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{{Short description|Devotional love, a concept in Indian religions}}
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'''''Bhakti''''' ({{langx|sa|[[:wikt:भक्ति#Sanskrit|भक्ति]]}}; [[Pali]]: ''bhatti'') is a concept common in [[Indian religions]] which means attachment, fondness for, devotion to, trust, homage, worship, piety, faith, or love.<ref name=monier>See [[Monier-Williams]], ''Sanskrit Dictionary'', 1899.</ref> In Indian religions, it may refer to loving devotion for a [[Ishvara|personal God]] (like [[Krishna]] or [[Devi]]), a formless [[ultimate reality]] (like [[Nirguna]] [[Brahman]] or the [[Waheguru|Sikh God]]) or an [[Enlightenment in Buddhism|enlightened being]] (like a [[The Buddha|Buddha]], a [[bodhisattva]], or a [[guru]]).<ref name=encyclopediabrit>[https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/63933/bhakti Bhakti], ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' (2009)</ref><ref name="karen">Karen Pechelis (2011), "Bhakti Traditions", in ''The Continuum Companion to Hindu Studies'' (Editors: Jessica Frazier, Gavin Flood), Bloomsbury, {{ISBN|978-0826499660}}, pp. 107–121</ref><ref name="swearer9" /><ref name="werner45" /><ref name=":6" /><ref name="hardip" /> Bhakti is often a deeply emotional devotion based on a relationship between a devotee and the object of devotion.<ref>{{cite book |author1=Hans G. Kippenberg |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AdYfAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA295 |title=Concepts of Person in Religion and Thought |author2=Yme B. Kuiper |author3=Andy F. Sanders |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |year=1990 |isbn=978-3-11-087437-2 |page=295}}, Quote: "The foundations of emotional devotionalism (bhakti) were laid in south India in the second half of the first millennium of our era (...)".</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Indira Viswanathan Peterson |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kQwABAAAQBAJ&pg=PA4 |title=Poems to Siva: The Hymns of the Tamil Saints |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2014 |isbn=978-1-4008-6006-7 |pages=4, footnote 4}}</ref><ref name="nirgun">{{cite journal |last1=DeNapoli |first1=Antoinette |date=2018 |title=Earning God through the "One-Hundred Rupee Note": Nirguṇa Bhakti and Religious Experience among Hindu Renouncers in North India |journal=Religions |language=en |volume=9 |issue=12 |pages=408 |doi=10.3390/rel9120408 |doi-access=free}}</ref> A devotee is a '''[[Bhakti#Bhakta|bhakta]]''' or '''bhakt'''. 

One of the earliest appearances of the concept is found in the [[Early Buddhist schools|early Buddhist]] ''[[Theragatha]]'' (''Verses of the Elders'') through the term ''bhatti''.{{Sfn|Dayal|1970|p=32}} Early texts such as the ''[[Shvetashvatara Upanishad]]'' and the ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]'', describe ''bhakti'' as contemplating God as a form of yoga.<ref>John Lochtefeld (2014), ''The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism'', Rosen Publishing (New York), {{ISBN|978-0823922871}}, pp. 98–100. Also see articles on bhaktimārga and jnanamārga.</ref>

Bhakti ideas have inspired many popular texts and saint-poets in India. The ''[[Bhagavata Purana]]'', for example, is a [[Krishna]]-related text associated with the Bhakti movement in Hinduism.<ref name="Cutler" /> Bhakti is also found in other religions practiced in India,<ref>{{cite book|last=Flood|first=Gavin D.|title=The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|year=2003|page=185|isbn=978-0-631-21535-6|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qSfneQ0YYY8C&pg=PA185}}</ref><ref name="Neill 2002 412">{{cite book|last=Neill|first=Stephen|title=A History of Christianity in India, 1707–1858|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2002|pages=412|isbn=978-0-521-89332-9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Xi-tvrYbYxMC&pg=PA412}}</ref><ref name="Kelting 2001 87">{{cite book|last=Kelting|first=Mary Whitney |author-link=Mary Whitney Kelting|title=Singing to the Jinas: Jain Laywomen, Maṇḍaḷ Singing, and the Negotiations of Jain Devotion|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2001|pages=87|isbn=978-0-19-514011-8|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=elcn1IEJ3CEC&pg=PA87}}</ref> and it has influenced interactions between Christianity and Hinduism in the modern era.<ref>A. Frank Thompson (1993), ''Hindu-Christian Dialogue: Perspectives and Encounters'' (Editor: Harold Coward), Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, {{ISBN|978-8120811584}}, pp. 176–186</ref><ref>Karen Pechelis (2014), ''The Embodiment of Bhakti'', Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0195351903}}, see Introduction chapter</ref> ''Nirguni bhakti'' (devotion to the divine without attributes) is found in [[Sikhism]], as well as Hinduism.{{Sfn|Lorenzen|1995|pp=1-2}}<ref name=hardip /> Outside India, emotional devotion is found in some [[Southeast Asia]]n and [[East Asia]]n Buddhist traditions.<ref name=swearer9 /><ref name=werner45 /><ref name=karunaratna435 />

The [[bhakti movement]], pioneered by the [[Tamils|Tamil]] [[Alvars]] and [[Nayanars]], that developed around the gods [[Vishnu]] ([[Vaishnavism]]), [[Shiva]] ([[Shaivism]]) and [[Devi]] ([[Shaktism]]) in the second half of the 1st millennium CE.<ref name="encyclopediabrit" /><ref name="karen" /><ref name="Rinehart">{{cite book |last=Rinehart |first=Robin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hMPYnfS_R90C&pg=PA45 |title=Contemporary Hinduism: Ritual, Culture, and Practice |publisher=ABC-CLIO |year=2004 |isbn=978-1-57607-905-8 |page=45}}</ref><ref name="Flood">{{cite book |last=Flood |first=Gavin |url=https://archive.org/details/introductiontohi0000floo |title=An Introduction to Hinduism |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-521-43878-0 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/introductiontohi0000floo/page/131 131] |url-access=registration}}</ref><ref name="Embree" /><ref>Jerry Bentley, ''Old World Encounters: Cross Cultural Contacts and Exchanges in Pre-Modern Times'' (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), p. 120.</ref>

== Terminology ==
The Sanskrit word ''bhakti'' is derived from the verb root ''bhaj-'', which means "to worship, have recourse to, betake onself to"  or ''bhañj-,'' which means "to break."<ref name="Cutler" /><ref name="Prentiss">{{cite book|last=Pechilis Prentiss|first=Karen|title=The Embodiment of Bhakti|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=US|year=1999|page=24|isbn=978-0-19-512813-0|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Vu95WgeUBfEC&pg=PA24}}</ref><ref name="Werner">{{cite book|last=Werner|first=Karel|title=Love Divine: studies in bhakti and devotional mysticism|publisher= Routledge|year= 1993|pages= 168|isbn= 978-0-7007-0235-0|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pYahlaJCLnYC&pg=PA168}}</ref><ref>John Bowker "Bhakti ." The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Religions. Encyclopedia.com. 16 Oct. 2020 https://www.encyclopedia.com .</ref> The word also means "attachment, devotion to, fondness for, homage, faith or love, worship, piety to something as a spiritual, religious principle or means of salvation".<ref name=monier /><ref>[http://spokensanskrit.de/index.php?tinput=bhakti&direction=SE&script=HK&link=yes&beginning=0 bhakti] Sanskrit English Dictionary, University of Koeln, Germany</ref>

The meaning of the term ''bhakti'' is analogous to but different from [[kama]]. Kama connotes emotional connection, sometimes with sensual devotion and erotic love. Bhakti, in contrast, is spiritual: a love and devotion to religious concepts or principles, that engages both emotion and intellection.<ref name=karen20>Karen Pechelis (2014), The Embodiment of Bhakti, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0195351903}}, pages 19-21</ref> Karen Pechelis states that the word ''bhakti'' should not be understood as uncritical emotion, but as committed engagement.<ref name=karen20 /> She adds that, in the concept of ''bhakti'' in Hinduism, the engagement involves a simultaneous tension between emotion  and intellection, "emotion to reaffirm the social context and temporal freedom, intellection to ground the experience in a thoughtful, conscious approach".<ref name=karen20 /> One who practices ''bhakti'' is called a ''[[bhakta]]''.<ref>Karen Pechelis (2014), The Embodiment of Bhakti, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0195351903}}, page 3</ref>

The term ''bhakti'', in [[Vedas|Vedic]] Sanskrit literature, has a general meaning of "mutual attachment, devotion, fondness for, devotion to" such as in human relationships, most often between beloved-lover, friend-friend, king-subject, parent-child.<ref name="Cutler">{{cite book|last=Cutler|first=Norman|title=Songs of Experience|publisher=Indiana University Press|year=1987|pages=1|isbn=978-0-253-35334-4|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=veSItWingx8C&pg=PA1}}</ref> It may refer to devotion towards a spiritual teacher ([[Guru]]) as ''guru-bhakti'',<ref>{{cite book|last=Sivananda|first=Swami|title=Guru Bhakti Yoga|publisher=Divine Life Society|year=2004|isbn=978-81-7052-168-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Vivekananda|first=Swami|title=The Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda|publisher=Advaita Ashrama|year=1970| url =http://www.dlshq.org/download/gurubhaktiyoga.htm | pages=62}}</ref> or to a personal God,<ref name="Cutler" /><ref>{{cite book|author=Neusner, Jacob|title=World religions in America: an introduction|publisher=Westminster John Knox Press|year=2003|pages=128|isbn=978-0-664-22475-2}}</ref> or for spirituality without form ([[nirguna]]).<ref>Karen Pechilis Prentiss (2014), The Embodiment of Bhakti, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0195351903}}, page 21</ref>

According to the Sri Lankan Buddhist scholar Sanath Nanayakkara, there is no single term in English that adequately translates or represents the concept of ''bhakti'' in Indian religions.{{sfn| Nanayakkara|1966|pp=678–80}} Terms such as "devotion, faith, devotional faith" represent certain aspects of ''bhakti'', but it means much more. The concept includes a sense of deep affection, attachment, but not wish because "wish is selfish, affection is unselfish". Some scholars, states Nanayakkara, associate it with ''saddha'' (Sanskrit: ''Sraddha'') which means "faith, trust or confidence". However, ''bhakti'' can connote an end in itself, or a path to spiritual wisdom.{{sfn| Nanayakkara|1966|pp=678–80}}

The term ''bhakti'' refers to one of several alternate spiritual paths to [[moksha]] (spiritual freedom, liberation, salvation) in Hinduism,<ref name=johnmartin /> and it is referred to as ''bhakti marga'' or ''[[bhakti yoga]]''.<ref name="Klostermaier">{{cite book|last=Klostermaier|first=Klaus|author-link=Klaus Klostermaier|title=A survey of Hinduism|publisher=SUNY Press|year=1989|pages=210–212|isbn=978-0-88706-807-2}}</ref><ref>Karen Pechelis (2014), The Embodiment of Bhakti, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0195351903}}, pages 14-15, 37-38</ref> The other paths are ''[[Jnana yoga|Jnana marga]]'' (path of knowledge), ''[[Karma marga]]'' (path of works), ''Rāja marga'' (path of contemplation and meditation).<ref name=johnmartin>John Martin Sahajananda (2014), Fully Human Fully Divine, Partridge India, {{ISBN|978-1482819557}}, page 60</ref><ref>KN Tiwari (2009), Comparative Religion, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120802933}}, page 31</ref>

The term ''bhakti'' has been usually translated as "devotion" in [[Orientalism|Orientalist]] literature.<ref>Karen Pechilis Prentiss (2014), The Embodiment of Bhakti, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0195351903}}, pages 15-24</ref> The colonial era authors variously described ''bhakti'' as a form of mysticism or "primitive" religious devotion of lay people with monotheistic parallels.<ref name=paulcarus>Paul Carus, {{Google books|96sLAAAAIAAJ|The Monist|PA514}}, pages 514-515</ref><ref>DG Mandelbaum (1966), Transcendental and Pragmatic Aspects of Religion, American Anthropologist, 68(5), pages 1174–1191</ref><ref>DC Scott (1980), Hindu and Christian Bhakti: A Common Human Response to the Sacred, Indian Journal of Theology, 29(1), pages 12-32</ref> However, modern scholars state "devotion" is a misleading and incomplete translation of ''bhakti''.<ref name=karen2324 /><ref name="Gale">{{cite book|title=Gale Encyclopedia of Religion|pages=856–857|editor=Lindsay Jones|publisher=Thomson Gale|year=2005|volume=2|isbn=978-0-02-865735-6}}</ref>

Many contemporary scholars have questioned this terminology, and most now trace the term ''bhakti'' as one of the several spiritual perspectives that emerged from reflections on the Vedic context and Hindu way of life. ''Bhakti'' in Indian religions is not a ritualistic devotion to a God or to religion, but participation in a path that includes behavior, ethics, mores and spirituality.<ref name=karen2324 /> It involves, among other things, refining one's state of mind, knowing God, participating in God, and internalizing God.<ref name=karen2324 /> Increasingly, instead of "devotion", the term "participation" is appearing in scholarly literature as a gloss for the term ''bhakti''.<ref name=karen2324>Karen Pechilis Prentiss (2014), The Embodiment of Bhakti, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0195351903}}, pages 23-24</ref><ref name="Gale" />{{love sidebar|cultural}}

''Bhakti'' is an important term in Sikhism and Hinduism.{{Sfn|Lorenzen|1995|pp=1-2}} They both share numerous concepts and core spiritual ideas, but ''bhakti'' of ''nirguni'' (devotion to divine without attributes) is particularly significant in Sikhism.{{Sfn|Lorenzen|1995|pp=1-2}}<ref name=hardip>Hardip Syan (2014), in ''The Oxford Handbook of Sikh Studies'' (Editors: Pashaura Singh, Louis E. Fenech), Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0199699308}}, page 178</ref><ref>A Mandair (2011), Time and religion-making in modern Sikhism, in ''Time, History and the Religious Imaginary in South Asia'' (Editor: Anne Murphy), Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0415595971}}, page 188-190</ref> In Hinduism, diverse ideas continue, where both ''saguni'' and ''nirguni'' ''bhakti'' (devotion to divine with or without attributes) or alternate paths to spirituality are among the options left to the choice of a Hindu.{{Sfn|Lorenzen|1995|pp=1-2}}<ref name=johnmartin />
== History of Hindu bhakti ==
=== The Upanishads ===
The last of three epilogue verses of the [[Shvetashvatara Upanishad]] (6.23), dated to be from 1st millennium BCE, uses the word ''Bhakti'' as follows:<ref>Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120814684}}, page 326</ref><ref>Max Muller, [https://archive.org/stream/upanishads02ml#page/266/mode/2up Shvetashvatara Upanishad], The Upanishads, Part II, Oxford University Press, page 267</ref>

{{Blockquote|
<poem>
yasya deve parā '''bhaktiḥ''' yathā deve tathā gurau <nowiki>।
tasyaite kathitā hyarthāḥ prakāśante mahātmanaḥ </nowiki><ref>[https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/श्वेताश्वतरोपनिषद् Shvetashvatara Upanishad 6.23] Wikisource</ref>

He who has highest ''Bhakti'' of ''Deva'' (God), just like his ''Deva'', so for his ''Guru'' (teacher),
To him who is high-minded, these teachings will be illuminating.
</poem>

|}}

This verse is one of the earliest use of the word ''Bhakti'' in ancient Indian literature, and has been translated as "the love of God".<ref name=paulcarus /><ref>WN Brown (1970), Man in the Universe: Some Continuities in Indian Thought, University of California Press, {{ISBN|978-0520017498}}, pages 38-39</ref> Scholars<ref name=pauldeussenintro>Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120814684}}, pages 301-304</ref><ref name=maxmullerinto>Max Muller, [https://archive.org/stream/upanishads02ml#page/n33/mode/2up The Shvetashvatara Upanishad], Oxford University Press, pages xxxii – xlii</ref> have debated whether this phrase is authentic or later insertion into the Upanishad, and whether the terms "Bhakti" and "Deva" meant the same in this ancient text as they do in the modern era. [[Max Muller]] states that the word ''Bhakti'' appears only once in this Upanishad, that too in one last verse of the epilogue, could have been a later addition and may not be theistic as the word was later used in much later ''Sandilya Sutras''.<ref name=maxmullerbhakti>Max Muller, [https://archive.org/stream/upanishads02ml#page/n33/mode/2up The Shvetashvatara Upanishad], Oxford University Press, pages xxxiv and xxxvii</ref> Grierson as well as Carus note that the first epilogue verse 6.21 of the Shvetashvatara Upanishad is also notable for its use of the word ''Deva Prasada'' (देवप्रसाद, grace or gift of God), but add that ''Deva'' in the epilogue of the Shvetashvatara Upanishad refers to "pantheistic [[Brahman]]" and the closing credit to sage Shvetashvatara in verse 6.21 can mean "gift or grace of his Soul".<ref name=paulcarus />

===Post-Vedic movement===
{{See also|Hindu synthesis}}

Scholarly consensus sees ''bhakti'' as a post-Vedic movement that developed primarily during the [[Hindu Epics]] and [[Puranas]] era of Indian history (late first mill. BCE-early first mill. CE).<ref>"Scholarly consensus today tends to view bhakti as a post-Vedic development that took place primarily in the watershed years of the epics and Puranas." Karen Pechilis Prentiss (2014), The Embodiment of Bhakti, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0195351903}}, page 17</ref><ref>{{cite book |author1=Monier Monier-Williams |author2=Ernst Leumann |publisher=Clarendon |place=Oxford |title=A Sanskrit-English dictionary, etymologically and philologically arranged : with special reference to cognate Indo-European languages |edition=new |year=1899 |oclc=152275976|author-link1=Monier-Williams }}</ref>

The ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]'' is the first text to explicitly use the word "bhakti" to designate a religious path, using it as a term for one of three possible religious approaches or [[yoga]]s (i.e. [[bhakti yoga]]).<ref>Karen Pechilis Prentiss (2014), The Embodiment of Bhakti, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0195351903}}, page 5</ref>

The ''[[Bhagavata Purana]]'' (which focuses on [[Krishna]] bhakti) develops the idea more elaborately,<ref name="Cutler" /> while the ''[[Shvetashvatara Upanishad]]'' presents evidence of ''guru-bhakti'' (devotion to one's spiritual teacher).<ref name="Klostermaier" /><ref>{{Cite book| last =  Singh| first = R. Raj|year=2006|title=Bhakti and philosophy|publisher= Lexington Books|pages=28|isbn=978-0-7391-1424-7| ref =  name="Singh"}}</ref>

=== Bhakti movement ===
{{Main|Bhakti movement}}

[[File:Manavala mamunigal 03.jpg|thumb|[[Nammalvar]], considered the most prominent of the twelve [[Alvars]] ([[Tamil language|Tamil]] poet saints c. 5th to 9th century CE) whose hymns are compiled in the [[Naalayira Divya Prabandham|Nālāyira Divya Prabandham]]]]
[[file:Chaitanya sankirtan.jpg|thumb|Bengal illustration of the 15th century Krishna bhakta [[Chaitanya Mahaprabhu]] performing [[kirtan]], devotional chanting and dancing, in the streets of [[Nabadwip]], Bengal.]]

The ''[[Bhakti Movement]]'' was a rapid growth of bhakti, first starting in the later part of 1st millennium CE, from [[Tamil Nadu]] in southern India with the Shaiva [[Nayanars]]<ref name="Embree">{{cite book|last=Embree|first=Ainslie Thomas | author-link=Ainslie Embree|author2=Stephen N. Hay |author3=William Theodore De Bary |title=Sources of Indian Tradition|publisher=Columbia University Press|year=1988|pages=342|isbn=978-0-231-06651-8|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=An5mD6KMiSIC&pg=PA342}}</ref> and the Vaishnava [[Alvars]]. Their ideas and practices inspired bhakti poetry and devotion throughout India over the 12th-18th century CE.<ref name="Flood" /><ref name="Embree" /> The Alvars ("those immersed in God") were Vaishnava poet-saints who wandered from temple to temple, singing the praises of Vishnu. They hailed the [[Divya Desam|divine abodes]] of Vishnu and converted many people to [[Vaishnavism]].<ref name="Embree" />

[[File:Meerabai (crop).jpg|thumb|[[Meera]] (Mirabai) (circa 1498-1546) was one of the most significant poet-saints in the [[Vaishnava]] bhakti movement.<ref name=smpandey>SM Pandey (1965), [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1061803 Mīrābāī and Her Contributions to the Bhakti Movement], History of Religions, Vol. 5, No. 1, pages 54-73</ref>]]

Like the Alvars, the [[Shaivism|Shaiva]] Nayanar poets were influential. The ''[[Tirumurai]]'', a compilation of hymns by sixty-three Nayanar poets, is still of great importance in South India. Hymns by three of the most prominent poets, [[Appar]] (7th century CE), [[Campantar]] (7th century) and [[Sundarar]] (9th century), were compiled into the ''[[Tevaram]]'', the first volumes of the ''Tirumurai''. The poets' itinerant lifestyle helped create temple and pilgrimage sites and spread devotion to Shiva.<ref>{{cite book|last=Olson|first=Carl|title=The many colors of Hinduism: a thematic-historical introduction|publisher=[[Rutgers University Press]]|year=2007|pages=231|isbn=978-0-8135-4068-9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RVWKClYq4TUC&pg=PA231}}</ref> Early Tamil-Shiva bhakti poets quoted the [[Black Yajurveda|Krishna Yajurveda]].<ref>Karen Pechilis Prentiss (2014), The Embodiment of Bhakti, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0195351903}}, pages 17-18</ref> The Alvars and Nayanars were instrumental in propagating the Bhakti tradition. The [[Bhagavata Purana]]'s references to the South Indian Alvar saints, along with its emphasis on ''bhakti'', have led many scholars to give it South Indian origins, though some scholars question whether this evidence excludes the possibility that ''bhakti'' movement had parallel developments in other parts of India.<ref>{{cite book| last=Sheridan| first=Daniel| title= The Advaitic Theism of the Bhagavata Purana |publisher=South Asia Books |location=Columbia, Mo |year=1986 |isbn=978-81-208-0179-0 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qrtYYTjYFY8C}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last=van Buitenen | first=J. A. B | chapter=The Archaism of the Bhāgavata Purāṇa | title=Encyclopedia Indica | year=1996 | editor=S.S Shashi | isbn=978-81-7041-859-7 | pages=28–45 | chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U-sC1GkwH7sC&pg=PA28 | publisher=Anmol Publications PVT. LTD. }}{{Dead link|date=October 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

Scholars state that the ''bhakti'' movement focused on Vishnu, Shiva, Shakti and other deities, that developed and spread in India, was in response to the arrival of [[Islam]] in India about 8th century CE,<ref>Note: The earliest arrival dates are contested by scholars. They range from 7th to 9th century, with Muslim traders settling in coastal regions of Indian peninsula, to Muslims seeking asylum in Tamil Nadu, to raids in northwest India by [[Muhammad bin Qasim]]. See: Annemarie Schimmel (1997), Islam in the Indian subcontinent, Brill Academic, {{ISBN|978-9004061170}}, pages 3-7; Andre Wink (2004), Al-Hind: the Making of the Indo-Islamic World, Brill Academic Publishers, {{ISBN|90-04-09249-8}}</ref> and subsequent [[Religious violence in India|religious violence]].<ref name=encyclopediabrit /><ref name=karen /><ref name=johnhawley /> This view is contested by other scholars.<ref name=johnhawley>John Stratton Hawley (2015), A Storm of Songs: India and the Idea of the Bhakti Movement, Harvard University Press, {{ISBN|978-0674187467}}, pages 39-61</ref>

The Bhakti movement swept over east and north India from the fifteenth-century onwards, reaching its zenith between the 15th and 17th century CE.<ref name=schomer>Karine Schomer and WH McLeod (1987), The Sants: Studies in a Devotional Tradition of India, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120802773}}, pages 1-2</ref> According to Patton Burchett, the four key features of this early modern bhakti movement in north India were:<blockquote>First and foremost, these communities were united by a distinctive focus on personal devotion to the Divine, as opposed to other traditional pillars of Indic religiosity such as [[Jñāna|knowledge]], ritual, or the practice of [[yoga]] or [[asceticism]]. This devotion took place in the context of an intimate, loving relationship with the Divine in which caste, class, or gender typically were said to have no place. This was a bhakti that found its most characteristic expression in (a) the context of spiritual fellowship ([[satsaṅg]]) with other devotees (bhaktas), (b) the medium of song, (c) the idiom of passionate love (śṛṅgāra/mādhurya) or painful separation (viraha), and (d) the remembrance—in meditation, recitation, chant, and song—of the name(s) of God. Second, these new devotional communities of [[Mughal India]] were alike in their production and performance of devotional works, composed in vernacular languages, remembering the deeds of God (especially [[Krishna|Kṛṣṇa]] and [[Rama|Rām]]) and exemplary bhaktas. Third, important in all these communities was the performance and collection of songs attributed to renowned bhakti poet-saints like Kabīr, Raidās, and Sūrdās. Finally, despite their many differences, the vast majority of bhakti authors and sectarian communities in early modern North India came together in articulating a devotional sensibility distinct from—and often explicitly positioned in opposition to—certain [[Tantra|tantric]] paradigms of religiosity.<ref>Burchett, Patton (2019)

''Genealogy of Devotion - Bhakti, Tantra, Yoga, and Sufism in North India'', pp. 2-3. Columbia University Press.</ref></blockquote>Bhakti poetry and ideas influenced many aspects of Hindu culture, religious and secular, and became an integral part of Indian society.<ref name="Embree" /> It extended its influence to [[Sufism]],<ref>{{cite book|last=Flood|first=Gavin D.|title=The Blackwell companion to Hinduism|publisher=[[Wiley-Blackwell]]|year=2003|page=185|isbn=978-0-631-21535-6|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qSfneQ0YYY8C&pg=PA185}}</ref> [[Christianity]],<ref name="Neill 2002 412" /> and [[Jainism]].<ref name="Kelting 2001 87" /> [[Sikhism]] was founded by [[Guru Nanak]] in the 15th century, during the bhakti movement period, and scholars have identified it as drawing from many Bhakti traditions and ideas.<ref>W. Owen Cole and Piara Singh Sambhi (1997), A Popular Dictionary of Sikhism: Sikh Religion and Philosophy, Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0700710485}}, page 22</ref>

Saints such as [[Mirabai]], [[Surdas|Soordas]], [[Narsinh Mehta]] composed several bhajans that were a path towards Bhakti for many, that are universally sung even today. A modern age saint, Shri Devendra Ghia (Kaka) has composed about 10,000 hymns. These hymns are related to bhakti, knowledge, devotion, faith, introspection and honesty.<ref>{{Cite web |title=BHAAV SAMADHI VICHAAR SAMADHI - KAKA BHAJANS |url=https://www.kakabhajans.org/ |access-date=11 June 2022 |website=Kakabhajans.org}}</ref>

The movement has traditionally been considered as an influential social reformation in Hinduism, and provided an individual-focused alternative path to spirituality regardless of one's birth caste or gender.<ref name="schomer" /> [[Postmodernism|Postmodern]] scholars question this traditional view and whether the [[Bhakti movement]] were ever a social reform or rebellion of any kind.<ref>Karen Pechilis Prentiss (2014), The Embodiment of Bhakti, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0195351903}}, pages 10-16</ref> They suggest Bhakti movement was a revival, reworking and recontextualization of ancient Vedic traditions.<ref>Karen Pechilis Prentiss (2014), The Embodiment of Bhakti, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0195351903}}, pages 15-16</ref>

== In Hinduism ==
=== Bhakti Yoga ===
{{Main|Bhakti yoga}}
The ''Bhagavad Gita'' introduces bhakti yoga in combination with ''[[karma yoga]]'' and ''[[jnana yoga]]'',<ref name="Minor">{{cite book|last=Minor|first=Robert Neil|title=Modern Indian Interpreters of the Bhagavadgita|publisher=SUNY Press|year=1986|pages=3|isbn=978-0-88706-297-1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ku2DGm20WWUC&pg=PA3}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Glucklich|first=Ariel|title=The Strides of Vishnu|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2008|pages=104|isbn=978-0-19-531405-2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KtLScrjrWiAC&pg=PA104}}</ref> while the ''[[Bhagavata Purana]]'' expands on bhakti yoga, offering nine specific activities for the bhakti yogi.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bryant |first=Edwin F. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2c-_DQAAQBAJ |title=Bhakti Yoga: Tales and Teachings from the Bhagavata Purana |date=2017-07-11 |publisher=Farrar, Straus and Giroux |isbn=978-0-374-71439-0 |pages=9 |language=en}}</ref> Bhakti in the ''Bhagavad Gita'' offered an alternative to two dominant practices of religion at the time: the isolation of the sannyasin and the practice of religious ritual.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Prentiss |first=Karen Pechilis |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Vu95WgeUBfEC |title=The Embodiment of Bhakti |date=2000-01-06 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-535190-3 |pages=19 |language=en}}</ref> ''Bhakti Yoga'' is described by [[Swami Vivekananda]] as "the path of systematized devotion for the attainment of union with the Absolute".<ref>{{cite book|last=Sundararajan|first=K. R.|author2=Bithika Mukerji|title=Hindu Spirituality|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|year=2003|pages=306|isbn=978-81-208-1937-5|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LO0DpWElIRIC&pg=PA306}}</ref> In various chapters, including the twelfth chapter of the ''Bhagavad Gita'', Krishna describes ''bhakti yoga'' as one of the paths to the highest spiritual attainments.<ref name="Jacobsen">{{cite book |editor-last=Jacobsen |editor-first=Knut A. | year = 2005 | title = Theory And Practice of Yoga: Essays in Honour of Gerald James Larson | page=351 | publisher = Brill Academic Publishers| isbn=978-90-04-14757-7}}</ref> In the sixth chapter, for example, the Gita states the following about bhakti yogi:
{{blockquote|
<poem>
The yogi who, established in oneness, Honors Me as abiding in all beings,
In whatever way he otherwise acts, Dwells in Me.

He who sees equality in everything, In the image of his own Self, Arjuna,
Whether in pleasure or in pain, Is thought to be a supreme yogi.

Of all yogis, He who has merged his inner Self in Me,
Honors me, full of faith, Is thought to be the most devoted to Me.<ref name=chapple>Christopher Key Chapple (Editor) and Winthrop Sargeant (Translator), The Bhagavad Gita: Twenty-fifth–Anniversary Edition, State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-1438428420}}, pages 302-303, 318</ref></poem>}}

The ''[[Shandilya Bhakti Sutra]]'' and ''[[Narada Bhakti Sutra]]'' define devotion, emphasize its importance and superiority, and classify its forms.<ref>{{cite book |last=Georg Feuerstein |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zTjewAEACAAJ |title=The Yoga Tradition |author2=Ken Wilber |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |year=2002 |isbn=978-81-208-1923-8 |pages=55 |author-link=Georg Feuerstein |author2-link=Ken Wilber}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Swami Vivekananda |title=The indispensable Vivekananda |publisher=Orient Blackswan |year=2006 |isbn=978-81-7824-130-2 |editor=Amiya P Sen |page=212 |chapter=Bhakti Yoga |author-link=Swami Vivekananda |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=usBhrZcnJ78C&pg=PA212}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Bary |first=William Theodore De|author2=Stephen N Hay|title=Sources of Indian Tradition|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|year=1988|page=330|chapter=Hinduism|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PqzFZNF2RxgC&pg=PA330|isbn=978-81-208-0467-8}}</ref>

According to [[Ramana Maharshi|Ramana Maharishi]], bhakti is a "surrender to the divine with one's heart". It can be practiced as an adjunct to self-inquiry, and in one of four ways:{{sfn|Frawley|2000|p=133}}
# Atma-Bhakti: devotion to one's ''atma'' (Supreme Self)
# Ishvara-Bhakti: devotion to a formless being (God, Cosmic Lord)
# Ishta Devata-Bhakti: devotion to a personal God or goddess
# Guru-Bhakti: devotion to [[Guru]]

=== Nine forms of Bhakti ===
The ''[[Bhagavata Purana]]'' (verse 7.5.23) teaches nine forms of bhakti:
{{columns-list|colwidth=20em|# ''śravaṇa'' (listening to ancient texts)
# ''kīrtana'' (praying)
# ''smaraṇa'' (remembering teachings in ancient texts)
# ''pāda-sevana'' (service to the feet)
# ''archana'' (worshiping)
# ''namaskar'' or ''vandana'' (bowing to the divine)
# ''dāsya'' (service to the divine)
# ''sākhyatva'' (friendship with the divine)
# ''ātma-nivedana'' (self-surrender to the divine)
}}

The ''Bhagavata Purana'' describes many examples of bhakti, such as those exhibited by [[Prahlada]] and the [[gopi]]s. The behavior of the gopis in the ''Bhagavata Purana'' exemplifies the essence of bhakti. When separated from Krishna, the gopis practiced devotion by listening to his stories (''śravaṇa''), praising his glorious deeds (''kīrtana''), and other acts to keep him in their thoughts.<ref name="Halberman">{{cite book|last=Haberman|first=David L.|title=Acting as a Way of Salvation|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|year=2001|pages=133–134|isbn=978-81-208-1794-4|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ua-E20uyH9IC&pg=RA1-PA133}}</ref><ref>''Bhagavata Purana'', 7.5.23-24</ref>

=== Bhavas ===
Traditional Hinduism speaks of five different ''[[bhava#In bhakti traditions|bhāvas]]'' or "[[affective]] essences".<ref>{{cite book|last=Spivak|first=Gayatri Chakravorty | author-link=Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak|title=Other Asias|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|date=December 28, 2007|page=197}}</ref> In this sense, ''bhāvas'' are different attitudes that devotees takes according to their individual temperament to express devotion towards God in some form.<ref name="Akhilananda_180" /> The different ''bhāvas'' are:
# ''śānta'', placid love for God;
# ''dāsya'', the attitude of a servant;
# ''sakhya'', the attitude of a friend;
# ''vātsalya'', the attitude of a mother towards her child;
# ''madhurya'', the attitude of a woman towards her lover.<ref name="Akhilananda_180">{{cite book  | last = Allport  | first =  Gordon W.  |author2=Swami [[Akhilananda]]  | title = Hindu Psychology  | chapter =  Its meaning for the West  | publisher = Routledge  | year = 1999  | page = [https://books.google.com/books?id=aANjt2mn27MC&pg=PA180 180]}}</ref>

Several saints are known to have practiced these ''bhavas''. The nineteenth century mystic, [[Ramakrishna]] is said to have practiced these five ''bhavas''.<ref name="isherwood-111">{{cite book|last=Isherwood|first=Christopher|title=Ramakrishna and his disciples|publisher=Vedanta Press|year=1980|pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=6qVMrumO-g0C&pg=PA111 111–112]|isbn=978-0-87481-037-0}}</ref> The devotion of [[Hanuman]] towards [[Rama]] is considered to be of ''dasya bhava''.<ref>{{cite book|last=Sarma|first=Subrahmanya |title=Essence of Hinduism|publisher=Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan|year=1971|page=68}}</ref> The relationship of [[Arjuna]] and the cowherd boys of [[Vrindavan]] with [[Krishna]] is regarded as ''sakhya bhava''.<ref name="isherwood-111" /><ref>{{cite book|last=Sharma|first=Hari Dutt |title=Glory of Spiritual India|publisher=Pustak Mahal|year=1999|pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=KQFOCy7DpQ0C&pg=PA95 95–96]|isbn=978-81-223-0439-8}}</ref> [[Radha]]'s love towards Krishna is ''madhurya bhava''.<ref name="isherwood-111" /> The affection of Krishna's foster-mother [[Yashoda]] towards him exemplifies ''vatsalya bhava''.<ref>{{cite book|last=Devanand|first=G.K.|title=Teaching of Yoga|publisher=APH Publishing|page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=L3mBLHWxgPsC&pg=PA74 74]}}</ref> The ''[[Chaitanya Charitamrita]]'' mentions that [[Chaitanya Mahaprabhu|Chaitanya]] came to distribute the four spiritual sentiments of Vraja loka: dasya, sakhya, vatsalya, and [[sringara]]. Sringara is the relationship of the intimate love.{{Citation needed|date=May 2025}}

=== Murti ===
In ''bhakti'' worship, rituals are primarily directed towards physical images. The terms "[[murti]]" and "''vigraham''" are commonly used in Hinduism to describe these images. A ''murti'' denotes an object with a distinct form that symbolizes the shape or manifestation of a particular deity, either a god or goddess. A ritual called ''[[Prana pratishtha|pranapratishta]]'' is performed before worshipping a murti, establishing ''prana'' (life force) into the image and inviting the god or goddess to reside in the murti.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Flueckiger |first=Joyce Burkhalter |title=Everyday Hinduism |date=2015 |publisher=Wiley Blackwell |isbn=978-1-4051-6021-6 |location=Chichester, West Sussex |pages=77–86}}</ref>

=== Bhakti in the Teachings of Jagadgurus ===
Several [[Jagadguru|Jagadgurus]] placed a strong emphasis on ''bhakti'' as the path to [[Spiritualism (movement)|spiritual]] realisation.

*[[Nimbarka|Jagadguru Nimbarkacharya]] emphasized devotion to [[Radha and Krishna]], introducing [[Dvaitadvaita Vedanta|Dvaitadvait Vad]] (dualistic non-dualism), which balanced divine oneness and personal devotion.

*[[Ramanuja|Jagadguru Ramanujacharya]] taught [[Prapatti]] (complete surrender) and presented [[Vishishtadvaita|Vishishtadvait Vad]] (qualified non-dualism), combining reason and devotion.

*[[Madhvacharya|Jagadguru Madhvacharya]], through his [[Dvaita Vedanta|Dvait Vad]] (dualism), reinforced the idea that grace of a personal God was essential for liberation.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-04-17 |title=Understanding Jagadguru Tradition: 5 Authentic Jagadgurus of The World |url=https://www.mid-day.com/buzz/article/understanding-jagadguru-tradition-5-authentic-jagadgurus-of-the-world-5652 |access-date=2025-06-01 |website=Mid-day |language=en}}</ref>

*Jagadguru Madhvacharya’s teachings directly influenced [[Purandara Dasa|Saint Purandara Dasa]], a key figure in the [[Bhakti movement]], linking his philosophy to the broader devotional wave that swept through India.

*[[Kripalu Maharaj|Jagadguru Kripalu Ji Maharaj]] gave a new dimension to Bhakti practice in modern times with the method of Roopdhyan meditation, which involves meditating upon the divine forms and qualities of [[Radha]]-[[Krishna]], stating that true worship stems from mental surrender and heartfelt love rather than external rituals.

*Bhakti has been a unifying spiritual approach through different Jagadguru philosophies, ultimately rejuvenating [[Sanātana Dharma]] in various ages.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-04-16 |title=Jagadguru Tradition: Difference between Original and 'Gaddi-Dhaari' Jagadgurus |url=https://www.timesnownews.com/bizz-impact/jagadguru-tradition-difference-between-original-and-gaddi-dhaari-jagadgurus-article-151438264 |access-date=2025-06-01 |website=Times Now |language=en}}</ref>
== In other religions ==
[[File:Bodhi Tree Distant View - panoramio.jpg|thumb|The [[Bodhi Tree]] under which [[Gautama Buddha]] attained [[Enlightenment in Buddhism|Enlightenment]] has been a major site of Buddhist bhakti since the earliest period of Buddhism.]]Devotional elements similar to bhakti are also a part of [[world religions|religions]]<ref name="pasquier">Michael Pasquier (2011), The Encyclopedia of Christian Civilization, Wiley-Blackwell, {{ISBN|978-1405157629}}, See article on ''Devotionalism and Devotional Literature'', {{doi|10.1002/9780470670606.wbecc0417}}</ref> such as Christianity,<ref name="pasquier" /><ref>L. D. Nelson and Russell R. Dynes (1976), [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1384313 The Impact of Devotionalism and Attendance on Ordinary and Emergency Helping Behavior], Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, Vol. 15, No. 1, pages 47-59</ref> Islam,<ref>GJ Larson, India's Agony Over Religion: Confronting Diversity in Teacher Education, SUNY Press, {{ISBN|978-0-7914-2411-7}}, page 116</ref><ref>Roxanne Leslie Euben and Muhammad Qasim Zaman (2009), Princeton Readings in Islamist Thought, Princeton University Press, {{ISBN|978-0691135885}}, pages 21-23</ref> Buddhism<ref>Minoru Kiyota (1985), [https://www.jstor.org/stable/30233958 Tathāgatagarbha Thought: A Basis of Buddhist Devotionalism in East Asia], Japanese Journal of Religious Studies, Vol. 12, No. 2/3, pages 207-231</ref><ref>Pori Park (2012), [https://www.jstor.org/stable/23943371 Devotionalism Reclaimed: Re-mapping Sacred Geography in Contemporary Korean Buddhism], Journal of Korean Religions, Vol. 3, No. 2, pages 153-171</ref><ref>Allan Andrews (1993), [https://www.jstor.org/stable/3270396 Lay and Monastic Forms of Pure Land Devotionalism: Typology and History], Numen, Vol. 40, No. 1, pages 16-37</ref> and Judaism.<ref name="pasquier" /><ref>Anthony M. Stevens-Arroyo (1998), [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1388029 The Evolution of Marian Devotionalism within Christianity and the Ibero-Mediterranean Polity], Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, Vol. 37, No. 1, pages 50-73</ref>

=== Buddhism ===
[[File:Foreigners at Sanchi Stupa I North Gateway.jpg|thumb|A relief on the Northern Gateway of [[Sanchi|Sanchi Stupa]] number 1 showing devotees and musicians venerating the [[stupa]], which contained Buddha relics.<ref name="RS441">"Musicians generally described as "Greeks" from the eastern gateway at Sanchi" in {{cite book |last1=Stoneman |first1=Richard |title=The Greek Experience of India: From Alexander to the Indo-Greeks |date=2019 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=9780691185385 |pages=441–444, Fig. 15.6|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8MFnDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA441}}</ref>]]

{{Main|Buddhist devotion|Faith in Buddhism}}
<!--"Buddhist devotion#Definition" links here -->
Bhakti (''bhatti'' in [[Pali]]) has always been a common aspect of [[Buddhism]], where offerings, prostrations, chants, and individual or group prayers are made to the [[Buddha]] and ''[[bodhisattvas]]'',<ref name="swearer9">Donald Swearer (2003), ''Buddhism in the Modern World: Adaptations of an Ancient Tradition'' (Editors: Heine and Prebish), Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0195146981}}, pages 9-25.</ref><ref>Karen Pechelis (2011), The Bloomsbury Companion to Hindu Studies (Editor: Jessica Frazier), Bloomsbury, {{ISBN|978-1472511515}}, pages 109-112</ref> or to other [[Buddhist deities]].<ref name="child138">{{cite book|author=Louise Child|title=Tantric Buddhism and Altered States of Consciousness: Durkheim, Emotional Energy and Visions of the Consort |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yYDeCwAAQBAJ&pg=PT138 |year=2016|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-317-04677-6|pages=138–139}}</ref> According to [[Karel Werner]] Buddhist bhakti "had its beginnings in the earliest days".<ref name="werner45">Karel Werner (1995), ''Love Divine: Studies in Bhakti and Devotional Mysticism,'' Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0700702350}}, pages 45-46</ref> Perhaps the earliest mention of the term bhatti in all Indic literature appears in the early Buddhist ''[[Theragatha]]'' (''Verses of the Elders'').{{Sfn|Dayal|1970|p=32}} As such, Har Dayal writes that, bhakti "was an integral part of the Buddhist ideal from the earliest times".{{Sfn|Dayal|1970|p=32}} John S. Strong writes that the central meaning of Indian Buddhist bhakti was "recollection of the Buddha" (Sanskrit: [[Buddhānusmṛti|buddhanusmrti]]).<ref name=":6">Strong, John S. (2017). ''The Legend and Cult of Upagupta: Sanskrit Buddhism in North India and Southeast Asia,'' p. 117. Princeton University Press.</ref>

One of the earliest form of Buddhist devotional practice was the early Buddhist tradition of worshiping the Buddha through the means of [[stupa]]s and bodily relics ([[Śarīra|sarira]]).<ref>Sukumar Dutt (1988). ''Buddhist Monks and Monasteries of India: Their History and Their Contribution to Indian Culture,'' p. 184. Motilal Banarsidass Publisher.</ref> Later (after about the third century CE), devotion using Buddha images also became a very popular form of Buddha bhakti.<ref>Sukumar Dutt (1988). ''Buddhist Monks and Monasteries of India: Their History and Their Contribution to Indian Culture,'' p. 191. Motilal Banarsidass Publisher.</ref>

Sri Lankan scholar Indumathie Karunaratna notes that the meaning of ''bhatti'' changed throughout Buddhist history.<ref name="ik435" /> In [[Early Buddhist schools|early Buddhist]] sources like the [[Theragatha|''Theragāthā'']],{{sfn|Nanayakkara|1966|p=678}} ''bhatti'' had the meaning of 'faithful adherence to the [Buddhist] religion', and was accompanied with knowledge. Later on, however, the term developed the meaning of an advanced form of emotional devotion. This sense of devotion was thus different than the early [[Faith in Buddhism|Buddhist view of faith]].{{sfn|Nanayakkara|1966|p=679}}

According to Sanath Nanayakkara, early Buddhist refuge and devotion, meant taking the Buddha as an ideal to live by, rather than the later sense of self-surrender.<!--p=680--> But already in the [[atthakatha|Commentary]] to the [[Abhidhamma]] text ''[[Puggalapaññatti]]'', it is mentioned that the Buddhist devotee should develop his ''saddhā'' until it becomes ''bhaddi'', a sense not mentioned in earlier texts and probably influenced by the Hindu idea of ''bhakti''.<!--p=679--> There are instances where commentator [[Buddhaghosa]] mentions taking refuge in the Buddha in the sense of mere adoration, indicating a historical shift in meaning.<!--Nanayakkara 680--> Similar developments in Buddhist devotion took place with regards to worshipping the Buddha's [[Śarīra|relics]] and [[Buddhist art|Buddha images]].<ref name=":2">Gokhale, Pradeep. "The Place of Bhakti in Buddhism", in ''Illuminating the Dharma: Buddhist Studies in Honour of Venerable Professor KL Dhammajoti'', Edited by Toshiichi Endo, Centre of Buddhist Studies, The University of Hong Kong, 2021.</ref>

The [[Mahāsāṃghika]] school of early Buddhism seems to have promoted devotional practice and bhakti to a high status and to have anchored this practice in the purity and radiance of the Buddha.<ref name=Pas1995>Pas, Julian F. (1995). ''Visions of Sukhavati: Shan-Tao's Commentary on the Kuan Wu-liang- Shou-Fo Ching'', pp. 26-30. Albany, State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|0-7914-2520-7}}</ref> The ''[[Mahāvastu]]'', one of the few surviving Mahāsāṃghika texts, states:<blockquote>The purity of the Buddha is so great that the worship of the Exalted One is sufficient for the attainment of Nirvāna, and that one already acquires endless merit by merely walking round a stupa and worshipping it by means of floral offerings...from the Buddha’s smile, there radiate beams which illuminate the entire buddhafields.<ref name=Pas1995 /> </blockquote>

In later faith-oriented literature, such as the ''[[Avadana|Avadānas]],'' faith is given an important role in Buddhist doctrine. Nevertheless, faith (''śraddhā'') is discussed in different contexts than devotion (''bhakti''). ''Bhakti'' is often used disparagingly to describe acts of worship to deities, often seen as ineffective and improper for a Buddhist. Also, ''bhakti'' is clearly connected with a person as an object, whereas ''śraddhā'' is less connected with a person, and is more connected with truthfulness and truth. Śraddhā focuses on ideas such as the working of [[karma (Buddhism)|karma]] and [[merit transfer]].<ref name="Rotman 2008">{{cite book |last1=Rotman |first1=Andy |title=Thus Have I Seen: Visualizing Faith in Early Indian Buddhism |date=2008 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-045117-2 |chapter=Getting and Giving |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=a-0JCAAAQBAJ}}</ref> One source for Indian Buddhist devotion is the ''[[Divyavadana|Divyāvadāna]]'', which focuses on the vast amount of [[Merit (Buddhism)|merit]] (''{{IAST|puṇya}}'') that is generated by making offerings to Buddhas, [[stupa]]s and other [[Buddhist pilgrimage sites in India|Buddhist holy sites]].<ref name="princeton">{{cite book |last1=Buswell, Jr. |first1=Robert |title=The Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism |last2=Lopez, Jr. |first2=Donald S. |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |year=2013 |isbn=9781400848058 |page=262 |authorlink1=Robert Buswell Jr. |authorlink2=Donald S. Lopez, Jr.}}</ref>

This text contrasts faith in the Buddha with bhakti for mundane deities (such as Hindu gods), and in this case, it sees bhakti as something for those who are less developed spiritually.<ref name=":5">Rotman, Andy (2008). ''Thus Have I Seen: Visualizing Faith in Early Indian Buddhism,'' p. 245. Oxford University Press, USA.</ref> However, in other passages, the term is used positively, and in one story, the sage [[Upagupta]] says to the demon [[Mara (demon)|Mara]]:<blockquote>Even a very small bit of bhakti [toward the Buddha] offers nirvana to the wise as a result. In short, the wicked things that you [Māra] did here to the Sage, when your mind was blind with delusion, all of these have been washed away by the copious waters of [[Faith in Buddhism|śraddhā]] that have entered your heart.

- ''Divyāvadāna'' 360.1–4 [''Aśokāvadana'' 22.7-9] <ref>Sanskrit: svalpāpi hy atra bhaktir bhavati matimatāṃ nirvāṇaphaladā  saṃkṣepād yat kṛtam. te vṛjinam iha muner mohāndhamanasā sarvaṃ prakṣālitaṃ tat tava hṛdaye gataiḥ śraddhāmbuvisaraiḥ</ref><ref name=":5" /> </blockquote>In the 11th century, the Bengali Buddhist scholar Rāmancandra Kavibhārati composed a work on Buddhist bhakti called the ''Bhakti Śataka.''<ref>Keune, Jon (2021). ''Shared Devotion, Shared Food: Equality and the Bhakti-caste Question in Western India,'' p. 49. Oxford University Press.</ref>

Today, affective devotion remains an important part of Buddhist practice, even in Theravada Buddhism. According to Winston King, a scholar on [[Theravada|Theravāda]] in [[Myanmar]], "warm, personalized, emotional" ''bhakti'' has been a part of the [[Burmese Buddhism|Burmese Buddhist]] tradition apart from the monastic and lay intellectuals.<ref name="King1964p173">{{cite book |author=Winston Lee King |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5_dCAAAAIAAJ |title=A thousand lives away: Buddhism in contemporary Burma |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=1964 |isbn=9780674887107 |pages=173–176}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |year=1981 |title=Bhakti in Early Buddhism |encyclopedia=Tradition and modernity in Bhakti movements |publisher=[[Brill (publisher)|Brill Archive]] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kLs3AAAAIAAJ |editor-last=Lele |editor-first=J |volume=31 |isbn=978-9004063709 |last1=Gokhale |first1=Balkrishna Govind |author-link=Balkrishna Govind Gokhale}}</ref> The [[Buddha]] is treasured by the everyday devout Buddhists, just like Catholics treasure [[Jesus]]. The orthodox teachers tend to restrain the devotion to the Buddha, but to the devout Buddhist populace, "a very deeply devotional quality" was and remains a part of the actual practice. This is observable, states King, in "multitudes of [[Burmese pagoda|Pagoda]] worshippers of the Buddha images" and the offerings they make before the image and nowhere else.<ref name="King1964p173" />

==== In Mahayana Buddhism ====
[[file:An elderly Tibetan women holding a prayer wheel on Lhasa, Barkhor.jpg|thumb|Tibet: An elderly Tibetan woman holding a [[prayer wheel]] on the [[Lhasa|Lhasa's]] pilgrimage circuit of Barkhor. The Barkhor, a quadrangle of streets that surrounds the [[Jokhang|Jokhang Temple]], is both the spiritual heart of the holy city and the main commercial district for Tibetans.]]

[[File:Prayers in front of Jokhang temple.jpg|thumb|''Bhakti'' (''{{langx|pi|bhatti}}''<ref name=karunaratna435>{{cite encyclopedia|editor1-last=Malalasekera|editor1-first=Gunapala Piyasena|editor1-link=G. P. Malalasekera|first=Indumathie|last=Karunaratna|encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Buddhism|title=Devotion|date=2000|volume=IV|publisher=Government of Ceylon|url=https://www.scribd.com/document/283214333/Enceylopaedia-of-Buddhism-Vol-IV|page=435}}</ref>) at a Buddhist temple, Tibet.]]

[[file:Longshan Temple (40842755631).jpg|thumb|Devotees chanting before an image of [[Guanyin]] (a feminine form of [[Avalokiteśvara|Avalokiteshvara]]), at [[Longshan Temple metro station|Longshan Temple]], [[Taipei]], [[Taiwan]].]]

[[file:Asan bajan wk.jpg|thumb|Nepalese Buddhists participating in a [[Gunla Bajan]] (a form of Nepalese Buddhist devotional song) procession in [[Kathmandu]], [[Nepal]].]]
A rich devotionalism developed in Indian [[Mahāyāna Buddhism]] and it can be found in the veneration of the transcendent Buddha [[Amitabha]] of [[Pure Land Buddhism]] and of bodhisattvas like [[Manjushri|Mañjusri]], [[Avalokiteśvara|Avalokiteshvara]] (known as [[Guanyin]] in East Asia and Chenrezig in Tibetan) and the goddess [[Tara (Buddhism)|Tara]].{{Sfn|Dayal|1970|p=36}}<ref name="ik435">{{cite encyclopedia|editor1-last=Malalasekera|editor1-first=Gunapala Piyasena|editor1-link=G. P. Malalasekera|first=Indumathie|last=Karunaratna|encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Buddhism|title=Devotion|date=2000|volume=IV|publisher=Government of Ceylon|url=https://www.scribd.com/document/283214333/Enceylopaedia-of-Buddhism-Vol-IV|pages=435–7}}{{Dead link|date=October 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=http://www.ahandfulofleaves.org/documents/early%20buddhist%20theory%20of%20knowledge_jayatilleke.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150911084454/http://www.ahandfulofleaves.org/documents/Early%20Buddhist%20Theory%20of%20Knowledge_Jayatilleke.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=11 September 2015|last1=Jayatilleke|first1=K.N.|author-link1=K.N. Jayatilleke|title=Early Buddhist theory of knowledge|date=1963|publisher=[[George Allen & Unwin]]|isbn=978-1-134-54287-1|page=384}}</ref><ref name=":0" /> Mahayana sources like the ''[[Lotus Sutra]]'' describe the Buddha as the loving father of all beings, and exhorts all Buddhists to worship him.{{Sfn|Dayal|1970|p=34}}

Mahayana bhakti also led to the rise of temples which were focused on housing a central Buddha image, something which became the norm during the [[Gupta Empire|Gupta period]].<ref name=":3">Sukumar Dutt (1988). ''Buddhist Monks and Monasteries of India: Their History and Their Contribution to Indian Culture,'' pp. 193-94. Motilal Banarsidass Publisher.</ref> Gupta era Indian Mahāyāna Buddhism stressed bhakti towards the Buddha as a central virtue and liberally made use of Buddha images, which are often accompanied by attendant bodhisattvas.<ref name=":3" />

These new developments in Buddhist bhakti may have been influenced by the pan-Indian [[bhakti movement]], and indeed, many Gupta monarchs, who were devoted to the [[Vaishnavism|Vaishnava]] [[Bhagavata]] religion also supported Buddhist temples and founded monasteries (including great ones like [[Nalanda mahavihara|Nalanda]]).<ref>Sukumar Dutt (1988). ''Buddhist Monks and Monasteries of India: Their History and Their Contribution to Indian Culture,'' p. 180, 197. Motilal Banarsidass Publisher.</ref> Buddhists were in competition with the Hindu religions of the time, like the Bhagavatas and Shaivas, and they developed Buddhist bhakti focused on the Buddhas and bodhisattvas in this religious environment.{{Sfn|Dayal|1970|p=38}}

Mahāyāna interprets [[Buddhahood]] as a transcendent and eternal state (as found in the ''[[Lotus Sutra|Lotus Suta]]'') and is also equated with the ultimate reality ([[Dharmakāya|Dharmakaya]]).<ref name=":2" /> Bodhisattvas were also considered to be extremely powerful divinities that could grant boons and rescue people from danger.<ref name=":0" /> This shift towards devotion to a transcendent being in later Buddhism has been seen as being similar to [[Theism|theistic]] forms of Hindu bhakti.<!--p=681-->{{sfn|Nanayakkara|1966|pp=679–81}}<ref name=":1">Norio Sekido, [https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/ibk1952/41/1/41_1_533/_pdf ''Bhakti and Sraddha''.] Journal of Indian and Buddhist Studies Vol. 41, No. 1, December 1992</ref> Mahayana Buddhist bhakti was also sometimes aimed at a [[Mahayana sutras|Mahayana sutra]], such as the ''[[Prajnaparamita|Prajñaparamita sutra]]'' and the ''[[Lotus Sutra]]''.<ref>Apple, James B. "Prajñaparamita", in ''Encyclopedia of Indian Religions,'' ed. by Arvind Sharma (2019). Springer.</ref><ref>Williams, Paul (2009). ''Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations,'' 2nd edition, p. 145. Routledge.</ref>

Some sources, like the ''[[Sukhāvatīvyūhasūtra]]'', even state that through devotion to the Buddha Amitabha one can attain rebirth in his [[Pure land|Pure Land]] and here one can be purified of all negative karma and eventually attain Buddhahood. As such, they make Buddha bhakti a central element of their [[soteriology]]. Bhakti in these sutras supersedes the making of good karma and cultivation of the path in favor of devotion to the Buddha Amitabha who can lead one to liberation in the Pure Land.<ref name=":2" /> This eventually came to be seen as its own path to liberation, its own ''mārga'', often called the "easy path". A text attributed to [[Nagarjuna]], the *''Dasabhumikavibhāsā'' (Chinese: ''Shí zhù pípóshā lùn'' 十住毘婆沙論, T.1521) teaches the "easy practice" which is simply being constantly mindful of the Buddhas.<ref>Williams, Paul (2008). ''Mahāyāna Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations 2nd Edition,'' p. 244. Routledge.</ref>

All of these ideas became the foundation for the later development of East Asian [[Pure Land Buddhism]].

Mahayana Buddhist bhakti is grounded in the Mahayana ideals of the [[bodhisattva]], [[bodhicitta]] (the mind aimed at awakening for the benefit of all beings) and skillful means ([[upaya]]).<ref name=":0">Lewis, Todd T. (2000). ''Popular Buddhist Texts from Nepal: Narratives and Rituals of Newar Buddhism,'' p. 9. SUNY Press.</ref> Mahayana bhakti practices include various forms of ritual [[Puja (Hinduism)|pujas]] and prayers. The Mahayana form of the practice of [[Buddhānusmṛti]] (remembering the Buddha) could include visualization practices and recitation of the names of a Buddha or bodhisattva (as in ''[[nianfo]]'') was also a common method of devotional practice taught in numerous Indian sources.<ref name=":1" />

One common puja and prayer format in Indian Mahayana was the "seven part worship" (''saptāṇgapūjā'' or ''saptavidhā anuttarapūjā'').{{Sfn|Dayal|1970|p=54}} This often included various offerings of flowers, food, scents, and music.<ref>Sukumar Dutt (1988). ''Buddhist Monks and Monasteries of India: Their History and Their Contribution to Indian Culture,'' p. 196. Motilal Banarsidass Publisher.</ref> This ritual form is visible in the works of [[Shantideva]] (8th century) and includes:{{Sfn|Dayal|1970|pp=54-57}}

* ''Vandana'' (obeisance, bowing)
* ''Puja'' (ritual worship with offerings etc.)
* ''Sarana-gamana'' (going for [[Refuge (Buddhism)|refuge]])
* ''Papadesana'' (confession of bad deeds)
* ''Punyanumodana'' (rejoicing in merit of the good deeds of oneself and others)
* ''Adhyesana'' (prayer, entreaty) and ''yacana'' (supplication) – request to Buddhas and Bodhisattvas to continue preaching Dharma
* ''Atmabhavadi-parityagah'' (surrender) and ''[[Transfer of merit|pariṇāmanā]]'' (the transfer of one's Merit to the welfare of others)

Devotion to the Buddhas and bodhisattvas continued to be a major part of the later [[Vajrayana]] Buddhist traditions of tantra.<ref name=":0" /> Vajrayana Buddhism also added another form of bhakti to their teachings: guru bhakti (i.e. [[guru yoga]]), devotion towards the tantric [[guru]]. In India, various forms of devotion were practiced, including tantric songs of realization called ''[[Songs of realization|Charyagitis]].'' These first arose in the so called ''[[Charyapada]]s'' of medieval Bengali [[Sahaja|Sahajiya]] Buddhism''.''<ref>{{Cite web |last=Barua |first=Dr. Rajen |title=Buddhism and Bhakti |url=https://www.boloji.com/articles/50353/buddhism-and-bhakti |access-date=2023-12-05 |website=www.boloji.com}}</ref>

As such, both in [[Tibetan Buddhism]] and [[East Asian Buddhism]], there remains a strong tradition of devotional veneration of various Buddhas and bodhisattvas (which includes making offerings and chanting their names or [[mantra]]s), and this is one of the most popular forms of lay Buddhist practice.<ref name="child138" />

=== Jainism ===
Bhakti has been a prevalent ancient practice in various Jaina sects, wherein learned [[Tirthankara]] (''Jina'') and human ''gurus'' have been venerated with offerings, songs and [[Aarti|Āratī]] prayers.<ref name=johncort>John Cort, Jains in the World : Religious Values and Ideology in India, Oxford University Press, ISBN, pages 64-68, 86-90, 100-112</ref>

Jainism participated in the Bhakti school of medieval India, and has a rich tradition of bhakti literature (''stavan'') though these have been less studied than those of the Hindu tradition.<ref>{{cite book|author=M. Whitney Kelting|title=Singing to the Jinas: Jain Laywomen, Mandal Singing, and the Negotiations of Jain Devotion|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=elcn1IEJ3CEC |year=2001|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-803211-3|pages=87–88}}</ref> The ''Avasyaka sutra'' of Jains includes, among ethical duties for the devotee, the recitation of "hymns of praise to the Tirthankaras" as the second Obligatory Action. It explains this ''bhakti'' as one of the means to destroy negative karma. According to [[Paul Dundas]], such textual references to devotional activity suggests that ''bhakti'' was a necessary part of Jainism from an early period.<ref>{{cite book|author=Paul Dundas|title=The Jains|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=X8iAAgAAQBAJ |year= 2003|publisher =Routledge|isbn=978-0-415-26605-5|pages= 170–171}}</ref>

According to [[Jeffery D. Long]], along with its strong focus on ethics and ascetic practices, the religiosity in Jainism has had a strong tradition of ''bhakti'' or devotion just like their Hindu counterparts. The Jain community built ornate temples and prided in public devotion for its fordmakers, saints and teachers. ''Abhisekha'', festival prayers, community recitals and ''Murti puja'' (rituals before an image) are examples of integrated bhakti in Jain practice. Some Jain monks, however, reject Bhakti.<ref>{{cite book|author=Jeffery D Long|title=Jainism: An Introduction|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=I3gAAwAAQBAJ |year=2013|publisher=I.B.Tauris|isbn=978-0-85771-392-6|pages=111–114}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Sherry Fohr|title=Jainism: A Guide for the Perplexed|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HMXuBQAAQBAJ |year=2015|publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing|isbn=978-1-4742-2755-1|pages=91–102}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Lisa Owen|title=Carving Devotion in the Jain Caves at Ellora|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vHK2WE8xAzYC |year=2012|publisher=BRILL Academic|isbn=978-90-04-20629-8|pages=xii, 2, 12–13, 117–126}}</ref>

==Bhakta==
'''Bhakta''' ([[Sanskrit language|Sanskrit]]: भक्त) or '''bhakt''' (भक्त) is a devotee or worshiper in Hinduism, characterized by a deep, emotional, and personal connection to the divine. Bhaktas often express their faith through various means, including poetry, music, and active participation in worship. In the Bhakti traditions, saints like the [[Nayanars|Nayanmars]] and North Indian saints such as [[Kabir]] and [[Mirabai]] wrote poetry in local languages, expressing deep emotional devotion to God, creating a distinct ''Bhakta'' community within Hinduism. They use intimate language, often defying social norms, and see the divine presence in everyday lives and local surroundings.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Pechilis |first=Karen |url=http://archive.org/details/embodimentofbhak0000pech |title=The embodiment of bhakti |date=1999 |publisher=New York : Oxford University Press |others=Internet Archive |isbn=978-0-19-512813-0 |pages=9–41}}</ref> 

The term [[Bhakt (pejorative)|bhakt]] may be used by the contemporary Indian media in a political context to refer to ardent supporters of Indian Prime Minister [[Narendra Modi]] or the [[BJP]], particularly those who resort to [[deification]] and are therefore sometimes uncritical in their support.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sinha |first1=Subir |title=Fragile Hegemony: Modi, Social Media, and Competitive Electoral Populism in India |journal=International Journal of Communication |date=2017 |volume=11 |pages=4158–4180 |url=https://ijoc.org/index.php/ijoc/article/viewFile/6739/2161}}</ref> 

The [[Bhagavad Gita]] verses 7.16-19 identifies four types of devotees (''bhaktas'') who engage in devotion:<ref>{{Cite book |title=The Bhagavad Gītā |date=2009 |publisher=Excelsior Ed., State Univ. of New York Press |isbn=978-1-4384-2842-0 |editor-last=Sargeant |editor-first=Winthrop |edition= |series=Suny series in cultural perspectives |location=Albany, NY |pages=334–337 |editor-last2=Chapple |editor-first2=Christopher Key |editor-last3=Smith |editor-first3=Huston}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Sutton |first=Nicholas |url= |title=Bhagavad-Gita |date=2016-12-16 |publisher=Oxford Centre for Hindu Studies |isbn=978-1-366-61059-1 |pages=119–121 |language=en}}</ref>

* ''Arta'' (the distressed): Those who seek divine help in times of suffering.
* ''Jijnasu'' (the seeker of knowledge): Those who worship to gain spiritual understanding.
* ''Artharthi'' (the seeker of worldly success): Those who seek prosperity or material benefits through devotion.
* ''Jnani'' (the one who possesses knowledge): Those who have realized higher spiritual knowledge and are singularly devoted.

The Sanskrit word ''bhakta'' comes from the root "''bhaj''", which means "to serve".<ref>{{Cite web |last=www.wisdomlib.org |date=2018-02-24 |title=Bhakta, Bhākta: 29 definitions |url=https://www.wisdomlib.org/definition/bhakta |access-date=2025-07-01 |website=www.wisdomlib.org |language=en}}</ref> In the [[Rigveda]], "''bhakta''" originally meant a share or portion received by a worshiper from a deity. Later Vedic texts used it to mean someone who shares. The more common devotional meaning of related term ''[[bhakti]]'' as devotion, love, service, or attachment to a deity emerged with texts such as [[Bhagavata Purana]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Agarwala |first=Binod Kumar |date=2025-01-01 |title=Bhakti in the Bhagvadgītā |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s40961-024-00341-4 |journal=Journal of Indian Council of Philosophical Research |language=en |volume=42 |issue=1 |pages=17–47 |doi=10.1007/s40961-024-00341-4 |issn=2363-9962|url-access=subscription }}</ref>
== See also ==
*[[Bhajan]]
*[[Kirtan]]
*[[Buddhist chant]]
*[[Buddhist devotion]]
*[[Awgatha]] - Burmese Buddhist Devotion
*[[Novena]] – a form of devotion to [[Blessed Mary]], [[Christ]] or a saint in [[piety#as devotion|Christianity]] over nine successive days or weeks
*[[Kavanah]] – intention, devotion during prayer in [[Judaism]]
*[[Mettā]]
*[[Ravidassia religion]]
*[[Shaiva Siddhanta]]
*[[Bhakti movement]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== Sources ==
* {{Cite book |last=Dayal |first=Har |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sZDXAAAAMAAJ |title=The Bodhisattva Doctrine in Buddhist Sanskrit Literature |date=1970 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-0-89684-032-4 |language=en}}
* {{Citation | last =Frawley | first =David | year =2000 | title =Vedantic Meditation: Lighting the Flame of Awareness | publisher =North Atlantic Books}}
* {{cite book|surname1=Lorenzen|given1=David N.|author-link1=David N. Lorenzen|year=1995|title=Bhakti Religion in North India: Community Identity and Political Action|place=New York|publisher=[[SUNY Press]]|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rpSxJg_ehnIC&pg=PA57|isbn=978-0-7914-2025-6}}
* {{Citation |editor1-last=Malalasekera |editor1-first=Gunapala Piyasena |editor1-link=G. P. Malalasekera |first=S. K. |last=Nanayakkara |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Buddhism |title=Bhakti |date=1966 |volume=II |publisher=Government of Ceylon |url=}}
== Further reading ==
*Swami [[Chinmayananda]], Love Divine – Narada Bhakti Sutra, Chinmaya Publications Trust, Madras, 1970
*Swami [[Tapasyananda]], Bhakti Schools of Vedanta, Sri Ramakrishna Math, Madras, 1990
*[[A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada]], Srimad Bhagavatam (12 Cantos), The Bhaktivedanta Book Trust, 2004
*[[Steven J. Rosen]], ''The Yoga of Kirtan: conversations on the Sacred Art of Chanting'' (New York: FOLK Books, 2008)

== External links ==
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{{Sister project links}}
*[http://chnm.gmu.edu/wwh/lessons/lesson1/lesson1.php?s=0 Bhakti Poets: A History of Bhakti by Doris Jakobsh]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20060206062735/http://srimadbhagavatam.com/en1 The full text of the Bhagavata Purana (Srimad-Bhagavatam)]
*[http://www.sankaracharya.org/narada_bhakti_sutras.php English Translation of Narada Bhakti Sutra]
*[http://www.biblicalstudies.org.uk/pdf/ijt/29-1_012.pdf Hindu and Christian Bhakti: A Common Human Response to the Sacred], DC Scott (1980), Indian Journal of Theology, 29(1), pages12-32
*[https://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2056168 Author and authority in the Bhakti poetry of north India], JS Hawley (1988), The Journal of Asian Studies, 47(02), pages 269–290.
*[http://jaar.oxfordjournals.org/content/74/3/646.short The politics of nonduality: Reassessing the work of transcendence in modern Sikh theology]{{dead link|date=January 2025|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}} (Nirguni Bhakti), A Mandair (2006), Journal of the American Academy of Religion, 74(3), pages 646–673.
*[http://soar.wichita.edu/bitstream/handle/10057/1733/LAJ+8.2_p102-115.pdf?sequence=1 Bhakti, Buddhism and the Bhagavad-Gita] Rob Reed (1977), Wichita, United States
*{{cite journal|url=https://www.proquest.com/openview/ec8c024df147995260000fc13721f2d1/|title=Bhakti in Early Buddhism|first=B. G.|last=Gokhale|year=1980|journal=[[Journal of Asian and African Studies]]|volume=15|issue=1–2|pages=16–28|doi=10.1177/002190968001500102|s2cid=144437763|url-access=subscription}}
*[https://www.jstor.org/stable/1062410 The Transforming Gift: An Analysis of Devotional Acts of Offering in Buddhist "Avadāna" Literature], John Strong (1979), History of Religions, 18(3) (Feb., 1979), pages 221–237.

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