View source for Biscayne National Park

{{Short description|U.S. national park in South Florida}}
{{featured article}}
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{{Infobox protected area
 | name              = Biscayne National Park
 | iucn_category     = V
 | photo             = Biscayne.JPG
 | photo_caption     = Sunset at Biscayne National Park in December 2005
 | map               = Florida#USA
 | relief            = 1
 | map_caption       = Location in [[Florida]]##Location in the United States
 | location          = [[Miami-Dade County, Florida]], U.S.
 | nearest_city      = [[Homestead, Florida|Homestead]]
 | coordinates       = {{Coord|25|28|10|N|80|11|10|W|region:US-FL|display=inline, title}}
 | area_acre         = 172971
 | area_ref          = <ref name=area>{{NPS area|year=2011|access-date=5 March 2012}}</ref>
 | established       = June 28, 1980
 | visitation_num    = 701,023
 | visitation_year   = 2022
 | visitation_ref    = <ref>{{NPS Visitation|access-date=October 16, 2023}}</ref>
 | governing_body    = [[National Park Service]]
 | website           = {{official url}}
}}

'''Biscayne National Park''' is a [[List of national parks of the United States|national park of the United States]] located south of [[Miami]], Florida, in [[Miami-Dade County, Florida|Miami-Dade County]]. The park preserves [[Biscayne Bay]] and its offshore barrier reefs. The shore of the bay is the location of an extensive [[mangrove forest]]. The park covers {{convert|172,971|acre|ha sqmi km2|1}},<ref name="area" /> of which {{convert|9075|acre|abbr=on}} are on land.<ref name="bischrs1" /> It includes [[Elliott Key]], the park's largest island and northernmost of the true [[Florida Keys]], formed from fossilized [[coral]] reef. The islands farther north in the park are transitional islands of coral and sand. The offshore portion of the park includes the northernmost region of the [[Florida Reef]], one of the largest coral reefs in the world.

Biscayne National Park protects four distinct ecosystems: part of the [[Florida mangroves]] along the shoreline, the shallow waters of Biscayne Bay, the coral limestone keys, and the offshore Florida Reef. The shoreline swamps of the mainland and island margins provide a nursery for larval and juvenile fish, molluscs, and crustaceans. The bay waters harbor immature and adult fish, seagrass beds, sponges, soft corals, and [[West Indian manatee|manatees]]. The keys are covered with tropical vegetation including endangered cacti and palms, and their beaches provide nesting grounds for [[endangered sea turtles]]. Offshore reefs and waters harbor more than 200 species of fish, pelagic birds, whales, and hard corals. Sixteen [[Endangered Species Act|endangered species]] including [[Papilio aristodemus|Schaus' swallowtail butterflies]], [[smalltooth sawfish]], manatees, and [[Green sea turtle|green]] and [[Hawksbill sea turtle|hawksbill]] sea turtles may be observed in the park. Biscayne also has a small population of threatened [[American crocodile]]s and a few [[American alligator]]s.

The people of the [[Glades culture]] inhabited the Biscayne Bay region as early as 10,000&nbsp;years ago before rising sea levels filled the bay. The [[Tequesta]] people occupied the islands and shoreline from about 4,000&nbsp;years before the present to the 16th century, when the Spanish took possession of Florida. Reefs claimed ships from Spanish times through the 20th century, with more than 40 documented wrecks within the park's boundaries. While the park's islands were farmed during the 19th and early 20th centuries, their rocky soil and periodic [[hurricane]]s made agriculture difficult to sustain.

In the early 20th century the islands became secluded destinations for wealthy Miamians who built getaway homes and social clubs. [[Mark C. Honeywell]]'s guesthouse on [[Boca Chita Key]] that featured a mock lighthouse was the area's most elaborate private retreat. The [[Cocolobo Cay Club]] was at various times owned by Miami developer [[Carl G. Fisher]], yachtsman [[Garfield Wood]], and President [[Richard Nixon]]'s friend [[Bebe Rebozo]], and was visited by four United States presidents. The amphibious community of [[Stiltsville]], established in the 1930s in the shoals of northern Biscayne Bay, took advantage of its remoteness from land to offer offshore gambling and alcohol during [[Prohibition]]. After the [[Cuban Revolution]] of 1959, the [[Central Intelligence Agency]] and Cuban exile groups used Elliott Key as a training ground for infiltrators into [[Fidel Castro]]'s [[Cuba]].

Originally proposed for inclusion in [[Everglades National Park]], Biscayne Bay was removed from the proposed park to ensure Everglades' establishment. The area remained undeveloped until the 1960s, when a series of proposals were made to develop the keys in the manner of [[Miami Beach]], and to construct a deepwater seaport for bulk cargo, along with refinery and petrochemical facilities on the mainland shore of Biscayne Bay. Through the 1960s and 1970s, two fossil-fueled power plants and two nuclear power plants were built on the bay shores. A backlash against development led to the 1968 designation of Biscayne National Monument. The preserved area was expanded by its 1980 re-designation as Biscayne National Park. The park is heavily used by boaters, and apart from the park's visitor center on the mainland and a jetty at Black Point Marina, its land and sea areas are accessible only by boat.

==Geography==
[[File:Biscayne National Park Map 2009.png|thumb|alt=Park map|Map of Biscayne National Park<ref>{{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130115150822/http://hfc.nps.gov/carto/PDF/BISCmap1.pdf |date=2013-01-15 }}</ref>]]
Biscayne National Park comprises {{convert|172971|acre|ha sqmi km2}} in [[Miami-Dade County]] in southeast Florida.<ref name=area/> Extending from just south of [[Key Biscayne]] southward to just north of [[Key Largo]], most of the park is open water, although there are 42 islands within the park boundaries including [[Soldier Key]], the [[Ragged Keys]], [[Sands Key]], [[Elliott Key]], [[Totten Key]] and [[Old Rhodes Key]], as well as smaller islands that form the northernmost extension of the [[Florida Keys]]. The [[Biscayne Bay#Safety Valve|Safety Valve]], a wide shallow opening in the island chain, between the Ragged Keys and Key Biscayne just north of the park's boundary, allows [[storm surge]] water to flow out of the bay after the passage of tropical storms. The park's eastern boundary is the ten-fathom line ({{convert|60|ft|m|adj=on|disp=semicolon}}) of water depth in the Atlantic Ocean on the [[Florida Reef]]. The park's western boundary is a fringe of property on the mainland, extending a few hundred meters inland between [[Cutler Ridge]] and Mangrove Point. The only direct mainland access to the park is at the Convoy Point Visitor Center, adjacent to the park headquarters.<ref name=bischrs1>{{cite web|last=Leynes|first=Jennifer Brown|title=Introduction|url=https://www.nps.gov/parkhistory/online_books/bisc/hrs/chapter1.pdf|work=Biscayne National Park Historic Resource Study|publisher=National Park Service|access-date=28 November 2012|author2=Cullison, David|page=1|date=January 1998}}</ref>  The southwestern boundary adjoins the [[Turkey Point Nuclear Generating Station]] and its system of cooling canals.<ref name=biscbrochure1>{{cite book|title=Biscayne National Park Brochure and Map|year=2009|publisher=National Park Service}}</ref>

The southern portion of [[Biscayne Bay]] extends between Elliott Key and the mainland, transited by the [[Intracoastal Waterway]]. The park abuts the [[Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary]] on the east and south sides of the park and [[John Pennekamp Coral Reef State Park]] to the south.<ref name=biscbrochure1/> Only {{convert|9075|acre}} of the park's area are on land, with the offshore keys comprising {{convert|4250|acre}} and mainland mangrove swamps account for the remaining {{convert|4825|acre}}.<ref name=bischrs1/> As an extension of the Everglades ecosystem, much of the park was originally proposed to be included in [[Everglades National Park]], but was excluded to obtain a consensus for the establishment of the Everglades park in 1947.<ref name=grunwald1>Grunwald, p. 214</ref>

===Geology===
[[File:Biscayne underwater NPS1.jpg|thumb|alt=Sunlight on an underwater coral reef|Underwater view of a [[coral reef]] at Biscayne National Park]]
[[Biscayne Bay]] marks the southernmost extent of the Atlantic barrier islands, represented by [[Key Biscayne, Florida|Key Biscayne]] and the northernmost extent of the [[Florida Keys]] at [[Elliott Key]]. The keys are distinguished from the barrier islands by the coral limestone that extends to the islands' surface under a thin veneer of topsoil, while the barrier islands are dominated by wave-deposited sands that cover most of the limestones.<ref name=bryan1>Bryan ''et al.'', p. 288</ref> Biscayne Bay lies between low ridges of [[Oolite|oolitic]] Miami Limestone on the west, forming [[Cutler Bay, Florida|Cutler Ridge]] and the coral-based Key Largo limestone that underlies Elliott Key and the keys to the south. The Miami limestone was deposited in turbulent lagoon waters.

The Key Largo Limestone is a fossilized coral reef formed during the [[Sangamonian]] Stage of about 75,000 to 125,000&nbsp;years ago. The Miami Formation achieved its present form somewhat later, during a glacial period in which fresh water consolidated and cemented the lagoon deposits.<ref>Bryan ''et al.'', pp. 287–290</ref> The Key Largo Limestone is a coarse stone formed from stony corals, between {{convert|69|and|200|ft}} in thickness.<ref>Bryan ''et al.'', p. 298</ref> As a consequence of their origins as reefs, the beaches of Elliott Key and Old Rhodes Key are rocky. Significant sandy beaches are found only at Sands Key.<ref name=bnmecology>{{cite web|title=The Ecology|work=Biscayne National Monument: A Proposal|url=https://www.nps.gov/parkhistory/online_books/bisc/proposal/sec4.htm|publisher=National Park Service|access-date=7 January 2013}}</ref>

===Hydrology===
Biscayne Bay is a shallow semi-enclosed lagoon which averages {{convert|10|ft|abbr=on}} in depth.<ref name=wbiscsalin8>{{cite web|title=Estimates of Flows to Meet Salinity Targets for Western Biscayne National Park|url=http://digitalcollections.fiu.edu/sfrc/pdfs/FI11060804.pdf|publisher=National Park Service|access-date=8 January 2013|page=8|date=June 2008|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130521210355/http://digitalcollections.fiu.edu/sfrc/pdfs/FI11060804.pdf|archive-date=21 May 2013}}</ref>  Both its mainland margins and the keys are covered by mangrove forest. The park includes the southern portion of Biscayne Bay, with areas of thin sediment called "hardbottom", and vegetated [[seagrass meadow]]s supporting turtlegrass and shoal grass.<ref name=npsbisc1>{{cite web|title=Biscayne Bay|url=https://www.nps.gov/bisc/naturescience/biscaynebay.htm|work=Biscayne National Park|publisher=National Park Service|access-date=19 November 2012}}</ref>

As a result of efforts to control water resources in Florida and projects to drain the [[Everglades]] during the early and mid-20th century, water flow into Biscayne Bay has been altered by the construction of canals. These canals channel water from portions of the southeastern Everglades now used for agriculture into the bay. Prior to canal construction, most fresh water inflow came from rain and groundwater, but the canals are now altering the salinity profile of the bay, conveying sediment and pollutants and leading to [[saltwater intrusion]] into the Biscayne aquifer. The [[Comprehensive Everglades Restoration Plan]] (CERP) was established in 2000 to mitigate the effects of human intervention into the natural water flow of the Everglades. Primarily aimed at the [[Restoration of the Everglades|restoration of historical patterns of water flow]] into Everglades National Park, the project will also deal with issues arising from the diversion of water out of the southern Everglades into Biscayne Bay.<ref name=sotpbisc2>NPCA, p. 2</ref> The Biscayne Bay Coastal Wetlands Project (BBCW) is a CERP component specifically intended to redistribute water flow so that fresh water is introduced gradually through creeks and marshes rather than short, heavy discharges through drainage canals.<ref name=npca13>NPCA, p. 13</ref>

==Human history==
===Native people===
{{stack|[[File:Shell-Midden.jpg|thumb|alt=Conch and whelk shells among trees|Piles of [[conch]] and [[whelk]] shells left behind by [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]].]]}}
[[Indigenous peoples of Florida|Native Americans]] were present in lower Florida 10,000&nbsp;years ago, when ocean levels were low and Biscayne Bay was comparatively empty of water. Water levels rose from about 4000&nbsp;years ago and inundated the bay.<ref name=bischrs2>{{cite web|last=Leynes|first=Jennifer Brown|title=Chapter 2: Background History|url=http://www.nps.gov/bisc/historyculture/upload/bischistoricresourcestudy.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080217002421/http://www.nps.gov/bisc/historyculture/upload/bischistoricresourcestudy.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=February 17, 2008|work=Biscayne National Park Historic Resource Study|publisher=National Park Service|access-date=28 November 2012|author2=Cullison, David|page=1|date=January 1998}}</ref> Archeologists believe any traces left by the peoples of that era are now submerged; none now exist on dry lands in the park. The [[Cutler Fossil Site]], just to the west of the park, has yielded evidence of human occupation extending to at least 10000&nbsp;years before the present.<ref name=leynes910>Leynes, Cullison, Chapter 2, pp. 9–10</ref>

The earliest evidence of human presence in Biscayne dates to about 2500&nbsp;years before the present, with piles of [[conch]] and [[whelk]] shells left by the [[Glades culture]]. The Glades culture was followed by the [[Tequesta]] people, who occupied the shores of Biscayne Bay. The Tequesta were a sedentary community that lived on fish and other sea life, with no significant agricultural activity.<ref name=npsbisc3>{{cite web|title=Native Peoples|url=https://home.nps.gov/bisc/learn/historyculture/native-peoples.htm|work=Biscayne National Park|publisher=National Park Service|access-date=19 November 2012}}</ref> A site on Sands Key has yielded potsherds, worked shells and other artifacts indicating occupation from at latest 1000&nbsp;[[Common Era|CE]] to about 1650, after contact was made with Europeans.<ref name=leynes910/> Fifty significant archaeological sites have been identified in the park.<ref name=npca33>NPCA, p. 33</ref>

===Exploration===
[[Juan Ponce de León]] explored the area in 1513, discovering the Florida Keys and encountering the Tequesta on the mainland. Other Spanish explorers arrived later in the 16th century and Florida came under Spanish rule. The Tequesta were resettled by the then-Spanish government in the Florida Keys, and the South Florida mainland was depopulated.<ref name=npsbisc3/> Ponce de León referred to the bay as "Chequescha" after its inhabitants, becoming "Tequesta" by the time of Spanish governor [[Pedro Menéndez de Avilés]] later in the century. The present name has been attributed to a shipwrecked [[Basque people|Basque]] sailor known as the "[[Biscayne (ethnonym)|Biscaino]]" or "Viscayno" who lived in the area for a time, or to a more general allusion to the [[Bay of Biscay]].<ref name=blank1>{{cite book|last=Blank|first=Joan Gill|title=Key Biscayne: A History of Miami's Tropical Island and the Cape Florida Lighthouse|year=1996|publisher=Pineapple Press|isbn=978-1-56164-096-6|page=13}}</ref>

Spanish treasure fleets regularly sailed past the Florida Keys and were often caught in hurricanes. There are 44 documented shipwrecks in the park from the 16th through the 20th centuries. At least two 18th-century Spanish ships were wrecked in the park area.<ref name=miller1>Miller, p. 6</ref> The Spanish galleon ''Nuestra Senora del Popolo'' is believed to have been wrecked in park waters in 1733, though the site has not been found.<ref name=npca33/> [[HMS Fowey (1744)|HMS ''Fowey'']] was wrecked in 1748<ref name=npca32>NPCA, p. 32</ref> in what is now Legare Anchorage, at some distance from the Fowey Rocks. The discovery of the ship in 1975 resulted in a landmark court case that established the wreck as an archaeological site rather than a salvage site.<ref name=skowronek1>{{cite journal|last=Skowronek|first=Russell K.|author2=Vernon, Richard H.|author3=Fischer, George R.|title=The Legare Anchorage shipwreck site—Grave of HMS Fowey, Biscayne National Park, Florida|journal=International Journal of Nautical Archaeology|date=November 1987|volume=16|issue=4|pages=313–324|doi=10.1111/j.1095-9270.1987.tb00606.x}}</ref>  43 wrecks are included on the [[National Register of Historic Places]] in the [[Offshore Reefs Archeological District]], which extends for {{convert|30|mi|abbr=on}} along the seaward side of the Biscayne National Park keys.<ref>Leynes, Cullison, Chapter 2, p. 12</ref><ref name=fdhr1>{{cite web|title=Offshore Reefs Archeological District|url=http://www.flheritage.com/facts/reports/places/index.cfm?fuseaction=FullImage&id=137|publisher=Florida Division of Historical Resources|access-date=12 January 2013|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121008032217/http://www.flheritage.com/facts/reports/places/index.cfm?fuseaction=FullImage&id=137|archive-date=8 October 2012}}</ref>  During the 18th century, Elliott Key was the reputed base of two different pirates, both called [[Black Caesar (pirate)|Black Caesar]], commemorated by Caesar's Creek between Elliott and Old Rhodes Key.<ref>Miller, p. 9</ref><ref name=bnmproposal4>{{cite web|title=Man and the Coral Reefs|url=https://www.nps.gov/parkhistory/online_books/bisc/proposal/sec5.htm|work=Biscayne National Park: A Proposal|publisher=National Park Service|access-date=12 January 2013}}</ref>

===Settlement and pre-park use===
{{stack|[[File:Cocolobo Cay Club Harding 1.jpg|thumb|U.S. President [[Warren G. Harding]] and fishing party at the Cocolobo Cay Club.]]}}

The first permanent European settlers in the Miami area did not come until the early 19th century. The first settlements around Biscayne Bay were small farms on Elliott Key growing crops like [[key lime]]s and [[pineapple]]s. [[John James Audubon]] visited [[Elliott Key]] in 1832.<ref>Miller, p. 11</ref> Colonel [[Robert E. Lee]] surveyed the area around Biscayne Bay for potential fortification sites in 1849.<ref name=bnmproposal4/> At the end of the [[American Civil War]] in 1865, a number of [[Confederate States of America|Confederates]] passed through the area as they were attempting to escape to [[Cuba]]. Elliott Key was a brief stopping point for [[John C. Breckinridge]] during his flight to Cuba. The former United States vice president, Confederate general and Confederate secretary of war spent two nights in Biscayne Bay on his journey.<ref>Leynes, Cullison, Chapter 2, p. 13</ref> Few people lived in the park area until 1897, when Israel Lafayette Jones, an African-American property manager, bought Porgy Key for [[United States dollar|US$]]300 ({{Inflation|US|300|1897|fmt=eq|r=-2}}).<ref>{{Cite web |last=O'Connell |first=Kim A. |date=May 1, 2003 |title=The keepers of the keys: amid the natural riches of Biscayne National Park, the forgotten story of the African-American family that helped protect it is finally coming to light. - Free Online Library |url=https://www.thefreelibrary.com/The+keepers+of+the+keys:+amid+the+natural+riches+of+Biscayne+National...-a0101680981 |access-date=2025-07-23 |website=National Parks}}</ref> The next year Jones bought the adjoining Old Rhodes Key and grew limes and pineapples there.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Finney |first=Carolyn |date=2021-11-04 |title=Who Gets Left Out of the ‘Great Outdoors’ Story? |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/11/04/style/black-outdoors-wilderness.html |access-date=2025-07-23 |work=The New York Times |language=en-US |issn=0362-4331}}</ref>

In 1911, Jones bought {{convert|212|acre|ha|adj=on}} Totten Key, which had been used as a pineapple plantation, for a dollar an acre, selling in 1925 for US$250,000.<ref name=burnspsb1>Shumaker, p. 53</ref> Before Israel Jones' death in 1932<ref name=npsbisc4>{{cite web|title=The Joneses of Porgy Key|url=https://www.nps.gov/bisc/learn/historyculture/the-joneses-of-porgy-key-page-2.htm|page=2|work=Biscayne National Park|publisher=National Park Service|access-date=2012-11-19}}</ref> the Jones plantations were for a while among the largest lime producers on the Florida east coast.<ref>Shumaker, p. 55</ref>

[[Carl G. Fisher]], who was responsible for much of the development of [[Miami Beach, Florida|Miami Beach]], bought [[Adams Key]], once known as Cocolobo Key, in 1916 and built the [[Cocolobo Cay Club]] in 1922. The two-story club building had ten guest rooms, a dining room, and a separate recreation lodge. Patrons included [[Warren G. Harding]], [[Albert Fall]], [[T. Coleman du Pont]], [[Harvey Firestone]], [[Jack Dempsey]], [[Charles F. Kettering]], [[Will Rogers]] and [[Frank Seiberling]].<ref>Miller, pp.19–20</ref><ref name=shumaker57>Shumaker, p. 57</ref> Israel Jones' sons Lancelot and Arthur dropped out of the lime-growing business after competition from Mexican limes made their business less profitable, and after a series of devastating hurricanes in 1938 they became full-time fishing guides at the Cocolobo Club. The club had declined with the [[Wall Street crash of 1929|crash of 1929]] which cost Fisher his fortune, but was revived by [[Garfield Wood]] in 1934.<ref name=Shumaker59>Shumaker, p. 59</ref> Among the Joneses' clients was avid fisherman [[Herbert Hoover]] and his family. The Joneses also provided the club with fish, lobster and crabs. Arthur and Lancelot Jones were the second largest landowners and the only permanent residents of the lower Biscayne Bay keys during the 1960s.<ref name=npsbisc5>{{cite web|title=The Joneses of Porgy Key|url=https://home.nps.gov/bisc/learn/historyculture/the-joneses-of-porgy-key-page-3.htm|work=Biscayne National Park|publisher=National Park Service|page=3|access-date=2012-11-19}}</ref> Wood sold the Cocolobo Cay Club to a group of investors led by Miami banker [[Bebe Rebozo]] in 1954, who renamed it the Coco Lobo Fishing Club. Clients guided by the Joneses through the 1940s and 1950s included then-senators [[John F. Kennedy]], [[Lyndon Johnson]], [[Richard Nixon]], [[Herman Talmadge]], and [[George Smathers]].<ref name=Shumaker61>Shumaker, p. 61</ref>

During the [[Cold War]] the future park area was a training ground for Cuban exiles training for missions in [[Fidel Castro]]'s Cuba. Elliott Key in particular was used by the [[Central Intelligence Agency]] as a training area in the early 1960s in preparation for [[Bay of Pigs Invasion|Bay of Pigs invasion]]. The largest facility was Ledbury Lodge, the only hotel ever built on the key. As late as 1988 a group of Cuban exiles were arrested when they tried to use the key for a mock landing. Farther north, exiled Venezuelan president [[Marcos Pérez Jiménez]] kept a house on Soldier Key until he was extradited in 1963.<ref name=hach1>Hach, pp. 35–36</ref>

===Proposed development===
[[File:Boca Chita Miami skyline NPS1.jpg|thumb|alt=Aerial view of Boca Chita Key with the skyline of Miami in the distance|[[Boca Chita Key]] lighthouse and the [[Miami]] skyline]]
[[File:Turkey Point FL1.jpg|thumb|alt=Power plant smokestacks and cooling units|[[Turkey Point Nuclear Generating Station|Turkey Point Power Station]]]]
As modern communities grew in and around Miami, developers looked to southern [[Miami-Dade County, Florida|Miami-Dade County]] for new projects. The undeveloped keys south of [[Key Biscayne, Florida|Key Biscayne]] were viewed as prime development territory.

Beginning in the 1890s, local interests promoted the construction of a causeway to the mainland. One proposal included building a highway linking the [[Biscayne Bay]] keys to the [[Overseas Highway]] at [[Key Largo, Florida|Key Largo]] and to the developed barrier islands to the north.<ref>Miller, pp. 17–18</ref> At the same time, pressure built to accommodate industrial development in [[South Florida]]. This led to competing priorities between those who wanted to develop for residential and leisure use and those in favor of industrial and infrastructure development. On December 6, 1960, 12 of the 18 area landowners who favored development voted to create the City of [[Islandia, Florida|Islandia]] on [[Elliott Key]].<ref name=mozingo1>{{cite news|last=Mozingo|first=Joe|title=Tiniest Town in Fla. an Almost-Was; Islandia Held Promise for Development Until National Park Swallowed 33 Keys|newspaper=The Washington Post|date=March 9, 2003}}</ref> The town was incorporated to encourage Dade County to improve access to Elliott Key, which landowners viewed as a potential rival to [[Miami Beach, Florida|Miami Beach]]. The new city lobbied for causeway access and formed a negotiating bloc to attract potential developers.<ref name=npsbisc10>{{cite web|title=The Birth of Biscayne National Park|url=https://home.nps.gov/bisc/learn/historyculture/the-birth-of-biscayne-national-park.htm|work=Biscayne National Park|publisher=National Park Service|access-date=20 November 2012}}</ref>

In 1962, an industrial seaport was proposed for the mainland shores of Biscayne Bay, to be known as SeaDade. SeaDade, supported by billionaire shipping magnate [[Daniel K. Ludwig]], would have included an oil refinery. In addition to the physical structures, it would have been necessary to dredge a {{convert|40|ft|m|adj=mid|-deep }} channel through the bay for large ships to access the refinery. The channel would have also required cutting through the coral reef to get to the deep water.<ref name=npsbisc10/> In 1963 [[Florida Power and Light]] (FP&L) announced plans for two new 400-[[megawatt]] oil-fired power plants on undeveloped land at [[Turkey Point Nuclear Generating Station|Turkey Point]].<ref>Miller, p. 46</ref>

Many local residents and politicians supported SeaDade because it would have created additional jobs, but a group of early environmentalists thought the costs were too high. They fought against development of the bay and formed the Safe Progress Association. Led by Lloyd Miller, the president of the local chapter of the [[Izaak Walton League]], ''[[Miami Herald]]'' reporter [[Juanita Greene]], and Art Marshall, the opponents of industrialization proposed the creation of a national park unit that would protect the reefs, islands and bay.<ref name=npsbisc10/> After initial skepticism, the park proposal obtained the support of ''Miami Herald'' editors,<ref name=duncan1>{{cite book|last=Duncan|first=Dayton|title=The National Parks: America's Best Idea|url=https://archive.org/details/nationalparksame00dunc|url-access=registration|year=2009|publisher=Alfred A. Knopf|isbn=978-0-307-26896-9|author2=Burns, Ken|page=[https://archive.org/details/nationalparksame00dunc/page/351 351]}}</ref>  as well as Florida Congressman [[Dante Fascell]] and Florida Governor [[Claude R. Kirk Jr.]], and were supported by lobbying efforts by sympathetic businessmen including [[Herbert Hoover, Jr.]]<ref name=mayr1>{{cite book|last=Mayr|first=Monika|title=Everglades Betrayal:The Issue that Defeated Al Gore|year=2008|publisher=Two Harbors Press|isbn=978-1-935097-04-4|pages=72–73}}</ref>

One vision of Islandia, supported by land owners, would have connected the northern [[Florida Keys]] from [[Key Biscayne, Florida|Key Biscayne]] to [[Key Largo, Florida|Key Largo]], with bridges and created new islands using the fill from the SeaDade channel. Although Miami-area politicians and the state of Florida did not support Ludwig's SeaDade plans, Islandia's supporters continued to lobby for development support. In 1968, when it appeared the area was about to become a national monument, Islandia supporters bulldozed a highway six lanes wide down the center of the island, destroying the forest for {{convert|7|mi|km}}. Islandia landowners called it Elliott Key Boulevard, but called it "Spite Highway" privately. It was hoped that since there was so much environmental damage, no one would want it for a national monument. Over time in the near-tropical climate, the forest grew back and now the only significant hiking trail on Elliott Key now follows the path of Elliott Key Boulevard.<ref name=npsbisc10/>

The oil-fired Turkey Point power stations were completed in 1967–68 and experienced immediate problems from the discharge of hot cooling water into Biscayne Bay, where the heat killed marine grasses.<ref>Miller, pp. 48, 59, 61, 64</ref> In 1964 FP&L announced plans for two 693 MW nuclear reactors at the site,<ref>Miller, p. 48</ref> which were expected to compound the cooling water problem. Because of the shallowness of Biscayne Bay, the power stations were projected to consume a significant proportion of the bay's waters each day for cooling. After extensive negotiations and litigation with both the state and with Ludwig, who owned lands needed for cooling water canals, a closed-loop canal system was built south of the power plants and the nuclear units became operational in the early 1970s.<ref>Miller, pp. 69, 76–79</ref>

Portions of the present park were used for recreation prior to the park's establishment. Homestead Bayfront Park, still operated by Miami-Dade County just south of Convoy Point, established a "blacks-only" segregated beach for African-Americans at the present site of the Dante Fascell Visitor Center. The segregated beach operated through the 1950s into the early 1960s before segregated public facilities were abolished.<ref name=npsbisc15>{{cite web|last=Lawson|first=Charles|title=Park Seeks Recollections of Homestead's "Blacks Only" Beach|url=https://www.nps.gov/bisc/learn/news/blacks-only-beach-oral-histories-sought.htm|work=Biscayne National Park|publisher=National Park Service|access-date=21 November 2012}}</ref>

===Park establishment and history===
[[File:Biscayne NM proposal NPS1.png|thumb|alt=Map of the original Biscayne National Monument|Biscayne National Monument as proposed in 1966]]
[[File:Columbus Day weekend boaters at Biscayne Bay.jpg|thumb|alt=Boats on Biscayne Bay|[[Columbus Day]] boating crowd]]
The earliest proposals for the protection of Biscayne Bay were part of proposals by Everglades National Park advocate [[Ernest F. Coe]], whose proposed Everglades park boundaries included Biscayne Bay, its keys, interior country including what are now Homestead and [[Florida City, Florida|Florida City]], and Key Largo. Biscayne Bay, Key Largo and the adjoining inland extensions were cut from Everglades National Park before its establishment in 1947.<ref name=grunwald1/> When proposals to develop Elliott Key surfaced in 1960, Lloyd Miller asked Secretary of the Interior [[Stewart Udall]] to send a Park Service reconnaissance team to review the Biscayne Bay area for inclusion in the national park system. A favorable report ensued, and with financial help from Herbert Hoover, Jr., political support was solicited, most notably from Congressman Fascell.<ref name=alvarez1>{{cite news|last=Alvarez|first=Lizette|title=A Florida City That Never Was|newspaper=The New York Times|date=February 8, 2012}}</ref> A {{convert|90|acre|ha|adj=on}} area of Elliott Key was by this time a part of the Dade County park system.<ref name=bnmproposal2>{{cite web|title=Present Use|url=https://www.nps.gov/parkhistory/online_books/bisc/proposal/sec2.htm|work=Biscayne National Monument: A Proposal|publisher=National Park Service|access-date=13 January 2013}}</ref> The 1966 report noted the proposed park contained the best remaining areas of tropical forest in Florida and a rare combination of "terrestrial, marine and amphibious life," as well as significant recreational value. The report found the most significant virtues of the potential park were "the clear, sparkling waters, marine life, and the submerged lands of Biscayne Bay and the Atlantic Ocean. Here in shallow water is a veritable wonderland."<ref name=bnmproposal6>{{cite web|title=The Case for Preservation|url=https://www.nps.gov/parkhistory/online_books/bisc/proposal/sec6.htm|work=Biscayne National Monument: A Proposal|publisher=National Park Service|access-date=13 January 2013}}</ref>

President Lyndon B. Johnson signed Public Law 90–606 to create Biscayne National Monument on October 18, 1968. The monument was expanded in 1974 under Public Law 93-477 and expanded again when the monument was redesignated a national park by an act of Congress<ref name=npsbisc10/> through Public Law 96-287, effective June 28, 1980. The 1980 expansion extended the park almost to Key Biscayne and included Boca Chita Key, the Ragged Keys and the Safety Valve shoal region, together with the corresponding offshore reefs and a substantial portion of central Biscayne Bay.<ref name=gmpbisc-a>{{cite web|title=Biscayne National Park General Management Plan: Appendix A|url=http://www.nps.gov/bisc/parkmgmt/upload/GMP%201983_part8.pdf|publisher=National Park Service|access-date=21 November 2012|year=1983}}{{dead link|date=June 2025|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref><ref name=draftgmp1>NPS, ''Draft General Management Plan'', pp. 295–299</ref><ref name=npca9>NPCA, p. 9</ref>

The first Islandia property owner to sell land to the [[National Park Service]] was Lancelot Jones, together with Katherine Jones, Arthur's widow. They sold their lands for $1,272,500, about a third of the potential development value. Jones was given a life estate on {{convert|3|acres|abbr=on}} at the age of 70. He visited with park rangers stationed at the former Cocolobo Club, which eventually burned down in 1975. The other life estate in the park was held by Virginia Tannehill, the widow of [[Eastern Airlines]] executive Paul Tannehill.<ref>Shumaker, p. 64</ref> Jones' house built by Lancelot, his father and his brother, burned down in 1982. He lived in a two-room shack for the next ten years, riding out hurricanes on Porgy Key, but left his home permanently just before Hurricane Andrew in 1992. The house was destroyed and Jones remained in Miami until his death in 1997 at 99&nbsp;years.<ref>Shumaker, p. 66</ref>

Deprived of a rationale for existence by the national monument's establishment, Islandia languished. The hiring of a police chief in 1989 prompted questions from the National Park Service to the Dade County [[state's attorney|state attorney's office]], headed by [[Janet Reno]]. In 1990 Reno's office determined after investigation that all of the town's elections were invalid, since the elections were restricted only to landowners, not residents.<ref name=mozingo1/> The town was finally abolished by the Miami-Dade Board of County Commissioners in March 2012.<ref name=alvarez1/>

The impact of Hurricane Andrew on neighboring [[Homestead Air Force Base]] caused the Air Force to consider closing the base and conveying it to Miami-Dade County, which was interested in using the base for commercial air traffic as an alternative to [[Miami International Airport]]. An environmental impact study concluded the resulting flight paths over the bay, only {{convert|2|mi|abbr=on}} to the east, would result in degradation of the park. In 1999 The Air Force prohibited major commercial development at Homestead as a result.<ref>Miller, pp. 137–139</ref>

The park's popularity as a destination for boaters has led to a high rate of accidents, some of them fatal. The [[Columbus Day]] weekend has been cited as the "most dangerous weekend of the year." An annual boating regatta in its 57th year in 2012 resulted in six deaths between 2002 and 2011, with damage to seabeds from vessel groundings and littering.<ref name=npt1>{{cite news|title=Biscayne National Park Preparing For "Most Dangerous Weekend" Of The Year|url=http://www.nationalparkstraveler.com/2012/09/biscayne-national-park-preparing-most-dangerous-weekend-year10526|access-date=21 November 2012|newspaper=National Parks Traveler|date=September 14, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121028032734/http://www.nationalparkstraveler.com/2012/09/biscayne-national-park-preparing-most-dangerous-weekend-year10526|archive-date=2012-10-28|url-status=dead}}</ref> Although official regatta activities take place outside the park, the area of Elliott Key has become a popular destination for some participants.<ref name=npsbisc14>{{cite web|title=Biscayne National Park Gears Up for Most Dangerous Weekend of the Year|url=https://www.nps.gov/bisc/parknews/columbus-day-weekend.htm|work=Biscayne National Park|publisher=National Park Service|date=September 11, 2012|access-date=21 November 2012}}</ref>

A fifth generating unit fueled by natural gas and oil was added to the Turkey Point generating station in 2007.<ref name="reuters">{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/rbssUtilitiesElectric/idUSN1344614220081013|title=FPL Fla. Turkey Point 4 reactor shut|date=October 13, 2008|agency=Reuters|access-date=November 21, 2012|first=Scott|last=DiSavino}}</ref> In 2009, Turkey Point was proposed as the site of two new 1117&nbsp;MW [[AP1000]] nuclear reactors, to be designated Turkey Point 6 and 7. If built, the new reactors would make Turkey Point one of the largest generating sites in the United States.<ref name=nrc1>{{cite web|title=Turkey Point, Units 6 and 7 Application|url=https://www.nrc.gov/reactors/new-reactors/col/turkey-point.html|publisher=Nuclear Regulatory Commission|access-date=21 November 2012|year=2012}}</ref> Other neighboring influences on the bay are the agricultural lands of south Miami-Dade County, a sewage treatment facility on the park boundary at Black Point, and its neighbor, the South Miami-Dade Landfill.<ref name=npca14>NPCA, p. 14</ref>

==Activities==
[[File:Biscayne National Park V-kid ranger glass bottom bucket.jpg|thumb|alt=Two people in shallow water viewing the bay bottom|A park ranger shows underwater life to a visitor using a glass-bottomed bucket]]
Biscayne National Park operates year-round. Camping is most practical in winter months, when mosquitoes are less troublesome on the keys. The Biscayne National Park Institute provides half and full day tours in the park that include snorkeling, hiking, paddling and sailing from the park headquarters. Boat excursions to Boca Chita Key and the area's lighthouses are also available. Licensed private concessionaires provide guided fishing, snorkeling, sailing, and sightseeing tours.<ref name=npsbisc40>{{cite web|title=Outdoor Activities|url=https://www.nps.gov/bisc/planyourvisit/guidedtours.htm|work=Biscayne National Park|publisher=National Park Service|access-date=January 25, 2021}}</ref>

===Recreation===
Access to the park from the mainland is limited to the immediate vicinity of the Dante Fascell Visitor Center at Convoy Point. All other portions of the park are reachable only by private or concessioner boats. Activities include boating, fishing, [[kayaking]], [[windsurfing]], [[snorkeling]] and [[scuba diving]]. Miami-Dade County operates four marina parks near the park. Homestead Bayfront Park is directly adjacent to the park headquarters at Convoy Point. Farther south Black Point Park provides access to Adams and Elliott Keys. Matheson Hammock Park is near the north end of the park, and Crandon Park is on Key Biscayne.<ref name=npsbisc44>{{cite web|title=Nearby Marinas&nbsp;— Access for Boaters|url=https://www.nps.gov/bisc/planyourvisit/nearby-marinas-access-for-boaters.htm|work=Biscayne National Park|publisher=National Park Service|access-date=26 November 2012}}</ref>

Although it is a federally designated park, fishing within Biscayne is governed by the state of Florida. Anglers in Biscayne are required to have a Florida recreational saltwater fishing license. Fishing is limited to designated sport fish, [[spiny lobster]], [[Florida stone crab|stone crab]], [[Callinectes sapidus|blue crab]] and shrimp. Tropical reef fish may not be collected, nor may sharks, conch, sea urchins and other marine life. Reef life species such as coral and sponges are also protected from collecting by visitors.<ref name=npsbisc7>{{cite web|title=Fishing and Lobstering|url=http://www.nps.gov/bisc/planyourvisit/fishing-and-lobstering.htm|archive-url=https://archive.today/20121214175555/http://www.nps.gov/bisc/planyourvisit/fishing-and-lobstering.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=December 14, 2012|work=Biscayne National Park|publisher=National Park Service|access-date=19 November 2012}}</ref> Additionally, lobstering is prohibited in the Biscayne Bay-Card Sound Lobster Sanctuary, administered by the state of Florida to protect spiny lobster breeding areas, which overlaps much of Biscayne Bay.<ref name=npsbisc16>{{cite web|title=Biscayne Bay–Card Sound: Lobster Sanctuary|url=https://www.nps.gov/bisc/planyourvisit/biscayne-bay-card-sound-lobster-sanctuary.htm|work=Biscayne National Park|publisher=National Park Service|access-date=21 November 2012}}</ref>

A private concessioner provides tours from the Park headquarters into the bay and to the keys. Most tours are operated during the peak winter season from January to April.<ref name=npsbisc8>{{cite web|title=Guided Tours|url=https://www.nps.gov/bisc/planyourvisit/guidedtours.htm|work=Biscayne National Park|publisher=National Park Service|access-date=19 November 2012}}</ref> [[Personal watercraft]] are prohibited in Biscayne and most other national parks,<ref name=draftgmp12>NPS, ''Draft General Management Plan'', p. 12</ref> but other private powerboats and sailboats are permitted.<ref name=npsbisc9>{{cite web|title=Boating|url=https://www.nps.gov/bisc/planyourvisit/boating.htm|work=Biscayne National Park|publisher=National Park Service|access-date=19 November 2012}}</ref>

===Island facilities===
Most of Biscayne's permanent facilities are on the offshore keys. A seasonally staffed ranger station is on Elliott Key, as well as a campground and 36 boat slips. A single loop trail runs from the harbor to the oceanfront, and a path following the Spite Highway runs the length of the island.<ref name=npsbisc35>{{cite web|title=Elliott Key|url=https://www.nps.gov/bisc/planyourvisit/elliottkey.htm|work=Biscayne National Park|publisher=National Park Service|access-date=26 November 2012}}</ref>  Adams Key is a day-use-only area for visitors, although two Park Service residences are on the island.<ref name=npsbisc26>{{cite web|title=Adams Key|url=https://www.nps.gov/bisc/planyourvisit/adamskey.htm|work=Biscayne National Park|publisher=National Park Service|access-date=26 November 2012}}</ref> Boca Chita Key is the most-visited island, with a campground and picnic areas. The Boca Chita Lighthouse is occasionally open to visitors when staffing permits.<ref name=npsbisc27>{{cite web|title=Boca Chita Key|url=https://www.nps.gov/bisc/planyourvisit/bocachita.htm|work=Biscayne National Park|publisher=National Park Service|access-date=26 November 2012}}</ref>

===Snorkeling and diving===
Snorkeling and scuba diving on the offshore reefs are popular activities. The reefs have been the cause of many shipwrecks. A selection of wrecks have been the subjects of ranger-led snorkeling tours and have been organized as the Maritime Heritage Trail, the only underwater archaeological trail in the National Park Service system.<ref name=npsbisc20>{{cite web|title=Coral Reefs|url=https://www.nps.gov/bisc/learn/nature/coralreefs.htm|work=Biscayne National Park|publisher=National Park Service|access-date=22 November 2012}}</ref>  The wrecks of the ''[[SS Arratoon Apcar|Arratoon Apcar]]'' (sank 1878), ''Erl King'' (1891), ''Alicia'' (1905), ''Lugano'' (1913) and ''Mandalay'' (1966) are on the trail together with an unknown wreck from the 1800s and the Fowey Rocks Lighthouse. The ''Alicia'', ''Erl King'' and ''Lugano'' are relatively deep wrecks, best suited for scuba dives.<ref name=npsbisc65>{{cite web|title=Maritime Heritage Trail|url=https://www.nps.gov/bisc/historyculture/maritime-heritage-trail.htm|work=Biscayne National Park|publisher=National Park Service|access-date=26 November 2012}}</ref> The ''Mandalay'' is at a shallower depth and is especially popular for snorkeling.<ref name=npsbisc55>{{cite web|title=Mandalay|url=https://www.nps.gov/bisc/learn/historyculture/mandalay.htm|work=Biscayne National Park|publisher=National Park Service|access-date=26 November 2012}}</ref>

==Historical structures==
{{main|National Register of Historic Places listings in Biscayne National Park}}
[[File:Stiltsville.jpg|thumb|alt=Buildings on pilings in the shallow water of Biscayne Bay|[[Stiltsville]] as seen from [[Cape Florida]]]]
Although most of Biscayne National Park's area is water, the islands have a number of protected historical structures and districts. Shipwrecks are also protected within the park, and the park's offshore waters are a protected historic district.<ref name=fdhr1/>

===Stiltsville===
{{main|Stiltsville}}
[[File:Boca Chita Key Lighthouse1.jpg|thumb|alt=Stone tower resembling a lighthouse|The ornamental lighthouse at Boca Chita Key]]
[[Stiltsville]] was established by Eddie "Crawfish" Walker in the 1930s as a small community of shacks built on pilings in a shallow section of [[Biscayne Bay]], not far from Key Biscayne. Comprising 27 structures at its height in the 1960s, Stiltsville lost shacks to fires and hurricanes, with only six surviving in 2021,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cbsnews.com/miami/news/one-of-seven-remaining-iconic-stiltsville-homes-goes-up-in-flames/|title=One Of Seven Remaining Iconic Stiltsville Homes Goes Up In Flames|date=11 January 2021|publisher=CBS Miami|access-date=7 January 2023}}</ref> none of them dating to the 1960s or earlier. The site was incorporated into Biscayne National Park in 1985, when the Park Service agreed to honor existing leases until July 1, 1999. Hurricane Andrew destroyed most of Stiltsville in 1992. The Park Service has undertaken to preserve the community, which is now unoccupied.<ref name=npsbisc6>{{cite web|title=Stiltsville|url=https://www.nps.gov/bisc/learn/historyculture/stiltsville.htm|work=Biscayne National Park|publisher=National Park Service|access-date=19 November 2012}}</ref> The community is to be administered by a trust and used as accommodation for overnight camping, educational facilities and researchers.<ref name=zagier1>{{cite news|last=Zagier|first=Alan Scher|title=Stilt Homes Standing Tall After Park Service Fight Deal Preserves Fla. Community|newspaper=The Boston Globe|date=July 20, 2003}}</ref>

===Other structures===
Biscayne National Park includes a number of navigational aids, as well as an ornamental structure built to resemble a lighthouse. The [[Fowey Rocks Light]] is a skeleton-frame cast iron structure built in 1878. Already included within the boundaries of the park, the light was acquired by the Park Service on October 2, 2012.<ref>{{cite web|title=A Tale Of Two Lighthouses|url=http://www.nationalparkstraveler.com/2012/10/tale-two-lighthouses10702|publisher=National Parks Traveler|date=October 19, 2012|access-date=November 20, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121020064029/http://www.nationalparkstraveler.com/2012/10/tale-two-lighthouses10702|archive-date=2012-10-20|url-status=dead}}</ref> The unmanned [[Unmanned reef lights of the Florida Keys#Pacific Reef Light|Pacific Reef Light]] is about {{convert|3|mi|km|spell=in}} offshore from Elliott Key. The original 1921 structure was replaced in 2000 and its lantern was placed on display in a park in [[Islamorada, Florida|Islamorada]].<ref name=rowlett1>{{cite web|last=Rowlett|first=Russ|title=Unstaffed Offshore Lights of the Florida Keys|url=http://www.unc.edu/~rowlett/lighthouse/types/floridakeys.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20011031171348/http://www.unc.edu/~rowlett/lighthouse/types/floridakeys.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=October 31, 2001|publisher=University of North Carolina|access-date=11 January 2013|date=September 22, 2012}}</ref>

Industrialist [[Mark C. Honeywell]] was a Cocolobo Club member who bought [[Boca Chita Key]] in 1937, expanding the facilities to include a small lighthouse.<ref>Shumaker, pp. 59–60</ref> Boca Chita Key was developed with several structures including an imitation lighthouse, built using coral rock and topped with a wire cage resembling a lighthouse lantern, and the end of a jetty on the north side of the key. The key was owned by Honeywell until 1945.<ref name=lighthousedigest1>{{cite journal|title=Boca Chita Key is home to the little lighthouse that isn't|journal=Lighthouse Digest|date=August 1996|url=http://www.lighthousedigest.com/digest/Storypage.cfm?storykey=140}}</ref> Mark and Olive Honeywell also built a chapel, a guesthouse, seawalls and utility buildings on the island.<ref name=npca29>NPCA, p. 29</ref>

The Boca Chita Key structures are administered as a cultural landscape, interpreting the area's use as a retreat for the rich. More modest homesteads include the now-abandoned [[Jones Family Historic District|plantations developed by Israel Jones]] and his sons, and the [[Sweeting Homestead]] on Elliott Key. The frame structures associated with these plantations, together with those of the Cocolobo Cay Club and frame buildings on Boca Chita Key, have been destroyed by fire and hurricanes.<ref name=draftgmp151>NPS, ''Draft General Management Plan'', p. 151</ref>

==Ecology==
[[File:Elkhorn Coral Biscayne NP1.jpg|thumb|alt=Underwater view of snorkelers, fish and coral|Snorkelers and elkhorn coral]]
South Florida is a transitional zone between the [[Nearctic realm|Nearctic]] and [[Neotropical realm]]s, resulting in a wide variety of plant and animal life. The intersection of realms brings opportunities for visitors to see species, particularly birds, not seen elsewhere in North America. The park includes four distinct ecosystems, each supporting its own flora and fauna.<ref>{{cite web|title=Nature & Science|url=https://www.nps.gov/bisc/learn/nature/index.htm|publisher=National Park Service|access-date=8 December 2012}}</ref> Mangrove swamp, lagoon, island key and offshore reef habitats provide diversity for many species. In this semi-tropical environment, the seasons are differentiated mainly by rainfall. Warm to hot and wet summers bring occasional tropical storms. Though only marginally cooler, the winters tend to be relatively drier. Bay salinity varies accordingly, with lower salinity levels in the wet summer, trending to more fresh water on the west side where new fresh water flows in.<ref name=npsbisc21>{{cite web|title=Hydrologic Activity|url=http://www.nps.gov/bisc/naturescience/hydrologicactivity.htm|archive-url=https://archive.today/20121214123100/http://www.nps.gov/bisc/naturescience/hydrologicactivity.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=December 14, 2012|work=Biscayne National Park|publisher=National Park Service|access-date=22 November 2012}}</ref>

Hundreds of species of fish are present in park waters,<ref name=npsbisc31>{{cite web|title=Fish|url=https://www.nps.gov/bisc/naturescience/fish.htm|work=Biscayne National Park|publisher=National Park Service|access-date=26 November 2012}}</ref> including more than fifty crustacean species ranging from [[isopod]]s to [[Cardisoma guanhumi|giant blue land crabs]],<ref name=npsbisc30>{{cite web|title=Crustaceans|url=https://home.nps.gov/bisc/learn/nature/crustaceans.htm|work=Biscayne National Park|publisher=National Park Service|access-date=26 November 2012}}</ref> about two hundred species of birds<ref name=npsbisc28>{{cite web|title=Birding Tips, Ethics, and Where to Bird in Biscayne|url=https://home.nps.gov/bisc/learn/nature/birding.htm|work=Biscayne National Park|publisher=National Park Service|access-date=26 November 2012}}</ref> and about 27 mammal species, both terrestrial and marine.<ref name=npsbisc29>{{cite web|title=Mammals|url=https://www.nps.gov/bisc/learn/nature/mammals.htm|work=Biscayne National Park|publisher=National Park Service|access-date=26 November 2012}}</ref> [[Mollusc]]s include a variety of [[bivalve]]s, terrestrial and marine snails, [[sea hare]]s, [[sea slug]]s and two [[cephalopod]]s, the [[Caribbean reef octopus]] and the [[Caribbean reef squid]].<ref name=npsbisc32>{{cite web|title=Molluscs|url=https://home.nps.gov/bisc/learn/nature/mollusks.htm|work=Biscayne National Park|publisher=National Park Service|access-date=26 November 2012}}</ref>

The sheltered open waters of the bay and the outlying chain of keys provide resting areas for migrating birds on their way between North American, the Caribbean islands, and South America. Many southbound land birds stop in the fall at [[Bill Baggs Cape Florida State Park]], just north of the park on Key Biscayne, before venturing across the open waters of Biscayne Bay.<ref name=kaufman1>{{cite web|last=Kaufman|first=Kenn|title=Fall Migration Hot Spots|url=http://www.audubonmagazine.org/articles/birds/fall-migration-hot-spots|publisher=Audubon|access-date=15 March 2013|date=July–August 2009|archive-date=26 May 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130526071013/http://www.audubonmagazine.org/articles/birds/fall-migration-hot-spots|url-status=dead}}</ref>  Northbound spring migrants do likewise on Elliott Key.<ref name=braun1>{{cite magazine|last=Braun|first=David|title=Banding birds at the BioBlitz|url=http://newswatch.nationalgeographic.com/2010/04/30/banding_birds_at_the_bioblitz/|magazine=National Geographic|access-date=15 March 2013|date=April 30, 2010|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120418084217/http://newswatch.nationalgeographic.com/2010/04/30/banding_birds_at_the_bioblitz/|archive-date=18 April 2012}}</ref> Most of the small [[passerine]] migrants are warblers, with [[ovenbird]]s, [[palm warbler]]s, [[American redstart]]s, [[common yellowthroat]]s, [[prairie warbler]]s, [[worm-eating warbler]]s and [[black-throated blue warbler]]s accounting for the majority.<ref name=lott1>{{cite web|last=Lott|first=Casey A.|title=Stopover Ecology of Nearctic-Neotropical Migrant Songbirds in Hardwood Hammocks of the Florida Keys|url=http://research.myfwc.com/engine/download_redirection_process.asp?file=06lott2_4043.pdf&objid=50521&dltype=publication|publisher=Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission|author2=Langan, Brynne E.|author3=Mulrooney, M. Brennan|author4=Grau, Randy T.|author5=Miller, Karl E.|date=May 2006|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141108155432/http://research.myfwc.com/engine/download_redirection_process.asp?file=06lott2_4043.pdf&objid=50521&dltype=publication|archive-date=2014-11-08}}</ref> Migrant raptors include [[short-tailed hawk]]s, [[sharp-shinned hawk]]s, [[Merlin (bird)|merlins]], [[peregrine falcon]]s and [[swallow-tailed kite]]s, while [[bald eagle]]s and [[osprey]]s nest in the park. Both [[White-tailed tropicbird|white-tailed]] and [[red-tailed tropicbird|red-tailed]] tropicbirds are seen in the park, as are [[American flamingos]],<ref name=npsbisc402>{{cite web|title=Birds|url=http://www.nps.gov/bisc/naturescience/birds.htm|archive-url=https://archive.today/20141116104431/http://www.nps.gov/bisc/naturescience/birds.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=November 16, 2014|work=Biscayne National Park|publisher=National Park Service|access-date=15 November 2014}}</ref> with some of the latter probably escaped captive birds.<ref>{{cite book|last=Dunn|first=Jon|title=Field Guide to the Birds of North America|year=2011|publisher=National Geographic Society|isbn=978-1-4262-0828-7|page=122|edition=6|author2=Alderfer, Jonathan}}</ref>

===Shoreline and mangrove swamp===
[[File:Biscayne American Crocodile NPS1.jpg|thumb|alt=A smiling American crocodile|American crocodile]]
The mainland shorelines are dominated by a marshy transitional zone chiefly populated by [[Rhizophora mangle|red mangrove]] and [[Avicennia germinans|black mangrove]] growing from the shallow water, with [[Laguncularia racemosa|white mangrove]] growing farther back from the water's edge. The trees' aerial root structure provides a sheltered habitat for crabs, fish and wading birds. The brown waters within the mangrove thickets are nurseries for fish, mollusc and crustacean larvae that require a quiet sheltered environment before the immature animals can disperse into open waters.<ref name=npsbisc111>{{cite web|title=Mangroves|url=https://www.nps.gov/bisc/naturescience/mangroves.htm|work=Biscayne National Park|publisher=National Park Service|access-date=19 November 2012}}</ref> Mangroves shed leaves at about {{convert|2|to|4|ST/acre}} per year, providing food for fish, worms and crustaceans. Because the carbon in the leaves is sequestered by incorporation into animals, the mangrove swamp is estimated to have two to three times the ability to [[Carbon sequestration|sequester carbon]] of terrestrial forests.<ref name=npsbisc43>{{cite web|title=Mangroves and Climate Change|url=https://home.nps.gov/bisc/learn/nature/mangroves-and-climate-change.htm|work=Biscayne National Park|publisher=National Park Service|access-date=26 November 2012}}</ref> The mangrove forest on Biscayne Bay is the longest on Florida's east coast. Shoreline and island mangrove swamps, together with the bay, represent a significant nursery for the marine life of southeast Florida.<ref name=sotpbisc1>NPCA, p. 1</ref>

The salt-tolerant mangrove margin has expanded inland as freshwater flow into the bay has been [[river engineering#Channelization|channelized]], replacing freshwater [[Cladium|sawgrass]] marshes. The L-31E coastal storm surge [[levee]] inland of the park's western boundary has played a significant role in isolating former freshwater marshlands from their water sources. At the same time, tidal water does not reach the interior of the coastal margin, limiting interchange between salt and freshwater ecosystems.<ref name=npca16>NPCA, p. 16</ref>

Bird life on the shoreline includes [[yellow-crowned night heron]]s, [[loggerhead shrike]]s, prairie warblers and shorebirds. [[Mangrove cuckoo]]s, a notoriously difficult-to-observe species, may be seen at Convoy Point and Black Point. Biscayne has one of the largest populations of mangrove cuckoos in Florida.<ref name=npsbisc28/>

The park's margins are habitat for the threatened [[American crocodile]]. The construction of miles of cooling water canals in the [[marl]] lands close to the shore behind the Turkey Point power plant, and the canals' warm waters, have provided a nearly ideal environment for crocodile nesting, making the power plant a nursery for many of those living in the park.<ref name=bragg1>{{cite news|last=Bragg|first=Rick|title=In South Florida Canals, Revival of Rare Crocodiles|newspaper=The New York Times|date=June 29, 1999}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fpl.com/environment/plant/pdf/turkey_point_crocodile_fact_sheet.pdf|title=Providing a home for the American crocodile|publisher=Florida Power & Light|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121124001057/http://www.fpl.com/environment/plant/pdf/turkey_point_crocodile_fact_sheet.pdf|archive-date=2012-11-24}}</ref><ref name=crocdocs1>{{cite web|title=Status, Distribution, and Habitat Relations of the American Crocodile in Florida (Abstract)|url=http://crocdoc.ifas.ufl.edu/projects/americancrocodile/|work=The Croc Docs|publisher=University of Florida|access-date=22 November 2012}}</ref> Although crocodiles and [[American alligator]]s both occur in extreme southern Florida, alligators are uncommon in Biscayne,<ref name=npsbisc22>{{cite web|title=Threatened and Endangered Animals in Biscayne National Park|url=https://www.nps.gov/bisc/learn/nature/threatened-and-endangered-animals.htm|work=Biscayne National Park|publisher=National Park Service|access-date=22 November 2012}}</ref> since alligators mainly inhabit fresh waters found farther inland, while crocodiles can live in Biscayne's somewhat saltier estuarine waters.<ref name=mazzotti1>{{cite web|last=Mazzotti|first=Frank J.|title=Status and Conservation of the American Crocodile in Florida: Recovering an Endangered Species While Restoring an Endangered Ecosystem|url=http://crocdoc.ifas.ufl.edu/publications/reports/american_croc2003.pdf|publisher=University of Florida, Ft. Lauderdale Research and Education Center|access-date=22 November 2012|author2=Cherkiss, Michael S.|page=iii|year=2003}}</ref>

===Bay waters===
[[File:Manatees Biscayne.jpg|thumb|alt=Aerial view of manatees in shallow water|Manatees in [[Biscayne Bay]]]]
The open waters are inhabited by fishes, molluscs and crustaceans living on sea grasses or who prey on each other. The shallowness of the lagoon makes it suitable habitat for diving birds such as [[anhinga]], cormorants and diving ducks. The bay also provides habitat for juvenile sea animals that have left the shelter of the mangrove belts.  [[West Indian manatee|Manatees]] frequent the quiet waters of the bay.<ref name=npsbisc1/> The bay has a year-round population of [[double-crested cormorant]]s. Winter residents include [[northern gannet]]s, [[American white pelican]]s and [[common loon]]s.<ref name=npsbisc28/> The bay also has a resident population of [[common bottlenose dolphin]]s.<ref>{{cite report|title=Common Bottlenose Dolphin (''Tursiops truncatus truncatus'') Biscayne Bay Stock|publisher=NOAA|date=April 2014|access-date=5 August 2016|url=http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/sars/2013/ao2013_bottlenose-biscaynebay.pdf}}</ref>

Biscayne Bay is a shallow lagoon with little vertical density or salinity gradient due to its lack of depth. Instead of a vertical gradient, the bay shows a horizontal density gradient, with fresh water entering from the drainage canals on the west side and seawater entering through gaps in the keys and through the safety valve section of shoals. Bay salinity reaches a peak in June.<ref name=npsbisc39>{{cite web|title=Hydrologic Activity|url=http://www.nps.gov/bisc/naturescience/hydrologicactivity.htm|archive-url=https://archive.today/20121214123100/http://www.nps.gov/bisc/naturescience/hydrologicactivity.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=December 14, 2012|work=Biscayne National Park|publisher=National Park Service|access-date=26 November 2012}}</ref> Changes in the salinity pattern of the bay have had negative effects on formerly abundant species such as [[red drum]]. Biscayne Bay and [[Florida Bay]] are major nurseries for [[red grouper]] and [[gray snapper]].<ref name=npca23>NPCA, p. 23</ref> The bottom of the lagoon hosts sponges and soft corals in places where grasses cannot not grow. Three primary species of seagrass are found in the park: [[Thalassia testudinum|turtlegrass]], [[shoal grass]] and [[Syringodium filiforme|manatee grass]]. [[Johnson's seagrass]] is also found in small quantities in the bay, which is at the southern end of the grass's range. Roughly 75 percent of the central bay floor is covered by grasses.<ref name=npca20>NPCA, p. 20</ref> Scarring of seagrass beds by vessel groundings or propellers is a significant problem. About 200 such incidents are documented each year, with full re-growth requiring up to 15 years.<ref name=npca21>NPCA, p. 21</ref> The bay is also affected by commercial shrimp trawling, which is permitted in park waters. The passage of roller-frame trawl nets does not harm grasses, but damages soft corals and sponges.<ref name=npca27>NPCA, p. 27</ref>

===Keys===
[[File:Totten Key.jpg|thumb|alt=Aerial view of island and forest|Totten Key and reefs]]
[[File:Consolea corallicola.jpg|thumb|alt=Close-up of flowering cactus pads|The semaphore prickly-pear cactus is only found in and near Biscayne National Park and may be the rarest plant in the U.S.]]
Elliott Key is the largest island in the park, measuring {{convert|1650|acre}} and about {{convert|8.1|mi}} long by {{convert|0.62|mi}} wide. Next largest is Old Rhodes Key at {{convert|660|acre}}, then Sands Key {{convert|420|acre}}, Totten Key {{convert|380|acre}} and Little Totten Key at {{convert|200|acre}}, with 37 smaller islands arranged in a north–south line {{convert|5|to|8.7|mi}} east of the mainland shoreline.<ref name="npca21" /> The keys shift from barrier islands with rocky cores in the north to coral rock platforms in the south. All are fringed with mangroves, with subtropical vegetation and hardwood forests in the interiors, including [[gumbo limbo]], [[mahogany]], [[ironwood]], [[Amyris elemifera|torchwood]] and [[Chrysophyllum oliviforme|satinleaf]]. Insects include [[Schaus' swallowtail]], an endangered species, as well as dense clouds of mosquitoes in the wet season, preyed upon by dragonflies. [[Marsh rabbit]]s and [[raccoons]], together with mice and rats comprise the primary mammalian species. Reptiles include [[rattlesnake]]s and a variety of lizards, as well as an occasional crocodile.<ref name=npsbisc19>{{cite web|title=Florida Keys|url=https://home.nps.gov/bisc/learn/nature/keys.htm|work=Biscayne National Park|publisher=National Park Service|access-date=22 November 2012}}</ref>

The keys are a transitional area capable of hosting unexpected birds, often Caribbean species that have strayed near the mainland. The interior of the keys are frequented by warblers and the hawks that prey on them. Coastal zones are habitat for [[ruddy turnstone]]s and [[least sandpiper]]s. Gulls and terns include [[royal tern]]s, [[laughing gull]]s and [[ring-billed gull]]s, with [[brown pelican]]s just offshore. [[Wilson's plover]]s nest on Boca Chita Key, where nesting zones are closed during breeding season.<ref name=npsbisc28/>

Sea turtles nest on island beaches in the park. Park staff actively assist turtle nesting by removing debris from beaches that might pose an obstacle to adults and hatchlings. [[Loggerhead turtle]]s are the most common sea turtle species and account for nearly all of the turtle nests in the park.<ref name=npsbisc37>{{cite web|title=Species Focus: Loggerhead Sea Turtles|url=https://www.nps.gov/bisc/learn/nature/species-focus-loggerhead-sea-turtles.htm|work=Biscayne National Park|publisher=National Park Service|access-date=26 November 2012}}</ref> Nest sites are identified by daily morning beach patrols and are protected with mesh screen against the predation by abundant raccoon population. Nest protection efforts have reduced predation from 100% of nests disturbed per year to no disturbed nests in 2007, with a more usual average of more than 50% nest disturbance in most years.<ref name=npsbisc38>{{cite web|title=Sea Turtle Conservation Program|url=http://www.nps.gov/bisc/naturescience/sea-turtle-conservation-program.htm|archive-url=https://archive.today/20121214024808/http://www.nps.gov/bisc/naturescience/sea-turtle-conservation-program.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=December 14, 2012|work=Biscayne National Park|publisher=National Park Service|access-date=26 November 2012}}</ref> In 2012, one undisturbed nest was found and protected, five partially disturbed nests were protected, and one nest was destroyed by predators.<ref name=npsbisc36>{{cite web|title=Summary of 2012 sea turtle nesting season and habitat restoration activity|url=https://home.nps.gov/bisc/learn/nature/2012-sea-turtle-conservation-efforts.htm|work=Biscayne National Park|publisher=National Park Service|access-date=26 November 2012}}</ref> The threatened [[eastern indigo snake]] is also present on the island.<ref name=npca22>NPCA, p. 22</ref>

Rare and endangered plant species on the islands include [[Pseudophoenix sargentii|Sargent's cherry palm]] and the semaphore prickly-pear cactus (''[[Consolea corallicola]]''). The cactus, which has been described as "near extinction",<ref name=fna1>{{cite book|title=Consolea corallicola, Flora of North America North of Mexico|url=http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=1&taxon_id=242415229|publisher=Flora of North America Association|access-date=29 January 2013|volume=4: Magnoliophyta|page=150}}</ref> has been reduced to about 20 individuals. A [[Clonal colony|colonial]] population of 570 cacti were found on one island in Biscayne Bay in 2001,<ref name="npsbisc40 Plants">{{cite web|title=Plants|url=https://www.nps.gov/bisc/naturescience/plants.htm|work=Biscayne National Park|publisher=National Park Service|access-date=26 November 2012}}</ref> making it the largest known population of semaphore prickly-pear cactus in the world.<ref name=npsbisc41>{{cite web|title=Cacti / Desert Succulents|url=https://www.nps.gov/bisc/naturescience/cacti.htm|work=Biscayne National Park|publisher=National Park Service|access-date=26 November 2012}}</ref> The only natural population of Sargent's palm grows on Elliott Key. Fewer than 50 grew on the key in 1991. Despite efforts to propagate the plant, there are now 16 Sargent's palms on Elliott Key, with about 123 propagated on Long Key.<ref name="npsbisc40 Plants"/>

Two critically endangered butterflies, [[Papilio aristodemus|Schaus' swallowtail]] (''Papilio aristodemus'') and the [[Miami blue]], are found in the park, mostly on Elliott Key. In 2012 the [[U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service]] (USFWS) authorized a capture and captive breeding program for Schaus' swallowtail after only five of the butterflies were found by surveyors in the park, down from 35 in 2011, of a total surveyed Florida population of 41.<ref name=npsbisc202>{{cite web|title=Schaus Swallowtail Emergency|url=https://home.nps.gov/bisc/learn/news/schaus-swallowtail-emergency.htm|work=Biscayne National Park|publisher=National Park Service|date=June 13, 2012|access-date=13 March 2013}}</ref>  The Miami blue was feared to be extinct after Hurricane Andrew in 1992, but a population was found in 1999 at [[Bahia Honda Key]]. Captive breeding produced 25,000 Miami blues, some of which have been released on Elliott Key with mixed results.<ref name=npsbisc201>{{cite web|title=Miami Blue Butterflies Reintroduced|url=https://home.nps.gov/bisc/learn/news/miami-blue-butterflies-reintroduced.htm|work=Biscayne National Park|publisher=National Park Service|date=September 18, 2006|access-date=13 March 2013}}</ref>

===Coral reef and offshore waters===
[[File:Green Sea Turtle Biscayne.jpg|thumb|alt=Sea turtle coming ashore|Green sea turtle]]
Beyond the keys in the Atlantic Ocean the seafloor slopes gradually down before rising in an almost continuous coral reef. The reef, composed of living [[coral]]s, is inhabited by more than 200 species of fish, as well as molluscs, crustaceans and worms.<ref name=npsbisc20/> Every coral species in park waters is considered protected by either federal or state regulations.<ref name=npca15>NPCA, p. 15</ref> Coral reefs are estimated to cover about half the area of the park, with about 4000 individual patch reefs and areas of bank-barrier reef.<ref name=npca18>NPCA, p. 18</ref> Hundreds of species of hard and soft corals, [[sea anemone]]s and [[sponge]]s are found in bay and offshore waters.<ref name=npsbisc203>{{cite web|title=Other Invertebrates (corals, sponges, worms, etc.)|url=https://home.nps.gov/bisc/learn/nature/otherinvertebrates.htm|work=Biscayne National Park|publisher=National Park Service|access-date=14 March 2013}}</ref> The coral reefs may themselves be subdivided into the outer reef on the edge of the Florida carbonate platform, the patch reefs between the outer reef and the keys, and the reefs in the shoals on either side of the keys. The offshore reefs are dominated by [[elkhorn coral]] to {{convert|10|m|ft|adj=on|sp=us}} water depth, and [[staghorn coral]] below 10 meters. The landward patch reefs are principally composed of [[Montastraea annularis|boulder star coral]] and [[Diploria strigosa|symmetrical brain coral]]. The island shoal reefs mainly consist of [[Siderastrea radians|lesser starlet coral]] and ''[[Porites]]'' finger corals.<ref>Harris, Tuttle, Tuttle, pp. 272–273</ref>

Reef environments in Biscayne National Park have seen declines in species richness and diversity across all fish species from 1977 to 1981 to 2006–2007.<ref name=kellison1>{{cite journal|last=Kellison|first=G.T.|author2=McDonough, V.|author3=Harper, D.E.|author4=Tilmant, J.T.|title=Coral Reef Fish Assemblage Shifts and Declines in Biscayne National Park, Florida, USA|journal=Bulletin of Marine Science|date=January 2012|volume=88|issue=1|page=1|doi=10.5343/bms.2011.1027}}</ref> A sampling program showed declines at all sampling sites. A correlation has been posited between the observed decline in coral reef coverage throughout the Florida Reef tract and the decline in fish species. Declines in populations were noted in both gamefish and in fish species not exposed to fishing pressure. [[algae|Algal]] cover has increased as coral has declined, so coral-dwelling species have decreased while herbivorous fish have increased. Increased overall salinity and changing salinity gradients in Biscayne Bay may also play a role, while [[polychlorinated biphenyl]] and mercury contamination have been noted in fish samples.<ref name=kellison2>Kellison ''et al.'', pp. 19–21</ref>

The park's eastern boundary lies just beyond the rise of the offshore reef at ten-fathom ({{convert|60|ft|m|adj=on|disp=semicolon}}) sea depth. Areas farther offshore are protected within the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, which extends eastward to a boundary corresponding to a depth of {{convert|300|fathom|ft m}}.<ref name=fknms1>{{cite web|title=Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary and Protection Act|url=http://floridakeys.noaa.gov/about/fknmsp_act.html|publisher=Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary|access-date=13 February 2013}}</ref> The offshore waters harbor brown pelicans, [[magnificent frigatebird]]s, [[brown booby|brown boobies]], particularly around the offshore lights, and pelagic birds such as [[shearwater]]s and [[petrel]]s.<ref name=npsbisc28/> [[Whale]]s in offshore waters are rare, but can include [[North Atlantic right whale|right whales]], [[humpback whale]]s, [[sperm whale]]s, [[fin whale]]s and [[sei whale]]s, all of them endangered.<ref name=npsbisc22/> The [[smalltooth sawfish]] is similarly rare in park waters and endangered.<ref name=npsbisc31/> Threatened coral species include elkhorn and staghorn corals, as well as [[pillar coral]], listed as endangered in Florida.<ref name=npsbisc22/>

===Exotic species===
[[File:Biscayne Bay Safety Valve.png|thumb|alt=Aerial view of the Safety Valve shoals|Biscayne Bay's "Safety Valve" is a natural outlet for storm surges.]]
More than 50 species of exotic plant have been documented in the park, with almost 20 of those considered to be pest species which may displace native plants and possibly alter the ecological balance.<ref name=explants>{{cite web|title=Exotic Plants in Biscayne National Park|url=http://www.nps.gov/bisc/naturescience/exotic-plants-in-biscayne-national-park.htm|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130217145307/http://www.nps.gov/bisc/naturescience/exotic-plants-in-biscayne-national-park.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=February 17, 2013|publisher=National Park Service|access-date=8 December 2012}}</ref> [[Green iguana]]s, [[cane toad]]s, [[black rat]]s, [[lionfish]], [[fire ant]]s, [[Oscar (fish)|oscars]] and [[brown basilisk]] lizards are common in the park.<ref name=npsbisc12>{{cite web|title=Exotic Animals in Biscayne National Park|url=http://www.nps.gov/bisc/naturescience/exotic-animals.htm|archive-url=https://archive.today/20121213235838/http://www.nps.gov/bisc/naturescience/exotic-animals.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=December 13, 2012|work=Biscayne National Park|publisher=National Park Service|access-date=21 November 2012}}</ref> The lionfish (''Pterois volitans'' and ''Pterois miles'') is a tropical fish from the Indian-Pacific Ocean area.<ref>{{cite web|title=Invasive lionfish threaten native fish and the environment in U.S. Atlantic coastal waters|url=http://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/lionfish.html|publisher=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)|access-date=8 December 2012|date=17 November 2011}}</ref> It is known for its voracious appetite and its ability to establish itself in new waters, rapidly replacing other species. Researchers theorized the introduction of this species in the park occurred during Hurricane Andrew in 1992. Sightings in Biscayne Bay at that time were believed to have been from home aquariums destroyed during the hurricane,<ref name=npsbisc13>{{cite web|title=About the Exotic Indo-Pacific Lionfish|url=https://www.nps.gov/bisc/learn/nature/exotic-lionfish.htm|work=Biscayne National Park|publisher=National Park Service|access-date=21 November 2012}}</ref> though the researcher who first proposed the theory has since retracted the assertion.<ref name=morell1>{{cite news|last=Morell|first=Virginia|title=Mystery of the Lionfish: Don't Blame Hurricane Andrew|url=https://www.science.org/content/article/mystery-lionfish-dont-blame-hurricane-andrew|access-date=27 July 2013|newspaper=Science|date=April 29, 2010}}</ref>  More recent lionfish sightings are probably from more established populations in the Florida Keys to the south of the park.<ref name=mcdonough1>{{cite news|last=McDonough|first=Vanessa|title=New Wave of Exotic Lionfish Invades Biscayne National Park|newspaper=Federal News Service|date=June 25, 2010}}</ref> Also likely originating from human captivity, [[Burmese python]]s have been observed near the park's boundary along the mainland.<ref name=npsbisc12/> Exotic plant species which pose the highest risk to native plant communities include [[Schinus terebinthifolius|Brazilian-pepper]], [[Panicum repens|torpedo grass]], [[Nephrolepis cordifolia|tuberous sword fern]], [[Psidium guajava|guava]] and [[Thespesia populnea|portiatree]].<ref name=explants/>

==Climate==
[[File:HurricaneAndrew.jpg|thumb|alt=Satellite image of Hurricane Andrew|Hurricane Andrew at landfall on Biscayne Bay]]
Biscayne's tropical climate reflects its location in extreme South Florida. Southern Miami-Dade County is classified as having a [[tropical savanna climate]] in the [[Köppen climate classification|Köppen-Geiger]] system, with the park bordering on a [[tropical monsoon climate]].<ref name=koppen1>{{cite web|author1=Kottek, M.|author2=Greiser, J.|author3=Beck, C.|author4=Rudolf, B.|author5=Rubel, F.|title=World Map of Köppen−Geiger Climate Classification|url=http://koeppen-geiger.vu-wien.ac.at/pdf/kottek_et_al_2006_A4.pdf|publisher=Universität Wien|access-date=26 October 2014|date=2006}}</ref> Seasons may be divided into the November–April dry season and the May–October wet season. Dry season temperatures average between {{convert|66|and|76|°F|°C}} with an average monthly rainfall of {{convert|2.1|inch|mm}}. Wet season temperatures average between {{convert|76|and|85|°F|°C}} with an average monthly rainfall of {{convert|5.39|inch|mm}}. The wet season roughly coincides with [[Atlantic hurricane season|hurricane season]], with frequent thunderstorms.<ref name=npstripplanner1>{{cite web|title=National Parks of South Florida Trip Planner|url=http://www.nps.gov/bisc/planyourvisit/upload/New-Trip-Planner_3_lowres.pdf|publisher=National Park Service|access-date=26 October 2014}}{{dead link|date=June 2025|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref>

Like many locations in southern Florida, Biscayne National Park is affected by hurricanes every few years. Most storms require temporary closings and occasional repairs to park facilities. A direct hit by a powerful hurricane can produce severe consequences, primarily by its impact on human interventions in the environment rather than on the natural environment of the park, which is well-adapted to these events.<ref>Harris, Tuttle, Tuttle, p. 268</ref><ref name=npsbisc17>{{cite web|title=Park Reopens After Tropical Storm Isaac|url=https://www.nps.gov/bisc/learn/news/ts-isaac-reopening.htm|work=Biscayne National Park|publisher=National Park Service|access-date=21 November 2012}}</ref> Significant hurricanes to strike Biscayne include storms in 1835 and 1904, the [[1906 Florida Keys hurricane]],<ref name="burnspsb1" /> the [[1926 Miami hurricane]], the [[1929 Bahamas hurricane]], the [[1935 Labor Day hurricane]],<ref>Shumaker, pp. 58–59</ref> the [[1935 Yankee hurricane]], the [[1941 Florida hurricane]], the [[1945 Southeast Florida hurricane]], the [[1948 Miami hurricane]], [[Hurricane King]] in 1950, [[Hurricane Donna]] in 1960,.<ref name=bnmclimate>{{cite web|title=The Climate|work=Biscayne National Monument: A Proposal|url=http://www.nps.gov/history/history/online_books/bisc/proposal/sec3.htm|archive-url=https://archive.today/20121214020554/http://www.nps.gov/history/history/online_books/bisc/proposal/sec3.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=December 14, 2012|publisher=National Park Service|access-date=7 January 2013}}</ref> [[Hurricane Cleo]] in 1964,<ref name=uswb1>{{cite web|last=Dunn|first=Gordon E.|title=The Hurricane Season of 1964|url=http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/hrd/hurdat/mwr_pdf/1964.pdf|publisher=U.S. Weather Bureau Office, Miami|access-date=29 January 2013|page=179}}</ref>  and [[Hurricane Andrew]] in 1992.<ref name=rappaport2>{{cite web|last=Rappaport|first=Ed|title=Addendum: Hurricane Andrew|url=http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/1992andrew_add.html|publisher=National Hurricane Center|access-date=21 November 2012}}</ref> The park can be affected by wave action from more distant tropical storms such as 2012's [[Hurricane Sandy]], which damaged facilities on Elliott Key.<ref name=biscsandy1>{{cite web|title=Elliott Key Closed Until Further Notice|url=https://home.nps.gov/bisc/learn/news/elliott-key-closed-until-further-notice.htm|work=Biscayne National Park|publisher=National Park Service|access-date=29 January 2013|date=October 30, 2012}}</ref>

On August 24, 1992, [[Hurricane Andrew]] came ashore just south of Miami, passing directly across Biscayne National Park with maximum sustained winds of {{convert|141|mph|kph}}, with gusts to {{convert|169|mph|abbr=on}}. The storm surge was up to {{convert|17|ft|abbr=on}} above mean sea level. It was a compact [[Category 5 hurricane#Category 5|Category 5]] hurricane on the Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Scale.<ref name=rappaport2/> Biscayne Bay was affected by bottom scouring and turbidity and with damage to its fringes of mangrove forest. Leakage from damaged boats and marinas polluted the bay with fuel, with discharges continuing for nearly a month after the hurricane's passage.<ref name=lovelace1>{{cite web|last=Lovelace|first=John K.|title=Effects of Hurricane Andrew (1992) on Wetlands in Southern Florida and Louisiana|url=https://water.usgs.gov/nwsum/WSP2425/andrew.html|publisher=United States Geological Survey|access-date=19 November 2012|author2=McPherson, Benjamin F.}}</ref> A commemorative plaque was placed at the Dante Fascell Visitor Center in 2002 to commemorate the human and environmental cost of Andrew, and to celebrate the area's recovery from the storm's effects. The inscription reads in part:

<blockquote>On Monday, August 24, 1992, at 4:30 a.m., the eye wall of Hurricane Andrew
passed over this point before striking Homestead and southern Miami-Dade County.<ref name=noaa1>{{cite web|title=Biscayne National Park Plaque Commemorates 10th Anniversary of Hurricane Andrew|url=http://www.srh.noaa.gov/mfl/?n=hurricane_andrew_plaque_dedication|work=National Weather Service Weather Forecast Office: Miami-South Florida|publisher=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|access-date=21 November 2012}}</ref></blockquote>

The Fowey Rocks light station transmitted weather data with winds peaking at a two-minute wind speed of {{convert|127|kn|km/h}} and a gust to {{convert|147|kn|km/h}} before the station ceased transmitting, presumably due to damage from stronger gusts. The strongest part of the eyewall had not reached Fowey Rocks when it stopped transmitting.<ref name=rappaport1>{{cite web|last=Rappaport|first=Ed|title=Preliminary Report: Hurricane Andrew|url=http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/1992andrew.html|publisher=National Hurricane Center|date=December 10, 1993}}</ref>

Since all park lands are no more than a few feet above sea level, they are vulnerable to rising sea levels. Park Service studies project that much of the park's land area will be lost in the next two hundred years.<ref name=npssfcnvs1>{{cite web|title=South Florida/Caribbean Network Vital Signs Monitoring Plan|url=http://science.nature.nps.gov/im/units/sfcn/vs_plan/appendixes/APPENDIX_J.pdf|publisher=National Park Service|access-date=27 November 2012|page=J2.17|date=September 2008|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111015201018/http://science.nature.nps.gov/im/units/sfcn/vs_plan/appendixes/APPENDIX_J.pdf|archive-date=15 October 2011}}</ref> Sea level in Biscayne Bay is projected to rise between {{convert|3|and|7|in|cm|0}} by 2030, and {{convert|9|to|24|in|cm|0}} by 2060.<ref name=bojnansky1>{{cite news|last=Bojnansky|first=Erik|title=Lost in a Rising Sea|url=http://www.biscaynetimes.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=1260:lost-in-a-rising-sea&catid=46:features|access-date=13 February 2013|newspaper=Biscayne Times|date=September 2012|archive-date=7 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190307054109/http://www.biscaynetimes.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=1260:lost-in-a-rising-sea&catid=46:features|url-status=dead}}</ref>  A [[sea level rise]] of {{convert|3|to|6|in|cm|0}} is projected to increase saltwater intrusion into the Biscayne Aquifer. Higher rises will make the southern Everglades a [[salt marsh|saltwater marsh]], altering the ecology of the region.<ref name=heimlich1>{{cite web|last=Heimlich|first=Barry N.|title=Southeast Florida's Resilient Water Resources:Adaptation to Sea Level Rise and Other Impacts of Climate Change|url=http://www.ces.fau.edu/files/projects/climate_change/SE_Florida_Resilient_Water_Resources.pdf|publisher=Florida Atlantic University|author2=Bloetscher, Frederick|author3=Meeroff, Daniel E.|author4=Murley, James|date=November 11, 2009}}</ref>

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| width = auto	
| single line = Y	
| location = Elliott Key Ranger Station, elevation {{convert|0|ft|m|0|abbr=on}}, 1981-2010 normals, extremes 1981-2019	
| Jan record high F  =	83.7
| Feb record high F  =	87.1
| Mar record high F  =	88.0
| Apr record high F  =	92.2
| May record high F  =	91.2
| Jun record high F  =	93.9
| Jul record high F  =	95.0
| Aug record high F  =	93.6
| Sep record high F  =	92.3
| Oct record high F  =	89.9
| Nov record high F  =	88.7
| Dec record high F  =	86.7
| year record high F =	95.0
| Jan high F  =   	74.1
| Feb high F  =   	75.5
| Mar high F  =   	76.8
| Apr high F  =   	79.0
| May high F  =   	82.1
| Jun high F  =   	85.5
| Jul high F  =   	87.2
| Aug high F  =   	87.3
| Sep high F  =   	86.4
| Oct high F  =   	83.2
| Nov high F  =   	79.2
| Dec high F  =   	75.9
| year high F =   	81.0
| Jan low F  =   	61.8
| Feb low F  =   	63.5
| Mar low F  =   	66.0
| Apr low F  =   	68.7
| May low F  =   	73.6
| Jun low F  =   	77.0
| Jul low F  =   	78.6
| Aug low F  =   	78.9
| Sep low F  =   	78.3
| Oct low F  =   	75.0
| Nov low F  =   	69.8
| Dec low F  =   	64.6
| year low F =   	71.4
| Jan record low F  =	35.0
| Feb record low F  =	38.6
| Mar record low F  =	43.6
| Apr record low F  =	51.7
| May record low F  =	59.5
| Jun record low F  =	65.9
| Jul record low F  =	72.6
| Aug record low F  =	72.0
| Sep record low F  =	70.8
| Oct record low F  =	55.9
| Nov record low F  =	47.7
| Dec record low F  =	32.8
| year record low F =	32.8
| precipitation colour = green	
| Jan precipitation inch  =   	1.85
| Feb precipitation inch  =   	1.91
| Mar precipitation inch  =   	2.62
| Apr precipitation inch  =   	2.55
| May precipitation inch  =   	4.64
| Jun precipitation inch  =   	7.83
| Jul precipitation inch  =   	5.41
| Aug precipitation inch  =   	7.09
| Sep precipitation inch  =   	7.56
| Oct precipitation inch  =   	5.18
| Nov precipitation inch  =   	2.85
| Dec precipitation inch  =   	1.79
| year precipitation inch =   	51.28
| Jan dew point F =	59.9
| Feb dew point F =	61.1
| Mar dew point F =	62.2
| Apr dew point F =	64.1
| May dew point F =	69.0
| Jun dew point F =	73.5
| Jul dew point F =	74.3
| Aug dew point F =	74.7
| Sep dew point F =	74.5
| Oct dew point F =	71.5
| Nov dew point F =	66.4
| Dec dew point F =	62.3
| year dew point F =	67.8
| source = PRISM<ref name=prism>{{cite web|url=http://prism.oregonstate.edu/explorer/|title=PRISM Climate Group, Oregon State University|access-date=February 19, 2019}}</ref>}}

==See also==
* [[List of national parks of the United States]]

==References==
{{Reflist|20em}}

==Bibliography==
* Bryan, Jonathan; Scott, Thomas M.; Means, Guy H. (2009), ''Roadside Geology of Florida''. Mountain Press. {{ISBN|978-0-87842-542-6}}.
* Grunwald, Michael (2006). ''The Swamp: The Everglades, Florida, and the Politics of Paradise''. Simon & Schuster. {{ISBN|978-0-7432-5105-1}}
* Hach, Steve (2004), [https://web.archive.org/web/20120223044630/http://www.nps.gov/ever/planyourvisit/upload/AirDefenseSouthFlorida.pdf ''Cold War in South Florida Historic Resource Study'']. National Park Service.
* Harris, Ann G.; Tuttle, Esther; Tuttle, Sherwood D. (2004). ''Geology of the National Parks'', 6th ed. Kendall/Hunt. {{ISBN|978-0-7872-9971-2}}
* Leynes, Jennifer Brown; Cullison, David (1998), [https://archive.today/20121214074756/http://www.nps.gov/history/history/online_books/bisc/hrs/hrs.htm ''Biscayne National Park Historic Resource Study''], National Park Service
* Miller, Lloyd (2008), ''Biscayne National Park: It Almost Wasn't'', LEMDOT Publishing. {{ISBN|978-0-615-17494-5}}.
* National Park Service (NPS) (2011), [https://web.archive.org/web/20111016041159/http://parkplanning.nps.gov/showFile.cfm?projectID=11168&docType=public&MIMEType=application%252Fpdf&filename=BISC-DRAFT-GMP-AUG2011-for-PEPC1.pdf&clientFilename=BISC-DRAFT-GMP-AUG2011-for-PEPC.pdf ''Biscayne National Park: Draft General Management Plan/Environmental Impact Statement'']
* National Parks Conservation Association (NPCA) (2006), [https://web.archive.org/web/20120709084220/http://www.npca.org/about-us/center-for-park-research/stateoftheparks/biscayne/Biscayne_full_rpt.pdf ''State of the Parks: Biscayne National Park'']
* Shumaker, Susan (2012), [https://web.archive.org/web/20120321013010/http://www.pbs.org/nationalparks/media/pdfs/tnp-abi-untold-stories-pt-03-jones.pdf ''Untold Stories from America's National Parks: Israel Lafayette "Parson" Jones, Sir Lancelot Jones and Biscayne National Park'']. Public Broadcasting Service.

==External links==
{{Wikivoyage|Biscayne National Park}}
{{Commons category|Biscayne National Park}}
* [https://www.nps.gov/bisc/index.htm Biscayne National Park] (official website)
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20081026202051/http://www.fishatbay.org/building.php The Fish at Bay] (archive), University of Miami collection of stories about Biscayne Bay

{{Protected areas of Florida}}
{{National parks of the United States}}
{{Greater Miami}}
{{Florida Keys}}
{{Everglades}}
{{Recreational dive sites|reereg}}
{{authority control}}

[[Category:Biscayne National Park| ]]
[[Category:1980 establishments in Florida]]
[[Category:National parks in Florida]]
[[Category:Parks in Miami-Dade County, Florida]]
[[Category:Swamps of Florida]]
[[Category:Underwater diving sites in the United States]]