Downtown Radio |access-date=24 March 2018}}</ref>  Historically, limited availability of ingredients and low levels of immigration resulted in restricted variety and relative isolation from wider international culinary influences. The 21st century has seen significant changes in local cuisine, characterised by an increase in the variety, quantity and quality of [[gastropubs]] and [[restaurants]]. There are currently three [[Michelin star]] restaurants in Northern Ireland, all of which specialise in traditional dishes made using local ingredients.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://discovernorthernireland.com/things-to-do/food-and-drink/michelin-rated-restaurants/ |title=Michelin-rated restaurants |publisher=discovernorthernireland.com |access-date=24 March 2018}}</ref>

=== Scottish ===
{{main|Scottish cuisine}}

Scottish cuisine has closer links to Scandinavia and France than English cuisine has.{{sfn|Davidson|2014|pp=724–725}} Traditional Scottish dishes include [[Bannock (British food)|bannocks]], [[brose]], [[cullen skink]], [[Dundee cake]], [[haggis]], [[marmalade]], [[porridge]], and [[Scotch broth]].{{sfn|Davidson|2014|pp=724–725}}<ref>Davidson comments that the best starting point is the classic book: {{cite book |last1=McNeill |first1=F. Marian |title=The Scots Kitchen |date=1929 |publisher=Blackie & Son |oclc=892036202}}.{{harvnb|Davidson|2014|pp=724–725}}</ref> The cuisines of the northern islands of [[Orkney]] and [[Shetland]] are distinctively different from that of mainland Scotland.{{sfn|Davidson|2014|pp=724–725}} The nation is known for [[Scotch whisky|its whiskies]].

=== Welsh ===
{{main|Welsh cuisine}}

Welsh cuisine in the Middle Ages was limited in range; [[Gerald of Wales]], chaplain to [[Henry II of England|Henry II]], wrote after an 1188 tour that "The whole population lives almost entirely on oats and the produce of their herds, milk, cheese and butter. You must not expect a variety of dishes from a Welsh kitchen, and there are no highly-seasoned titbits to whet your appetite."{{sfn|Davidson|2014|pp=858–859}}

In modern times, the cuisine includes recipes for Welsh [[Lamb and mutton|lamb]], and dishes such as [[cawl]], [[Welsh rarebit]], [[laverbread]], [[Welsh cake]]s, [[bara brith]] and [[Glamorgan sausage]].{{sfn|Davidson|2014|pp=858–859}}

<gallery mode="packed" heights="150px" caption="Example dishes of the four nations">
File:Tea and scones 2.jpg|English [[Tea (meal)#Afternoon tea|tea]] with [[scones]] 
File:Ben W Bell Soda Bread Farl 05 June 2007.jpg|Northern Irish [[Soda bread#Ireland|soda bread farl]] 
File:Haggis neeps and tatties.jpg|Scottish [[haggis]], [[neeps]] and [[tatties]] 
File:Cawl Cymreig.jpg|Welsh [[cawl]] 
</gallery>

== See also ==
{{Portal|United Kingdom|Food}}
* [[Channel Islands cuisine]]
* [[Cuisine of the Thirteen Colonies]]
* [[Culture of the United Kingdom]]
* [[List of British breads]]
* [[List of British desserts]]
* [[List of United Kingdom food and drink products with protected status]]
* [[List of English dishes]]

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

==Sources==
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* {{cite book |last=Dickson Wright |first=Clarissa |author-link=Clarissa Dickson Wright |date=2011 |title=A History of English Food  |publisher=Random House |isbn=978-1-905-21185-2|title-link=A History of English Food}}
* {{cite book|title=Home Front Handbook|publisher=[[Imperial War Museum]] ([[Ministry of Information (United Kingdom)|Ministry of Information]])|orig-year=1945|date=2005|isbn=1-904897-11-8|ref={{harvid|Home Front Handbook}}}}
* {{Citation | last = John | first = J | title = A Christmas Compendium | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=yBP8a2jJ9A4C | publisher = Continuum International Publishing Group | year = 2005 | isbn = 0-8264-8749-1}}
* {{cite book |last=Lehmann |first=Gilly |date=2003 |title=The British Housewife |publisher=Prospect Books}}
* {{cite book |last=Panayi |first=Panikos |author-link=Panikos Panayi |date=2010 |orig-year=2008 |title=Spicing Up Britain |publisher=Reaktion Books |isbn=978-1-86189-658-2}}
* {{cite book |last=Pendergrast |first=Mark | author-link = Mark Pendergrast |date=2001 |title=Uncommon Grounds: The History of Coffee and How It Transformed Our World |publisher=Texere |location=London |oclc=48931999 |isbn=978-1-58799-088-5}}
* {{cite book |editor1-last=Plunkett |editor1-first=John |title=Victorian Literature: A Sourcebook |date=2012 |publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]] |isbn=9780230551756 |location=Houndmills, Basingstoke}}
* {{Citation | last = Timbs | first = John | author-link = John Timbs | title = Something for Everybody (and a Garland for the Year) | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=Qk0BAAAAQAAJ | publisher = Lockwood and Co. | location = London | year = 1866}}

== Further reading ==
* Addyman, Mary; Wood, Laura; Yiannitsaros, Christopher (eds). (2017) ''Food, Drink, and the Written Word in Britain, 1820–1945'', [[Taylor & Francis]].
* Brears, P. (2008) ''Cooking and Dining in Medieval England'' 
* Burnett, John. "Plenty and Want: The Social History of English Diet", ''[[History Today]]'' (April 1964) 14.3 pp.&nbsp;223–233. 
* Burnett, John. (1979) ''Plenty and want: a social history of diet in England from 1815 to the present day'', 2nd ed. 
* Burnett, John. (2016) ''England eats out: a social history of eating out in England from 1830 to the present'', [[Routledge]].
* {{cite book |last=Collingham |first=Lizzy |title=The Hungry Empire: How Britain's Quest for Food Shaped the Modern World |year=2018 |publisher=Vintage |isbn=978-0099586951}}
* Collins, E. J. T. (1975) "Dietary change and cereal consumption in Britain in the nineteenth century." ''[[Agricultural History Review]]'' 23.2, pp.&nbsp;97–115.
* Green, Kate & Bryan, Melanie (2020) "Around Britain in 50 Foods"; in: ''[[Country Life (magazine)|Country Life]]''; 12 February 2020, pp.&nbsp;36–41.
* Harris, Bernard; Floud, Roderick; Hong, Sok Chul. (2015) "[https://strathprints.strath.ac.uk/50435/1/Harris_etal_REH2015_food_availability_in_england_and_wales.pdf How many calories? Food availability in England and Wales in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries]". ''Research in Economic History.''. pp.&nbsp;111–191.
* {{cite book |last=Hartley |first=Dorothy |author-link=Dorothy Hartley |orig-year=1954 (Macdonald) |title=Food in England: A complete guide to the food that makes us who we are |title-link=Food in England |year=2009 |publisher=Piatkus |isbn=978-0-74994-215-1 }}
* Woolgar. C. N. (2016) ''The Culture of Food in England, 1200–1500'' Yale University Press.

===Historiography===

* Otter, Chris. "The British Nutrition Transition and its Histories", ''History Compass'' 10#11 (2012): pp.&nbsp;812–825, {{doi|10.1111/hic3.12001}}

==External links==
*{{Commons category-inline}}
*{{wikiquote-inline}}
*{{wikibooks-inline|Cookbook:Cuisine of the United Kingdom}}
*{{wikivoyage-inline|Cuisine of Britain and Ireland}}
* [http://www.bl.uk/learning/histcitizen/foodstories/index.html Food Stories] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210410231056/http://www.bl.uk/learning/histcitizen/foodstories/index.html |date=10 April 2021 }} – Explore a century of revolutionary change in UK food culture on the British Library's Food Stories website
* [[George Orwell]]'s essay [http://theorwellprize.co.uk/george-orwell/by-orwell/essays-and-other-works/in-defence-of-english-cooking/ "In Defence of English Cooking"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150701102551/http://theorwellprize.co.uk/george-orwell/by-orwell/essays-and-other-works/in-defence-of-english-cooking/ |date=1 July 2015 }}
{{European topic|| cuisine|UK_only=no}}
{{cuisine}}
{{Agriculture in the United Kingdom}}
{{United Kingdom topics}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2024}}

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[[Category:British cuisine| ]]