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{{Short description|Species of flowering plant in the family Boraginaceae}}
{{Hatnote|This article is about common species'' Borago officinalis''. For related plants sometimes called borage, see [[Borago]]}}
{{Speciesbox
|image = Borago officinalis (2025).jpg
|image_caption = Borage
|genus = Borago
|species = officinalis
|authority = [[Carl Linnaeus|L.]]
| synonyms_ref = <ref name="powo">{{cite web |title=Borago officinalis L. |url=https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:113618-1 |access-date=25 July 2024 |publisher=Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew }}</ref>
|synonyms = {{collapsible list|bullets = true
|title=<small>Synonyms</small>
|''Borago advena'' <small>Gilib.</small>
|''Borago aspera'' <small>Gilib.</small>
|''Borago hortensis'' <small>L.</small>
}}}}

'''Borage''' ({{IPAc-en|audio=En-Borage-pronunciation.ogg|ˈ|b|ʌr|ɪ|dʒ}}<ref>{{OED|borage}}</ref> or {{IPAc-en|ˈ|b|ɒr|ɪ|dʒ}};<ref>''Le Robert et Collins English-French Dictionary'' and the ''American Heritage Dictionary''</ref> '''''Borago officinalis'''''), also known as '''starflower''', is an annual [[herb]] in the [[flowering plant]] family [[Boraginaceae]] native to the [[Mediterranean region]]. Although the plant contains small amounts of [[pyrrolizidine alkaloid]]s, some parts are edible and [[Borage seed oil|its seeds provide oil]].

[[File:Borage.jpg|thumb|Borage stem]]

==Description==
[[File:Borage starflower Rohtopurasruoho 02.jpg|thumb|''B. officinalis'' flower]]

''B. officinalis'' grows to a height of {{convert|60|cm|ft|abbr=off|frac=2}},<ref name="tfb">{{Cite book |last=Francis-Baker |first=Tiffany |title=Concise Foraging Guide |date=2021 |publisher=[[Bloomsbury Publishing|Bloomsbury]] |isbn=978-1-4729-8474-6 |series=[[The Wildlife Trusts]] |location=London |pages=94}}</ref> and is bristly or hairy all over the stems and [[leaves]]; the leaves are [[Alternate leaf|alternate]], [[Simple leaf|simple]], and {{convert|5|-|15|cm|in|frac=2|abbr=in}} long.

The flowers are [[Complete flower|complete]], [[Perfect flower|perfect]] with five narrow, triangular-pointed [[petals]].<ref name="tfb" /> Flowers are most often blue, although pink flowers are sometimes observed. White-flowered types are also cultivated. The blue flower is genetically dominant over the white flower.<ref name="springerlink.com">{{cite journal|title=Geitonogamy: a mechanism responsible for high selfing rates in borage (Borago officinalis L.) |first1=C. |last1=Montaner |first2=E. |last2=Floris |first3=J. M. |last3=Alvarez |date=February 2001 |doi=10.1007/s001220051656 |volume=102 |journal=Theoretical and Applied Genetics |issue=2–3 |pages=375–378|s2cid=26250534 }}</ref>

The flowers arise along [[Glossary_of_botanical_terms#scorpioid|scorpioid]] [[Glossary_of_botanical_terms#cyme|cyme]]s to form large floral displays with multiple flowers blooming simultaneously, suggesting that borage has a high degree of [[geitonogamy]] (intraplant pollination).<ref name="springerlink.com"/>

It has an indeterminate growth habit. In temperate climates such as in the UK, its flowering season is relatively long, from June to September. In milder climates, borage blooms continuously for most of the year. It can be invasive.

=== Chemistry ===
The seeds consist of 26–38% [[borage seed oil]], of which 17–28% is [[gamma-linolenic acid]] (GLA, an [[omega-6 fatty acid]]), making borage seed oil the richest known source of GLA.<ref>[[National Non-Food Crops Centre]]. [http://www.nnfcc.co.uk/publications/nnfcc-crop-factsheet-borage NNFCC Crop Factsheet: Borage], Retrieved on 16 Feb 2011</ref>  The oil also contains the [[fatty acid]]s [[palmitic acid]] (10–11%), [[stearic acid]] (3.5–4.5%), [[oleic acid]] (16–20%), [[linoleic acid]] (35–38%), [[eicosenoic acid]] (3.5–5.5%), [[erucic acid]] (1.5–3.5%), and [[nervonic acid]] (1.5%).  Healthy adults typically produce ample GLA from dietary [[linoleic acid]], but borage seed oil is often marketed as a GLA supplement, under the names "starflower oil" or "borage oil".

The leaves contain small amounts (2–10 ppm in the dried herb) of the [[hepatotoxicity|liver-toxic]] [[pyrrolizidine alkaloids]] (PA) [[intermedine]], [[lycopsamine]], [[amabiline]], and [[supinine]] and the nontoxic [[Saturated and unsaturated compounds|saturated]] PA [[thesinine]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Borage Wildflower Finder |url=http://www.wildflowerfinder.org.uk/Flowers/B/Borage/Borage.htm |access-date=2013-09-13 |publisher=Wildflowerfinder.org.uk}}</ref>  PAs are also present in borage seed oil, but may be removed by processing.<ref name="SK">{{cite web |url=http://www.mskcc.org/mskcc/html/69148.cfm |title=Borage |website=[[Sloan-Kettering]] website |date=31 March 2022 |access-date=2024-09-15}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author1=Dodson, Craig D. |author2=Stermitz, Frank R. |year=1986 |title=Pyrrolizidine alkaloids from borage (Borago officinalis) seeds and flowers |journal=Journal of Natural Products |volume=49 |issue=4 |pages=727–728 |doi=10.1021/np50046a045|bibcode=1986JNAtP..49..727D }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author1=Parvais, O. |author2=Vander Stricht, B. |author3=Vanhaelen-Fastre, R. |author4=Vanhaelen, M. |year=1994 |title=TLC detection of pyrrolizidine alkaloids in oil extracted from the seeds of Borago officinalis |journal=Journal of Planar Chromatography--Modern TLC |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=80–82}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author1=Wretensjoe, Inger |author2=Karlberg, Bo. |year=2003 |title=Pyrrolizidine alkaloid content in crude and processed borage oil from different processing stages |journal=Journal of the American Oil Chemists' Society |volume=80 |issue=10 |pages=963–970 |doi=10.1007/s11746-003-0804-z |s2cid=94575246}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Awang V. C. |title=Botanical Medicine: The Information Base for safety assessment of Botanicals |year=1999 |editor=Eskinazi D.}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author1=Langer T. |author2=Franz Ch. |year=1997 |title=Pyrrolizidine alkaloids in commercial samples of borage seed oil products by GC-MS |journal=[[Scientia Pharmaceutica]] |volume=65 |issue=4 |pages=321–328}}</ref>

== Distribution and habitat ==
It is native to the [[Mediterranean region]], and has naturalized in many other locales.<ref>[http://luirig.altervista.org/flora/taxa/index1.php?scientific-name=borago+officinalis Altervista Flora Italiana, Borragine comune, gurkört, ''Borago officinalis'' L.] includes photos, drawings, and European distribution map</ref> It grows satisfactorily in gardens in most of Europe, such as Ireland, Denmark, France, Germany, the United Kingdom. It is not a perennial, but it remains in the garden from year to year by self-seeding.

== Toxicity ==
In addition to the liver-toxic pyrrolizidine alkaloids found in the leaves and seed oil, the German [[Federal Institute for Risk Assessment]] has advised that honey from borage contains [[Pyrrolizidine alkaloid|pyrrolizidine alkaloids]] (PAs), transferred to the honey through pollen collected at borage plants, and advise that commercial honey production could select for raw honey with limited PA content to prevent contamination.<ref>{{cite web |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |date=4 August 2014 |title=Fragen und Antworten zu Pyrrolizidinalkaloiden in Lebensmitteln |url=http://www.bfr.bund.de/cm/343/fragen-und-antworten-zu-pyrrolizidinalkaloiden-in-lebensmitteln.pdf |access-date=12 November 2015 |publisher=[[Federal Institute for Risk Assessment]] |language=de}}</ref>

== Uses ==
[[File:Borago officinalis white flower.jpg|thumb|right|A white-flower [[cultivar]]]]
[[File:Borago officinalis, two blossoms.jpg|thumb|Two blossoms: the younger one is pink, the older blue.]]

Traditionally, borage was cultivated for culinary and medicinal uses, although today, commercial cultivation is mainly as an oilseed.
 
Borage is used as either a fresh vegetable or a dried herb. As a fresh vegetable, borage, with a [[cucumber]]-like taste, is often used in salads or as a garnish.<ref name="encyclopedia-of-spices">{{cite encyclopedia |url = http://www.theepicentre.com/Spices/borage.html |archive-url = https://archive.today/20130203185040/http://www.theepicentre.com/Spices/borage.html |url-status = dead |archive-date = 2013-02-03 |title = Borage |year = 2009 |encyclopedia = Encyclopedia of spices |publisher = The Epicentre |access-date = 2010-12-01 }}</ref>

The flower has a sweet, honey-like taste and is often used to decorate [[dessert]]s and cocktails,<ref name="encyclopedia-of-spices"/> sometimes frozen in ice cubes.<ref>{{cite web |title=Heston's Cucumber gin and tonic |url=https://www.waitrose.com/content/waitrose/en/home/recipes/recipe_directory/h/heston_s_cucumberginandtonic.html |website=www.waitrose.com |access-date=23 May 2020}}</ref>

Vegetable use of borage is common in Germany, in the Spanish regions of [[Aragon|Aragón]] and [[Navarre]], on the Greek island of [[Crete]], and in the northern Italian region of [[Liguria]].<ref name=":0" /> Although often used in soups, one of the better known German borage recipes is the [[Frankfurt]] speciality [[Green Sauce#Germany|''grüne Soße'']] ("green sauce").

In Italy, borage is always eaten cooked, and is most commonly used to fill [[ravioli]] in the regions of [[Campania]] and [[Liguria]].<ref name=":0">{{cite web |last1=Logan |first1=Gabi |title=Foodie Guide to Borragine |url=https://www.italymagazine.com/featured-story/foodie-guide-borragine |website=ITALY Magazine |access-date=23 May 2020 |language=en |date=5 January 2012}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Del Conte |first=Anna |author-link=Anna Del Conte |title=The Concise Gastronomy of Italy |publisher=Barnes and Nobles |year=2004 |isbn=0-7607-6344-5 |location=New York |pages=203 |orig-year=2001}}</ref>

It is used to flavour pickled [[gherkin]]s in [[Poland]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Hengstenberg Knax Polish Style Gherkins Choice Grade 720g - Hengstenberg, Germany |url=https://www.ruskiwaydeli.com.au/hengstenberg-knax-polish-style-gherkins-choice-gra |website=ruskiwaydeli.com.au |access-date=23 May 2020 |language=en}}</ref> and Russia.<ref>{{cite web |title=Pickled Gherkins - Russian Style |url=https://www.kuehne-international.com/gherkins/pickled-gherkins-russian-style |website=Kühne |access-date=23 May 2020 |language=en |date=4 December 2015}}</ref>

The flowers produce copious nectar<ref>{{cite web |title=Borage: Species information |url=https://www.cotswoldseeds.com/species/170/borage |website=cotswoldseeds.com |access-date=13 June 2020 |language=en}}</ref> which is used by honeybees to make a light and delicate honey.<ref>{{cite web |title=English Borage Honey |url=https://www.littleoverapiaries.com/product/english-borage-honey/ |website=littleoverapiaries.com |access-date=13 June 2020 |language=en}}</ref>
[[File:Borage-aragonese style600.JPG|thumb|upright=1.2|In [[Aragonese cuisine]], borage boiled and sautéed with [[garlic]] is served with [[potato]]es.]]

===Beverage===  
Borage is traditionally used as a [[Garnish (food)|garnish]] in the [[Pimms Cup]] [[cocktail]],<ref name="encyclopedia-of-spices"/> but is nowadays often replaced by a long sliver of cucumber peel or by  [[Mentha|mint]]. It is also one of the key botanicals in [[Gilpin's Westmorland Extra Dry Gin]]. The author of ''Cups and their Customs'' notes that a sprig or two of borage "communicates a peculiar refreshing flavour" to any cool drink.<ref>{{cite book |title=Cups and their Customs |url=https://archive.org/details/cupstheircustoms00robe_1/page/n5/mode/2up |author=Roberts, George Edwin |year=1863 |page=[https://archive.org/details/cupstheircustoms00robe_1/page/32/mode/2up 32] |publisher=London: J. Van Voorst }}</ref>

In [[Persian people|Persian]] cuisine, borage tea (using the dried purple flowers) is called گل گاوزبان : ''gol gâvzabân'', "cow's-tongue-flower".<ref>{{cite web |title=CHAI GOL GAVZABAN گل گاوزبان {{!}} BREWED BORAGE TEA |url=https://persianmama.com/chai-gol-gavzaban-brewed-borage-tea/ |access-date=8 September 2020 |date=22 October 2015}}</ref>

=== Herbal medicine ===
Traditionally, ''Borago officinalis'' has been used in [[hyperactive]] [[gastrointestinal]], [[respiratory]] and [[cardiovascular]] disorders,<ref>Gilani A.H., Bashir S., Khan A.-u. "Pharmacological basis for the use of Borago officinalis in gastrointestinal, respiratory and cardiovascular disorders", ''Journal of Ethnopharmacology'' 114 (3), pp 393–399, 2007.</ref> such as gastrointestinal ([[colic]], [[cramps]], [[diarrhea]]), airways ([[asthma]], [[bronchitis]]), cardiovascular, ([[cardiotonic]], [[antihypertensive]] and blood purifier), [[urinary]] (diuretic and kidney/bladder disorders).<ref>Gilani A.H. "Focused Conference Group: P16 - Natural products: Past and future? Pharmacological use of borago officinalis", ''Basic and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology''. Conference: 16th World Congress of Basic and Clinical Pharmacology. WorldPharma 2010 Copenhagen Denmark. Publication: (var. pagings). 107 (pp. 301), 2010. Date of Publication: July 2010.</ref>

One case of [[status epilepticus]] has been reported that was associated with borage oil ingestion.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Al-Khamees WA, Schwartz MD, Alrashdi S, Algren AD, Morgan BW | title = Status Epilepticus Associated with Borage Oil Ingestion | journal = Journal of Medical Toxicology | volume = 7 | issue = 2 | pages = 154–157 | year = 2011 | doi=10.1007/s13181-011-0135-9| pmid = 21387119  | pmc = 3724443 }} After taking 1.5 to 3 g of borage oil daily for a week; level of GLA in blood was high.</ref>

A [[methanol]] extract of borage has shown strong [[amoebicidal]] activity ''[[in vitro]]''. The 50% inhibitory concentration ({{LD50}}) of the extract against ''[[Entamoeba histolytica]]'' was 33&nbsp;μg/mLl.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Leos-Rivas C, Verde-Star MJ, Torres LO, Oranday-Cardenas A, Rivas-Morales C, Barron-Gonzalez MP, Morales-Vallarta MR, Cruz-Vega DE | title = In vitro amoebicidal activity of borage (Borago officinalis) extract on entamoeba histolytica | journal = Journal of Medicinal Food | volume = 14 | issue = 7–8 | pages = 866–869 | year = 2011| pmid = 21476887 | doi = 10.1089/jmf.2010.0164 }}</ref>

=== Companion planting ===
Borage is used in [[companion plant]]ing.<ref>{{cite web |date=2009-05-23 |title=Gardening Borage a Companion Plant |url=http://back2theland.com/articles/14766.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130302121530/http://back2theland.com/articles/14766.html |archive-date=2013-03-02 |access-date=2013-09-13 |website=Back2theland.com}}</ref> It is said to protect or nurse [[legumes]], [[spinach]], [[brassicas]], and [[strawberries]].<ref>{{cite web |author=Darlene S. Widirstky |title=Herbal Companion Planting in the Vegetable Garden |url=http://www.n8ture.com/herbalcompanion.html |access-date=2013-09-13 |website=N8ture}}</ref> It is also said to be a good companion plant to [[tomatoes]] because it confuses the mother moths of [[tomato hornworm]]s or [[manduca]] looking for a place to lay their eggs.<ref name="GG">{{cite web |last=Fischer |first=Fern |date=21 September 2017 |title=How to Use Borage |url=http://www.gardenguides.com/80544-use-borage.html |access-date=2013-09-13 |website=Gardenguides.com}}</ref> Claims that it improves tomato growth<ref>{{cite web |title=Companion Planting |url=http://www.ghorganics.com/page2.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130924110832/http://www.ghorganics.com/page2.html |archive-date=2013-09-24 |access-date=2013-09-13 |publisher=Golden Harvest Organics}}</ref> and makes them taste better<ref name="GG" /> remain unsubstantiated.

==In culture==
[[Pliny the Elder]] and [[Dioscorides]] said that borage was the [[nepenthe]] (νηπενθές : nēpenthés) mentioned in [[Homer]], which caused forgetfulness when mixed with wine.<ref name="Grieve">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FgW4KJUSXkIC&pg=PA120|page=120|title=A Modern Herbal: The Medicinal, Culinary, Cosmetic and Economic Properties, Cultivation and Folk-lore of Herbs, Grasses, Fungi, Shrubs, & Trees with All Their Modern Scientific Uses, Volume 1|author=Grieve, Maud|year=1971|publisher=Courier Corporation |isbn=9780486227986}}</ref>

King [[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII's]] last wife, [[Catherine Parr]], used borage in a concoction to treat melancholy.<ref>Susan James. Catherine Parr: Henry VIII's Last Love, 2010</ref>

[[Francis Bacon]]  thought that borage had "an excellent spirit to repress the fuliginous vapour of dusky melancholie".<ref name="Grieve" />

[[John Gerard]]'s ''Herball'' mentions an old verse concerning the plant: "''Ego Borago, Gaudia semper ago'' (I, Borage, bring always joys)". He asserts: 
{{Blockquote
|text=Those of our time do use the flowers in salads to {{Not a typo|exh|ilerate}} and make the mind glad. There be also many things made of these used everywhere for the comfort of the heart, for the driving away of sorrow and increasing the joy of the mind. The leaves and flowers of Borage put into wine make men and women glad and merry and drive away all sadness, dullness and melancholy, as Dioscorides and Pliny affirm. Syrup made of the flowers of Borage comfort the heart, purge melancholy and quiet the frantic and lunatic person. The leaves eaten raw engender good blood, especially in those that have been lately sick.<ref name="Grieve" />}}

==See also==
* [[List of companion plants]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
<nowiki>https://persianmama.com/chai-gol-gavzaban-brewed-borage-tea/</nowiki>

<nowiki>https://www.pinterest.ca/pin/557179785128125722/</nowiki>
* {{Cite AmCyc|wstitle=Borage |short=x}}
* {{cite web|url=http://www.missouribotanicalgarden.org/gardens-gardening/your-garden/plant-finder/plant-details/kc/b765/borago-officinalis.aspx|title=Borage|publisher=MissouriBotanicalGarden.org}}

{{Herbs & spices}}
{{Taxonbar|from=Q147075}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Boraginoideae]]
[[Category:Herbs]]
[[Category:Leaf vegetables]]
[[Category:Medicinal plants of Asia]]
[[Category:Flora of Europe]]
[[Category:Edible plants]]
[[Category:Botanical taxa named by Carl Linnaeus]]
[[Category:Melliferous flowers]]