View source for Battle of Mons Graupius

{{Short description|AD 83 Roman victory in modern Scotland}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2022}}
{{Infobox military conflict
|conflict=Battle of Mons Graupius
|image=[[File:Agricola.Campaigns.80.84.jpg|frameless|240px]]
|caption=
|partof=[[Roman conquest of Britain]]
|date=AD 83 (or 84)
|place=North-east Scotland<ref>Lynch, Michael, ed. ''Oxford Companion to Scottish History''. p.459 - 460. Edited by Michael Lynch, Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|978-0-19-923482-0}}.</ref>
|result= Roman victory
|combatant1=[[Roman Empire]]
|combatant2=[[Caledonian Confederacy]]
|commander1=[[Gnaeus Julius Agricola|Agricola]]
|commander2=[[Calgacus]]
|strength1=17,000–30,000+
|strength2=15,000–30,000+
|casualties1=360 dead
|casualties2=10,000 dead
}}

{{campaignbox Roman conquest of Britain}}
The '''Battle of Mons Graupius''' was, according to [[Tacitus]], a [[Roman Empire|Roman]] military victory in what is now [[Scotland]], taking place in [[AD]] 83 or, less probably, 84. The exact location of the battle is a matter of debate. Historians have long questioned some details of Tacitus's account of the fight, suggesting that he exaggerated Roman success.

== Background ==
[[Tacitus]] states that [[Gnaeus Julius Agricola]], who was the [[List of Roman governors of Britain|Roman governor]] and Tacitus's father-in-law, had sent his fleet ahead to panic the [[Caledonia]]ns, and, with [[light infantry]] reinforced with [[Roman auxiliaries in Britain|British auxiliaries]], reached the site, which he found occupied by the enemy.

Even though the Romans were outnumbered in their campaign against the tribes of [[Roman Britain|Britain]], they often had difficulty getting their foes to face them in open battle. The Caledonii were the last unconquered British tribe (and were never entirely subdued). After many years of avoiding the fight, the Caledonians were forced to join battle when the Romans marched on the main [[granaries]] of the Caledonians, just as they had been filled from the harvest. The Caledonians had no choice but to fight or starve over the next winter.

==Location==
The Battle of Mons Graupius has been a constant motif in the study of [[Roman Scotland]].<ref name=roy>Roy, William. ''The Military Antiquities of the Romans in Britain'', 1793</ref><ref name=scott>Surenne, Gabriel Jacques , ''1823 Correspondence to Sir Walter Scott''</ref> In the 19th century, it was identified with almost every principal Roman site in [[Perth and Kinross]] from Dalginross to [[Blairgowrie and Rattray|Blairgowrie]].<ref name=search>On the battle's location, see Duncan B. Campbell, "Search for a lost battlefield", ''Ancient Warfare'' Vol. 8 issue 1 (2014), pp. 47-51.</ref> With the advent of aerial photography and the interpretation of crop markings in the 20th century, the focus has moved to the north-east and a series of marching camps en route to the [[Moray]] coast. This has given rise to the belief that the battle occurred in [[Aberdeenshire]] at the foot of [[Bennachie]], a very distinctive hill just south of a large marching camp at Logie Durno.<ref>Joseph, J. "The Camp at Durno, Aberdeenshire, and the site of Mons Graupius". ''Britannia'', 9, 271-287 (1978)</ref><ref>Salway, Peter. ''Roman Britain Oxford'': Oxford University Press (1981)</ref><ref name=mons />

Considerable debate and analysis have been conducted regarding the battle location, with the locus of most of these sites spanning [[Perthshire]] to the north of the [[River Dee, Aberdeenshire|River Dee]], all in the northeast of [[Scotland]].<ref name=search /> A number of authors have reckoned the battle to have occurred in the [[Grampian Mountains|Grampian]] [[Mounth]] within sight of the [[North Sea]]. In particular, Roy,<ref name=roy /><ref name=scott /> Watt,<ref>Watt, Archibald. ''Highways and byways around Kincardineshire'', Stonehaven Heritage Soc., Scotland</ref> Hogan<ref name="Hogan">Hogan, C. Michael, ''Elsick Mounth'', The Megalithic Portal, ed. A. Burnham. [http://www.megalithic.co.uk/article.php?sid=18037]</ref> and others have advanced notions that the high ground of the battle may have been [[Kempstone Hill]], [[Megray Hill]] or other knolls near the [[Raedykes]] [[Roman Camp]].

Those sites in Aberdeenshire fit the historical descriptions of Tacitus and have also yielded [[archaeological]] finds related to Roman presence. In addition, these points of high ground are proximate to the [[Elsick Mounth]], an ancient [[trackway]] used by Romans and Caledonians for military manoeuvres.<ref name="Hogan"/> Bennachie in Aberdeenshire, the [[Gask Ridge]] not far from [[Perth, Scotland|Perth]], and [[Sutherland]] have also been suggested.<ref name=mons>[[Duncan B. Campbell|Campbell, Duncan B.]], ''Mons Graupius AD 83'', Oxford: Osprey Publishing, 2010.</ref><ref>Wolfson, Stan (2002) [http://myweb.tiscali.co.uk/fartherlands/appendix.html "The Boresti; The Creation of a Myth"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180723033640/http://myweb.tiscali.co.uk/fartherlands/appendix.html |date=23 July 2018 }} ''Tacitus, Thule and Caledonia''. Tiscali.co.uk. Retrieved 21 August 2010.</ref><ref>[http://www.romanscotland.org.uk/pages/campaigns/mons_graupius/contents.asp "Mons Graupius Identified"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210126165501/http://www.romanscotland.org.uk/pages/campaigns/mons_graupius/contents.asp |date=26 January 2021 }} romanscotland.org.uk. Retrieved 21 August 2010.</ref>

[[Historic Environment Scotland]] noted the uncertainty of the location as the reason for its exclusion from the [[Inventory of Historic Battlefields in Scotland]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Inventory of Historic Battlefields Research Report: Mons Graupius |url=https://pub-prod-sdk.azurewebsites.net/api/file/b25566f2-fd10-4ca8-85d0-a67a00e4bd02 |publisher=Historic Environment Scotland |date=11 July 2016 |access-date=18 April 2019 |format=PDF |archive-date=19 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210119213924/https://pub-prod-sdk.azurewebsites.net/api/file/b25566f2-fd10-4ca8-85d0-a67a00e4bd02 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

==Battle==
According to Tacitus, 8,000 [[Auxiliaries (Roman military)|allied auxiliary]] [[infantry]] formed the centre, while 3,000 [[cavalry]] were on the flanks, with the Roman [[Legionary|legionaries]] as a reserve in front of their camp.<ref name=mons /> Estimates for the size of the Roman army range from 17,000 to 30,000;<ref>Edwards, Kevin J; Ian Ralston, ''Scotland After the Ice Age'' Polygon  24 January 2003 {{ISBN|978-0-7486-1736-4}} p.204 [https://books.google.com/books?id=hcoCand_S_IC&dq=Tacitus+mons+graupius+30000&pg=PA204].</ref><ref>A temporary camp at Durno (20m or 32km NW of Aberdeen) covered 144 acres (60ha) and could have held 24,000 men. Roger J.A. Wilson, ''A Guide to the Roman Remains in Britain'' 2002 Constable, London.</ref> although Tacitus says that 11,000 auxiliaries were engaged, along with a further four squadrons of cavalry, the number of legionaries in reserve is uncertain. The Caledonian army, which Tacitus claims was led by [[Calgacus]] (but only mentions him as giving a speech, probably fictitious),<ref>Braund, David, ''Ruling Roman Britain: Kings, Queens, Governors and Emperors from Julius Caesar to Agricola'' Routledge; 1 edition (5 Sep 1996) {{ISBN|978-0-415-00804-4}} pp.8, 169.</ref><ref>Woolliscroft, D. J.; Hoffman, B. ''Rome's First Frontier; the Flavian Occupation of Northern Scotland'' Tempus (June 1, 2006){{ISBN|978-0752430447}} p.217.</ref> was said to be over 30,000 strong. It was stationed mostly on higher ground; its front ranks were on the level ground, but the other ranks rose in tiers, up the slope of the hill in a horseshoe formation. The Caledonian [[chariotry]] charged about on the level plain between the two armies.

After a brief exchange of missiles, Agricola ordered auxiliaries to launch a frontal attack on the enemy. These were based around four cohorts of [[Batavians]] and two cohorts of [[Tungri]] swordsmen. The Caledonians were cut down and trampled on the lower slopes of the hill. Those at the top attempted an [[Flanking manoeuvre|outflanking movement]] but were themselves outflanked by Roman cavalry. The Caledonians were then comprehensively routed and fled for the shelter of nearby woodland, but were relentlessly pursued by well-organised Roman units.

It is said that the Roman Legions took no part in the battle, being held in reserve throughout. According to Tacitus, 10,000 Caledonian people died at a cost of only 360 auxiliary troops. 20,000 Caledonians retreated into the woods, where they fared considerably better against pursuing forces. Roman scouts were unable to locate the remaining Caledonian forces the next morning.

In a personal version of the battle recounted by [[Hector Boece]] (1465–1536), he was not a contemporary historian, and the Caledonians, of course, had left no written sources of their own.<ref>Royan, Nicola, "Hector Boece and the Question of Veremund", ''The Innes Review'' 52.1 (2001), pp. 42–62.</ref> It was a hard and closely fought battle, in which:

{{Blockquote
|text=The Roman army would have been destroyed... had not a cohort of Germans come to the rescue, enlisted and transported to Britain by command of Caesar... The struggle that followed was atrocious, with the confederates fighting with far more violence than martial skill. Then Agricola sent in a cohort previously held in reserve, which he had been saving for sudden emergencies, to confront these fierce fighters. But the confederates, remaining in the battle-line with indescribable stubbornness, could not be budged. A sad, wretched spectacle ensued, with the confederate wounded falling on top of their dead comrades. Some voluntarily exposed themselves to their executioners, and others escaped their enemy only to commit suicide. Everywhere you could see human limbs, weapons, bodies, and blood-soaked earth. The battle continued in this manner until night deprived the combatants of their ability to see. Then the signal for retreat was sounded, and both sides retired.
|author=Hector Boece
|source=''Scotorum Historia'', IV.54 (1527)
}}


==Criticisms of Tacitus's account==
The decisive victory reported by Tacitus has been criticized by some historians like Hector Boece (1536), possibly due to a nationalistic reinterpretation, however, one author has suggested that the emperor [[Domitian]] may have been informed of the fraudulence of Agricola's claims to have won a significant victory.<ref>Henig, Martin (September 1998) [http://www.britarch.ac.uk/ba/ba37/ba37feat.html "Togidubnus and the Roman liberation"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120211112417/http://www.britarch.ac.uk/ba/ba37/ba37feat.html |date=11 February 2012 }} ''British Archaeology'' ''37''. Retrieved 27 July 2008.</ref><ref>Now refuted by Campbell (2010)</ref> Despite these claims, Agricola was awarded triumphal honours and was offered another governorship in a different part of the empire, so it would seem unlikely Domitian doubted he had achieved substantial successes. Suggestions that he invented the entire episode and was thereafter shunned by the emperor do not seem likely, given that he was awarded honours on his return.

==Aftermath==
Following this final battle, it was proclaimed that Agricola had finally subdued all the tribes of Britain. Soon afterwards he was recalled to Rome, and his post passed to [[Sallustius Lucullus]]. It is likely that Rome intended to continue the conflict, but that military requirements elsewhere in the empire necessitated a troop withdrawal and the opportunity was lost.

Although Agricola’s campaign effectively brought the whole of present-day Scotland under Roman control, the occupation was brief. The Romans showed little interest in permanently colonizing the northern territories, which they considered poor in resources and strategically less valuable compared to southern Britain. Within a few years, Roman forces had withdrawn to the line of the [[Forth–Clyde isthmus]], abandoning most of Caledonia. 

Tacitus' statement in his account of Roman history between 68 AD and 98 AD: ''"Perdomita Britannia et statim missa"'' ("Britain was completely conquered and immediately let go"), denotes his bitter disapproval of Domitian's failure to unify the whole island under Roman rule after Agricola's successful campaign.<ref>Sunderland Frere, Sheppard (1987). ''Britannia: a history of Roman Britain''. Routledge, p. 102. {{ISBN|0-7102-1215-1}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Scotland during the Roman Empire]]

==References==
'''Notes'''
{{Reflist}}

'''Bibliography'''
*[[Duncan B. Campbell|Campbell, Duncan B.]], ''Mons Graupius AD 83'', Oxford: Osprey Publishing, 2010.

'''Further reading'''
*Campbell, Duncan B., 'A note on the Battle of Mons Graupius', ''Classical Quarterly'' 65 (2015), pp.&nbsp;407–410.
*[[James E. Fraser (historian)|Fraser, James E.]], ''The Roman Conquest Of Scotland: The Battle Of Mons Graupius AD 84''
*Montgomery, Alan (2025). ''The Road to Mons Graupius: A Journey Through Roman Scotland'', Tippermuir Books Ltd., [[Perth, Scotland|Perth]], {{isbn|9781913836429}}
*Woodman, A.J. with Kraus, C., ''Tacitus: Agricola'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2014.

==External links==
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080329182931/http://www.theromangaskproject.org.uk/Pages/Introduction/Agricola-hecame.html Agricola: He came, he saw, but did he conquer?]
* [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/~grout/encyclopaedia_romana/britannia/monsgraupius/monsgraupius.html An essay by James Grout in ''Encyclopaedia Romana'']
* [https://sites.google.com/view/battle-of-mons-graupius/home Ptolemy's Victoria and the battle of Mons Graupius]

{{Prehistoric Scotland}}
{{Scotland during the Roman Empire}}


{{DEFAULTSORT:Mons Graupius}}
[[Category:1st-century battles]]
[[Category:Battles involving the Roman Empire]]
[[Category:Battles involving the Picts]]
[[Category:Flavian military campaigns]]
[[Category:History of the Scottish Highlands]]<!--since "presumably" lies in Highlands-->
[[Category:Military history of Roman Britain]]
[[Category:Scotland in the Roman era]]
[[Category:1st century in Scotland]]
[[Category:80s in the Roman Empire]]
[[Category:80s conflicts]]
[[Category:Lost places in Scotland]]