View source for Border reivers

{{Short description|1200s–1600s raiders along the Anglo-Scottish border}}
{{other uses}}
{{redirect|Reivers|the actor|David Reivers|other uses|The Reivers (disambiguation)}}

{{Use British English|date=November 2024}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2024}}
[[File:Reivers raid on Gilnockie Tower.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|Reivers at [[Gilnockie Tower]] in [[Dumfries and Galloway]], Scotland, from a 19th-century print|alt=]]
[[File:Wat o' Harden's horn.JPG|thumb|upright=1.3|Notorious raider [[Walter Scott of Harden]]'s horn, noted in a poem called "The Reiver's Wedding" by [[Walter Scott|Sir Walter Scott]]. It reads in part: "He took a bugle frae his side,/With names carved o'er and o'er,/Full many a chief of meikle pride,/That Border bugle bore."
]]
'''Border Reivers''' were [[Cattle raiding|raiders]] along the [[Anglo-Scottish border]]. They included both [[Scotland|Scottish]] and [[England|English]] people, and they raided the entire [[border country]] without regard to their victims' nationality.<ref>Neville, C. J. "The Law of Treason in the English Border Counties in the Later Middle Ages." Law and History Review 9, no. 1 (1991): 7-8. {{doi|10.2307/743658}}.</ref><ref name="doi.org">Hay, D. "England, Scotland and Europe: The Problem of the Frontier." Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, vol. 25, 1975, pp. 81. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/3679087.</ref> They operated in a culture of legalised raiding and feuding.<ref name="Leeson2009">Leeson, Peter T. "The Laws of Lawlessness." The Journal of Legal Studies 38, no. 2 (2009): 473. {{doi|10.1086/592003}}</ref><ref name="Neville, Cynthia 2002">Neville, Cynthia. "Scottish Influences on the Medieval Laws of the Anglo-Scottish Marches." The Scottish Historical Review 81, no. 212 (2002): 171. {{JSTOR|25529646}}</ref> Their heyday was in the last hundred years of their existence, during the time of the [[House of Stuart]] in the [[Kingdom of Scotland]] and the [[House of Tudor]] in the [[Kingdom of England]].

The lawlessness of the Anglo-Scottish Borderlands in the 16th century is captured in a 1526 description of Tynedale and Redesdale:

<blockquote>"[Inhabitants there]...nothinge regard[ed] eyther the lawes of God or of the kinges majesties for any love or other lawful consideracion, but onely for the drede and feare of instante coreccion."<ref name="Ellis, Steven G 1995, p.62">Ellis, Steven G. Tudor Frontiers and Noble Power: The Making of the British State. Oxford University Press, 1995, p.62.</ref>
</blockquote>

The term "Border Reiver" is an [[endonym and exonym|exonym]] and anachronistic term used to describe the raiders and bandits who operated along the Anglo-Scottish Border during the late Middle Ages and early modern period. The reivers, as we understand today, emerged in textual and archaeological evidence sometime between 1350 and 1450,<ref name="auto25">{{cite book|last=Robson |first=Ralph |date=1989 |title=The English highland clans: Tudor responses to a mediaeval problem |url=https://archive.org/details/englishhighlandc0000robs |url-access=registration |publication-place=Edinburgh |publisher=J. Donald Publishers |isbn=0-85976-246-7 |lccn=90113482}}</ref><ref name="auto19">Steingraber, Aubrey Maria. Landscape and the Making of the Medieval Anglo-Scottish Border: Power, Place, and Perspective c.1200–c.1500. PhD Thesis, University of York, Department of Archaeology, March 2022. p83</ref> with their activities reaching their height in the 16th century during the Tudor period in England and the late Stewart period in Scotland.<ref name="auto14">Fraser, George MacDonald. The Steel Bonnets: The Story of the Anglo-Scottish Border Reivers. HarperCollins, London, 1995. {{ISBN|978-0-00-272746-4}}.</ref> They were infamous for raiding, eliciting protection money or taking hostages('blackmail'),<ref name="doi.org"/> cattle rustling, and lawlessness, where justice was frequently negotiated through arbitration at Truce Days rather than enforced through the peremptory and inescapable punishments mandated by state law.<ref>Ellis, Steven G. Tudor Frontiers and Noble Power: The Making of the British State. Oxford University Press, 1995, p.59.</ref> Many crimes, such as theft and feuding, were treated with less severity due to the ancient customs and culture of the Borderlands, which had evolved over centuries to tolerate and even codify such practices.<ref name="Leeson2009"/><ref name="Neville, Cynthia 2002"/><ref>Neville, C. J. "The Law of Treason in the English Border Counties in the Later Middle Ages." Law and History Review 9, no. 1 (1991): 14. {{doi|10.2307/743658}}.</ref>

Although less well-known than Highlanders in Scotland—whom they met and defeated in battle on occasion—<ref name="auto11">{{cite book|last=Sadler |first=John |date=2006 |title=Flodden 1513: Scotland's greatest defeat |url=https://archive.org/details/flodden1513scotl0000sadl |publication-place=Oxford |publisher=Osprey |isbn=978-1-84176-959-2 |lccn=2006389275}}</ref> the Border Reivers played a significant role in shaping Anglo-Scottish relations.<ref>Boscher, Paul Gerard. Politics, Administration and Diplomacy: The Anglo-Scottish Border 1550–1560. PhD Thesis, University of Newcastle, 1988.</ref> Their activities were a major factor in ongoing tensions between the two kingdoms, and their raids often had international repercussions.<ref name="auto23">Moffat, Alistair. The Reivers: The Story of the Border Reivers. Birlinn Limited, Edinburgh, 2007. {{ISBN|978-1-84158-656-4}}.</ref> There is an emerging historical debate over how great their threat and the extent to which their raids were state-directed rather than purely opportunistic.<ref name="auto19"/><ref name="auto21">Robb, Graham. The Debatable Land: The Lost World Between Scotland and England. Picador, London, 2018. {{ISBN|978-1-5098-0470-2}}.</ref><ref name="auto14"/><ref>Newman, Caron. "The Anglo-Scottish Western March: A Landscape in Transition." In Settlement Change Across Medieval Europe: Old Paradigms and New Vistas, edited by Niall Brady and Claudia Theune, 257–265. Ruralia XII. Leiden: Sidestone Press, 2019., Passim</ref>

The culture of the Border Reivers—characterised by [[honour]], close family bonds, and self-defence—has been said to influence the culture of the [[Upland South]] in the United States. Many Borderers migrated as families to America, where their values are thought to have contributed significantly to the region's social structure and political ideologies, with echoes of their influence persisting even today.<ref>Fischer, David Hackett. Albion's Seed: Four British Folkways in America. Oxford University Press, New York, 1989. {{ISBN|978-0-19-506905-1}}.</ref><ref>McWhiney, Grady, and McDonald, Forrest. Cracker Culture: Celtic Ways in the Old South. University of Alabama Press, Tuscaloosa, 1988. {{ISBN|978-0-8173-0458-4}}.</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.historytoday.com/miscellanies/how-northern-england-made-southern-united-states |title=How Northern England Made the Southern United States |website=History Today |date=31 October 2019 |access-date=4 December 2024}}</ref>

==The etymology of "Border Reiver"==
''Reive'', a noun meaning raid, comes from the Middle English (Scots) ''reifen.'' The verb ''reave'' meaning "plunder, rob", a closely related word, comes from the [[Middle English]] ''reven''. There also exists a [[Northumbrian English|Northumbrian]] and [[Scots language|Scots]] verb ''reifen''. All three derive from [[Old English]] ''rēafian'' which means "to rob, plunder, pillage".<ref>Merriam-Webster Dictionary, 'reive' verb [http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/Reiver merriam-webster.com]</ref> Variants of these words were used in the Borders in the later Middle Ages.{{sfn|Neville|1998|p=77}} The corresponding verb in Dutch is "(be)roven", and "(be)rauben" in German.

The earliest use of the combined term "border reiver" appears to be by [[Sir Walter Scott]] in his anthology ''[[Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border]]''.<ref>Scott, Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border (Edinburgh, 1849 ed.), volume 1, [https://archive.org/details/minstrelsyofscot01scot/page/401 p. 401]</ref> George Ridpath (1716?–1772), the author of posthumously published ''The Border-History of England and Scotland, deduced from the earliest times to the union of the two crowns'' (London, 1776), referred not to 'border reivers' but only to ''banditti''.<ref>Ridpath, The Border-History of England and Scotland (London, 1776), [https://archive.org/details/borderhistoryofe00ridpuoft/page/n709 p. 696]</ref>

==Background==
[[File:Dryhope Tower - geograph.org.uk - 195093.jpg|thumb|[[Dryhope Tower]] near [[Selkirk, Scottish Borders|Selkirk]] in Scotland, built in the 1500s for protection against the reivers|alt=]]

===Governance, culture and territorality of the Anglo-Scottish frontier===

The [[Anglo-Scottish border]]s were shaped by centuries of territorial disputes, cultural integration, and overlapping systems of governance, resulting in one of the most administratively complex regions of medieval Britain.

The traditional narrative places the [[Battle of Carham]] in 1018 as a pivotal moment when Scottish forces secured control over [[Lothian]], marking a fundamental shift in the northern boundary of England.<ref name="auto23"/> However, this interpretation is subject to debate. Some historians question whether the 'loss' of Lothian to Scotland can be definitively dated to 1018, with a range of alternative timelines proposed.<ref name="auto23"/>

Contemporary evidence suggests the gradual establishment of Scottish authority over [[Lothian]] and the [[Anglo-Scottish border|Borders]], marked by the consolidation of continuous royal control around the same time as the [[Norman Conquest]], [[West Lothian (historic)|West Lothian]] and [[Midlothian]] likely dates between [[Malcolm III of Scotland|Máel Coluim III]]’s accession in 1058 and the death of his son [[Edgar, King of Scotland|Edgar]] in 1107. [[East Lothian]] saw consolidation under Máel Coluim III by 1093, with Edgar firmly establishing authority by 1107. [[Berwickshire]] (Merse) was under Máel Coluim III's rule, with Edgar solidifying control around 1100. [[Teviotdale]] ([[Roxburghshire]]) and [[Tweeddale]] fell under continuous Scottish control from 1113 during [[David I of Scotland|David I]]’s tenure. [[Annandale, Scotland|Annandale]] came under [[Robert de Brus, 1st Lord of Annandale]] between 1113 and 1124 as a vassal of David I,<ref name="auto18">McGuigan, Neil. [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/369192168_Donation_and_Conquest_The_Formation_of_Lothian_and_the_Origins_of_the_Anglo-Scottish_Border/fulltext/640f493866f8522c38a02b89/Donation-and-Conquest-The-Formation-of-Lothian-and-the-Origins-of-the-Anglo-Scottish-Border.pdf "Donation and Conquest: The Formation of Lothian and the Origins of the Anglo-Scottish Border."] Offa’s Dyke Journal, vol. 4, 2022, pp. 33–65. ResearchGate</ref> having been conferred upon him by [[Henry I of England]].<ref>Scott, J.G. "The Partition of a Kingdom: Strathclyde 1092–1153." Transactions of the Dumfriesshire and Galloway Natural History and Antiquarian Society, Series III, Vol. 72, 1997, pp. 31</ref>

Further enterprising and independent Norman lordships lay in [[South West Scotland]] at the freyed western end of the Borders.<ref name="auto18"/><ref>Stringer, Keith. (2008). "States, Liberties and Communities in Medieval Britain and Ireland (c.1100–1400)." In Liberties and Identities in the Medieval British Isles, edited by Michael C. Prestwich, 11. Woodbridge: Boydell Press.</ref><ref>Scott, J.G. "The Partition of a Kingdom: Strathclyde 1092–1153." Transactions of the Dumfriesshire and Galloway Natural History and Antiquarian Society, Series III, Vol. 72, 1997, pp. 21-24</ref> This period also saw the [[Davidian Revolution|Normanisation of the Scottish nobility]], as Norman lords, brought in by [[David I of Scotland]], introduced new complexities of Norman colonisation in the Borderlands. Many of these lords held land in [[England]] and brought in [[Anglo-Saxons|Anglo-Saxon]] tenants from their estates south of the border.<ref name="auto8">Hunter, Linsey Forsyth. Charter Diplomatics and Norms of Landholding and Lordship Between the Humber and Forth, c.1066–c.1250. Volume Two, PhD Thesis, University of Stirling, 2016.</ref><ref>Webb, Nigel. Settlement and Integration in Scotland 1124-1214: Local Society and the Development of Aristocratic Communities, with Special Reference to the Anglo-French Settlement of the South East. PhD thesis, University of Glasgow, 2004. pp7-9 Available at: https://theses.gla.ac.uk/3535/</ref>

Concurrently, south of the [[River Tweed|Tweed]], including parts of [[Tweeddale]], it is not entirely clear when the former territories of the [[Rulers of Bamburgh|Earldom of Bamburgh]] fell following [[Norman Conquest|William I's successful invasion of England]]. Neither [[Northumberland]] nor [[Cumberland]] was surveyed in the [[Domesday Book]] in 1085.<ref>Sukhino-Khomenko, Denis (2024). "Thegns Around the North Sea: Elite, Nobility, Aristocracy of the Late Viking Age." Ph.D. dissertation, University of Gothenburg., p20</ref> Into the late 11th century, Lothian was still regarded as one of England's unshired regions, alongside Northumberland, Cumberland, and Westmorland.<ref>McGuigan, Neil. "Lothian and the Scottish Kings." *History Scotland*, Winter 2024, p45</ref> There are strong indications that the area north of the [[River Tyne|Tyne]] remained outside effective Norman control until at least 1090s,<ref>McGuigan, Neil. (2015). Neither Scotland nor England: Middle Britain, c.850–1150. PhD thesis, University of St Andrews. pp159-161</ref> with evidence suggesting the persistence of an independent [[Anglo-Saxons|Anglian]] polity or organised resistance until the early [[12th century]].<ref>McGuigan, Neil. (2015). Neither Scotland nor England: Middle Britain, c.850–1150. PhD thesis, University of St Andrews., pp130-131</ref><ref name="auto18"/>

Following the Norman Conquest, the Anglo-Scottish border in the west remained ambiguous.<ref>Todd, John M. "The West March on the Anglo-Scottish Border in the Twelfth Century, and the Origins of the Western Debatable Land." Northern History, vol. 43, no. 1, March 2006, pp. 11.</ref><ref>Scott, J.G. "The Partition of a Kingdom: Strathclyde 1092–1153." Transactions of the Dumfriesshire and Galloway Natural History and Antiquarian Society, Series III, Vol. 72, 1997, pp. 21.</ref> [[William II of England|William Rufus]] in [[1090]] expelled Dolfin of [[Carlisle]], a possible descendant of the Anglo-Saxon Earls of Northumbria, from Cumberland and fortified Carlisle to secure the region.<ref>Robson, Eric. The Border Line. Newcastle upon Tyne: Sandhill Press, 1989.</ref><ref>Moffat, Alistair. The Reivers: The Story of the Border Reivers. Birlinn, 2007, p. 199. {{ISBN|978-1-84158-549-9}}.</ref> It is also suggested that Dolfin may have been installed by [[Malcolm III of Scotland|Máel Coluim III]].<ref>Wilson, James. "An English Letter of Gospatric." The Scottish Historical Review, vol. 1, no. 1, 1903, pp. 63. {{JSTOR|25517441}}</ref>

However, during the period of civil war known as [[The Anarchy]] (1135–1153), [[David I of Scotland]] exploited the instability and advanced southward into northern England. In the Second Treaty of Durham (1139), King Stephen granted the Earldom of Northumbria—encompassing [[Carlisle]], [[Cumberland]], [[Westmorland]], and [[Lancashire]] north of the [[River Ribble|Ribble]]—to David's son, [[Henry of Scotland|Prince Henry]]. These territories were later reclaimed, and David's successor, [[Malcolm IV of Scotland|Malcolm IV]], was forced to cede them. Since then, the Anglo-Scottish border has remained largely unchanged, with only minor adjustments.<ref>Robson, Eric. The Border Line. Frances Lincoln Publishers, London, 2008. {{ISBN|978-0-7112-2884-9}}.</ref>

The Anglo-Scottish Border only began to formalise by [[1237]] in the [[Treaty of York]].<ref>Hay, D. "England, Scotland and Europe: The Problem of the Frontier." Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, vol. 25, 1975, pp. 79. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/3679087. Accessed 12 Feb. 2025.</ref>

====Complex and dual identities====
Land ownership and governance in the Anglo-Scottish border region during the 12th and 13th centuries were shaped by a highly mixed population, but the ruling elite was predominantly composed of [[Normans|Norman]], [[Flemish people|Flemish]], and [[Bretons|Breton]] incomers.

These newcomers were granted lands and titles as knights and lords, establishing castles and vast demesnes—some straddling the ambiguous Anglo-Scottish frontier during the Wars of Scottish Independence, which later fueled disputes over land and jurisdiction. The Borderlands, home to Early Scots, Northumbrians, Norse, Brythonic and Gaelic communities, ultimately fell under the control of a newly established ruling class.<ref>Scott, J.G. "The Partition of a Kingdom: Strathclyde 1092–1153." Transactions of the Dumfriesshire and Galloway Natural History and Antiquarian Society, Series III, Vol. 72, 1997, p18</ref><ref>Wadden, P. (2013). "Do feartaib Cairnich", Ireland and Scotland in the Twelfth Century. Proceedings of the Harvard Celtic Colloquium, 33, p218</ref>

The integration of these groups under predominantly [[Normans|Norman]], [[Flemish people|Flemish]], and [[Bretons|Breton]] lords across the border introduced a dual identity and a new layer of governance that often clashed with local traditions, further complicating loyalties and creating a fragmented political landscape.<ref name="auto8"/> The unique March Law can be seen as an example of a distinct regional culture, different from both England and Scotland.<ref>Neville, Cynthia J. Violence, Custom and Law: The Anglo-Scottish Border Lands in the Later Middle Ages. Edinburgh University Press, 1998. {{ISBN|978-0-7486-1073-5}}., p3</ref> This dual identity was further evident in the case of groups like the Armstrongs of Liddesdale, a Scottish clan who had settled in the region from England during the 13th and 14th centuries. Known for their independent and often lawless ways, they were referred to as "Evil Inglis" well into the 16th century, reflecting both their English origins and their feared reputation in Scottish border society.{{sfn|Robson|1989|p=73}} According to late Tudor estimates, Scots comprised  a third of those living within ten miles of the frontier.<ref>Hay, D. "England, Scotland and Europe: The Problem of the Frontier." Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, vol. 25, 1975, pp. 83. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/3679087.</ref>

Alexander Mason's case exemplifies the complexities of nationality and jurisdiction in the Anglo-Scottish borderlands. In 1441, Mason—a Scot who sometimes resided in Northumberland—was accused of murdering Lawrence Grey in England. His dual identity led to prolonged legal complications, and in 1449 he ultimately secured a royal pardon by swearing allegiance to the English crown.<ref>Cynthia Neville (1988) Border law in late medieval England, The Journal of Legal History, 9:3, 335-356</ref>

The [[Wars of Scottish Independence]] played a key role in this transformation of the Borders, fostering and forcing a growing sense of national belonging that extended across social, cultural and linguistic groups.<ref name="auto8"/><ref>Gledhill, Jonathan (2012) Locality and Allegiance: English Lothian, 1296-1318. In: England and Scotland at War, c.1296-c.1513. Brill, Leiden, pp. 157-182</ref> However, alongside this burgeoning national identity, a shared border identity also emerged, rooted in the unique cultural and legal practices of the region.<ref>Neville, Cynthia. (2008). "Arbitration and Anglo-Scottish Border Law." In Liberties and Identities in the Medieval British Isles, edited by Michael C. Prestwich, 39. Woodbridge: Boydell Press. {{ISBN|978-1-84383-374-1}}.</ref> This shared identity coexisted with a lingering sense of Otherness,<ref name="auto6">Ellis, Steven G. Region and Frontier in the English State: The English Far North, 1296–1603. Galway: National University of Ireland, Galway, 1995.</ref><ref name="auto16">Ellis, Steven G. "Civilizing Northumberland: Representations of Englishness in the Tudor State." The Journal of Historical Sociology, Volume 12, Issue 2, 1999, pp. 103–127. {{doi|10.1111/1467-6443.00083}}</ref> as the borders remained distinct from the centralised identities of both nations, shaped by their unique history and violent reputation, and the persistent influence of local loyalties.<ref name="auto">Prestwich, Michael, ed. Liberties and Identities in the Medieval British Isles. Boydell & Brewer Ltd, Suffolk, 2008. {{ISBN|978-1-84383-406-9}}.</ref><ref name="auto16"/> This shared Border identity and feelings of Otherness persisted throughout the 16th century.<ref>Groundwater, Anna. "Renewing the Anglo-Scottish Frontier: Reassessing Early Modern Frontier Societies." In Frontier and Border Regions in Early Modern Europe, edited by Steven G. Ellis and Raingard Esser, 23-25</ref>

====Disputed territory====
Efforts to define the Anglo-Scottish border often proved contentious and inconclusive. By 1245, territorial disputes remained unresolved, as demonstrated in a case involving Hugh de Bolbec, a Northumbrian knight.<ref name="Robb, Graham 2021. p23">Robb, Graham. The Debatable Land: The Lost World Between Scotland and England. W. W. Norton & Company, 2021., p23</ref> A meeting near Carham on the Tweed attempted to establish "the true and ancient marches between the two kingdoms". Six knights from each side were appointed to walk the border line, but the Scottish and English representatives disagreed at every step.<ref name="Robb, Graham 2021. p23"/> A second attempt expanded the parties to twelve knights per side, with additional servants and men-at-arms processing through the Tweed Valley, but it too ended without agreement.<ref name="auto21"/><ref name="auto23"/>

A third effort involved 48 knights, who swore an oath to trace the border. The English knights proposed a line running from the confluence of Reddenburn and the Tweed, south to Tres Karras and Hopperichlawe (now lost), and then to Whitelaw Hill in the Cheviot Hills. However, the Scottish knights opposed this perambulation with threats, and tensions escalated. Lacking further resources to continue, the English knights unilaterally declared the defined line to be "the true and ancient marches and divisions", despite the lack of mutual agreement.<ref name="Robb, Graham 2021. p23"/>

[[File:Debatable Map.png|thumb|Anglo-Scottish Borderland: (De)batable Land and threiplands]]

Throughout the period, various territories remained disputed due to unresolved claims, particularly lands referred to as ''threiplands'' ([[Scots (language)|Scots]] for "disputed lands").<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://dsl.ac.uk/entry/snd/threap|title=Dictionaries of the Scots Language:: SND :: threap}}</ref> There were five such lesser threiplands alongside the larger and more notorious [[Debatable Lands|Debatable Land]],<ref>Ellis, Steven G. Tudor Frontiers and Noble Power: The Making of the British State. Oxford University Press, 1995, pp27-28</ref> as illustrated in the accompanying image. The Debatable Land was an expansive area, which lay between the rivers [[River Esk (Solway Firth)|Esk]] and [[River Sark|Sark]], was the subject of contention until 1552, when its status was finally settled.<ref name="auto23"/><ref name="auto21"/><ref>Todd, John M. (2006). "The West March on the Anglo-Scottish Border in the Twelfth Century, and the Origins of the Western Debatable Land." Northern History, 43(1), University of Leeds., pp19</ref> Originally referred to as the "Batable Land"—a term derived from its use as fertile grazing ground—the territory was notable for an agreement allowing both English and Scottish borderers to graze cattle during the day, despite prohibitions on permanent settlement.<ref name="auto21"/><ref name="Robb, Graham 2021. p23"/><ref name="auto23"/>

[[Berwick-upon-Tweed]], a strategically important town on the Anglo-Scottish border, changed hands multiple times during the medieval period, reflecting its contested status between England and Scotland. The town was alternately controlled by each kingdom, with significant captures in 1174, 1296, and 1318, among others. Its turbulent history culminated in 1482 when it was seized by Richard, Duke of Gloucester (later Richard III), and thereafter remained under English administration. Berwick's frequent exchanges highlight its role as both a prize of war and a continued focal point of Anglo-Scottish tensions.<ref>Porter, Linda. Crown of Thistles: The Fatal Inheritance of Mary, Queen of Scots. Pan Macmillan, London, 2013. {{ISBN|978-0-230-75321-1}}.</ref>

The Anglo-Scottish border was not fully demarcated until the mid-19th century, when the [[Ordnance Survey]] mapped the area in detail. Even as late as this period, some lands, such as Kirkholm Common, were still considered by locals to be threipland. Locals regarded it as shared communal ground, with its historical status as contested land lingering in local tradition.<ref>Anon. The Land of Scott, or Abbotsford, the Country of the Tweed and its Tributaries and St Mary's Loch. Adam & Charles Black, Edinburgh, 1856.</ref>

Other disputed areas were resolved through less formal means. The Ba Green (or Ba' Green or Ball Green) near [[Wark on Tweed|Wark]] and [[Coldstream]], a Scottish tract of land that curiously lies on the English side of the [[River Tweed]], is one such example. This threipland became the subject of an annual game of football, whose result determined temporary control of the land. Over time, Coldstream's growing population allowed it to field far more players than Wark, leading to the land being informally absorbed into Scotland.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.scottishdailyexpress.co.uk/lifestyle/tiny-part-scotland-thats-in-32959342 | title=The tiny part of Scotland that's 'in England' thanks to medieval football match | date=4 June 2024 }}</ref><ref>Moffat, Alistair. The Reivers: The Story of the Border Reivers. Birlinn, 2011., pp89</ref>

==== Overlapping powers: judicial, religious, and secular authority ====
[[File:Northern England in Late Medieval Period.png|thumb|Map of the complex overlying secular and religious powers in the late medieval period Northumberland]]
The Anglo-Scottish Borders were marked by overlapping systems of administration and law, creating a patchwork of competing jurisdictions.<ref>Neville, Cynthia J. ''Violence, Custom and Law: The Anglo-Scottish Border Lands in the Later Middle Ages''. Edinburgh University Press, 1998, p. 174-175.</ref> On the English side, noble families, ecclesiastical authorities, and state officials held varying degrees of power, often clashing over jurisdiction. Secular [[liberty (division)|liberties]] like [[Tynedale]] and [[Redesdale]] operated semi-independently, granting local lords significant autonomy to enforce laws and defend their territories. Robert de [[Umfraville]], also known as "Robert-with-the-Beard," was granted the newly established Liberty of Redesdale in [[1075]], replacing the former [[Anglo-Saxons|Anglian]] lord, Mildraed.<ref>Robson, Ralph. The English Highland Clans: Tudor Responses to a Mediaeval Problem. Edinburgh: John Donald Publishers, 1989., pp4</ref> The Liberty of Tynedale, created in [[1157]],<ref>Robson, Ralph. The English Highland Clans: Tudor Responses to a Mediaeval Problem. Edinburgh: John Donald Publishers, 1989., pp5</ref> was governed by the [[monarch of Scotland]] as a [[fief]] of England<ref>Robson, Ralph. The English Highland Clans: Tudor Responses to a Mediaeval Problem. Edinburgh: John Donald Publishers, 1989., pp6</ref> until death of [[Alexander III of Scotland|Alexander III]], when it reverted to English rule.<ref>Robson, Ralph. The English Highland Clans: Tudor Responses to a Mediaeval Problem. Edinburgh: John Donald, 1989. {{ISBN|978-0-85976-246-5}}. pp17</ref> The liberties were first incorporated into the shire of [[Northumberland]] during the reign of [[Henry VII of England|Henry VII]] and were later abolished entirely under [[Henry VIII]].<ref>"The Destruction of the Liberties: Some Further Evidence." Bulletin of the Institute of Historical Research, vol. 54, no. 130, Nov. 1981, pp. 150</ref>

To note, [[Liddesdale]], established in the late 12th century,<ref>Scott, J.G. "The Partition of a Kingdom: Strathclyde 1092–1153." Transactions of the Dumfriesshire and Galloway Natural History and Antiquarian Society, Series III, Vol. 72, 1997, pp.33</ref> was a rarity on the Scottish side, functioning effectively as a secular liberty, with its own keeper who, ''ex officio'', also held the position of Captain of [[Hermitage Castle]].<ref>Robson, Ralph. The English Highland Clans: Tudor Responses to a Mediaeval Problem. Edinburgh: John Donald, 1989. {{ISBN|978-0-85976-246-5}}. pp72-73</ref>

Religious influence was prominent in the liberty of [[Hexhamshire]], governed by the [[Archbishops of York]],<ref>Ellis, Steven G. "Region and Frontier in the English State: The English Far North, 1296–1603." In Frontiers, Regions and Identities in Europe, edited by Steven G. Ellis and Raingard Esser, 84. Pisa: Pisa University Press, 2009.</ref> and in the [[County Palatine of Durham]] (which included the exclaves of [[Norhamshire]] and [[Islandshire]] on the frontier), ruled by the [[Prince Bishops]], who held powers comparable to those of a king,<ref>Stringer, Keith. (2008). "States, Liberties and Communities in Medieval Britain and Ireland (c.1100–1400)." In Liberties and Identities in the Medieval British Isles, edited by Michael C. Prestwich, 14-15. Woodbridge: Boydell Press.</ref> including raising armies and collecting taxes. The religious liberties fiercely resisted the encroachment of secular lawmen into their jurisdictions.<ref>Neville, Cynthia J. ''Violence, Custom and Law: The Anglo-Scottish Border Lands in the Later Middle Ages''. Edinburgh University Press, 1998, p. 175.</ref>

[[File:Anglo-Scottish Marches v1.png|thumb|Anglo-Scottish Marches]]
The [[Earls of Northumberland]], based in [[Alnwick]], were another major force, holding substantial military and administrative influence over northern England.<ref name="auto24">Armstrong, Jackson W. Local Society and the Defence of the English Frontier in Fifteenth-Century Scotland: The War Measures of 1482. ''The Scottish Historical Review'', Volume 87, Issue 2, October 2008, pp. 153–176.</ref> The legal framework of the region was equally fragmented, with [[March law]] addressing cross-border disputes and raids,{{sfn|Neville|1998|p=5}} while state law and ecclesiastical law functioned in parallel. The Liberties, both religious and secular, were repeatedly accused of being havens for outlaws.<ref>Neville, C. J. "The Law of Treason in the English Border Counties in the Later Middle Ages." Law and History Review, vol. 9, no. 1, 1991, pp. 1–30. {{doi|10.2307/743658}} pp. 1–2</ref> Disputes often arose between [[Lord Warden of the Marches|Wardens of the Marches]], Keepers of the liberties, and local sheriffs, reflecting the constant struggle to impose order in this turbulent region.{{sfn|Neville|1998}}

While both England and Scotland had overlapping jurisdictions, Scottish regalities generally lacked the level of autonomy seen in English liberties.<ref>Armstrong, Jackson W. Local Society and the Defence of the English Frontier in Fifteenth-Century Scotland: The War Measures of 1482. The Scottish Historical Review, Volume 87, Issue 2, October 2008, pp. 153–176</ref> This difference arose because England had a more centralised system of governance, whereas Scotland's rule was more fragmented, with local polities retaining greater independence.<ref>Stringer, Keith. (2008). "States, Liberties and Communities in Medieval Britain and Ireland (c.1100–1400)." In Liberties and Identities in the Medieval British Isles, edited by Michael C. Prestwich, 16. Woodbridge: Boydell Press.</ref> Despite these differences, both nations faced persistent challenges in governing the borderlands, where local power dynamics frequently overruled central authority.<ref name="auto8"/>

==Antecedents on the Anglo-Scottish frontier==
===Hen Ogledd===
The pervasive tradition of cattle raiding and endemic violence in the Border region appears to have roots that extend deep into its history, suggesting that such practices have long been an intrinsic part of the area's cultural and social fabric. The earliest references to such behaviour appear in the Old Welsh ([[Hen Ogledd]]) poems attributed to bards such as [[Taliesin]], [[Aneirin]], and [[Llywarch Hen]], which describe battles and raids in the early medieval period of what is now the Anglo-Scottish Borders. These poetic accounts hint at a long-standing culture of raiding and conflict in the northern British territories.<ref>Robb, Graham. The Debatable Land: The Lost World Between Scotland and England. W. W. Norton & Company, 2021., p77</ref>

<blockquote>''I roared, my breast full of tumult,<br>Lance on my shoulder, shield in my hand,<br>When Goddeu and Rheged were ranged for war,<br>I saw a man who was raiding cattle -<br>Famous dragon, unique trampler.''<ref>Lewis, Gwyneth, and Rowan Williams, translators. ''The Book of Taliesin: Poems of Warfare and Praise in an Enchanted Britain''. Penguin Classics, London, 2019, lines 44–48, p.19. {{ISBN|978-0-14-139693-4}}.</ref></blockquote>

Modern genetic studies support the idea of continuity in the Borders region, showing that its population clusters separately from both broader Scottish and English genetic groups.<ref name="Gilbert, E. 2019">Gilbert, E., O'Reilly, S., Merrigan, M., McGettigan, D., Vitart, V., Joshi, P. K., Clark, D. W., Campbell, H., Hayward, C., Ring, S., Golding, J., Goodfellow, S., Navarro, P., Kerr, S. M., Amador, C., Campbell, A., Haley, C. S., Porteous, D. J., Cavalleri, G. L., & Wilson, J. F. (2019). The genetic landscape of Scotland and the Isles. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 116(38), 19064-19070.</ref> There is evidence of continued settlement patterns in the Anglo-Scottish Borders, suggesting a continuity of territorial practices from the pre-Anglo-Saxon period.<ref>O'Brien, C. (2002). The Early Medieval Shires of Yeavering, Breamish and Bamburgh. Archaeologia Aeliana, 5th Series, 30, p55.</ref> This distinction aligns with the historical role of the Borders as a cultural and geographical transitional zone and is consistent with the region's heritage, tracing back to the [[Brittonic languages|Brythonic-speaking]] kingdoms of [[Gododdin]] and [[Rheged]].<ref name="Gilbert, E. 2019"/>

==='The ancient laws and customs of the land'===
[[March law (Anglo-Scottish border)|Laws of the Marches]], or ''Leges Marchiarum'', first formally codified in [[1249]], offers a significant insight into the long-standing legal and social structures designed to manage the unique challenges of the Anglo-Scottish Border.<ref name="Leeson2009"/> This legal framework addressed not only diplomatic relations between England and Scotland but also sought to regulate banditry, cross-border smuggling, and feuding. Its provisions included the return of fugitives, the recovery of debts, and the production of accused parties at designated trysting places along the border, such as Reddenburn near Kelso.<ref name="auto23"/> These trysting places served as neutral meeting points for resolving disputes under the framework of March law.<ref name="auto19"/>

The formulation of March law followed a meeting in 1248 between six English knights and six Scottish knights, and the resulting code was formally promulgated the following year.{{sfn|Neville|1998|p=5}} Between 1249 and 1596, the laws of the marches were reviewed and recodified on at least eight occasions, reflecting their enduring importance in managing Border relations.<ref name="auto23"/> The legal traditions referenced in these codes draw upon "the ancient laws and customs of the land," and some of the language, such as "handwasil" and "manbote," suggests Anglo-Saxon origins. The document itself refers to the laws as originating "from a time which memory does not exist," implying that aspects of March law may predate the Norman Conquest. However, the extent to which these laws derive from pre-Norman customs remains a topic of scholarly debate.{{sfn|Neville|1998|p=1–2}}

===Schavaldours===
An earlier rendition of banditry may have been the bands of armed men who first appeared on the Borders in the early 14th century, then known as the Schavaldours<ref>"Schavaldour," *The Anglo-Norman Dictionary*. Retrieved 11 November 2024, from [https://anglo-norman.net/entry/schavaldour](https://anglo-norman.net/entry/schavaldour).</ref> (also spelled shavaldour, shavaldor, or shavaldor) during the unstable rule of [[Edward II of England]]. The term was first recorded in 1313, when [[Richard Kellaw|Richard de Kellawe]], then [[Bishop of Durham]], requested to be excused from levying any money from the goods of the parson of Whickham, citing the damage caused by "Schavadours and plunderers." The Schavaldours, like the later (and anachronistically named) Border reivers, were often pressed into service during cross-border wars, such as those in 1350.<ref name="auto5">King, Andy. War, Politics, and Landed Society in Northumberland, c.1296-c.1408. PhD Thesis, Durham University, 2001.</ref>

The problem of banditry grew worse following Edward II's loss at the [[Battle of Bannockburn]] in 1314 and appeared to further worsen after a severe famine in 1315–1317 and a failed campaign in 1322.<ref name="auto5"/> The anarchy that followed created conditions where both organised and independent bands of Scottish armed men, along with opportunistic English bands, raided as far as Yorkshire, devastating the land not only through plunder but also widespread burning.<ref name="auto25"/>

While the term 'Schalvadours' disappears from records by the late 14th century, the violence and lawlessness that characterised the Border region continued for centuries.<ref name="auto5"/>

===Border Warfare and the Rise of Surnames===
The Border reivers emerged between the end of the [[First War of Scottish Independence|First Scottish War of Independence]] and the [[Wars of the Roses]], as fortified defenses in England began appear during this period.<ref name="auto25"/><ref name="auto19"/> The earliest example for an elaborate nickname appears in this period, with John "Out with the sword" Turnbull (early 15th century).<ref name="auto"/><ref name="auto27">Scott Elliot, George Francis. The Border Elliots and the Family of Minto. David Douglas, Edinburgh, 1897.</ref>

It was during this turbulent period that surnames and heidsmen emerged, reflecting the region's descent into endemic warfare and banditry. These kinship groups and leaders were vital for organising defence, raids, and social order in a lawless frontier where traditional authority had broken down.<ref name="Ellis, Steven G 1995, p.62"/>

During [[Edward II of England|Edward II]]'s reign, men in the liberties of Tynedale and Redesdale received immunity from land confiscation, a deliberate policy to secure their loyalty for Scottish campaigns. These liberties often provided sanctuary for raiders and fugitives, with a formal protected status emerging through Edward's policies.<ref name="auto25"/>

The [[Wars of Scottish Independence|Wars of Independence]] severely impacted the Borders, leading to the displacement of many local gentry families due to violence and instability.<ref name="auto25"/> After the [[Battle of Bannockburn|Battle of Bannockburn (1314)]], the weakened English crown effectively abandoned northern England, issuing [[scorched earth|scorched earth retreat]] orders that were often ignored by English borderers who joined in the plunder. Many families who did leave never to return.<ref>Ralph Robson, The English Highland Clans, (Edinburgh: John Donald Publishers, 1989), p33</ref> However, following the English victory at [[Halidon Hill|Halidon Hill (1333)]], both older and newly emergent Surnames began to re-establish themselves in the region.<ref>Ralph Robson, The English Highland Clans, (Edinburgh: John Donald Publishers, 1989), p35</ref>

In the aftermath of the Battle of Bannockburn, a new type of soldier emerged from the northern counties: the hobelar. These lightly armoured cavalrymen, mounted on hardy fell ponies and equipped with lances or bows, rose to prominence during the reign of Edward III.<ref>Ralph Robson, The English Highland Clans, (Edinburgh: John Donald Publishers, 1989)., p33</ref>

Following [[Edward Balliol]]'s defeat at the [[Battle of Halidon Hill]] (1333), England expanded into southern Scotland and neglected governance of the traditional border region, creating a power vacuum that fostered lawlessness.{{sfn|Neville|1998|pp=30-31}} Despite the Treaty of Berwick ending the Wars of Scottish Independence after [[David II of Scotland|David II]]'s return from English captivity in 1357,<ref>Magnusson, Magnus. Scotland, The Story of a Nation. London: HarperCollins, 2001, pp204-5</ref>  border raiding continued as an established way of life.

==The Years of Truces==
===From 1357 to the Wars of the Roses===
Between the end of the [[Wars of Scottish Independence]] (1357) and the [[Battle of Flodden|Battle of Flodden (1513)]]<ref name="auto11"/> there were intermittent peace agreements and an uneasy balance of power between England and Scotland.<ref>Ellis, Steven G. Tudor Frontiers and Noble Power: The Making of the British State. Oxford University Press, 1995, p. 37.</ref> While no major wars erupted, the Anglo-Scottish border remained a hotspot for raiding, feuding, and political tensions.<ref name="auto23"/><ref>Ellis, Steven G. "A Border Baron and the Tudor State: The Rise and Fall of Lord Dacre of the North." The Historical Journal 35, no. 2 (1992): 254. {{JSTOR|2639668}}</ref> Barely had the ink dried in 1357 before the [[Lord Warden of the Marches|Warden of the West March]] Thomas [[de Lucy]] was accused of imprisoning Scots for the purpose of ransom. Later he was accused of collusion with the men of [[Eskdale, Cumbria|Eskdale]], there was a theft of several thousand animals and £20,{{sfn|Neville|1998|p=47}} in excess of £16,792 today.<ref>(UK Inflation Calculator, accessed [30/11/2024])</ref>

The 1370s on the Borders are recorded as particularly lawless and violent, with raiders sacking and burning houses, farms, and monasteries, while the people were either carried away or slaughtered.<ref>Neville, C. J. "The Law of Treason in the English Border Counties in the Later Middle Ages." Law and History Review 9, no. 1 (1991): 10. {{doi|10.2307/743658}}.</ref>

Although there were long-term truces after the [[Wars of Scottish Independence]] and relatively few official cross-border raids, the proliferation of more humble fortified structures such as bastle houses and pele towers across the Anglo-Scottish borderland underscores the enduring instability of the region; they responded to persistent threats of raiding and violence, which continued even during periods of nominal peace.<ref>Steingraber, Aubrey Maria. Landscape and the Making of the Medieval Anglo-Scottish Border: Power, Place, and Perspective c.1200-c.1500. PhD Thesis, University of York, 2022., passim.</ref>

Raiding continued as a persistent feature of the borderlands, punctuating periods of truce. These ranged from smaller skirmishes to occasional large-scale raids, such as the [[Battle of Otterburn]] (1388) and [[Battle of Homildon Hill|Homildon Hill]] (1402), which occasionally escalated into significant but localised conflicts. Both kingdoms sought to maintain periods of relative calm through truce agreements and diplomatic efforts, though these efforts were often fragile and difficult to enforce in the contested border regions.<ref name="auto14"/>

It was during this time we see the emergence of English border magnates like the [[House of Neville|Nevilles]], [[Cliffords family|Cliffords]], and [[Baron Dacre|Dacres]], as well as an emergent lower gentry such as the [[Musgraves of Northern England|Musgraves]], Herons, [[Scrope]]s, and later still, the [[Baron Eure|Eures]], [[Mitford family|Mitfords]], [[Ogles]], and [[Moresby (surname)|Moresbys]], who would come to fill key positions along the English Borders, including [[Sheriff of Northumberland|Sheriff]], [[Justice of the peace|Justice of the Peace]], [[Lord Warden of the Marches|March Wardens]], Keepers of [[Tynedale]] and [[Redesdale]], Captains of [[Berwick Castle|Berwick]] and [[Carlisle Castle|Carlisle]], and other vital military and administrative roles responsible for the defence and governance of this volatile frontier region.<ref>Neville, Cynthia J., Violence, Custom and Law: The Anglo-Scottish Border Lands in the Later Middle Ages (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1998).</ref> It's important to note the Border gentry were few in number and much poorer compared with other parts of England<ref name="auto6"/> and having about the same income as a southern yeoman in the early Tudor period.<ref>Ellis, Steven G. Tudor Frontiers and Noble Power: The Making of the British State. Oxford University Press, 1995, p.53</ref>

The [[Percy family]], [[Earl of Northumberland|Earls of Northumberland]], played a significant role in the conflicts that destabilised England. The Percys first rebelled against King Henry IV during the early 15th century, joining forces with [[Owain Glyndŵr]] and [[Edmund Mortimer (rebel)|Edmund Mortimer]] in the [[Tripartite Indenture]], a plan to divide England and Wales between them. Led by [[Henry Percy (Hotspur)|Sir Henry "Hotspur" Percy]], the rebellion culminated in the [[Battle of Shrewsbury|Battle of Shrewsbury (1403)]], where Hotspur was killed.<ref name="auto23"/>

Despite two further rebellions, the [[Henry Percy, 2nd Earl of Northumberland|2nd Earl of Northumberland]] was restored as Warden of the Marches by Henry V. During this period, the Percy family consolidated their power in the north, notably absorbing the liberty of Redesdale from the [[Umfraville]] to [[Tailboys]] vassals in 1436, following the extinction of the Umfraville line.<ref>Ellis, Steven G. Tudor Frontiers and Noble Power: The Making of the British State. Oxford University Press, 1995, p.55</ref> Despite this growing authority and the responsibilities of the Wardenship, reports of "numerous robbers and felons called [https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/intaker Intakers] [receivers of stolen goods] and Outputters [smugglers]" continued to trouble the region.<ref>Robson, Ralph. The English Highland Clans: Tudor Responses to a Mediaeval Problem. Edinburgh: John Donald, 1989. p56</ref>

===The Wars of the Roses===
During the [[Wars of the Roses]], the [[Percy family|Percy]] family expanded their influence in the eastern regions, while the Neville family grew in power in Cumbria, fostering a bitter rivalry. The two families supported opposing factions in the conflict, with the [[House of Neville|Nevilles]] aligning more successfully with the [[House of York|Yorkist]] cause. This strategic advantage allowed the Nevilles to claim the Percy earldom in 1463 following the Percys’ poor choice of allegiance.

During the Wars of the Roses, southern English communities viewed northern Borderers as a constant threat. The [[Battle of Towton|campaigns of 1460–61]] were seen by figures like [[John Whethamstede|Abbot Whethamstede]] as a northern rebellion, with chroniclers describing northerners as a "plague of locusts" feared for robbery and devastation, particularly in London.<ref>Whethamstede, J. Register, in H.T. Riley (ed.), Registra quorundam Abbatum Monasterii S. Albani, Vol. I. London: Longman & Co., 1872, pp. 171ff, 386ff.</ref> This perception of the north as a militarized and hostile frontier region reinforced southern anxieties about the Borderers.<ref name="auto6"/>

Despite the ongoing civil war between the houses of Lancaster and York, truces with Scotland were maintained and periodically renewed. A 40-year truce was agreed upon in 1479.<ref name="auto20">Cynthia J. Neville, ''Violence, Custom and Law'' (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1998).</ref>

However, despite the agreement, raiding resumed the following year. During the so-called ''Gloucester's War'', The [[Archibald Douglas, 5th Earl of Angus|Earl of Angus]] led a deep raid into the East March, prompting a retaliatory campaign by Richard, Duke of Gloucester, who launched a raid into Scotland.<ref>Armstrong, Jackson W. "Local Society and the Defence of the English Frontier in Fifteenth-Century Scotland: The War Measures of 1482." The Scottish Historical Review, Vol. 87, No. 1 (2008), pp. 1–26.</ref> This outbreak of violence was short-lived, concluding by 1484.<ref name="auto20"/> Nevertheless, the devastation was so extensive that the Barony of Gilsland, held by Lord Dacre, was assessed at only 15% of its previous value in the aftermath of ''Gloucester’s War''.<ref>Ellis, Steven G. Tudor Frontiers and Noble Power: The Making of the British State. Oxford University Press, 1995, p.90.</ref> To note, [[Richard III of England|Richard, Duke of Gloucester]], was the only individual to be granted a Wardenry as a hereditary title, having been appointed hereditary Warden of the West March by his brother, [[Edward IV]].<ref name="Neville, Cynthia J. 1998, p. 173">Neville, Cynthia J. ''Violence, Custom and Law: The Anglo-Scottish Border Lands in the Later Middle Ages''. Edinburgh University Press, 1998, p. 173.</ref>

This brief conflict was significant for one key reason: it marked the final time [[Berwick-upon-Tweed]] changed hands, solidifying English control over the strategic town. Additionally, it saw the Duke of Albany cede control over much of South West Scotland, although this concession proved short-lived, with the territory returning to Scottish hands not long after.<ref name="auto20"/>

==The Early Tudor Period==
===Henry VII and James IV===
[[Henry VII of England|Henry VII]] and [[James IV of Scotland|James IV]] were initially cordial, encouraged the Border courts and reminded the Border magnates of their obligation to maintain truce.<ref name="auto12">Cynthia J. Neville, ''Violence, Custom and Law: The Anglo-Scottish Border Lands in the Later Middle Ages'' (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1998).</ref>

However, despite this initial cordiality and relative peace along the Borders, the period soon saw growing tensions and rivalry between the two monarchs and an increase in banditry, as the fragile truces often proved difficult to enforce.<ref name="auto12"/>

In [[1495]], the pretender to the English crown, [[Perkin Warbeck]] became a guest of James IV and raids resumed on both sides of the Border with renewed intensity, disrupting the fragile peace established earlier.<ref name="auto12"/> In the following year, [[Perkin Warbeck]] led a small-scale invasion of England, attempting to capitalise on the ongoing tensions between England and Scotland. The invasion, however, was poorly supported and ultimately failed to achieve any significant objectives.<ref name="auto1">Goodwin, George. Fatal Rivalry: Flodden 1513 - Henry VIII, James IV and the Battle for Renaissance Britain. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2013.</ref>

In the same year as Perkin Warbeck's raid, Henry VII revoked [[Tynedale]]’s liberty status and incorporated it into the county of [[Northumberland]].<ref>Etty, Claire. "Neighbours from Hell? Living with Tynedale and Redesdale, 1489–1547." In Liberties and Identities in the Medieval British Isles, edited by Michael C. Prestwich, Alexander Grant, and Keith J. Stringer, 120.</ref>

[[1502|Seven years later]], Hob the King (Halbert Elliot) and Dand the Man (Andrew Elliot) rode out from Liddesdale and brazenly stole 180 sheep from the Lammermuir Hills—well within sight of the city of Edinburgh—demonstrating that Borderers had little hesitation in raiding their own countrymen when it suited them.<ref>Moffat, Alistair. The Reivers: The Story of the Border Reivers. Edinburgh: Birlinn, 2021., pp144</ref>

A particularly notable intra-national warfare episode occurred during just preceding the death of [[Henry VII of England|Henry VII]] in 1509, when a dispute over harbour dues between the municipality of [[Newcastle upon Tyne|Newcastle]] and the [[Tynemouth Priory and Castle|Prior of Tynemouth]] escalated into outright violence. The Prior, assembling a company of 500 armed men from liberties of Tynedale and Redesdale - equipped with spears, swords, bows, and arrows - ordered them to attack Newcastle. Over the course of six days, the raiders killed around 100 inhabitants and effectively laid siege to the city. The inhabitants of Newcastle, fearing for their lives, were forced to remain within the city walls, unable to retaliate.<ref name="auto3">Ralph Robson, ''The English Highland Clans: The Northern Border and the Anglo-Scottish Wars'' (Edinburgh: John Donald Publishers, 1989).</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://discovery.nationalarchives.gov.uk/details/r/C3978155 |title=Description of document from National Archives |website=The National Archives |access-date=2024-12-01}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://discovery.nationalarchives.gov.uk/details/r/C3978131 |title=Description of document from National Archives |website=The National Archives |access-date=2024-12-01}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://discovery.nationalarchives.gov.uk/details/r/C3975186 |title=Description of document from National Archives |website=The National Archives |access-date=2024-12-01}}</ref>

During the early Tudor period, governance and expenditure on the English side of the border underwent significant changes. The Border castles were removed from the control of the Wardens, their garrisons were greatly reduced, and Warden salaries were cut.<ref>Ellis, Steven G. Tudor Frontiers and Noble Power: The Making of the British State. Oxford University Press, 1995, p.49.</ref> As a result, the responsibility for border defence increasingly fell to the local nobility.<ref name="Neville, Cynthia J. 1998, p. 173"/>

==Henry VIII, James IV, and the Battle of Flodden==
The 1503 marriage of Margaret Tudor to James IV, under the Treaty of Perpetual Peace, aimed to stabilise Anglo-Scottish relations. However, tensions persisted, with Henry VIII antagonising James by withholding Margaret's dowry and asserting English overlordship.<ref>Goodwin, George. ''Fatal Rivalry: Flodden 1513''. Phoenix (Orion Books Ltd), 2013., p135-138</ref>

=== The Murder of Robert Ker ===
Sometime between 1500 and 1511,<ref>Robson, Ralph. ''The English Highland Clans: Tudor Responses to a Mediaeval Problem''. Edinburgh: J. Donald Publishers, 1989., p75</ref><ref name="Fraser, George MacDonald 1995. p173">Fraser, George MacDonald. ''The Steel Bonnets: The Story of the Anglo-Scottish Border Reivers''. HarperCollins, 1995., p173</ref> John "the Bastard" Heron murdered Robert Ker of Cessford, Warden of the Middle March, during a March Day meeting—an extraordinary breach of protocol.,<ref name="Fraser, George MacDonald 1995. p173"/> The act sparked a violent feud, with reprisals including the murder of Heron's accomplice in York.<ref name="Fraser, George MacDonald 1995. p173"/> James IV viewed the unresolved killing as a major insult, referencing it in a letter to Henry VIII in August 1513—weeks before Flodden.<ref>Goodwin, George. ''Fatal Rivalry: Flodden 1513''. Phoenix (Orion Books Ltd), 2013., p87</ref>

=== The Ill Raid ===
A month before Flodden, Alexander, Lord Home, led a raid into England that ended in disaster, with 900 Scots killed or captured by Sir William Bulmer.<ref>Fraser, George MacDonald. ''The Steel Bonnets: The Story of the Anglo-Scottish Border Reivers''. HarperCollins, 1995., p215</ref> Days before the battle, Catherine of Aragon pardoned Heron for Ker's murder;<ref>Goodwin, George. ''Fatal Rivalry: Flodden 1513''. Phoenix (Orion Books Ltd), 2013., p172</ref> he would go on to help guide the English army and fight with a band of fifty outlaws.<ref name="Sadler, John 2006">Sadler, John (2006). Flodden 1513: Scotland's greatest defeat. Oxford: Osprey., p?</ref>

===The Battle of Flodden===
On 9 September 1513, James IV and the bulk of Scotland's nobility were killed at [[Battle of Flodden|Flodden]]. Losses included 21 earls, 14 lords, and as many as 8,000 men.<ref>Goodwin, George. ''Fatal Rivalry: Flodden 1513''. Phoenix (Orion Books Ltd), 2013., p208</ref>

At Flodden, Border troops fought on both sides. Dacre's English force included feuding contingents from Tynemouthshire and Bamburghshire, alongside Heron's outlaws.<ref name="Sadler, John 2006"/> On the Scottish right, Home's mixed force nearly broke the English line. When Lord Howard's flank faltered, Heron's men launched a decisive counterattack, saving the position.<ref>Goodwin, George. ''Fatal Rivalry: Flodden 1513''. Phoenix (Orion Books Ltd), 2013., p213</ref>

Home's later withdrawal—possibly due to Dacre's influence or his brother's captivity—critically weakened the Scots. His failed attempt to retake the Scottish guns ended the campaign.<ref name="Sadler, John 2006"/>

The battle also revealed the opportunism of Border society: while the armies clashed, men from Teviotdale and Tynedale looted the English baggage train. Some English Borderers were even accused of assisting the Scots and taking prisoners on both sides—allegations denied by Dacre.<ref>Durham, Keith. ''Border Reiver 1513–1603''. Osprey Publishing, 2011., p52</ref><ref>Robson, Ralph. The English Highland Clans: Tudor Responses to a Mediaeval Problem. Edinburgh: John Donald Publishers, p194-195</ref>

By the late evening of 9 September 1513, many of Scotland's leading men lay dead on English soil, their loss devastating the kingdom's leadership. Among the few surviving magnates were aforementioned [[Alexander Home, 3rd Lord Home|Home]]. The body of [[James IV of Scotland|King James IV]] was discovered on the battlefield and later sent south by [[Thomas Dacre, 2nd Baron Dacre|Dacre]] as proof of the catastrophic defeat.<ref name="auto11"/><ref name="auto4">Goodwin, George. Fatal Rivalry: Flodden 1513—Henry VIII, James IV and the Battle for Renaissance Britain. Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2013. {{ISBN|978-0-297-86739-5}}.</ref>

== The heyday of the 'Border reivers' (1513-1603) ==
The last hundred years is often regarded as the heyday of the Border reivers, characterised by persistent raiding, feuding, and lawlessness perhaps the worst the Borders had seen. However, while this period—especially its later decades—is the best recorded, with the most surviving sources,<ref name="Fraser, George MacDonald 1995. pp309">Fraser, George MacDonald. The Steel Bonnets: The Story of the Anglo-Scottish Border Reivers. HarperCollins, 1995., pp309</ref> this does not necessarily mean it was the most severe.

It was the period we see the end of the liberties of Redesdale and Tynedale and the end of the Debatable Land. The era also saw the end of the militarised border. The [[Union of the Crowns]] in 1603, when [[James VI and I|James VI of Scotland]] succeeded to the English throne as James I, marked the end of centuries of conflict between the two kingdoms.<ref name="Fraser1971">{{cite book|last=Fraser |first=George MacDonald |title=The Steel Bonnets: The Story of the Anglo-Scottish Border Reivers |publication-place=London |publisher=Barrie and Jenkins |date=1971 |isbn=0-214-65308-0}}</ref>

===After Flodden===
Almost immediately after the Battle of Flodden, riders from Scotland launched raids, burning four towns in England. In response, [[Thomas Dacre, 2nd Baron Dacre|Dacre]] led punitive judicial raids, devastating towns such as [[Annan, Dumfries and Galloway|Annan]] and razing villages and buildings across [[Teviotdale]], [[Liddesdale]], and [[Ewesdale]], while seizing 4,000 head of cattle.<ref name="Fraser1971"/>

Dacre, reportedly acting under the direction of [[Thomas Wolsey|Cardinal Wolsey]] and [[Henry VIII|King Henry VIII]], paid Scottish surnames to conduct raids into Scotland while simultaneously entertaining factions opposed to the [[Archibald Douglas, 6th Earl of Angus|Angus]] regency. Far from attempting to control the Borders, Dacre was orchestrating chaos to undermine Scottish stability. Ironically, a joint Maxwell-Irvine force of 400 men raided the [[Debatable Lands|Debatable Land]] and lifted 700 cattle from his tenants. When Dacre lodged a complaint, the Maxwell heidsman reportedly replied that the cattle had been taken "orderly, according to the customs of the Borders."<ref>Fraser, George MacDonald. The Steel Bonnets: The Story of the Anglo-Scottish Border Reivers. HarperCollins, 1995. p218-222</ref>

===Settling the Debatable Land===
In the early 16th century, the Armstrongs and Grahams broke with Border custom by settling in the Debatable Land—a territory long regarded as neutral and lawless. This incursion was acknowledged by the Scottish government as early as 1517<ref>Robb, Graham. The Debatable Land: The Lost World Between Scotland and England. W.W. Norton & Company, 2018., p118</ref> or 1518.{{sfn|Robson|1989|p=73}} Meanwhile, Lord Dacre, permitted loyal Scottish Grahams to settle its southern end, further eroding its no-man's-land status.<ref>Robb, Graham. The Debatable Land: The Lost World Between Scotland and England. W.W. Norton & Company, 2018. p119.</ref> One account suggests that the banished Grahams first settled in 1516,<ref>Ellis, Steven G. Tudor Frontiers and Noble Power: The Making of the British State. Oxford University Press, 1995, p.63.</ref> with the Armstrongs following in 1518, reportedly with Lord Dacre's approval.<ref>MacKenzie, W. Mackay. "The Debateable Land." The Scottish Historical Review, vol. 30, no. 110, 1951, pp. 117–120.</ref>

The policy of tolerating settlement in the Debatable Land did nothing to curb banditry in the Anglo-Scottish borderlands; criminality persisted, and the Armstrongs only grew more powerful.{{sfn|Fraser|1971|p=227}}

==='Heyday South of the Border'===
Throughout the 1520s, amid persistent [[famine]] and [[rinderpest]] outbreaks,{{sfn|Robson|1989|pp=79}} the already overpopulated Cheviot Highlands suffered further strain.<ref>Ellis, Steven G. Tudor Frontiers and Noble Power: The Making of the British State. Oxford University Press, 1995, p.64</ref> The ensuing social disruption—exacerbated by war, famine, and disease—fostered the rise of large bands of plunderers operating across the Anglo-Scottish borderlands.<ref>Ellis, Steven G. Tudor Frontiers and Noble Power: The Making of the British State. Oxford University Press, 1995, p.65</ref>

These groups sometimes coalesced around local minor noble or gentry figures into confederacies—known as outlawed "Surnames"—led by individuals such as Sir Nicholas Ridley in the early 1520s and later Sir William Lisle of Felton in the mid-to-late 1520s.<ref>Fraser, George MacDonald. The Steel Bonnets: The Story of the Anglo-Scottish Border Reivers. HarperCollins, 1989, pp.229-230.</ref>  Notably, both had previously served as lawmen, yet in a reversal of the common Border formula, those charged with maintaining order increasingly became, effectively, poachers.{{sfn|Robson|1989|pp=79–82}} Some, like the then [[Lord Warden of the Marches|Warden]] and former Keeper of [[Redesdale]], [[Thomas Dacre, 2nd Baron Dacre]], got perilously close to being [[outlaw]]ed for associating too closely with known thieves.<ref>Etty, Claire. "Neighbours from Hell? Living with Tynedale and Redesdale, 1489–1547." In Liberties and Identities in the Medieval British Isles, edited by Michael Prestwich, 124. Boydell & Brewer, 2008.</ref>

North of the border, Lord Dacre launched two massive raids against the Armstrongs of Liddesdale and the Debatable Land. In retaliation, the Armstrongs mounted raids into Cumbria. Dacre, in turn, responded again, but this time he retaliated by burning the towers of the sons of the infamous Johnny Armstrong.<ref>Fraser, George MacDonald. The Steel Bonnets: The Story of the Anglo-Scottish Border Reivers. HarperCollins, 1989, pp. 230-232.</ref> It is important to note that while the Armstrong-Dacre feud raged on, it was only one of many such raids and counter-raids along the border.<ref>Fraser, George MacDonald. The Steel Bonnets: The Story of the Anglo-Scottish Border Reivers HarperCollins, 1989, pp. 231-233.</ref>

====Monition of Cursing====
In 1525, the [[Archbishop of Glasgow]], [[Gavin Dunbar (archbishop of Glasgow)|Gavin Dunbar]], issued the extraordinary fifteen-hundred word ''Monition of Cursing'', damning all who dwelled in the Borders to hell.<ref>Moffat, Alistair. The Border Reivers: The Story of the Anglo-Scottish Borderlands. Birlinn, 2007., p163</ref><ref>Robb, Graham. The Debatable Land: The Lost World Between Scotland and England. Picador, 2018., p33</ref>

<blockquote>''I curse thair heid and all tha haris of their head; I curse thair face, thair ene, thair mouth, thair neise, thair toung, thair teith, thair crag, thair schulderis, thair breist, thair hert, thair stomok, thair bak, thair wame, thair armes, thair leggis, thair handis, thair feit, and everilk part of thair body, frae the top of thair heaid to the soill of thair feit, befoir and behding, within and without''.<ref>George MacDonald Fraser, ''The Steel Bonnets: The Story of the Anglo-Scottish Border Reivers'' (London: HarperCollins, 1971), Appendix I. p383</ref></blockquote>

It was also during this time that the [[Bishop of Durham]] cursed the men of [[Tynedale]].<ref>Fraser, George MacDonald. The Steel Bonnets: The Story of the Anglo-Scottish Border Reivers HarperCollins, 1989, pp. 226 n.1.</ref>

====James V's Attainment of Majority====
This period was bookended in [[1530]] by the coming of age of [[James V]], who sought to assert royal authority over the Borders by imprisoning, and in some cases executing, leading figures he perceived as threats to his kingdom.<ref>Fraser, George MacDonald. The Steel Bonnets: The Story of the Anglo-Scottish Border Reivers HarperCollins, 1989, pp. 238-239.</ref> Among those captured was the aforemnentioned Johnny Armstrong and 35 of his followers.{{sfn|Robson|1989|p=103}}<ref name="Magnusson, Magnus 2000, p. 303">Magnusson, Magnus. Scotland: The Story of a Nation. London: HarperCollins, 2000, p. 303.</ref> Johnny's capture and execution was later romanticised in the ballad ''[[Johnnie Armstrong]]''.<ref>Reed, James, ed. Border Ballads: A Selection. Fyfield Books, 2003.</ref><ref name="Magnusson, Magnus 2000, p. 303"/> Despite James V best efforts to suppress banditry, by imprisoning and mass hangings, there was seemingly little change.{{sfn|Robson|1989|p=105}}<ref>Fraser, George MacDonald. The Steel Bonnets: The Story of the Anglo-Scottish Border Reivers HarperCollins, 1989, pp. 240.</ref>

====Pilgrimage of the Grace====
The [[Pilgrimage of Grace]] was a large-scale rebellion in [[1536]] against Henry VIII's religious and political reforms, particularly the [[dissolution of the monasteries]], drawing support from across Northern England.<ref>Moffat, Alistair. The Reivers: The Story of the Border Reivers. Birlinn, 2011., p175-6</ref>

The Pilgrimage of Grace had notable connections to the Border Reivers, particularly through the Percy family and their alliances in Tynedale and Redesdale. [[Thomas Percy (Pilgrimage of Grace)|Sir Thomas Percy]], brother of Henry Percy, 6th Earl of Northumberland, played a leading role in the rebellion and sought the support of prominent Border surnames. Representatives from Tynedale and Redesdale, including Edward and Cuthbert Charlton of Bellingham and John Hall of Otterburn, were present at the [[Pontefract Castle|Pontefract]] meeting with the [[Thomas Howard, 3rd Duke of Norfolk|Duke of Norfolk]].<ref>Etty, Claire. "Neighbours from Hell? Living with Tynedale and Redesdale, 1489–1547." In Liberties and Identities in the Medieval British Isles, edited by Michael Prestwich, 130.</ref>

Their involvement was likely facilitated by ‘Little’ John Heron of [[Chipchase Castle|Chipchase]], a key Percy ally with strong ties to the Charltons. Heron leveraged these connections to rally Border support, including resistance to the dissolution of [[Hexham Abbey|Hexham Priory]], with the Charltons and their followers pledging their loyalty in exchange for payment. The reivers' participation extended beyond the rebellion itself, as seen in their role in the occupation of Ford Castle and the assassination of Roger Fenwick, the newly appointed Keeper of Tynedale, in early 1537.<ref>Etty, Claire. "Neighbours from Hell? Living with Tynedale and Redesdale, 1489–1547." In Liberties and Identities in the Medieval British Isles, edited by Michael Prestwich, 131.</ref>

In 1536, [[Henry VIII]] abolished [[Redesdale]]’s liberty status and fully integrated it into the county of [[Northumberland]].<ref>Etty, Claire. "Neighbours from Hell? Living with Tynedale and Redesdale, 1489–1547." In Liberties and Identities in the Medieval British Isles, edited by Michael C. Prestwich, Alexander Grant, and Keith J. Stringer, 120. Woodbridge: Boydell Press, 2008.</ref>

Lawlessness increased with the downfall of the Dacre in the West and the disgrace of the Percies in the East, as no Border lord could unite the Surnames under a single banner.<ref>Becker, Jeffrey Marcus. "Armed Conflict and Border Society: The East and Middle Marches, 1536-60." PhD thesis, Durham University, 2006., pp181</ref>

===The Borders during the 'Rough Wooing'===
History may not repeat itself, but it does rhyme. Like his father, James IV, who perished at [[Battle of Flodden|Flodden]], James V suffered a decisive defeat at the [[Battle of Solway Moss]] in 1542. However, unlike his father, he did not fall in battle but succumbed to illness soon afterward. Once again, the Scottish throne passed to an infant—this time, a girl, [[Mary, Queen of Scots]].<ref name="Magnusson, Magnus 2000, p. 314">Magnusson, Magnus. Scotland: The Story of a Nation. London: HarperCollins, 2000, p. 314.</ref><ref>Sadler, John. The Hot Trod: A History of the Anglo-Scottish Border. Amberley Publishing, 2024. {{ISBN|978-1-3981-1962-8}}., p206</ref> In the aftermath, Scotland descended into factional strife as rival nobles vied for the [[Archibald Douglas, 6th Earl of Angus|Regency.]] Seizing the moment, [[Henry VIII]] intervened in Scottish affairs, exploiting both political instability and the growing religious tensions of the Reformation.<ref name="Magnusson, Magnus 2000, p. 314"/>

The conflict known as the [[Rough Wooing]] — lasting from 1542 to 1551 — refers to Henry VIII's military and diplomatic campaign aimed at coercing the leading Scottish nobility into agreeing to a marriage between his infant son [[Edward VI|Edward]] and the young Mary, Queen of Scots.<ref>Fraser, George MacDonald. The Steel Bonnets: The Story of the Anglo-Scottish Border Reivers. HarperCollins, 1989. p 254</ref> This led to the destruction of 192 towns, towers, and bastle-houses, as well as the capture of 20,000 cattle.<ref>Fraser, George MacDonald. The Steel Bonnets: The Story of the Anglo-Scottish Border Reivers. HarperCollins, 1989. p 258</ref> This devastation only made the Borders more dangerous and lawless, with English and Scottish borderers — and even the local Scottish aristocracy — joining in the depredation.<ref>Fraser, George MacDonald. The Steel Bonnets: The Story of the Anglo-Scottish Border Reivers. HarperCollins, 1989. p 259</ref><ref>Magnusson, Magnus. Scotland: The Story of a Nation. London: HarperCollins, 2000, p. 324.</ref><ref>Durham, Keith. Border Reiver 1513–1603. Illustrated by Angus McBride. Osprey Publishing, Warrior Series No. 154, 2011. {{ISBN|978-1-84908-193-1}}. p12</ref>{{sfn|Robson|1989|p=183}}

During this period, Henry VIII and his appointed man on the Borders, [[Thomas Wharton, 1st Baron Wharton|Sir Richard Wharton]], actively encouraged Scottish raiding. A notable instance occurred in 1543, when the Liddesdale Armstrongs were urged to raid and burn the lands and property of the Kerrs and Scotts. Despite this support, the Liddesdale Armstrongs carried out an attack on Hexham in the same year.<ref name="Fraser, George MacDonald 1989. p 256">Fraser, George MacDonald. The Steel Bonnets: The Story of the Anglo-Scottish Border Reivers. HarperCollins, 1989. p 256</ref> A contemporary report described English villages as desolate, calling for their repopulation and for increased enforcement by local garrisons.<ref>Ellis, Steven G. Tudor Frontiers and Noble Power: The Making of the British State. Oxford University Press, 1995, p.70.</ref>

Included among the Scottish Surnames most actively fighting alongside the English Borderers, southern English troops and foreign mercernaries were the Olivers, Davidsons, Pringles, Taits, Youngs, Turnballs, Elliots, Crosers, Nixons, Armstrongs and Rutherfords.<ref>Fraser, George MacDonald. The Steel Bonnets: The Story of the Anglo-Scottish Border Reivers. HarperCollins, 1989. p 257-266</ref> The principle target of these raids were the Surnames Maxwell and Kerr.<ref name="Fraser, George MacDonald 1989. p 256"/><ref>Fraser, George MacDonald. The Steel Bonnets: The Story of the Anglo-Scottish Border Reivers. HarperCollins, 1989. p 270</ref> In 1552, the long-standing feud between the Scotts and the Kerrs spilled into Edinburgh, where [[Walter Scott of Branxholme and Buccleuch|Sir Walter Scott of Buccleuch]] was assassinated by members of the Kerr family.<ref>Moffat, Alistair. The Reivers: The Story of the Border Reivers. Birlinn, 2007, p.211. {{ISBN|978-1-84158-549-9}}.</ref>

===The Borders in the Age of Queens===
With the accession of [[Mary, Queen of Scots]], and [[Mary I of England|Queen Mary I of England]]—both Catholic monarchs—peace should have returned to the Border. However, with decades, perhaps centuries, of ongoing antagonism between the two states and a deeply entrenched culture of raiding, this did not happen.<ref>Fraser, George MacDonald. The Steel Bonnets: The Story of the Anglo-Scottish Border Reivers. HarperCollins, 1989. p 278-279</ref>

====The End of the Debatable Land====
At the [[Treaty of Norham]] officially ending [[Rough Wooing|'the Rough Wooing']], the [[Debatable Lands|Debatable Land]] was finally divided between Scotland and England.<ref>Robb, Graham. The Debatable Land: The Lost World Between Scotland and England. W. W. Norton & Company, 2021. p. 134</ref> The division was decided in 1552 by a French ambassador, who drew a simple straight line to evenly split the territory between the two nations.<ref>Fraser, George MacDonald. The Steel Bonnets: The Story of the Anglo-Scottish Border Reivers. HarperCollins, 1989. p 279</ref> However, this seemingly simple tale took a turn, as a slightly different boundary was ultimately chosen—one that now forms the present-day border, known as [[Scots' Dike|Scots Dyke]].<ref>Robb, Graham. The Debatable Land: The Lost World Between Scotland and England. W. W. Norton & Company, 2021. p. 138</ref>

Despite the division, the March Day courts were overwhelmed, with a five-hundred bills of complaint recorded in a single session,<ref>Robb, Graham. The Debatable Land: The Lost World Between Scotland and England. W. W. Norton & Company, 2021. p. 140</ref> while an official attempt to suppress banditry in Liddesdale was forcefully repulsed.<ref>Fraser, George MacDonald. The Steel Bonnets: The Story of the Anglo-Scottish Border Reivers. HarperCollins, 1989. p 283</ref>

====Accession of Elizabeth I====
With the accession of [[Elizabeth I|Queen Elizabeth I]] in [[1558]], England saw its last monarch to rule before the end of the Border as a lawless frontier. Nevertheless, the Border remained very much alive on both sides.<ref>Ellis, Steven G. "A Border Baron and the Tudor State: The Rise and Fall of Lord Dacre of the North." The Historical Journal 35, no. 2 (1992): 255. {{JSTOR|639668}}</ref>

====The Scottish Reformation, the Borders, and Mary's Downfall====
In 1564, a feud erupted between the [[Clan Eliott|Elliot]]s and the [[Clan Scott|Scott]]s, marked by cycles of raids and retaliation. As tensions escalated, this conflict became entangled with the broader political and religious instability of the [[Scottish Reformation]], where both the English and Scottish crowns vied for influence in the Borderlands. The Protestant [[James Stewart, 1st Earl of Moray|Lord Moray, James Stewart]], sought to weaken the Catholic [[Mary, Queen of Scots]], further exacerbating the turbulence.<ref>MacDonald Fraser, George. The Steel Bonnets: The Story of the Anglo-Scottish Border Reivers. HarperCollins, 1995, p. 292-293</ref> Queen Mary's half-brother, James Stewart, led a foray into the region, capturing between twenty and thirty reivers,<ref>Fraser, George MacDonald. The Steel Bonnets: The Story of the Anglo-Scottish Border Reivers. HarperCollins, 1989., pp. 288–289</ref> before seizing another forty.<ref>Fraser, George MacDonald. The Steel Bonnets: The Story of the Anglo-Scottish Border Reivers. HarperCollins, 1989., pp. 292–293</ref>  Amidst this unrest, [[James Hepburn, 4th Earl of Bothwell|James, Earl of Bothwell]] was involved in Border feuds, and after surviving an attack by [[Little Jock Elliot|Jock of Park]], an Elliot, his political influence grew.<ref>Moffat, Alistair. The Reivers: The Story of the Border Reivers. Birlinn, 2007, p. 238.</ref>

By 1566, Mary visited Bothwell at [[Hermitage Castle]] while he recovered from the wounds inflicted during a raid.<ref>Moffat, Alistair. The Reivers: The Story of the Border Reivers. Birlinn, 2007, p. 239.</ref> This visit marked the beginning of a closer relationship between Mary and Bothwell, which soon became intertwined with the scandal surrounding the murder of her husband, [[Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley|Lord Darnley]], in 1567.<ref>Magnusson, Magnus. Scotland. Alfred A. Knopf, 2000, p. 357-258.</ref> Bothwell was widely suspected of orchestrating Darnley's murder, and shortly after, he married Mary, sparking a political crisis.<ref>Magnusson, Magnus. Scotland. Alfred A. Knopf, 2000, p. 358.</ref> Their union, controversial due to the circumstances of Darnley's death, [[Chaseabout Raid|led to rebellion]] and ultimately Mary's abdication in 1567.<ref>Magnusson, Magnus. Scotland. Alfred A. Knopf, 2000, p. 362.</ref>

====Rising of the North====
After the rebellion, Mary fled south to England in 1568,<ref>Pollitt, Ronald. "The Defeat of the Northern Rebellion and the Shaping of Anglo-Scottish Relations." The Scottish Historical Review, vol. 64, no. 177, 1985, pp. 1.</ref> seeking Elizabeth's protection. However, Elizabeth regarded Mary as a political threat due to her Catholic claim to the English throne, setting the stage for further unrest. In 1569, major northern Catholic magnates—such as [[Thomas Percy, 7th Earl of Northumberland|Thomas Percy, Earl of Northumberland]] (recently removed from his position March Warden of the East and Middle March)<ref>Reid, R. R. "The Rebellion of the Earls, 1569: The Alexander Prize, 1905." Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, vol. 20, 1906, pp. 177</ref> and [[Charles Neville, 6th Earl of Westmorland|Charles Neville, Earl of Westmorland]]—led the [[Rising of the North]] in an attempt to restore Catholic rule and potentially install Mary on the throne. They were later joined by [[Leonard Dacre]], a nephew of the [[Baron Dacre|Dacres]] of Gilsland (a family line that had fallen into abeyance), who felt aggrieved by Queen Elizabeth's land allocation decisions.<ref>Fraser, George MacDonald. The Steel Bonnets: The Story of the Anglo-Scottish Border Reivers. HarperCollins, 1995, pp.298-300</ref>

The failure of the [[Rising of the North]] forced the Percies and Nevilles to flee to Scotland, leaving them with no refuge but the infamous [[Liddesdale]], where they were compelled to make peace with the many thieves and outlaws who resided there.<ref>Fraser, George MacDonald. The Steel Bonnets: The Story of the Anglo-Scottish Border Reivers. HarperCollins, 1995, pp.301-303</ref> There, in Liddesdale, the fugitive earls were received by the notorious Black Ormiston and Jock-of-the-Side, the latter was known for his participation in the killing of [[Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley|Lord Darnley]].<ref>Fraser, George MacDonald. The Steel Bonnets: The Story of the Anglo-Scottish Border Reivers. HarperCollins, 1995, pp.301</ref>  In the chaos of their flight, the fugitives not only had to contend with a superior royal army but also suffered the theft of horses and clothing at the hands of local outlaws.<ref>Pollitt, Ronald. "The Defeat of the Northern Rebellion and the Shaping of Anglo-Scottish Relations." The Scottish Historical Review, vol. 64, no. 177, 1985, pp. 3.</ref> Another notorious Borderer, Hector of Harelaw, captured the [[Thomas Percy, 7th Earl of Northumberland|Earl of Northumberland]] and handed him over to the [[James Stewart, 1st Earl of Moray|Regent of Scotland]].<ref>Fraser, George MacDonald. The Steel Bonnets: The Story of the Anglo-Scottish Border Reivers. HarperCollins, 1995, pp.302</ref> Reprisals were swift and brutal—scores of impoverished Borderers were summarily executed without trial.<ref>Fraser, George MacDonald. The Steel Bonnets: The Story of the Anglo-Scottish Border Reivers. HarperCollins, 1995, pp.303</ref>

====After the Rising====
The downfall of the leading magnates on the English frontier created greater opportunities for banditry. In one raid in the English Middle Marches alone, 140 captives were taken from one township.<ref>Fraser, George MacDonald. The Steel Bonnets: The Story of the Anglo-Scottish Border Reivers. HarperCollins, 1995., pp307</ref> Following this, English Wardens of the March rode across burning and destroying property of those who had supported the Rising of the North and outlaws.<ref>Fraser, George MacDonald. The Steel Bonnets: The Story of the Anglo-Scottish Border Reivers. HarperCollins, 1995., pp307-8</ref>

Banditry persisted for decades, necessitating continued [[March law (Anglo-Scottish border)|Truce Days]], some ending in violence, as seen in Reidsdale ([[1575]]) and Windgyle ([[1585]]), mirroring an earlier Truce Day in the first decade of the 1500s.<ref>Fraser, George MacDonald. The Steel Bonnets: The Story of the Anglo-Scottish Border Reivers. HarperCollins, 1995., pp311-4</ref>

===The Final Years===
Although both kingdoms were united by religion and allied,<ref>Fraser, George MacDonald. The Steel Bonnets: The Story of the Anglo-Scottish Border Reivers. HarperCollins, 1995., pp313</ref> the latter part of the 16th century saw a perceived deterioration in conditions along the Border, with tensions intensifying in the years leading up to the [[Union of the Crowns]] in [[1603]].<ref name="Fraser, George MacDonald 1995. pp309"/>

====Kinmont Willie====
It is not entirely clear how or why English warden [[Thomas Scrope, 10th Baron Scrope of Bolton|Lord Thomas Scrope]] captured the infamous [[Kinmont Willie Armstrong|Kinmont Willie]] following a Truce Day in [[1596]], thus breaking [[customary law]].<ref>Fraser, George MacDonald. The Steel Bonnets: The Story of the Anglo-Scottish Border Reivers. HarperCollins, 1995., pp330</ref> This greatly enraged the Scottish warden of the West March, [[Walter Scott, 1st Lord Scott of Buccleuch|Walter Scott of Buccleuch]],<ref>Fraser, George MacDonald. The Steel Bonnets: The Story of the Anglo-Scottish Border Reivers. HarperCollins, 1995., pp334</ref> Keeper of Liddesdale, who then led a daring, but successful raid into [[Carlisle Castle]] to free Kinmont Willie.<ref>Fraser, George MacDonald. The Steel Bonnets: The Story of the Anglo-Scottish Border Reivers. HarperCollins, 1995., pp339</ref> Among the known outlaws who joined the raid were several notable lawmen and landowners, including Aud Watt of Harden and the Carleton brothers—major landowners in northern Cumberland and former lawmen.<ref>Fraser, George MacDonald. The Steel Bonnets: The Story of the Anglo-Scottish Border Reivers. HarperCollins, 1995., pp335</ref> 
This event is remembered in the ballad ''[[Kinmont Willie]]''.<ref>Reed, James, editor. Border Ballads: A Selection. Fyfield Books. "Kinmont Willie" (Child 186), p. 29-35.</ref>

This [[Prison escape|jailbreak]] greatly upset [[Elizabeth I|Queen Elizabeth I]]<ref>Fraser, George MacDonald. The Steel Bonnets: The Story of the Anglo-Scottish Border Reivers. HarperCollins, 1995., pp343</ref>  and created a diplomatic dispute between the two kingdoms. After several months, during which he led raids into England, [[Walter Scott, 1st Lord Scott of Buccleuch|Bold Buccleuch]] eventually surrendered, travelled to London, and returned in exchange for his son, emerging from the ordeal as a changed man.<ref>Fraser, George MacDonald. The Steel Bonnets: The Story of the Anglo-Scottish Border Reivers. HarperCollins, 1995., pp344-345</ref>

===End of the Border===
By the death of [[Elizabeth I]] of England, things had come to such a pitch along the border that the English government considered re-fortifying and rebuilding [[Hadrian's Wall]].<ref>George McDonald Fraser, ''The Steel Bonnets'' (London: Harvill, 1989), p.210</ref> When Elizabeth died, there was an especially violent outbreak of raiding known as "Ill Week", resulting from the convenient belief that the laws of a kingdom were suspended between the death of a sovereign and the proclamation of the successor.<ref>George McDonald Fraser, ''The Steel Bonnets'' (London: Harvill, 1989), p.360</ref> Upon his accession to the English throne, [[James VI and I|James VI]] of Scotland (who became James I of England) moved hard against the reivers, abolishing border law and the very term "Borders" in favour of "Middle [[Shire]]s", and dealing out stern justice to reivers.<ref>Fraser, George MacDonald. The Steel Bonnets: The Story of the Anglo-Scottish Border Reivers. HarperCollins, 1995., p360-365</ref>

==Nature==
[[File:WatHarden.jpg|thumb|right|''[[Walter Scott of Harden|Auld Wat of Harden]]'' by [[Tom Scott (painter, born 1854)|Tom Scott]]. A romanticised image of a notorious raider, Walter Scott of Harden.]]

The Anglo-Scottish Borderlands were characterised by a significant proportion of boggy terrain, poorer soils, and a harsher climate compared to southern or central England. These conditions favoured pastoralism over arable farming, encouraging dispersed settlement patterns and limiting the development of urban centres.<ref>Ellis, Steven G. ''Tudor Frontiers and Noble Power: The Making of the British State''. Oxford University Press, 1995, p. 258.</ref>

Borderers who dwelled in the highlands led a [[transhumance]] existence, moving their herds with the seasons—driving them up to the highland pastures in summer for lush grazing, and returning to the lowlands in winter for shelter and fodder.<ref>Moffat, Alistair. The Border Reivers: The Story of the Anglo-Scottish Borderlands. Birlinn, 2007, p.17.</ref><ref>Robson, Ralph. The English Highland Clans: Tudor Responses to a Mediaeval Problem. Edinburgh: John Donald, 1989. {{ISBN|978-0-85976-246-5}}. pp16</ref><ref>Moffat, Alistair. The Reivers: The Story of the Border Reivers. Birlinn, 2011., pp54</ref><ref>Hay, D. "England, Scotland and Europe: The Problem of the Frontier." Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, vol. 25, 1975, pp. 82. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/3679087. Accessed 12 Feb. 2025.</ref> The practice of transhumance in the Borders appears to have predated the Norman invasion.<ref>O'Brien, C. (2002). The Early Medieval Shires of Yeavering, Breamish and Bamburgh. Archaeologia Aeliana, 5th Series, 30, p24</ref> An unusually large proportion of the land was held in [[common land|common]], at least on the English-side.<ref>Ellis, Steven G. Tudor Frontiers and Noble Power: The Making of the British State. Oxford University Press, 1995, p.68.</ref>

A system of partible inheritance is evident in some parts of the English side of the Borders in the sixteenth century.<ref name="Ellis, Steven G 1995, p68">Ellis, Steven G. Tudor Frontiers and Noble Power: The Making of the British State. Oxford University Press, 1995, p68.</ref> By contrast to [[primogeniture]], this meant that land was divided equally among all sons following a father's death; it could mean that the inheriting generation held insufficient land on which to survive.<ref name=Durham5>Durham & McBride, p.5</ref><ref name="auto25"/><ref>Etty, Claire. "Neighbours from Hell? Tynedale and Redesdale." In Liberties and Identities in the Medieval British Isles, edited by Michael C. Prestwich, Alexander Grant, and Keith J. Stringer, 121. Woodbridge: Boydell Press, 2008.</ref> As a result of their distinctive practices of [[partible inheritance]], [[Cattle raiding|cattle-rustling]], and [[Clan|clan-nism]], Elizabethan observers frequently compared the Borderers to the [[Irish people|Irish]].<ref name="Ellis, Steven G 1995, p68"/>

It was not uncommon for tenancy agreements to stipulate that, rather than providing labor or agricultural produce, tenants were required to contribute military service, offering their fighting strength in lieu of traditional rents.<ref>Sargent, A. (2003). The English West March towards Scotland in Tudor Times. In R. Esser, M. Ellis, & A. Sargent (Eds.), Frontiers and Border Regions in Early Modern Europe (pp. 79–92). University of Groningen.</ref><ref>Scott, J.G. "The Partition of a Kingdom: Strathclyde 1092–1153." Transactions of the Dumfriesshire and Galloway Natural History and Antiquarian Society, Series III, Vol. 72, 1997, pp.21</ref> As part of that arrangement, tenants were also obligated to maintain their own weapons, horses, and harnesses.<ref>Ellis, Steven G. Tudor Frontiers and Noble Power: The Making of the British State. Oxford University Press, 1995, p. 38.</ref> This system of military tenancy may have originated on the Border as early as the Norman colonisation of the Borders, when the need for a readily available mounted force was paramount in securing and defending the frontier.<ref>Scott, J.G. (1997). "The Partition of a Kingdom: Strathclyde 1092–1153". ''Transactions of the Dumfriesshire and Galloway Natural History and Antiquarian Society'', Third Series, 72: 21.</ref>

[[Bernard Gilpin]], the early [[Protestantism|Protestant]] reformer, recounted visiting Redesdale and finding no minister, bell, or book. During the visit, he was reportedly approached by a horseman who, recognising him as a godly man, handed him the corpse of a dead infant and said, “Come, parson, and do the cure.”<ref>Robb, Graham. The Debatable Land. London: Picador, 2018, p. 63.</ref>

The reivers were both English and Scottish and raided both sides of the border impartially,<ref>Neville, C. J. "The Law of Treason in the English Border Counties in the Later Middle Ages." Law and History Review 9, no. 1 (1991): 5. {{doi|10.2307/743658}}.</ref> so long as the people they raided had no powerful protectors and no connection to their own kin. Their activities, although usually within a day's ride of the border, extended both north and south of their main haunts. Borderers were reported to have raided as far north as the outskirts of Edinburgh, while incursions reached as far south as Yorkshire.<ref>Fraser, George MacDonald. The Steel Bonnets: The Story of the Anglo-Scottish Border Reivers. HarperCollins, 1995., p92</ref> The main raiding season ran through the early winter months, when the nights were longest and the cattle and horses fat from having spent the summer grazing.<ref>Moffat, Alistair. The Reivers: The Story of the Border Reivers. Birlinn, 2011., pp56</ref> The numbers involved in a raid might range from a few dozen to organised campaigns involving up to three thousand riders.<ref>George McDonald Fraser, ''The Steel Bonnets'' (London: Harvill, 1989), p.38</ref> Although criminal activity was widespread, [[highway robbery]] was exceptional and often noted when it occurred.<ref>Robb, Graham. The Debatable Land: The Lost World Between Scotland and England. W. W. Norton & Company, 2021, p72</ref> Those who didn't keep their word were ritually humiliated in a practice called 'baunchling,' where the man's glove or image was held aloft on the end of a lance.<ref>Robb, Graham. The Debatable Land: The Lost World Between Scotland and England. W. W. Norton & Company, 2021, p62</ref>

According to local tradition, some Border reivers were said to have buried their most hated enemies beneath the threshold of their tower houses or bastles, so that they might symbolically tread upon them for eternity.<ref>Robb, Graham. The Debatable Land: The Lost World Between Scotland and England. London: Picador, 2018, p. 64.</ref>

When raiding, or riding, as it was termed, the reivers rode light on hardy nags or ponies renowned for the ability to pick their way over the boggy moss lands (see: [[Galloway pony]], [[Hobelar]]).<ref>Moffat, Alistair. The Reivers: The Story of the Border Reivers. Birlinn, 2011., p56-57</ref> The Borderers had an extensive knowledge of the terrain, including hidden routes and river fords, which allowed them to navigate the region efficiently and evade pursuit even in rough weather.<ref>Ralph Robson, The English Highland Clans, (Edinburgh: John Donald Publishers, 1989). p101</ref><ref>Neville, C. J. "The Law of Treason in the English Border Counties in the Later Middle Ages." Law and History Review 9, no. 1 (1991): 13. {{doi|10.2307/743658}}.</ref><ref>Moffat, Alistair. The Reivers: The Story of the Border Reivers. Birlinn, 2011., pp36</ref>

The original dress of a [[Northumbrian tartan|shepherd's plaid]] was later replaced by light armour such as [[brigandine]]s or [[Jack of plate|jacks of plate]] (a type of sleeveless [[doublet (clothing)|doublet]] into which small plates of steel were stitched), and metal helmets such as [[burgonet]]s or [[Morion (helmet)|morions]]; hence their nickname of the "steel bonnets". They were armed with light lances and small shields, and sometimes also with [[longbow]]s, or light [[crossbow]]s, known as "latches", or later on in their history with one or more pistols. They invariably also carried [[sword]]s and [[dirk]]s.<ref>Durham, Keith. Border Reiver 1513–1603. Osprey Publishing, 2011. {{ISBN|978-1-84908-193-1}}, p28</ref>

==Borderers as soldiers==
Border reivers were sometimes in demand as [[mercenaries|mercenary soldiers]], owing to their recognised skills as light [[cavalry]]. So impressed with the reputation of the quality of Borderers, [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor]] reportedly created a whole unit fashioned upon the Scottish Reivers.{{sfn|Robson|1989|p=188}} Reivers sometimes served in English or Scottish armies in the [[Low Countries]] and in Ireland, often to avoid having harsher penalties enacted upon themselves and their families. Reivers fighting as [[Conscription#Medieval levies|levied]] soldiers played important roles in the battles at [[Battle of Flodden|Flodden]] and [[Battle of Solway Moss|Solway Moss]]. After meeting one reiver (the [[Walter Scott, 1st Lord Scott of Buccleuch|''Bold Buccleugh'']]), Queen [[Elizabeth I]] is quoted as having said that "with ten thousand such men, [[James VI and I|James VI]] could shake any throne in Europe."<ref>Fraser, George MacDonald. The Steel Bonnets: The Story of the Anglo-Scottish Border Reivers. HarperCollins, 1995, p345</ref>

These borderers proved difficult to control, however, within larger national armies. They were already in the habit of claiming any nationality or none, depending on who was asking and where they perceived the individual advantage to be. Many had relatives on both sides of Scottish-English conflicts despite prevailing laws against international marriage. They could be badly behaved in camp, seeing fellow soldiers as sources of plunder. As warriors more loyal to clans than to nations, their commitment to the work was always in doubt. At battles such as [[Battle of Ancrum Moor|Ancrum Moor]] in Scotland in 1545, borderers changed sides in mid-combat to curry favour with the likely victors. At the [[Battle of Pinkie Cleugh]] in 1547, an observer ([[William Patten (historian)|William Patten]]) noticed Scottish and English borderers chatting with each other, then putting on a spirited show of combat once they knew they had been spotted.<ref>Moffat</ref>

==Dwellings and fortifications==
[[File:Black Middens Bastle - geograph.org.uk - 1224658.jpg|left|thumb|[[Black Middens Bastle House]], a surviving bastle house near [[Kielder Water]] in Northumberland]]

The inhabitants of the Borders had to live in a state of constant alert, and for self-protection, they built fortified [[Tower houses in Britain and Ireland|tower house]]s.<ref>Steingraber, Aubrey Maria. Landscape and the Making of the Medieval Anglo-Scottish Border: Power, Place, and Perspective, c. 1200–c. 1500. PhD thesis, University of York, 2022. p56</ref> As raising livestock in the borders required a [[transhumance]] lifestyle in summer months, borderers would create temporary shelter ([[shieling]]s) to accommodate this nomadic behaviour.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Winchester |first=Angus |title=Northern England and Southern Scotland in the Central Middle Ages |publisher=Boydell Press |year=2017 |editor-last=Stringer |editor-first=Keith |edition=1st |location=Woodbridge |pages=273–276 |language=English}}</ref> These shielings contribute to the toponyms of many places in the borders such as [[Galashiels]] or "Shiels Brae".<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ramm |first=Herman |title=Royal Commission on Historical Monuments (England): Shielings and Bastles |last2=Mercer |first2=Eric |last3=McDowall |first3=R. |publisher=Her Majesty's Stationery Office |year=1970 |location=London |language=English}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Young |first=Rob |title=Shielings: Introductions to Heritage Assests |url=https://historicengland.org.uk/images-books/publications/iha-shielings/heag233-shielings/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240224153834/https://historicengland.org.uk/images-books/publications/iha-shielings/heag233-shielings/ |archive-date=24 February 2024 |access-date=March 31, 2025 |website=Historic England}}</ref>

In the very worst periods of warfare, people were unable to construct more than crude turf cabins, the destruction of which would be little loss<ref name="Steingraber, Aubrey Maria 1500. p88">Steingraber, Aubrey Maria. Landscape and the Making of the Medieval Anglo-Scottish Border: Power, Place, and Perspective, c. 1200–c. 1500. PhD thesis, University of York, 2022. p88</ref><ref>Moffat, Alistair. The Reivers: The Story of the Border Reivers. Birlinn, 2011., pp70-71</ref> and could be rebuilt within 3–4 hours and weren't always temporarily inhabited.<ref>Ellis, Steven G. Tudor Frontiers and Noble Power: The Making of the British State. Oxford University Press, 1995, p.66.</ref> When times allowed, however, they built houses designed as much for defence as shelter. The [[bastle house]] was a stout two-storeyed building.<ref name="Steingraber, Aubrey Maria 1500. p88"/><ref>Moffat, Alistair. The Reivers: The Story of the Border Reivers. Birlinn, 2011. pp70</ref> The lower floor was used to keep the most valuable livestock and horses. The upper storey housed the people, and often could be reached only by an external ladder which was pulled up at night or if danger threatened. The stone walls were up to {{convert|3|ft|m|1}} thick, and the roof was of slate or stone tiles. Only narrow arrow slits provided light and ventilation.<ref>Durham & McBride, p.24</ref> Some resided in houses built from massive oak timbers with turf roofs, strategically concealed within the landscape and designed to resist fire and forced entry.<ref>Ellis, Steven G. Tudor Frontiers and Noble Power: The Making of the British State. Oxford University Press, 1995, p.67.</ref>

[[Peel tower]]s (also spelled pele towers) were usually three-storeyed buildings, constructed specifically for defensive purposes by the authorities, or for prestigious individuals such as the heads of clans. [[Smailholm Tower]] is one of many surviving peel towers. Like bastle houses, they were very strongly constructed for defence. If necessary, they could be temporarily abandoned and stuffed full of smouldering turf to prevent an enemy (such as a government army) destroying them with gunpowder.<ref>Durham & McBride, p.23</ref>

Peel towers and bastle houses were often surrounded by a stone wall known as a [[barmkin]],<ref>Steingraber, Aubrey Maria. Landscape and the Making of the Medieval Anglo-Scottish Border: Power, Place, and Perspective, c. 1200–c. 1500. PhD thesis, University of York, 2022., p88</ref> inside which cattle and other livestock were kept overnight.

==Law and order==
{{see also|March law (Anglo-Scottish border)}}
[[File:Late-medieval jack, National Museum of Scotland collection.jpg|thumb|upright|A leather jack of the kind worn by reivers in the 16th century]]

A special body of law, known as [[March law (Anglo-Scottish border)|March law]] or Border law, developed in the region.<ref>Neville, Cynthia J. (1998). Violence, custom and law : the Anglo-Scottish border lands in the later Middle Ages. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. pp. xiv, 1–226. {{ISBN|0-7486-1073-1}}.</ref> Under border law, a person who had been raided had the right to mount a counter-raid within six days, even across the border, to recover his goods. This "hot trod" had to proceed with "hound and horne, hew and cry",<ref>Durham & McBride, p. 20.</ref><ref name="Summerson, Henry 1500">Summerson, Henry. "Peacekeepers and Lawbreakers in Medieval Northumberland, c.1200–c.1500." In Liberties and Identities in the Medieval British Isles, edited by Michael C. Prestwich, Alexander Grant, and Keith J. Stringer, 61. Woodbridge: Boydell Press, 2008.</ref> making a racket and carrying a piece of burning turf on a spear point to openly announce their purpose, to distinguish themselves from unlawful raiders proceeding covertly. They might use a [[sleuth hound]] (also known as a "slew dogge") to follow raiders' tracks.<ref name="Summerson, Henry 1500"/> These dogs were valuable, and part of the established forces (on the English side of the border, at least).<ref>George McDonald Fraser, ''The Steel Bonnets'' (London: Harvill, 1989), pp. 95–96</ref> Any person meeting this counter-raid was required to ride along and offer such help as he could, on pain of being considered complicit with the raiders. The "cold trod" mounted after six days required official sanction. Officers such as the Deputy Warden of the English West March had the specific duty of "following the trod".<ref>George McDonald Fraser, ''The Steel Bonnets'' (London: Harvill, 1989), p. 215 fn.</ref>

Both sides of the border were divided into [[Scottish Marches|Marches]], each under a [[Lord Warden of the Marches|march warden]]. The march wardens' various duties included the maintenance of patrols, watches and garrisons to deter raiding from the other kingdom. The role of the Warden evolved over time. By the late 14th century, it had become a formalized, salaried position, held both in times of peace and war.<ref>Etty, Claire (2005). Tudor Revolution? Royal Control of the Anglo-Scottish Border, 1483-1530. pp6</ref> This was very much reliant on the ability of the warden's personal strength in men or ''[https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/manred manraed]'', loyalty of local gentry and personal wealth.<ref>Ellis, Steven G. "A Border Baron and the Tudor State: The Rise and Fall of Lord Dacre of the North." The Historical Journal, vol. 35, no. 2, 1992, pp. 260. {{JSTOR|2639668}}</ref> On occasion, march wardens could make ''warden roades'' to recover loot, and to make a point to raiders and officials. A degree of reiving and banditry among the gentry was tolerated in return for their service on the frontier.<ref>Palmer, William. "Scenes from Provincial Life: History, Honor, and Meaning in the Tudor North." Renaissance Quarterly, vol. 53, no. 2, 2000, pp. 433. {{doi|10.2307/2901874}}</ref> Summary executions, referred to in the Borderlands as 'Jeddart Justice,' were occasionally employed for suspected thieves and murderers.<ref>Fraser, George MacDonald. The Steel Bonnets: The Story of the Anglo-Scottish Border Reivers. HarperCollins, 1995, pp154, 369</ref>

The march wardens also had the duty of maintaining such justice and equity as was possible. The respective kingdoms' march wardens would meet at appointed times along the border itself to settle claims against people on their side of the border by people from the other kingdom. These occasions, known as "Days of Truce", were much like fairs, with entertainment and much socialising. For reivers it was an opportunity to meet (lawfully) with relatives or friends normally separated by the border. It was not unknown for violence to break out even at such truce days. It was not until the 1450s that the March Day courts were formalised in a manner resembling their operation in the Tudor period.<ref>Neville, C. J. "The Law of Treason in the English Border Counties in the Later Middle Ages." Law and History Review 9, no. 1 (1991): 20. {{doi|10.2307/743658}}.</ref>

March wardens (and the lesser officers such as keepers of fortified places) were rarely effective at maintaining the law. The Scottish wardens were usually borderers themselves, and were complicit in raiding. They almost invariably showed favour to their own kindred, which caused jealousy and even hatred among other Scottish border families. Many English officers were from southern counties in England and often could not command the loyalty or respect of their locally recruited subordinates or the local population. Local officers such as [[Sir John Forster]], who was Warden of the Middle March for almost 35 years, became quite as well known for venality as his most notorious Scottish counterparts.<ref>George McDonald Fraser, ''The Steel Bonnets'' (London: Harvill, 1989), pp.139–140</ref> Feuds could also form between Wardens on the same side of the Border, like between [[Thomas Scrope, 10th Baron Scrope of Bolton|Thomas Scrope]],  Warden of the English West March, and [[Ralph Eure, 3rd Baron Eure|Ralph Eure]],  Warden of the English Middle March.<ref>Fraser, George MacDonald. The Steel Bonnets: The Story of the Anglo-Scottish Border Reivers. HarperCollins, 1995., pp350</ref>

===Legislation===
In 1606 an act ([[4 Jas. 1]]. c. 1) to assist the recent [[Union of the Crowns]] was enacted; it was [[long title]]d ''An act for the utter abolition of all memory of hostility, and the dependence thereof, between England and Scotland, and for repressing of occasions of disorders, and disorders in time to come''. The act repealed nine English laws enacted over the previous centuries and considered hostile to Scotland; the repeal became effective when 13 Scottish laws considered hostile to England had been repealed.<ref>[https://archive.org/stream/statutesatlarge50britgoog#page/n226/mode/2up Statutes at Large – Volume 7 – 39 Elizabeth to 12 Charles II – 1597–8 to 1660], p.195</ref> Three years later an act ([[7 Jas. 1]]. c. 1) dealing with criminal law in the border region was enacted; it was long titled ''An act for the better execution of justice, and suppressing of criminal offenders, in the north parts of the kingdom of England.'' To deal with cross-border flight, the act allowed the trial of an Englishman in Scotland if the felony was committed there, and he was later arrested in England; it became effective after a similar act had been passed in Scotland.<ref>[https://archive.org/stream/statutesatlarge50britgoog#page/n248/mode/2up] Statutes at Large – Volume 7 – 39 Elizabeth to 12 Charles II – 1597–8 to 1660], p.216</ref>

Following the [[Restoration (England)|Restoration]] and long-running lawlessness by [[Moss-trooper|Moss troopers]] nearly six decades later, parliament passed the [[Moss Troopers Act 1662]] ([[14 Cha. 2]]. c. 22) for the border area; it was [[long title]]d ''An Act for preventing of Theft and Rapine upon the Northern Borders of England.'' Section seven of the act revives both previous acts passed under James I.<ref>[http://www.british-history.ac.uk/statutes-realm/vol5/pp417-418 Statutes of the Realm: Volume 5, 1628–80], p.417</ref> With the 1662 act about to expire, the sixth session of [[Cavalier Parliament]] passed the [[Moss Troopers Act 1666]] ([[18 & 19 Cha. 2]]. c. 3), long titled ''An Act to continue a former Act for preventing of Thefte and Rapine upon the Northerne Borders of England.'' Under section two of the act, the [[benefit of clergy]] was taken away from those convicted (generally meaning a death sentence), or otherwise, the notorious thieves and spoil-takers in Northumberland or Cumberland were to be [[penal transportation|transported]] to America, "there to remaine and not to returne".<ref>[http://www.british-history.ac.uk/statutes-realm/vol5/p598 Statutes of the Realm: Volume 5, 1628–80], p.598</ref><ref>[https://archive.org/stream/statutesatlarge20unkngoog#page/n587/mode/2up Statutes at Large, Volume 24, Index for acts passed before 1 Geo. 3] p.&nbsp;581</ref>

Generally associated with several historic events of the period, as well as continuing lawlessness, or the consideration of insufficient government control to prevent "theft and rapine upon the northern borders of England", these acts were repeatedly continued over the next 80 years. The initial acts include the Moss Trooper Act 1677 ([[29 & 30 Cha. 2]]. c. 2),<ref name="auto28">{{Cite web|url=https://archive.org/details/statutesatlarge29britgoog?view=theater|title=Statutes at large ..|date=10 December 1762|publisher=Cambridge [London]|via=Internet Archive}}</ref> the Moss Trooper Act 1685 ([[1 Ja. 2]]. c. 14),<ref name="auto28"/> the Moss Trooper Act 1695 ([[7 & 8 Will. 3]]. c. 17),<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://archive.org/details/statutesatlarge38britgoog?view=theater|title=Statutes at large ..|date=10 December 1762|publisher=Cambridge [London]|via=Internet Archive}}</ref> the Moss Trooper Act 1700 ([[12 & 13 Will. 3]]. c. 6),<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://archive.org/details/statutesatlarge31britgoog?view=theater|title=Statutes at large ..|date=10 December 1762|publisher=Cambridge [London]|via=Internet Archive}}</ref> and the Moss Trooper Act 1712 ([[12 Ann.]] c. 10).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://archive.org/details/statutesatlarge69britgoog?view=theater|title=Statutes at large ..|date=10 December 1762|publisher=Cambridge [London]|via=Internet Archive}}</ref> Starting in 1732, although the 'Moss trooper' [[short title]] was dropped, the enforcement acts were continued by other variously named acts, most of which continued the established descriptive phrase "for preventing theft and rapine upon the northern borders of England", as the first item included. These later acts include the Perpetuation of Various Laws Act 1732 ([[6 Geo. 2]]. c. 37),<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://archive.org/details/statutesatlarge03britgoog?view=theater|title=The statutes at large, from Magna Charta to ... 1869 ..|date=10 December 1762|publisher=Cambridge, Printed by Joseph Bentham|via=Internet Archive}}</ref> the Universities (Wine Licences) Act 1743 ([[17 Geo. 2]]. c. 40),<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://archive.org/details/statutesatlarge01britgoog?view=theater|title=The statutes at large, from Magna Charta to ... 1869 ..|date=10 December 1762|publisher=Cambridge, Printed by Joseph Bentham|via=Internet Archive}}</ref> and the Continuance of Laws Act 1750 ([[24 Geo. 2]]. c. 57),<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://archive.org/details/statutesatlarge67britgoog?view=theater|title=The Statutes at Large from the Magna Charta, to the End of the Eleventh Parliament of Great ...|date=10 December 1765|publisher=Printed by J. Bentham|via=Internet Archive}}</ref> which continued previous acts until 1 September 1757 "and from thence to the end of the then next session of parliament".

==Border surnames==
[[File:Hermitage Castle 06.jpg|thumb|left|[[Hermitage Castle]], the strength of [[Liddesdale]] and an important stronghold for the Scottish Marches. Its holder, the Keeper of Liddesdale, usually had equal status to the Scottish Wardens of the Marches.]]

Surnames in the Anglo-Scottish Borders were not merely hereditary identifiers, but functioned as markers of kinship and power. These familial groups emerged during a period of sustained conflict, particularly following the Scottish Wars of Independence, where the need for organized, often violent, defense and raiding operations reshaped social and political structures along the frontier.<ref name="Ellis, Steven G 1995, p. 59-60">Ellis, Steven G. Tudor Frontiers and Noble Power: The Making of the British State. Oxford University Press, 1995, p. 59-60.</ref>

A variety of terms describe the Border families, such as the "Riding Surnames" and the "Graynes" thereof.<ref>Mervyn E. James, ''Society, politics, and culture : studies in early modern England'' (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986) pp. 93–96 [https://books.google.com/books?id=WGXw7aR3AckC&pg=PA93]</ref><ref>Ellis, Steven G. Tudor Frontiers and Noble Power: The Making of the British State. Oxford University Press, 1995, p.59-60.</ref>

Surnames, understood as defensive kinship groups, weren't recorded until [[1498]] in a royal precept issued to the [[sheriff of Northumberland]] that the term "Surnames" was used to describe certain families inhabiting [[Tynedale]] and [[Redesdale]].<ref>Etty, Claire (2008). "Neighbours from Hell? Living with Tynedale and Redesdale, 1489–1547". In Prestwich, Michael (ed.). Liberties and Identities in the Medieval British Isles p. 121. Boydell & Brewer. Available from: VitalSource Bookshelf, Ingram Publisher Services UK - Academic.</ref> Though it is generally assumed that these kinship groups emerged as a consequence of the Scottish Wars of Independence.<ref name="Ellis, Steven G 1995, p. 59-60"/>

This can be equated to the system of the Highland Clans and their [[Sept (social)|sept]]s. e.g. [[Clan Donald]] and [[Clan MacDonald of Sleat]], can be compared with the [[Duke of Buccleuch|Scotts of Buccleuch]] and the Scotts of Harden and elsewhere. Both Border Graynes and Highland septs, however, had the essential feature of patriarchal leadership by the chief of the name, known as 'Heidsman' in the Borders and had territories in which most of their kindred lived.<ref>Moffat, Alistair. The Reivers: The Story of the Border Reivers. Birlinn, 2011. pp18</ref>

In an Act of the [[Scottish Parliament]] of 1587 there is the description of the "{{lang|enm|italic=no|Chiftanis and chieffis of all clannis ... duelland in the hielands or bordouris}}" – thus using the words 'clan' and 'chief' to describe both Highland and Lowland families. The act goes on to list the various Border clans. Later, Sir George MacKenzie of Rosehaugh, the Lord Advocate (Attorney General), writing in 1680 said "By the term 'chief' we call the representative of the family from the word chef or head and in the [[Irish language|Irish]] (Gaelic) with us the chief of the family is called the head of the clan". Thus, the words chief or head, and clan or family, are interchangeable. It is therefore possible to talk of the [[Macdonald baronets|MacDonald]] family or the Maxwell clan. The idea that Highlanders should be listed as clans while the Lowlanders are listed as families originated as a 19th-century convention.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.electricscotland.com/webclans/clans_families_septs.htm|title=Clans, Families and Septs|website=www.electricscotland.com}}</ref>

===Surnames in the Marches of Scotland (1587)===

In 1587, the [[Parliament of Scotland]] passed a statute: "For the quieting and keping in obiedince of the disorderit subjectis inhabitantis of the borders hielands and Ilis."<ref>Great Britain III Acts of the Parliament of Scotland pp.466–467 (1587)</ref> Attached to the statute was a roll of surnames from both the Border country and Highlands. The Borders portion listed 17 {{lang|enm|clannis}} with a chief and their associated Marches:
[[File:Anglo-Scottish Marches v1.png|right|thumb|Regions of the Scottish marches]]
'''''Middle March'''''
* [[Clan Elliot|Elliot]], [[Clan Armstrong|Armstrong]], Nixon, Crozier
'''''West March'''''
* Scott, Bates, Little, Thomsons, Glendenning, Irving, Bell, [[Clan Carruthers|Carruthers]], [[Graham (surname)|Graham]], [[Clan Johnstone|Johnstone]], Jardine, Moffat, and Latimer.

Of the border clans or ''Graynes'' listed on this roll, [[Clan Elliot|Elliot]], [[Clan Carruthers|Carruthers]], [[Clan Scott|Scott]], [[Clan Irvine|Irvine]], [[Clan Graham|Graham]], [[Clan Johnstone|Johnstone]], [[Clan Jardine|Jardine]] and [[Clan Moffat|Moffat]] are registered with the Court of Lord Lyon in Edinburgh as Scottish Clans (with a Chief), others such as [[Clan Armstrong|Armstrong]], [[Clan Little|Little]] and Bell are [[armigerous]] clans with no Chief, while such as [[Clan Blackadder]], also an [[armigerous]] clan in the Middle Ages, later died out or lost their lands, and are unregistered with the Lyon Court.

'''The historic riding surnames recorded by [[George MacDonald Fraser]] in [[The Steel Bonnets]] (London: Harvill, 1989)<ref>George McDonald Fraser, ''The Steel Bonnets'' (London: Harvill, 1989) pp.&nbsp;56–65</ref> are:'''

'''''East March'''''
* Scotland: [[Clan Home|Hume]], [[Clan Trotter|Trotter]], [[Dixon Baronets|Dixon]], [[Bromfield (surname)|Bromfield]], [[Craw (surname)|Craw]], [[Clan Cranstoun|Cranston]].
* England: [[Forster (surname)|Forster]], [[Selby family|Selby]], [[Gray (surname)|Gray]], [[Dunn (surname)|Dunn]].
'''''Middle March'''''
* Scotland: Burns, [[Clan Kerr|Kerr]], [[Clan Young|Young]], [[Clan Pringle|Pringle]], Davison, Gilchrist, [[Tait (surname)|Tait]] of East Teviotdale. [[Clan Scott|Scott]], Oliver, [[Clan Turnbull|Turnbull]], Rutherford of West Teviotdale. [[Clan Armstrong|Armstrong]], Croser, [[Clan Eliott|Elliot]], Nixon, [[Clan Douglas|Douglas]], Laidlaw, [[Routledge]], Turner, [[Clan Henderson|Henderson]] of Liddesdale.
* England: Anderson, [[Potts (surname)|Potts]], [[Reed (name)|Reed]], [[Clan Hall|Hall]], Hedley of Redesdale. Charlton, Robson, Dodd, Dodds, Milburn, Yarrow, [[Stapleton (surname)|Stapleton]] of Tynedale. Also Fenwick, [[Ogle family|Ogle]], Heron, Witherington, Medford (later [[Mitford family|Mitford]]), Collingwood, Carnaby, Shaftoe, Ridley, Stokoe, Stamper, Wilkinson, Hunter, Huntley, [[Thomson (surname)|Thomson]], Jamieson.
'''''West March'''''
* Scotland: Bell, [[Clan Irvine|Irvine]], Irving, [[Clan Johnstone|Johnstone]], [[Clan Maxwell|Maxwell]], Carlisle, Beattie, [[Clan Little|Little]], [[Clan Carruthers|Carruthers]], Glendenning, Routledge, [[Clan Moffat|Moffat]].
* England: Graham, [[Hetherington]], Musgrave, Storey, Lowther, Curwen, [[Salkeld]], Dacre, Harden, [[Hodgson]], Routledge, Tailor, Noble.

Relationships between the border clans varied from uneasy alliance to open, deadly [[feud]]. It took little to start a feud; a chance quarrel or misuse of office was sufficient. Feuds might continue for years until patched up in the face of invasion from the other kingdoms or when the outbreak of other feuds caused alliances to shift. The border was easily destabilised if Graynes from opposite sides of the border were at feud. Feuds also provided ready excuse for particularly murderous raids or pursuits.

Riders did not wear identifying [[tartan]]s. The tradition of family tartans dates from the [[Victorian era]] and was inspired by the novels of [[Sir Walter Scott]]. The typical dress of reivers included [[Jack of plate]], steel bonnets ([[helmet]]s), and [[riding boot]]s.

== Elaborate nicknames ==
The Border reivers are well known for their distinctive and often colourful nicknames, which likely emerged due to the widespread use of common surnames and first names such as John, Jock, or Will among the Border clans. These nicknames served as a practical means to distinguish individuals in a society where shared names were prevalent.<ref name="auto14"/><ref name="auto23"/>

These monikers often reflected a strong emphasis on lineage and close kinship, adhering to patterns of patrilineal descent, such as  Dick's Davy,<ref name="auto14"/> Rowy's Will<ref name="auto14"/> and Will's Jock Graham.<ref name="auto23"/> Sometimes this was extended to three names Gibb's Geordie's Francis could be matrilineal like Bessie's Andrew.<ref name="auto23"/>

Physical traits or injuries inspired other nicknames, such as Jock "Half-Lugs" (Half-ears) Elliot,<ref name="Moffat, Alistair 2011, p23">Moffat, Alistair. The Reivers: The Story of the Border Reivers. Birlinn, 2011, p23</ref> "Sweet Milk" (beautiful),<ref name="Moffat, Alistair 2011, p23"/>"Fingerless" Will Nixon,<ref name="Moffat, Alistair 2011, p23"/> "Nebless" (Noseless) Clem Crozier<ref name="Moffat, Alistair 2011, p23"/> or "Gleed John" (gleed meaning blind or partially blind) <ref name="Moffat, Alistair 2011, p23"/> or "Wynking Will."<ref name="auto14"/>

Nicknames like Jock "a God's Name" Elliot,<ref name="auto14"/> "Skinabake",<ref name="auto14"/> "As-it-Looks"<ref name="auto23"/> or Archie "Fire-the-Brays,"<ref name="auto14"/> or "Hodde" Hall<ref>Etty, Claire. "Neighbours from Hell? Living with Tynedale and Redesdale, 1489–1547." In Liberties and Identities in the Medieval British Isles, edited by Michael Prestwich, 124. Boydell & Brewer, 2008. {{ISBN|978-1-84383-374-1}}.</ref> cannot be easily be explained.

At times, a nickname could be applied multiple times to different individuals, creating confusion or ambiguity. For instance, the moniker Black Jock was used for two different men named Johnny Armstrong,<ref>Robb, Graham. The Debatable Land: The Lost World Between Scotland and England. W. W. Norton & Company, 2021., p122</ref> while Black Ormiston referred to two possible distinct Ormistons.<ref>Fraser, George MacDonald. The Steel Bonnets: The Story of the Anglo-Scottish Border Reivers. HarperCollins, 1995., p301</ref>

Others, like "Buggerback," "The Lady Elliot," "The Lady Scott," "The Lady Kerr," "Bang-tail," and "Sym 'the Lady'," remain subjects of speculation. These names may have reflected an alternative sexuality - as we understand it today or held layered meanings tied to identity, humor, or camaraderie within the close-knit, often male-dominated culture of the Border Reivers.<ref name="auto14"/><ref name="auto23"/>

== In literature ==
[[File:Crossing the Tweed on Braw Lad's Day, Galashiels.jpg|thumb|left|Skills of horsemanship are kept alive in the Borders: fording the [[River Tweed]] on Braw Lad's Day, [[Galashiels]] 2011.]]
[[File:Galashiels Reiver Statue 02.JPG|thumb|upright|Reiver statue at Galashiels]]

The reivers were romanticised by writers such as [[Sir Walter Scott]] (''[[Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border]]''), although he also used the term [[Moss-trooper]], which refers to seventeenth-century borderland brigands. Scott was himself a native of the borders, writing down histories which had been passed on in folk tradition or ballad.

English poet [[William Wordsworth]]'s verse play ''The Borderers'' features border reivers (but does not use this term).<ref>{{cite web |last1=Scott |first1=Paul |title=William Wordsworth: The Borderers |url=https://www.romanticpoets.org/public_html/p5/criticism/ww_borderers.htm |website=Poets of the Romantic Period |access-date=15 April 2020}}</ref>

The stories of legendary border reivers like [[Kinmont Willie Armstrong]] were often retold in folk-song as Border ballads. There are also local legends, such as the "Dish of Spurs" which would be served to a border chieftain of the Charltons to remind him that the larder was empty and it was time to raid again. Scottish author [[Nigel Tranter]] revisited these themes in his historical and contemporary novels. Scottish Border poet, and Australian bush balladeer, [[William Henry Ogilvie|Will H. Ogilvie]] (1869–1963) wrote several poems about the reivers, including "The reiver's heart" (1903), "The raiders" (1904), "Whaup o' the rede: a ballad of the border raiders" (1909), "[[Kirkhope Tower]]" (1913), and "Ho! for the blades of Harden". ''[[The Steel Bonnets]]'' (1971) by [[George MacDonald Fraser]] (1925–2008) describes life in the Anglo-Scottish border [[marches]] in the heyday of the border reivers.

== In modern times ==
The names of the Reiver families are still very much apparent among the inhabitants of the [[Scottish Borders]], [[Northumbria (modern)|Northumbria]] and [[Cumbria]] today. Reiving families (particularly those large or brutal enough to carry significant influence) have left the local population passionate about their territory on both sides of the Border. Newspapers have described the local cross-border rugby fixtures as 'annual re-runs of the bloody [[Battle of Otterburn]]'.{{citation needed|date=April 2016}} Despite this there has been much cross-border migration since the Pacification of the Borders, and families that were once Scots now identify themselves as English and vice versa.

[[Hawick]] in Scotland holds an annual Reivers' festival as do the Schomberg Society in Kilkeel, Northern Ireland (the two often co-operate). The summer festival in the Borders town of [[Duns, Scottish Borders|Duns]] is headed by the "Reiver" and "Reiver's Lass", a young man and young woman elected from the inhabitants of the town and surrounding area. The Ulster-Scots Agency's first two leaflets from the 'Scots Legacy' series feature the story of the historic Ulster tartan and the origins of the kilt and the Border Reivers.

Borderers (particularly those banished by [[James VI of Scotland]]) took part in the [[plantation of Ulster]], becoming the people known as [[Ulster Scots people|Ulster-Scots]] ([[Scotch-Irish American|Scotch-Irish]] in America). Reiver descendants can be found throughout Ulster.{{citation needed|date=March 2024}}

Border surnames can also be found throughout the major areas of [[Scots-Irish American|Scotch-Irish]] settlement in the United States, and particularly in the [[Appalachian Mountains|Appalachian]] region. The historian [[David Hackett Fischer]] (1989) has shown in detail how the Anglo-Scottish border culture became rooted in parts of the United States, especially the [[Upland South]]. Author [[George MacDonald Fraser]] wryly observed or imagined Border traits and names among controversial people in modern American history: Presidents [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] and [[Richard Nixon]], among others. It is also noted that, in 1969, a descendant of the Borderers, [[Neil Armstrong]], was the first person to set foot on the Moon. In 1972 Armstrong was made a [[Freedom of the city|freeman]] of the town of [[Langholm]] in Scotland, the home of his ancestors.

The artist [[Gordon Young (artist)|Gordon Young]] created a public art work in Carlisle: ''Cursing Stone and Reiver Pavement'', a nod to [[Gavin Dunbar (archbishop of Glasgow)|Gavin Dunbar]], the Archbishop of Glasgow's 1525 ''Monition of Cursing''. Names of Reiver families are set into the paving of a walkway which connects [[Tullie House Museum]] to [[Carlisle Castle]] under a main road, and part of the bishop's curse is displayed on a 14-ton granite boulder.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gordonyoung.net/carlise_cursingstone.html|title=Cursing Stone & Reiver Pavement / Carlisle, 2001|publisher=Gordon Young|access-date=23 November 2013|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140227133140/http://gordonyoung.net/carlise_cursingstone.html|archive-date=27 February 2014}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Debatable Lands]]
* [[History of Northumberland]]
* ''[[The Borderers]]'' (television series)

==Notes==
{{reflist}}

==References==
* {{cite book|last=Carey |first=Robert |author-link=Robert Carey, 1st Earl of Monmouth |title=The Stirring World of Robert Carey, Robert Carey's Memoirs 1577–1625 |date=2004 |publisher=RippingYarns.com |isbn=1-904466-29-X}}
* {{cite book|author-last1=Durham |author-first1=Keith |author-last2=McBride |author-first2=Angus |title=The Border Reivers: The story of the Anglo-Scottish borderlands |date=1995 |publisher=Osprey Publishing|isbn=1-85532-417-2|url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9781855324176}}
* {{cite book|last=Ellis |first=Steven G.|title=Tudor frontiers and noble power: the making of the British state |date=1989 |publisher=Clarendon Press |publication-place=Oxford}}
* {{cite book|last=Ennis |first=Garth |title=War Stories: Volume 2 |date=2006 |publisher=Vertigo |isbn=1-4012-1039-2}}
* {{cite book|last=Fischer |first=David Hackett |author-link=David Hackett Fischer |title=[[Albion's Seed: Four British Folkways in America]] |date=1989 |publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford and New York}}
* {{cite book|last=Goodwin |first=George |title=Fatal Rivalry: Flodden 1513 |date=2013 |publisher=Phoenix |publication-place=London |isbn=978-1-78022-136-6}}
* {{cite book|last=Howker |first=Janni |author-link=Janni Howker |title=Martin Farrell |date=1997 |publisher=Red Fox |isbn=978-0-09-918161-3}}
* {{cite book|last=James |first=Mervyn (Mervyn Evans) |title=Society, politics, and culture : studies in early modern England |date=1986 |publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|isbn=978-0-521-36877-3}}
* Jolly, Samuel (2024). [https://www.samuelethanjolly.com/_files/ugd/8afd98_0e1a18c1d2e047df9d0cb38fd4204637.pdf ''Tweed & Tyne: Playing the Rise and Fall of the Anglo-Scottish Border Reivers''.] (Dissertation). Manchester Metropolitan University.
* {{cite thesis|last=King |first=Andy |title=War, Politics, and Landed Society in Northumberland, c.1296-c.1408 |date=2001 |publisher=Durham University |type=PhD }}
* {{cite book|last=MacDonald Fraser|first=George |author-link=George MacDonald Fraser|title=The Steel Bonnets|date=1998 |publisher=HarperCollins |isbn=0-00-272746-3}}
* {{cite book|last=Moffat |first=Alistair|title=The Reivers|year=2008|publisher=Birlinn|location=Edinburgh|isbn=978-1-84158-674-8}}
* {{cite book|last=Moss |first=Tom|title=Deadlock and Deliverance: The Capture and Rescue of Kinmont Willie Armstrong|year=2007|publisher=Rose Cottage Publications|isbn=978-0-9558016-0-0}}
* {{cite book|last=Neville |first=Cynthia J. |title=Violence, custom and law : the Anglo-Scottish border lands in the later middle ages|date=1998 |publisher=Edinburgh University Press|location=Edinburgh|isbn=0-7486-1073-1}}
* {{cite thesis|last=Steingraber |first=Aubrey Maria |title=Landscape and the Making of the Medieval Anglo-Scottish Border: Power, Place, and Perspective c.1200-c.1500 |date=2022 |publisher=University of York |type=PhD}}
* {{cite book|last=Tait |first=Jon |title=Dick the Devil's Bairns: Breaking the Border Mafia |date=2018 |publisher=Tredition |isbn=978-3-7482-2361-0}}
* {{cite book|last=Tuck |first=Anthony |editor1-last=Goodman |editor1-first=Anthony |title=War and Border Societies in the Middle Ages |date=1992 |publisher=Routledge |publication-place=London |isbn=0-415-08021-5}}

==External links==
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090126155155/http://nwlink.com/~scotlass/border.htm The Border reivers]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20160304074111/http://www.go-britain.com/html/borders_map.htm#borders Borders map with surnames]

[[Category:Anglo-Scottish border]]
[[Category:History of Europe]]
[[Category:Border Reivers| ]]
[[Category:Cavalry]]
[[Category:History of Cumberland]]
[[Category:History of Cumbria]]
[[Category:History of Northumberland]]
[[Category:Military history of Cumbria]]
[[Category:Military history of Northumberland]]
[[Category:People associated with the Scottish Borders]]
[[Category:History of the Scottish Borders]]
[[Category:Tudor England]]