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{{Short description|Ancient city of Beirut, Lebanon}}
{{redirect|Berytos|the defunct airline|Berytos Airlines|the women's association football club|ÓBerytus}}
{{Infobox ancient site
| name           = <!-- required -->
| native_name    = {{native name|phn|𐤁𐤉𐤓𐤅𐤕𐤀}}<br>{{native name|grc|Βηρυτός}}<br>{{native name|la|Bērȳtus}}<br>{{native name|ar|بيروت}}
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| alternate_name = Laodicea in Phoenicia ({{langx|grc|Λαοδίκεια ἡ ἐν Φοινίκῃ}}) or Laodicea in Canaan <small>(2nd century to 64 BCE)</small>
| image          = St. George's Cathedral, Beirut.jpg
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| caption        = Roman ruins of Berytus, in front of [[Saint George Greek Orthodox Cathedral]] in modern-day [[Beirut]]
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| map_type       = Lebanon
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| coordinates    = {{coord|33|53|44.8|N|35|30|18.5|E|display=inline,title}}
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| location       = [[Beirut]], Lebanon
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| type           = Settlement
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| built          = Roman republic (merchants from early Laodicea/Berytus recorded by 110–109 BCE)
| abandoned      = 
| epochs         = [[Roman period|Roman]] and [[late antiquity|Early Byzantine/late antiquity]]; [[Phoenician port of Beirut|previous port]] dating back to [[Iron Age III]] and [[Achaemenid|Persian]] periods
| cultures       = [[Phoenician people|Phoenician]], [[Roman people|Roman]]
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'''Berytus''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|b|ɛ|ɹ|ɪ|t|ə|s|,_|b|ə|ˈ|r|aɪ|t|ə|s}};<ref>[[Joseph E. Worcester|Worcester, Joseph E.]] (1861) ''An Elementary Dictionary of the English Language'', Boston: Swan, Brewer & Tileston, page 326</ref> {{langx|phn|𐤁𐤓𐤕|Biruta}}; {{langx|grc|Βηρυτός|Bērytós}}; {{langx|la|Bērȳtus}}; {{Langx|ar|بَيرُوتَ}}), briefly known as '''Laodicea in Phoenicia''' ({{langx|grc|Λαοδίκεια ἡ ἐν Φοινίκῃ}}; {{Langx|ar|لاذقية كنعان}}) or '''Laodicea in Canaan''' from the 2nd century to 64 BCE, was the ancient city of [[Beirut]] (in modern-day Lebanon) from the [[Roman Republic]] through the [[Roman Empire]] and [[late antiquity|Early Byzantine period/late antiquity]]. <ref>The city had been rebuilt by the [[Seleucids]] in the 2nd century BCE over the ruins of an [[Phoenician port of Beirut|older settlement centred on a Phoenician port]] dating back to [[Iron Age III]] and [[Achaemenid Empire|Persian]] periods</ref> Berytus became a [[Roman colonia]] that would be the center of [[Romanization (cultural)|Roman presence]] in the [[Eastern Mediterranean]] shores south of [[Anatolia]].<ref>Theodore Mommsen."The Provinces of the Roman Empire" Chapter: Phoenicia</ref> 

The veterans of two [[Roman legion]]s under [[Augustus]] were established in the city (the [[Legio V Macedonica|fifth Macedonian]] and the [[Legio III Gallica|third Gallic]]), that afterward quickly became [[Romanization (cultural)|Romanized]]. It was the only fully [[Latin language|Latin-speaking]] city in the Syria-Phoenicia region until the fourth century. Although Berytus was still an important city after earthquakes, around 400 CE [[Tyre, Lebanon|Tyre]] was made the capital of the [[Phoenice (Roman province)|Roman province of Phoenicia]]. "Of the great law schools of Rome, Constantinople, and Berytus", the [[law school of Berytus]] stood "pre-eminent".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Scott |first1=Samuel Parsons |title=The Civil Law, Including the Twelve Tables: The Institutes of Gaius, the Rules of Ulpian, the Opinions of Paulus, the Enactments of Justinian, and the Constitutions of Leo |year=1973 |publisher=AMS Press |isbn=9780404110321 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KSQiAQAAIAAJ}}</ref> The [[Code of Justinian]] (one part of the ''[[Corpus Juris Civilis]]'', the codification of Roman law ordered early in the 6th century CE by [[Justinian I]] and fully written in Latin) was mostly created in this school.

==History==

===Early history===
In 140 BCE the Phoenician village called "Biruta" was destroyed by [[Diodotus Tryphon]] in his contest with [[Antiochus VII Sidetes]] for the throne of the Macedonian [[Seleucid Empire|Seleucid]] monarchy. Later it was rebuilt on a more conventional [[Hellenistic civilization|Hellenistic]] plan—the exact date is unclear but prosperous Berytian merchants were recorded in [[Delos]] by 110–109 BCE{{sfn|Paturel|2019|p=72}}—under the name of ''Laodicea in Phoenicia'' ({{langx|el|Λαοδίκεια ἡ ἐν Φοινίκῃ}}) or ''Laodicea in Canaan'' in honor of a Seleucid [[Laodice of Macedonia|Laodice]].

During the late decades of the [[Roman Republic]] the city was conquered by the Romans of [[Pompey]] in 64 BCE. It renamed "Berytus", as a reference to the name of the old [[Phoenician port of Beirut|original Phoenician port-village]]. The city was assimilated into the [[Roman Empire]], many veteran soldiers were sent there, and large building projects were undertaken.<ref>[http://www.downtownbeirut.com/AboutBeirut.html About Beirut and Downtown Beirut] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090423075733/http://www.downtownbeirut.com/AboutBeirut.html |date=2009-04-23 }}, DownTownBeirut.com.</ref><ref name=LPlanet>[http://www.lonelyplanet.com/lebanon/beirut Beirut Travel Information], [http://www.lonelyplanet.com/ Lonely Planet]</ref><ref>[http://ukar.ff.cuni.cz/EN/proj-beirut.html Czech excavations in Beirut, Martyrs' Square], Institute for Classical Archaeology, {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130723183833/http://ukar.ff.cuni.cz/EN/proj-beirut.html |date=July 23, 2013 }}</ref>

===Roman colonia===

In 14 BCE, during the reign of [[Herod the Great]], Berytus became an important Roman ''[[Colonia (Roman)|colonia]]''. The city was named ''Colonia Iulia Augusta Felix Berytus'' in honor of [[Julia the Elder]], the only daughter of [[Augustus]] (according to [[Theodore Mommsen]], ''Res gestae divi Augusti'', II, 119). The veterans of two [[Roman legion]]s were established in the city of Berytus by emperor Augustus: the [[Legio V Macedonica|fifth Macedonian]] and the [[Legio III Gallica|third Gallic]].{{sfn|Hall|2004|p=45}} The city quickly became Romanized, with two third of the inhabitants being descendants of the Roman veterans. Large public buildings and monuments were erected and Berytus enjoyed full status as a part of the empire.<ref name=DTBcom>[http://www.downtownbeirut.com/AboutBeirut.html About Beirut and Downtown Beirut] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090423075733/http://www.downtownbeirut.com/AboutBeirut.html |date=2009-04-23 }}, DownTownBeirut.com. Retrieved November 17, 2007.</ref>

{{Quote|...(Berytus) was made a Roman colony about 14 B.C. Herod the Great, Agrippa I and II, and Queen Berenice built exedras, porticos, temples, a forum, a theater, amphitheater, and baths here. In the 3d c. A.D. the city became the seat of a famous school of law and continued to flourish until the earthquake of A.D. 551 ravaged the city....Its streets, laid out on a grid plan, are spaced at roughly the same intervals as those of Damascus and Laodicea. The new Roman city spread farther S and W (of the port), with its Forum near the (actual) Place de l'Etoile. On its N side was a civic basilica 99 m long with a Corinthian portico of polychrome materials..., dating from the 1st c. A.D. Some large baths have been uncovered on the E slope of the (actual) Colline du Sérail, and the hippodrome lay on the NW side of the same hill. Some villas in a S suburb facing the sea had mosaic floors (now in the Beirut Museum).Some 12 km upstream on the Beirut river are the ruined arches of an aqueduct.<ref>Princeton E.: Berytus</ref> }}

Berytus was considered the most Roman city in the eastern provinces of the Roman Empire.<ref>Morgan, James F. ''The Prodigal Empire: The Fall of the Western Roman Empire'', page 87</ref> It was one of four Roman colonies in the Syria-Phoenicia region and the only one with full ''Ius Italicum'' (meaning: exemption from imperial taxation).
 
[[File:Roman Berytus district.png|thumb|left|Map showing the Berytus district]]
Its territory/district under [[Claudius]] reached the [[Bekaa valley]] and included [[Heliopolis of Phoenicia|Heliopolis]]; it was the only area mostly [[Latin language|Latin-speaking]] in the Syria-Phoenicia region, because of the Roman colonists who promoted agriculture in the fertile lands around [[Yammoune]]. From the 1st century BCE the Bekaa valley served as a source of grain for the [[Roman province]]s of the [[Levant]] and even for the same [[Rome]] (today the valley makes up to 40 percent of Lebanon's [[arable land]]): Roman colonists created there even a "country district" called ''[[Augusti Pagus (Roman Phoenicia)|Pagus Augustus]]'', where are located the famous Niha temples with Latin inscriptions.{{sfn|Butcher|2003|p=230}}

[[Herod Agrippa II|Agrippa]] greatly favoured the city of Berytus, and adorned it with a splendid theatre and amphitheatre, beside [[Roman Baths, Beirut|baths]] and porticoes, inaugurating them with games and spectacles of every kind, including shows of gladiators. Now only minor ruins remain, in front of the Catholic Cathedral of Beirut. Four large bath complexes as well as numerous private baths increased the city's water consumption: the Romans constructed an aqueduct fed by the Beirut River whose main source was 10&nbsp;km from the city. The aqueduct crossed the river at Qanater Zbaydeh and the water finally reached [[Riad Al Solh Square]]; there, at the foot of the [[Serail Hill]], it was stored in [[Cisterns of the Roman Baths, Beirut|large cisterns]]. An intricate network of lead or clay pipes and channels distributed the water to the various pools of the Roman Baths.

Roman Berytus was a city of nearly 50,000 inhabitants during the reign of [[Trajan]] and had a huge forum and necropolis.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://terraeantiqvae.blogia.com/2008/020803-estudian-los-secretos-de-la-era-romana-de-beirut-libano-.php |title=Data with map of Roman Berytus (in Spanish) |access-date=2015-08-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090916174305/http://terraeantiqvae.blogia.com/2008/020803-estudian-los-secretos-de-la-era-romana-de-beirut-libano-.php |archive-date=2009-09-16 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The [[Hippodrome of Berytus]] was the largest known in the Levant, while literary sources indicate there was a theatre.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.beirutreport.com/2013/10/roman-wall-removed-from-beirut.html|title=Roman wall removed from Beirut Hippodrome site|date=October 25, 2013|website=Beirut Report}}</ref>{{sfn|Butcher|2003|p=230}} Scholars like Linda Hall write that the hippodrome was still working in the fifth century.{{sfn|Hall|2004|p=68}}

The gods worshipped by the Berytians were not limited to a single pantheon from a single culture. There is evidence that indicates that gods of many cultures were all worshipped in their own pantheons. Berytus had a closer relationship with [[Poseidon]], who was the chief god of the city. He was especially revered by the Berytian merchants, who would call themselves "Poseidonistes". Up until the third century CE, Poseidon was commonly depicted on coins minted in Berytus. On these coins, he was usually depicted in a similar fashion to the Phoenician god [[Baal]] Berit. Poseidon was not the only Graeco-Roman god to be given Phoenician qualities. An inscription written in Greek and Latin gives [[Jupiter (god)|Jupiter]] the Phoenician epithet "Baal".{{sfn|Hall|2004|pp=129–160}}

[[File:Claudius Æ 20mm 863165.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Roman coin minted in Berytus<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cngcoins.com/Coin.aspx?CoinID=159090|title=CNG: The Coin Shop. PHOENICIA, Berytus. Claudius. CE 41-54. Æ 20mm (8.92 g, 12h). Legionary issue.|website=www.cngcoins.com}}</ref>]]
Berytus had a monumental "Roman Gate" with huge walls (recently discovered<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.beirutreport.com/2013/05/possible-roman-gate-and-road-found-in.html|title=Possible Roman gate and road found in Beirut dig|date=May 17, 2013|website=Beirut Report}}</ref>) and was a trade center of silk and wine production, well connected by efficient [[Roman roads]] to [[Heliopolis of Phoenicia|Heliopolis]] and [[Caesarea Maritima|Caesarea]]. According to Kevin Butcher,{{sfn|Butcher|2003|p=230}} the Latin character of Berytus remained dominant until the fifth century: the city was a center for the study of Latin literature and – after [[Septimius Severus]] – of [[Roman Law]]. During the reign of [[Nero]], the son of a Roman colonist, [[Marcus Valerius Probus]] (born in Berytus around CE 25), was known in all the empire as a Latin grammarian and literature master [[philologist]].

Roman emperors promoted the development of high-level culture in the fully Romanized city (even in Greek language as with [[Hermippus of Berytus]]).

====The Law School of Berytus====
The [[Berytian law school]] was widely known in the [[Roman Empire]];:<ref>[http://student.britannica.com/comptons/article-230135 Beirut] {{Webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20120524192722/http://student.britannica.com/comptons/article-230135 |date=2012-05-24 }}, Britannica.com</ref> it was famous the Latin motto ''Berytus Nutrix Legum'' ("Beirut, Mother of Laws"). Indeed, two of Rome's most famous jurists, [[Papinian]] and [[Ulpian]], both natives of [[Phoenicia]], taught there under the [[Severan dynasty|Severan]] emperors.

When [[Justinian I|Justinian]] assembled his ''[[Digest (Roman law)|Pandects]]'' in the sixth century, a large part of the "Corpus of Laws" -all in Latin- was derived from these two jurists, and in 533 CE Justinian recognized the school as one of the three official law schools of the empire. 
[[File:Drapeau de Beyrouth.png|thumb|left|alt=A white flag with a shield at its center. The shield's upper party is a bendy sinister gules and argent flanked by an open book. The lower party features a sail ship on azure background. The shield is topped by a fortress.|The flag of Beirut features an open book with the motto "Berytus Nutrix Legum" (Beirut, Mother of Laws) on one side and its [[Arabic language|Arabic]] translation "{{lang|ar|بيروت أم القوانين}}" on the other.]]

The law school of Beirut supplied the Roman Empire, especially its eastern provinces, with lawyers and magistrates for three centuries until the school's destruction in a powerful earthquake.
After the [[551 Beirut earthquake]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.fulltextarchive.com/page/History-of-Phoenicia7.php|title=History of Phoenicia|first=Full Text|last=Archive|via=www.fulltextarchive.com}}</ref> the students were transferred to [[Sidon]].<ref>[http://www.ikamalebanon.com/national_heritage/south_nh/sth_cities_nh/saida.htm History of Berytus] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090628084129/http://www.ikamalebanon.com/national_heritage/south_nh/sth_cities_nh/saida.htm |date=2009-06-28 }}</ref>

{{Quote|Since the third century, the city had an important law college. It was here that the great codification of Roman Law, which was to be propagated by emperors like Theodosius II and Justinian, was prepared.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.livius.org/be-bm/berytus/berytus2.html|title=Livius: Berytus|access-date=2020-03-26|archive-date=2016-03-04|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304071935/http://www.livius.org/be-bm/berytus/berytus2.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>}}

===Early Byzantine rule===
Under the Eastern Roman Empire, some intellectual and economic activities in Berytus continued to flourish for more than a century, even if the [[Latin language]] started to be replaced by the [[Greek language]] and become Hellenised again.{{Citation needed|date=July 2021}}

However, in the sixth century a series of earthquakes demolished most of the temples of Heliopolis (actual [[Baalbek]]) and destroyed the city of Berytus, leveling its famous law school and killing nearly 30,000 inhabitants (according to [[Anonymous pilgrim of Piacenza]]<ref>[https://archive.org/details/cu31924028534232/page/n17/mode/2up Holy places visited by Antoninus martyr]</ref>{{Unreliable source?|date=July 2021}}). Furthermore, the ecumenical Christian councils of the fifth and sixth centuries CE were unsuccessful in settling religious disagreements within the surviving community.

{{Quote|Berytus became a "Christian See"{{Definition needed|date=July 2021}} at an early date, and was a suffragan of Tyre in "Phoenicia Prima", a province of the "Patriarchate of Antioch". In antiquity its most famous bishop was Eusebius, afterwards Bishop of Nicomedia, the courtier-prelate and strong supporter of Arianism in the fourth century....In 450 CE Berytus obtained from Theodosius II the title of metropolis, with jurisdiction over six sees taken from Tyre; but in 451 CE the "Council of Chalcedon" restored these to Tyre, leaving, however, to Berytus its rank of metropolis (Mansi, VII, 85–98). Thus, from 451 CE Berytus was an exempt metropolis depending directly on the Patriarch of Antioch.<ref>Catholic E.:Berytus ([http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/02392a.htm])</ref>}}

This turbulent Byzantine period weakened the already Hellenised (and fully Christian) population and made it easy prey to the newly converted [[Muslim]] [[Arabs]] of the [[Arabian Peninsula]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Ostrogorsky |first=George |title=The Byzantine Empire in the World of the Seventh Century |journal=Dumbarton Oaks Papers |volume=13 |page=21 |year=1959 |jstor=1291126 |doi=10.2307/1291127|s2cid=165376375 |url=http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/e065/05698b96313d40aa3d7ef598669cdfef523d.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200727061111/http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/e065/05698b96313d40aa3d7ef598669cdfef523d.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=2020-07-27 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Wells |first=Herbert George |author-link=H. G. Wells |title=A Short History of the World |chapter=Chapter 33 |location=New York |publisher=Macmillan |year=1922 |isbn=978-0-06-492674-4}}</ref>{{Failed verification|date=July 2021}} Eastern Roman Berytus -reduced to the size of a village- fell to the Arabs in 635 CE.<ref>Donner, Fred McGraw (1981), "The Early Islamic Conquests". Princeton University Press, {{ISBN|0-691-05327-8}}</ref>

==Recent discoveries==
[[File:Roman baths beirut.jpg|thumb|Roman ruins in the Roman Baths Garden]]
[[File:Roman baths 5.jpg|thumb|General view of the Roman Baths Garden]]
Recently at the [[Garden of Forgiveness]], the two main streets of Roman Berytus, the ''[[cardo]]'' and ''[[Decumanus Maximus|decumanus]]'', were discovered in the [[Beirut Central District]]. Their shaded colonnades became busy markets on festival days. At other times, these  streets would have been frequented by Law School students and citizens passing to the Forum or visiting temples and churches.

In 1968 were discovered the "Roman Baths" Gardens, a landscaped public space that lies on the eastern slope of the [[Grand Serail|Serail Hill]]. It consists of a garden and a set of uncovered ruins of the ancient [[Roman Baths, Beirut|Roman Baths]] (hence the name of the place). These ruins underwent a thorough cleaning and further excavation in 1995–1997. Designed by the British landscaping firm Gillespies, the Gardens' layout is dominated by low-slung glass walls and lookout platforms that can be turned into concert venues, thus giving a 21st-century touch without harming the area's historical fabric.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fastcodesign.com/1662097/beirut-shakes-off-rubble-dons-slick-new-architecture|title=Beirut Shakes Off Rubble, Dons Slick New Architecture|work=Co.Design|date=2010-08-11}}</ref>

At the turn of the 20th century, the area where existed the famous [[Law school of Beirut|school of Roman law at Berytus]] was identified. Archaeological excavations in the area between the Saint George Greek Orthodox Cathedral and [[Saint George Maronite Cathedral, Beirut|Saint George Cathedral of the Maronites]] unearthed a funerary [[stele]] etched with an epitaph to a man named Patricius, "whose career was consecrated for the study of law".{{sfn|Collinet|1925|p=73}} The epitaph was identified as being dedicated to the famous 5th-century law school professor.{{sfn|Collinet|1925|pp=61–73}} In 1994, archaeological diggings underneath the Saint George Greek Orthodox Cathedral in [[Beirut Central District]]'s [[Nejmeh Square]] identified structural elements of the Anastasis cathedral, but they were restricted to an area of {{convert|316|m2|sqft}} and failed to unearth the school.{{sfn|Skaf|Assaf|2005|pp=224–229}} In the 5th century, Zacharias Rhetor reported that the school stood next to the "Temple of God", the description of which permitted its identification with the Byzantine Anastasis cathedral.{{sfn|Collinet|1925|pp=63–73}}

==Notable people==
* [[Hermippus of Berytus]] (fl. 2nd century CE)
* [[Marcus Valerius Probus]] (c. 20/30 – 105 CE)
* [[Vindonius Anatolius]]
* [[Eudokia of Heliopolis]]

==See also==
* [[Cisterns of the Roman Baths, Beirut]]
* [[Phoenicia under Roman rule]]
* [[Augusti Pagus (Roman Phoenicia)|Augusti Pagus]]

==Notes==
{{reflist}}

==Bibliography==
{{Wiktionary|Berytus}}

*{{cite book|last=Butcher|first=Kevin|title=Roman Syria and the Near East|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YJPn3-rRjC0C&pg=PA230|year=2003|publisher=Getty Publications|location=Los Angeles|isbn=978-0-89236-715-3}}
*{{cite book|url=http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k57593887|title=Histoire de l'école de droit de Beyrouth|last=Collinet |first= Paul|publisher=Société Anonyme du Recueil Sirey|location=Paris|year=1925|language=French}}
*{{A History of Palestine, 634–1099}}
*{{cite book|last=Hall|first=Linda J.|title=Roman Berytus: Beirut in Late Antiquity|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6yhQnCnNVi4C&pg=PA45|year=2004|publisher=Psychology Press|location=London|isbn=978-1-134-44013-9}}
*Lauffray,Jean. ''Beyrouth, Archéologie et Histoire I : période hellénistique et Haut-Empire romain'', in "Aufstieg und Niedergang des römischen Welt", vol. II, 8, New York-Berlin, 1977, p. 135-163.
*Mann, J.C. ''[http://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/1348920/1/336598.pdf The settlement of veterans in the Roman Empire]'' London University. London, 1956
*Mommsen, Theodore. ''The Provinces of the Roman Empire from Caesar to Diocletian''. Press Holdings International. New York, 2004. {{ISBN|9781410211675}}
*Mouterde, René et Lauffray, Jean (1952) ''Beyrouth ville romaine''. Publications de la Direction des Antiquités du Liban, Beyrouth.
*{{cite book |last=Paturel|first=Simone|title=Baalbek-Heliopolis, the Bekaa, and Berytus from 100 BCE to 400 CE: A Landscape Transformed|publisher=Brill|year=2019|isbn=9789004400733|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pS2hDwAAQBAJ}}
*{{cite conference|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kiwGUQzX00UC|title=Une nouvelle approche pour la préservation in situ des mosaïques et vestiges archéologiques au Liban: La crypte de l'église Saint-Georges à Beyrouth|publisher=Getty Publications|last1=Skaf |first1= Isabelle |first2=Yasmine Makaroun Bou |last2=Assaf|editor=Aïcha Ben Abed Ben Khader|editor2=Martha Demas|editor3=Thomas Roby|conference=Lessons Learned: Reflecting on the Theory and Practice of Mosaic Conservation (9th ICCM Conference, Hammamet, Tunisia)|date=November 29 – December 3, 2005|isbn=9780892369201|language=French}}


{{Roman colonies in ancient Levant}}
{{Roman Archaeological sites in Beirut & Lebanon}}
{{Archaeological sites in Lebanon}}
{{Ancient Rome topics}}
{{Phoenician cities and colonies}}

[[Category:Berytus| ]]
[[Category:Populated places established in the 2nd century BC]]
[[Category:Populated places disestablished in the 7th century]]
[[Category:Archaeological sites in Lebanon]]
[[Category:Coloniae (Roman)]]
[[Category:History of Beirut]]
[[Category:Seleucid colonies]]
[[Category:Razed cities]]
[[Category:Roman sites in Lebanon]]
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