View source for Basque grammar

{{Short description|Grammar of the Basque language}}
{{Cleanup lang|date=November 2020|iso=eu}}

This article provides a sketch of '''Basque grammar'''. [[Basque language|Basque]] is the language of the [[Basque people]] of the [[Basque Country (historical territory)|Basque Country]] or [[Euskal Herria]], which borders the [[Bay of Biscay]] in [[Western Europe]].

==Noun phrases==
The Basque [[noun phrase]] is structured quite differently from those in most [[Indo-European languages]].

===Articles, determiners and quantifiers===
[[Determiner (class)|Determiners]] and [[quantifier (linguistics)|quantifiers]] play a central role in Basque noun phrase structure. [[Article (grammar)|Articles]] are best treated as a subset of the determiners.

{| {{table}}
|+ Common determiners and quantifiers
|-
! colspan=3 align="center"|Some determiners
! colspan=2 align="center"|Some quantifiers
|-
|width=25%| 
* '''''-a, -a(r)-''''' singular article
* '''''-ak, -e-''''' plural article
* '''''-ok, -o-''''' plural [[demonstrative#Distal and proximal demonstratives|proximal]] article
* '''''-(r)ik''''' [[Negative polarity item|negative-polar]] article
|width=25%| 
* '''''hau, hon-''''' 'this'
* '''''hauek, haue-''''' 'these'
* '''''hori, horr-''''' 'that'
* '''''horiek, horie-''''' 'those'
* '''''hura, har-''''' 'that (distal)'
*'''''haiek, haie-''''' 'those (distal)'
|
* '''''zein''''' 'which'
* '''''zer, ze''''' 'what'
* '''''beste''''' 'other'
|
* '''''batzuk, batzue-''''' 'some'
* '''''zenbait''''' 'some'
* '''''asko''''' 'many'
* '''''anitz''''' 'many'
* '''''gutxi''''' 'few'
* '''''guzti''''' 'all'
* '''''zenbat''''' 'how many'
* '''''hainbeste''''' 'so many'
|
* '''''bat''''' 'one, a(n)'
* '''''bi''''' 'two'
* '''''hiru''''' 'three'
* '''''lau''''' 'four'
* '''''bost''''' 'five'
etc.
|-
|
<small>The "articles" take the form of [[suffix]]es. See the following description of their uses. The forms '''-a, -ak, -ok''' correspond to the [[absolutive case|absolutive]] [[grammatical case|case]]; in other cases, '''-a(r)-, -e-, -o-''' are used, followed by a case suffix. The negative-polar article, often called the ''[[Partitive case|partitive]] suffix'', does not combine with case suffixes. When glossing examples below, these elements are referred to collectively as ART.</small>
|
<small>The [[demonstrative]] stems, like the articles and unlike other [[Nominal (linguistics)|nominal]] elements, show irregular [[allomorphy]] between singular and [[plural]] and, in the singular, between the absolutive ('''hau, hori, hura''') and other cases ('''hon-, horr-, har-'''). The same forms function both as demonstrative determiners and demonstrative pronouns.</small>
|}

The [[article (grammar)|articles]] ''-a, -ak, -ok, -(r)ik'', [[demonstrative]]s ''hau, hori, hura'' and some of the [[Quantifier (linguistics)|quantifiers]] follow the [[noun]] they determine or quantify.

{{columns-start}}
{{interlinear|lang=eu|indent=2|etxe'''a'''|house-ART|'(the) house'}}
{{interlinear|lang=eu|indent=2|etxe'''ak'''|house-ART|'(the) houses'}}
{{interlinear|lang=eu|indent=2|etxe '''hau'''|house this|'this house'}}
{{column}}
{{interlinear|lang=eu|indent=2|etxe '''horiek'''|house those|'those houses'}}
{{interlinear|lang=eu|indent=2|etxe '''bat'''|house one|'one/a house'}}
{{interlinear|lang=eu|indent=2|etxe '''batzuk'''|house some|'some houses'}}
{{columns-end}}

Other determiners and quantifiers, including ''beste'' 'other', the [[interrogatives]] and [[Numeral (linguistics)|numeral]]s above one or two (depending on [[dialect]]) precede the noun.

{{columns-start}}
{{interlinear|lang=eu|indent=2|'''zein''' etxe?|which house|'which house(s)?'}}
{{interlinear|lang=eu|indent=2|'''zenbat''' etxe?|how-many house|'how many houses?'}}
{{interlinear|lang=eu|indent=2|'''zenbait''' etxe|some house|'some houses'}}
{{column}}
{{interlinear|lang=eu|indent=2|'''hiru''' etxe|three house|three houses'}}
{{interlinear|lang=eu|indent=2|'''bi''' etxe / etxe '''bi'''|'two houses' (dialect variants)}}
{{columns-end}}

A normal [[noun phrase]] with a [[common noun]] as [[Head (linguistics)|head]] must contain exactly one determiner or exactly one quantifier but not both, as in the above examples. However, the numerals may co-occur with a determiner.

{{columns-start}}
{{interlinear|lang=eu|indent=2|'''hiru''' etxe'''ok'''|three house-ART|'these/those (nearby) three houses'}}
{{interlinear|lang=eu|indent=2|'''hiru''' etxe '''haiek'''|three house those|'those (distant) three houses'}}
{{column}}
{{interlinear|lang=eu|indent=2|'''zein''' '''hiru''' etxe?|which three house|'which three houses?'}}
{{columns-end}}

The items ''beste'' 'other' and ''guzti'' 'all' do not 'fill' the determiner or quantifier position and therefore ''require'' an article, other determiner or quantifier.

{{columns-start}}
{{interlinear|lang=eu|indent=2|'''beste''' etxe'''<u>a</u>'''|other house-ART|'the other house'}}
{{interlinear|lang=eu|indent=2|'''beste''' etxe '''<u>bat</u>'''|other house one|'another ("one other") house'}}
{{column}}
{{interlinear|lang=eu|indent=2|etxe '''guzti<u>ak</u>'''|house all-ART|'all (the) houses'}}
{{columns-end}}

The article ''-a, -ak'' acts as the [[default (computer science)|default]] determiner, obligatory with a [[common noun]] in the absence of another determiner or quantifier (even in [[lemma (morphology)|citation forms]] in popular usage).

* ''etxe'''a''''' 'house'
* ''etxe'''ak''''' 'houses'
* ''Nola esaten da euskaraz "house"? — "Etxe'''a'''".'' 'How do you say "house" in Basque? — "Etxe(a)".'

The article ''-(r)ik'', traditionally called a [[Partitive case|partitive]] suffix (cf. French ''de''), replaces ''-a, -ak'' in [[negative polarity item|negative-polar]] contexts, especially with indefinite noun phrases in [[grammatical polarity|negative]] sentences. It is never treated as grammatically plural.

* ''etxe'''rik''''' 'any house(s)'
* ''Ba al daukazu etxe'''rik'''?'' 'Have you got a house?'
* ''Hemen ez dago etxe'''rik'''.'' 'There is no house here, There aren't any houses here.'
* '''Not:''' *''Hemen ez daude etxerik.'' 'There are no houses here.'

A noun phrase with a [[proper noun]] or a [[pronoun]] as head usually does not contain either a determiner or a quantifier.

* ''Andoni'' 'Anthony'
* ''Tokio'' 'Tokyo'
* ''Wikipedia'' 'Wikipedia'
* ''ni'' 'I, me'
* ''nor?'' 'who?'

The absence of any determiner or quantifier from a common-noun–head noun phrase is not possible except in certain specific contexts, such as in certain types of [[Predicate (grammar)|predicate]] or in some [[adverbial]] expressions.

* '''''Lehendakari''' izendatuko dute.'' 'They will appoint him (as) president.' [They will name him ''president''.]
* ''Bilbora joan zen '''irakasle'''.'' 'He went to Bilbao (to work) as a teacher.' [He went to Bilbao ''teacher''.]
* ''eskuz'' 'by hand' [hand (''esku'') + by (''-z'')]
* ''sutan'' 'on fire' [fire (''su'') + in (''-tan'')]

===Genitive and adjectival constructions===
A [[genitive case|genitive]] noun phrase precedes its [[possession (linguistics)|possessed]] head to express possessive or similar relationships.

* '''''Koldoren''' etxea'' 'Koldo's house'
* '''''nire''' etxea'' 'my house'
* '''''basoko''' etxea'' 'house in ("of") the forest'

The possessed noun phrase retains the same determination and quantification features described above for noun phrases generally.

{{columns-start}}
{{interlinear|lang=eu|indent=2|Koldoren etxe'''ak'''|Koldo's house-ART|'Koldo's houses'}}
{{interlinear|lang=eu|indent=2|Koldoren etxe '''hori'''|Koldo's house that|'that house of Koldo's'}}
{{column}}
{{interlinear|lang=eu|indent=2|Koldoren etxe '''bat'''|Koldo's house one|'one house of Koldo's'}}
{{interlinear|lang=eu|indent=2|Koldoren '''zein''' etxe?|Koldo's which house|'which house of Koldo's'}}
{{columns-end}}

The [[head (linguistics)|head]] noun of a possessed noun phrase may be omitted. In this case the article or other determiner is still retained, now attached to the genitival element.

{{columns-start}}
{{interlinear|lang=eu|indent=2|Koldoren'''a'''|Koldo's-ART|'Koldo's (e.g. house)'}}
{{interlinear|lang=eu|indent=2|Koldoren'''ak'''|Koldo's-ART|'Koldo's (e.g. houses)'}}
{{column}}
{{interlinear|lang=eu|indent=2|Etxe hau '''Koldorena''' da.|house this Koldo's-ART is|'This house is Koldo's.'}}
{{interlinear|lang=eu|indent=2|'''Nireak''' gorriak dira.|my-ART red-ART are|'Mine are red.'}}
{{columns-end}}

Noun phrases are turned into genitives by the addition of one of two genitive case suffixes, ''-(r)en'' or ''-ko'' (see below on [[declension]] suffixes).

* ''Koldo'' → ''Koldo'''ren'''''
* ''Paris'' → ''Paris'''ko'''''
* ''etxe-a'' 'house' → ''etxea'''ren''''', ''etxe'''ko''''' (not interchangeable)

The genitive formation of [[personal pronoun]]s is [[Irregular verb|irregular]].

* ''ni'' 'I, me' → ''ni'''re''''' 'my'

''-Ko'' (or ''-go'') can be suffixed to a wide range of other words and phrases, many of them [[adverbial]] in function, to form adjectival expressions which behave [[Syntax|syntactically]] just as genitive phrases do.

{{columns-start}}
{{interlinear|lang=eu|indent=2|'''atzoko''' lana|yesterday-''ko'' work-ART|'yesterday's work'}}
{{interlinear|lang=eu|indent=2|'''hemengo''' etxeak|here-''ko'' house-ART|'the houses here'}}
{{interlinear|lang=eu|indent=2|'''oinezko''' bidaia bat|foot-by-''ko'' journey one|'a journey on foot'}}
{{column}}
{{interlinear|lang=eu|indent=2|'''Tokiorako''' bidaia bat|Tokyo-to-''ko'' journey one|'a journey to Tokyo'}}
{{interlinear|lang=eu|indent=2|'''bi''' '''urteko''' haur hori|two year-''ko'' child that|'that two-year-old child'}}
{{columns-end}}

===Adjectives===
[[Lexicon|Lexical]] [[adjective]]s, in contrast to adjectival expressions (see above), immediately follow the head noun but precede any article, determiner or quantifier.

{{columns-start}}
{{interlinear|lang=eu|indent=2|etxe '''gorri''' bat|house red one|'one red house'}}
{{interlinear|lang=eu|indent=2|etxe '''txiki'''a|house small-ART|'(the) little house'}}
{{column}}
{{interlinear|lang=eu|indent=2|etxe '''zuri'''ak|house white-ART|'(the) white houses'}}
{{interlinear|lang=eu|indent=2|nire etxe '''txiki'''a|my house small-ART|'my little house'}}
{{columns-end}}

When adjectives, adjectivals or genitives are used as predicates, they usually take the article (singular ''-a'', plural ''-ak'').

{{columns-start}}
{{interlinear|lang=eu|indent=2|Etxe hau '''txikia''' da.|house this small-ART is|'This house is small.'}}
{{interlinear|lang=eu|indent=2|Etxe hauek '''txikiak''' dira.|house these small-ART are|'These houses are small.'}}
{{column}}
{{interlinear|lang=eu|indent=2|Ogi hau '''atzokoa''' da.|bread this yesterday-''ko''-ART is|'This bread is yesterday's.'}}
{{interlinear|lang=eu|indent=2|Etxe hau '''nirea''' da.|house this my-ART is|'This house is mine.'}}
{{columns-end}}

===Number===
Basque has three [[grammatical number|numbers]]: singular, [[markedness|unmarked]] and [[plural]]. Unmarked appears in [[declension]] when it is not necessary to specify singular or plural, such as because it is a proper name or is next to a determiner or a quantifier. Plural [[marker (linguistics)|markers]] occur in two parts of Basque grammar: in some [[pronoun]]s, determiners and quantifiers and in [[verb argument|argument]] indices on [[verb]]s (see [[Basque verbs]]). For nouns, it depends on how the article ''-a/-ak'' is considered: as an [[enclitic]], nouns would be number-neutral, as a suffix, nouns would be three-numbered. An unarticled noun such as ''etxe'' rarely occurs alone and normally appears within a [[noun phrase]] containing either a determiner or a quantifier, its number is likely to be indicated by this element:

{| {{table}}
| ''etxe'''a''''' || 'house' || (singular because of ''-a'')
|-
| ''etxe'''ak''''' || 'houses' || (plural because of ''-ak'')
|-
| ''etxe '''hau''''' || 'this house' || (singular because of ''hau'')
|-
| ''etxe '''hauek''''' || 'these houses' || (plural because of ''hauek'')
|-
| ''etxe '''bat''''' || 'one/a house' || (singular because of ''bat'')
|-
| ''etxe '''batzuk''''' || 'some houses' || (plural because of ''batzuk'')
|-
| '''''hiru''' etxe'' || 'three houses' || (plural because of ''hiru'')
|}

[[Transitive verbs]] add a [[suffix]], for example -it-, when the [[Object (grammar)|object]] of the verb is plural.

{{columns-start}}
{{interlinear|lang=eu|indent=2|osaba bat '''dut'''|uncle one I-have|'I have an uncle'}}
{{column}}
{{interlinear|lang=eu|indent=2|hiru osaba '''ditut'''|three uncles I-have|'I have three uncles'}}
{{columns-end}}

Most determiners, including the article, have distinct singular and plural forms (the latter ending in a ''k'' in the [[absolutive case]], cited here). Most quantifiers (except ''bat'' versus ''batzuk'') do not show such [[morphology (linguistics)|morphological]] variation, but many (including the numerals above one, of course) have intrinsically plural [[Lexicon|lexical]] meanings.

{{columns-start}}
'''Singular:'''
* ''-a'' (article)
* ''hau, hori, hura'' (demonstratives)
* ''bat'' (quantifier)
{{column}}
'''Plural:'''
* ''-ak, -ok'' (articles)
* ''hauek, horiek, haiek'' (demonstratives)
* ''batzuk'' (quantifier)
* ''bi, hiru, lau...'' (numerals)
{{columns-end}}

Sometimes the grammatical number of a noun phrase can be deduced only from general context or from verbal indexing

* ''zein etxe?'' 'which house?' or 'which houses?'

or from the lexical or [[semantic]] noun type:

* ''zenbat esne?'' 'how much milk?' (''esne'' is a mass noun)
* ''zenbat etxe?'' 'how many houses?' (''etxe'' is a quantitative noun)

===Pronouns and adverbs===

====Personal pronouns====
[[Personal pronouns]] differentiate three [[grammatical person|persons]] and two [[grammatical number|numbers]]. ''Zu'' must once have been the second-person plural pronoun but is now only the [[politeness|polite]] singular, having partially displaced the original second-person singular pronoun ''hi'', now a markedly familiar form of address. ''Zuek'' represents a repluralised [[Derivation (linguistics)|derivative]] of ''zu'' and is now the only second-person plural pronoun.

{| {{table}}
|+ [[Historical linguistics|Diachronic]] development of second-person pronouns
|-
! align="center"|[[Linguistic reconstruction|Reconstructed]] [[Proto-language|proto]]-system
! align="center"|Attested present-day system
|-
| 
'''hi''' 'you (singular)'

'''zu''' 'you (plural)'
|
'''hi''' 'you (familiar singular)'

'''zu''' 'you (polite singular)'

'''zu-''ek''''' 'you (plural)'
|}

The function of third-person personal pronouns may be filled by any of the demonstrative pronouns or their emphatic counterparts in ''ber-''.

{| {{table}}
|+ Personal pronouns
|-
! colspan="2" |
! Singular
! Plural
|-
! colspan="2" | 1st person
| {{lang|eu|ni}}<br> 'I/me'
| {{lang|eu|gu}}<br> 'we/us'
|-
! rowspan="2" | 2nd person
! very familiar
| {{lang|eu|hi}}<br> 'you'
| rowspan="2" | {{lang|eu|zuek}}<br> 'you'
|-
! polite or neutral
| {{lang|eu|zu}}<br> 'you'
|-
! colspan="2" | 3rd person
| {{lang|eu|hau, hori, hura, bera}}<br> 'he/him, she/her, it'
| {{lang|eu|hauek, horiek, haiek, bera(ie)k, eurak...}}<br> 'they/them'
|}

Besides these ordinary personal pronouns, there are emphatic (or [[intensive]]) ones, whose forms vary considerably between [[dialect]]s: the first-person singular is ''neu, nerau, neroni'' or ''nihaur''.

====Demonstrative pronouns====
The [[demonstrative]] [[Determiner (class)|determiner]]s (see above) may be used [[Pronoun|pronominally]] (as indeed can all the determiners except for the articles). There are also emphatic ([[intensive]]) demonstrative pronouns beginning with ''ber-''.

{| {{table}}
|+ Demonstrative pronouns
|-
! rowspan="2" |
! colspan="2" | proximal
! colspan="2" | medial
! colspan="2" | distal
|-
! {{small|singular}} !! {{small|plural}}
! {{small|singular}} !! {{small|plural}}
! {{small|singular}} !! {{small|plural}}
|-
! Ordinary
| {{lang|eu|hau}}
| {{lang|eu|hauek}}
| {{lang|eu|hori}}
| {{lang|eu|horiek}}
| {{lang|eu|hura}}
| {{lang|eu|haiek}}
|-
! Intensive
| {{lang|eu|berau}}
| {{lang|eu|berauek}}
| {{lang|eu|berori}}
| {{lang|eu|beroriek}}
| {{lang|eu|bera}}
| {{lang|eu|beraiek}}
|}

It has often been noted that in traditional usage (but less so among modern speakers), there is often an explicit correlation between the three degrees of proximity in the demonstrative forms and the grammatical persons, such that ''hau'' is made to correspond to ''ni'', ''hori'' to ''hi/zu'' and so on. One manifestation of this (others lie beyond the scope of this sketch) is the now old-fashioned mode of [[style (manner of address)|addressing]] persons in social positions commanding special respect (such as a priest, for example) using third-person verb forms and, for the personal pronoun, the second-degree intensive demonstrative {{lang|eu|berori}} (see the above table).

====Other pronouns and correlative adverbs====

{| {{table}}
|+ Other pronouns and deictic adverbs
|-
!
! align="center"|Pronouns
! align="center"|Place adverbs
! align="center"|Manner adverbs
! align="center"|Time adverbs
 |-
! align="center"|Demonstrative
| 
''(see above)''
|
*'''''hemen''''' 'here'
*'''''hor''''' 'there (nearby)'
*'''''han''''' 'there (distant)'
|
*'''''honela''''' 'like this'
*'''''horrela''''' 'like that'
*'''''hala''''' 'like that, so'
|
*'''''orain''''' 'now'
*'''''orduan''''' 'then'
|-
! align="center"|Interrogative
| 
*'''''nor?''''' 'who?'
*'''''zer?''''' 'what?'
*'''''zein?''''' 'which one?'
|
*'''''non?''''' 'where?'
|
*'''''nola?''''' 'how?'
|
*'''''noiz?''''' 'when?'
|-
! align="center"|Indefinite
| 
*'''''norbait''''' 'somebody'
*'''''zerbait''''' 'something'
|
*'''''nonbait''''' 'somewhere'
|
*'''''nolabait''''' 'somehow'
|
*'''''noizbait''''' 'sometime'
|-
! align="center"|[[Negative polarity item|Negative polarity]]
| 
*'''''inor''''' 'anybody'
*'''''ezer''''' 'anything'
|
*'''''inon''''' 'anywhere'
|
*'''''inola''''' 'any way, at all'
|
*'''''inoiz''''' 'ever'
|}

====Further forms====
* All the demonstrative pronouns and adverbs may be extended by the suffix ''-xe'' (''-txe'') which lends further emphasis: {{lang|eu|hauxe}} (this very thing), {{lang|eu|hementxe}} (exactly here), {{lang|eu|honelaxe}} (exactly in this way), {{lang|eu|oraintxe}} (right now).
* The pronouns can all be declined in any [[grammatical case|case]] (see below). The personal and demonstrative pronouns exhibit [[allomorph]]y between absolutive and non-[[zero (linguistics)|zero]] cases. The adverbs can be adjectivalised by addition of ''-ko'' (''-go''), and some can also take other locative suffixes.
* There are two further series of indefinites, as illustrated by ''edonor, edonon''... and ''nornahi, zernahi...'', respectively; both series may be translated as 'whoever, wherever...' or 'anyone, anywhere...'.
* Negative pronouns and adverbs consist of the negative polarity series together with ''ez'' 'no' or as part of a negative sentence: ''inor ez'' 'nobody', ''Ez dut inor ezagutzen'' 'I don't know anybody' = 'I know nobody'.

===Declension===

====Cases====
Basque noun phrases are followed by a case suffix, which specifies the relation between the noun phrase and its [[clause]] (playing roughly the role of [[preposition]]s in English). The most basic cases are shown here, for convenience divided into three main groups: [[nuclear cases|nuclear]], local (or [[locative case|locative]]) and others.

Case suffixes are attached to whatever element (noun, adjective, determiner etc.) comes last in the noun phrase according to the rules already given. The different forms or "[[declension]]s" of each case suffix given in the following tables are selected in accordance with the nature of the nominal element to which the case ending is attached, as will be explained below.

{| {{table}}
|+ Nuclear cases
! rowspan=2 align="center"|Name
! rowspan=2 align="center"|Meaning/Use
! colspan=4 align="center"|Forms ("declensions")
|-
! 1
! 2
! 3
! 4
|-
! [[Absolutive case|Absolutive]]
| [[Intransitive verb|intransitive]] [[Subject (grammar)|subject]]; [[Transitive verb|transitive]] [[direct object]]
| '''''-a'''''
| '''''-ak'''''
| colspan=2 {{n/a}}
|-
! [[Ergative case|Ergative]]
| [[Transitive verb|transitive]] subject
| '''''-ak'''''
| '''''-ek'''''
| colspan=2 |'''''-(e)k'''''
|-
! [[Dative case|Dative]]
| recipient or affected: 'to', 'for', 'from'
| '''''-ari'''''
| '''''-ei'''''
| colspan=2 |'''''-(r)i'''''
|}

{| {{table}}
|+ Local cases
! rowspan=2 align="center"|Name
! rowspan=2 align="center"|Meaning/Use
! colspan=4 align="center"|Forms ("declensions")
|-
! 1
! 2
! 3
! 4
|-
! [[Inessive case|Inessive]]
| place where/time when: 'in', 'at', 'on'
| '''''-(e)an'''''
| '''''-etan'''''
| '''''-(e)tan'''''
| '''''-(e)n'''''
|-
! [[Allative case|Allative]]
| where to: 'to'
| '''''-(e)ra'''''
| '''''-etara'''''
| '''''-(e)tara'''''
| '''''-(r)a'''''
|-
! [[Ablative case|Ablative]]
| where from/through: 'from', 'since', 'through'
| '''''-(e)tik'''''
| '''''-etatik'''''
| '''''-(e)tatik'''''
| '''''-tik/-dik'''''
|-
! [[Terminative case|Terminative]]
| up to what limit: 'up to'
| '''''-(e)raino'''''
| '''''-etaraino'''''
| '''''-(e)taraino'''''
| '''''-(r)aino'''''
|-
! Directive
| towards what: 'towards'
| '''''-(e)rantz'''''
| '''''-etarantz'''''
| '''''-(e)tarantz'''''
| '''''-(r)antz'''''
|-
! Local [[Genitive case|genitive]]
| pertaining to where/when: 'of', 'from'
| '''''-(e)ko'''''
| '''''-etako'''''
| '''''-(e)tako'''''
| '''''-ko/-go'''''
|}

{| {{table}}
|+ Other cases
! rowspan=2 align="center"|Name
! rowspan=2 align="center"|Meaning/Use
! colspan=4 align="center"|Forms ("declensions")
|-
! 1
! 2
! 3
! 4
|-
! Possessive [[Genitive case|genitive]]
| possessive/genitive: 'of', '-'s'
| '''''-aren'''''
| '''''-en'''''
| colspan=2 |'''''-(r)en'''''
|-
! [[Instrumental case|Instrumental]]
| means or topic: 'by', 'of', 'about'
| '''''-az'''''
| '''''-ez'''''
| colspan=2 |'''''-(e)z, -(e)taz'''''
|-
! [[Comitative case|Comitative]]
| accompaniment or means: 'with'
| '''''-arekin'''''
| '''''-ekin'''''
| colspan=2 |'''''-(r)ekin'''''
|-
! [[Benefactive case|Benefactive]]
| beneficiary: 'for'
| '''''-arentzat'''''
| '''''-entzat'''''
| colspan=2 |'''''-(r)entzat'''''
|-
! [[Causal case|Causal]]
| cause, reason or value: 'because of', '(in exchange) for'
| '''''-a(ren)gatik'''''
| '''''-engatik'''''
| colspan=2 |'''''-(r)engatik'''''
|}

====Sets of case forms ("declensions")====
The four sets of forms, labelled 1 to 4 in the preceding tables, have the following uses and characteristics:

{| {{table}}
! Set
! Type
! Comments
! width=35% | Examples
|-
! 1 
| SINGULAR ARTICLE
| Represent the combination of the singular article ''-a'' with the case suffixes. There is a formal absence of any trace of the ''-a-'' [[morpheme]] in the local cases, however. The ''-(e)-'' in the local cases occurs after consonants.
| 
* ''mendia, mendiak, mendiari, mendian, mendira...'' (''mendi'' 'mountain')
* ''zuhaitza, zuhaitzak, zuhaitzari, zuhaitzean, zuhaitzera...'' (''zuhaitz'' 'tree')
|-
! 2 
| PLURAL ARTICLE
| Represent the combination of the plural article ''-ak'' with the case suffixes. Notice the pre-suffixal plural article [[allomorph]]s ''-eta-'' (in local cases) and ''-e-'' (elsewhere).
| 
* ''mendiak, mendiek, mendiei, mendietan, mendietara...''
* ''zuhaitzak, zuhaitzek, zuhaitzei, zuhaitzetan, zuhaitzetara...''
|-
! 3 
| NO ARTICLE
| Used in the absence of an article: when another determiner or quantifier is employed (''zein menditan?'' 'on which mountain?', ''zuhaitz askori'' 'to many trees') or occasionally when there is none at all (cf. ''oinez'' and ''sutan'' above). The ''-(e)-'' and ''-(r)-'', shown with some suffixes, appear following consonants and vowels, respectively.
| 
* ''mendi, mendik, mendiri, menditan, menditara...''
* ''zuhaitz, zuhaitzek, zuhaitzi, zuhaitzetan, zuhaitzetara...''
|-
! 4 
| PROPER NOUNS
| Used with [[proper nouns]]. They are identical to set 3 except in the local cases. This set contains the most basic form of each case suffix. The local forms ''-dik'' and ''-go'' are used after a voiced consonant except ''r''.
| 
* ''Tokio, Tokiok, Tokiori, Tokion, Tokiora, Tokiotik, Tokioko...''
* ''Paris, Parisek, Parisi, Parisen, Parisa, Paristik, Parisko...''
* ''Dublin, Dublinek, Dublini, Dublinen, Dublina, Dublindik, Dublingo...''
|}

From the above, it may be deduced that the essential formal characteristics of the Basque cases are as shown in the following table:

{| {{table}}
|+ Case morphemes
! colspan=2 align="center"|NUCLEAR
|-
! Absolutive
| {{n/a}}
|-
! Ergative
| '''''-k'''''
|-
! Dative
| '''''-i'''''
|-
! colspan=2 align="center"|LOCAL
|-
! Inessive
| '''''-n'''''
|-
! Allative
| '''''-(r)a'''''
|-
! Ablative
| '''''-tik'''''
|-
! Local genitive
| '''''-ko'''''
|-
! colspan=2 align="center"|OTHER
|-
! Possessive genitive
| '''''-en'''''
|-
! Instrumental
| '''''-z'''''
|-
! Comitative
| '''''-ekin'''''
|-
! Benefactive
| '''''-en-tzat'''''
|-
! Cause etc.
| '''''-en-gatik'''''
|}

====Declension of personal pronouns, demonstratives and ''bat, batzuk''====

For the most part, the application of the suffixes to any word in the language is highly regular. In this section are the main exceptions:

Personal pronouns and demonstratives display some irregularities in [[declension]]. The personal pronouns ''ni, hi, gu, zu'' form their possessive genitive by adding ''-re'' rather than ''-ren'': ''nire, hire, gure, zure''. They are the pronominal possessives:

{| {{table}}
|+ Pronominal possessives
|-
! align="center"|Singular
! align="center"|Plural
|-
| 
'''''nire''''' 'my'

'''''hire''''' 'your (very familiar)'

'''''zure''''' 'your (polite or neutral)'

'''''haren, beraren''''' 'his, her, its'

'''''bere''''' 'his, her, its (reflexive)'
|
'''''gure''''' 'our'

'''''zuen''''' 'your'

'''''haien, beraien''''' 'their'

'''''beren''''' 'their (reflexive)'
|}

As has been seen, the demonstratives each have three stems: one for the absolutive singular (''hau, hori, hura''), another for all other singular cases (''hon-, horr-, har-''), and one for the plural, all cases (''haue-, horie-, haie-''). In the plural, they take a ''-k'' suffix in the absolutive, as does ''batzuk'' 'some').

{| {{table}}
|+ Demonstratives and ''bat'' 'one', ''batzuk'' 'some'
|-
! align="center"|Singular absolutive
! align="center"|Singular other
! align="center"|Plural absolutive
! align="center"|Plural other
|-
| 
'''''hau''''' 'this'

'''''hori''''' 'that'

'''''hura''''' 'that (distant)'

'''''bat''''' 'one, a'
|
'''''honek, honi, honetan...'''''

'''''horrek, horri, horretan...'''''

'''''hark, hari, hartan...'''''

'''''batek, bati, batean...'''''
| 
'''''hauek'''''

'''''horiek'''''

'''''haiek'''''

'''''batzuk''''' 'some'
|
'''''hauek, hauei, hauetan...'''''

'''''horiek, horiei, horietan...'''''

'''''haiek, haiei, haietan...'''''

'''''batzuek, batzuei, batzuetan...'''''
|}

====Animate local cases====

As a rule, the local case suffixes given above are not used directly with noun phrases that refer to a person or an animal (called [[animacy|animate]] noun phrases). An inessive, allative or ablative relation affecting such noun phrases may be expressed by using the suffixes inessive ''-gan'', allative ''-gana'', and ablative ''-gandik'', affixed to either the possessive genitive or the absolutive: ''nigan'' 'in me', ''irakaslearengana'' 'to(wards) the teacher' (''irakasle'' 'teacher'), ''zaldiengandik'' 'from the horses' (''zaldi'' 'horse'), ''haur horrengandik'' 'from that child', ''Koldorengana'' 'to(wards) Koldo'.

====Compound case forms====
In addition to the basic case forms given above, further forms are found derived from them through the addition of further suffixes or extensions. Some of the additional forms provide for the expression of more nuanced relations; others have the same or similar meanings to the basic forms, with which they merely contrast stylistically or dialectally:

{| {{table}}
|+ Some compound cases
! align="center"|Basic case
! align="center"|Compound cases
|-
| '''ALLATIVE:''' ''-ra'' 'to'
|
* ''-rat'' 'to, towards'
* ''-rantz'' 'towards'
* ''-raino'' 'as far as'
* ''-rako'' 'for'
|-
| '''ABLATIVE:''' ''-tik'' 'from'
|
* ''-tikan'' same meaning
|-
| '''COMITATIVE:''' ''-ekin'' 'with'
|
* ''-ekila(n)'' same meaning
* ''-ekiko'' 'in relation to'
|-
| '''BENEFACTIVE:''' ''-entzat'' 'for'
|
* ''-entzako'' same meaning
|}

====Adjectival ''-ko''====
The ''-ko'' suffix (see above) may be added to some case forms to make their syntactic function adjectival.

{| {{table}}
|+ Examples of adjectival ''-ko'' after case suffixes
! align="center"|Case
! align="center"|Primary use
! align="center"|Adjectival use
|-
! Allative
|
* ''Errepide honek '''Bilbora''' darama.'' 'This road leads to Bilbao.'
|
* '''''Bilborako''' errepidea berria da.'' 'The Bilbao road (= road to Bilbao) is new.'
{{interlinear|Bilbo-ra-ko|Bilbao-to-''ko''|}}
|-
! Instrumental
|
* ''Liburu hau '''euskaraz''' dago.'' 'This book is in Basque.'
|
* ''Badauzkate '''euskarazko''' liburuak.'' 'They have Basque-language books (= books in Basque).'
{{interlinear|euskara-z-ko|Basque-INSTR-''ko''|}}
|-
! Benefactive
|
* ''Liburu hori '''haurrentzat''' idatzi nuen.'' 'I wrote that book for children.'
|
* '''''Haurrentzako''' liburuak idazten ditut.'' 'I write children's books (= books for children).'
{{interlinear|haurr-entza(t)-ko|child-for.PL.ART-''ko''|}}
|}

Any such adjectivalised forms may be used without an overt head noun, then likely to appear with a suffixed article:

{{columns-start}}
{{interlinear|lang=eu|indent=3|haurrentzakoa|child-for.PL.ART-''ko''-ART|'(the) one for (the) children'}}
{{column}}
{{interlinear|lang=eu|indent=3|haurrentzakoak|child-for.PL.ART-''ko''-PL.ART|'(the) ones for (the) children'}}
{{columns-end}}

Such nominalised adjectival forms may further take case suffixes of their own:

{{columns-start}}
{{interlinear|lang=eu|indent=3|haurrentzakoarekin|child-for.PL.ART-''ko''-with.ART|'with the one for children'}}
{{column}}
{{interlinear|lang=eu|indent=3|euskarazkoentzat|Basque-INSTR-''ko''-for.PL.ART|'for the ones in Basque'}}
{{columns-end}}

While the potential to generate and understand (in a reasonable context) such complex forms is built into Basque grammar and perfectly intelligible to speakers, in practice, the use of such very complex constructions is not uncommon.

====Local cases with adverbs====
The fourth set is local case suffixes (etymologically the primary forms) incorporated into the place adverbs, which gives these following (partly irregular) forms:

{| {{table}}
|+ Place adverbs
|-
! rowspan=2 colspan=2|
! colspan=3 align="center"|Demonstrative
! rowspan=2 align="center"|Interrogative<br>'where?'
|-
! align="center"|'here'
! align="center"|'there (near)'
! align="center"|'there (distant)'
|-
! Inessive
| 'here, there, where?'
| '''''hemen'''''
| '''''hor'''''
| '''''han'''''
| '''''non'''''
|-
! Allative
| 'to here, to there, where to?'
| '''''hona'''''
| '''''horra'''''
| '''''hara'''''
| '''''nora'''''
|-
! Ablative
| 'from here/there, where from?', 'this/that way, which way?'
| '''''hemendik'''''
| '''''hortik'''''
| '''''handik'''''
| '''''nondik'''''
|-
! Genitive
| 'pertaining to here/there/where?'
| '''''hemengo'''''
| '''''horko'''''
| '''''hango'''''
| '''''nongo'''''
|}

Many other adverbs may be adjectivalised with ''-ko''. Some may take certain other case suffixes (usually from set 4), particularly ablative ''-tik/-dik'': {{lang|eu|atzotik}} 'since yesterday', {{lang|eu|urrundik}} 'from far away'.

===Postpositions===
Basque [[postposition]]s are items of sufficient [[Lexicon|lexical]] substance and [[Grammar|grammatical]] autonomy to be treated as separate words (unlike the case suffixes) and specifying relations. They are so called because they follow the word or phrase whose relation they express (compare [[prepositions]], which precede a word or phrase, but do not exist in Basque).

Most Basque postpositions require the [[complement (linguistics)|complement]] after which they are placed to adopt a particular case form (such postpositions are sometimes said to ''govern'' a certain case). Postpositions in Basque furthermore often take a case suffix (or may take several different case suffixes) themselves. An English [[Compound (linguistics)|compound]] preposition is ''on top of'', ''of'' being comparable to the case taken by a Basque noun preceding a postposition (in this case it would be the genitive) and ''on'' is like the case suffix (inessive, in this case) taken by the postposition (to which ''top'' corresponds). The examples on the right show how Basque expresses ''on top of'' and a few other postpositional notions.

{{columns-start}}
{{interlinear|lang=eu|indent=2|harri'''aren''' '''gainean'''|stone-GEN top-INE|of.the.stone on.top|'on top of the stone'}}
{{interlinear|lang=eu|indent=2|lege'''aren''' '''arabera'''|law-GEN rule-ALL|of.the.law to.the.rule|'according to the law'}}
{{column}}
{{interlinear|lang=eu|indent=2|euri'''ari''' '''esker'''|rain-DAT thank|to.the.rain thank(s)|'on account of the rain'}}
{{interlinear|lang=eu|indent=2|diru'''ari''' '''dagokionez'''|money-DAT as-it-is-to-it|'as regards money'}}
{{columns-end}}

The most typical Basque postpositions are built on nominal structures: ''-aren gainean'' 'on top of' centres on the word ''gain'' 'top', but not all postpositional nuclei consist of nouns that can be used independently of the postpositional construction in which they participate.

One subset of postpositions that express spatial relationships (again exemplified by ''gainean'') have a lexical stem whose syntactic behaviour is roughly noun-like but is limited to a much narrower range of possible patterns (in the grammars of some non-European languages such elements are called ''[[relational noun]]s'' or ''relationals''). Here are some Basque relationals:

{| {{table}}
|+ Some relationals
| 
* '''''arte-''''' 'between, among'
* '''''atze-''''' 'behind, rear'
* '''''aurre-''''' '(in) front'
* '''''azpi-''''' 'below, underside'
* '''''barru-''''' 'inside'
|
* '''''erdi-''''' 'middle'
* '''''gain-''''' '(on) top, above'
* '''''inguru-''''' 'around'
* '''''ondo-''''' 'next to, beside'
|}

Typical Basque relationals can enter into two possible relations with the preceding (governed) complement: firstly, the complement can be a noun phrase in a possessive genitive relation:

{{columns-start}}
{{interlinear|lang=eu|indent=2|mendi'''aren''' gainean|of.the.mountain on.top|'on top of the mountain'}}
{{interlinear|lang=eu|indent=2|mendi'''en''' gainean|of.the.mountains on.top|'on top of the mountains'}}
{{column}}
{{interlinear|lang=eu|indent=2|mendi txiki hon'''en''' gainean|mountain small of.this on.top|'on top of this small mountain'}}
{{interlinear|lang=eu|indent=2|ni'''re''' gainean|of.me/my on.top|'on (top of) me'}}
{{columns-end}}

secondly, the complement can be an unsuffixed noun (not a noun phrase) in a relation resembling a lexical compound:

{{interlinear|lang=eu|indent=2|mendi gainean|mountain on.top|'on top of the mountain, on the mountain top'}}

In these examples, the relational (''gain-'') takes the set 1 (singular) inessive case suffix (''-(e)an''), as in ''mendiaren gain'''ean''''' and these further examples,

{{columns-start}}
{{interlinear|lang=eu|indent=2|mahai(aren) azpi'''an'''|(of.the).table at.bottom|'under the table'}}
{{interlinear|lang=eu|indent=2|etxe(aren) barru'''an'''|(of.the).house at.inside|'inside the house'}}
{{column}}
{{interlinear|lang=eu|indent=2|begien erdi'''an'''|of.the.eyes in.middle|'between the eyes'}}
{{columns-end}}

but other local case suffixes (glossed in capitals) may occur instead of the inessive as sense or usage conventions require, for example,

{{columns-start}}
{{interlinear|lang=eu|indent=2|glossing=no abbr|etxe(aren) barru'''ra'''|(of.the).house TO.inside|'into the house'}}
{{interlinear|lang=eu|indent=2|glossing=no abbr|nire atze'''tik'''|of.me/my FROM/THROUGH.back|'behind me, following me'}}
{{column}}
{{interlinear|lang=eu|indent=2|glossing=no abbr|mendi(aren) gain'''eko''' gurutzea|(of.the).mountain {OF/PERTAINING TO.top} the.cross|'the cross on top of the mountain'}}
{{columns-end}}

The relationals are often used in an adverbial function without a preceding complement (thus not as postpositions):

* '''''barruan''' dago'' 'he/she/it is inside' [at.inside]
* '''''barrura''' doa'' 'he/she/it is going inside' [to.inside]
* '''''Aurrera!''''' 'Forwards! Onwards!' [to.front]
* '''''atzetik aurrera''''' 'backwards, back-to-front' [from.back to.front]

There are a few relationals, such as ''kanpo-'' 'outside', ''goi-'' 'up' and ''behe-'' 'down', that cannot be preceded by a complement of the kind described but have an adverbial uses resembling them: ''Kanpora noa'' 'I'm going outside', ''Goian dago'' 'It is above', etc. The irregular allative of ''goi'' is ''gora'' 'up(wards)'.

===Comparison===
In English, the [[comparative]] and [[superlative]] of many adjectives and adverbs are formed by adding the suffixes ''-er'' and ''-est'' respectively (from ''big'', for example, ''bigger'' and ''biggest'' are formed). Basque adjectives and adverbs similarly take such suffixes, but there are three morphologically derived degrees of comparison. From ''handi'' 'big' is ''handiago'' 'bigger', ''handien(a)'' '(the) biggest' (where ''-a'' is the article) and ''handiegi'' 'too big':

{| {{table}}
|+ Comparison suffixes
|-
| 
* COMPARATIVE: '''''-ago''''' '-er, more...'
* SUPERLATIVE: '''''-en(a)''''' '(the) -est, most...'
* EXCESSIVE: '''''-egi''''' 'too...'
|}

Comparative, superlative and excessive adjectives may be used in the same syntactic frames as adjectives in the positive (basic) degree: compare {{lang|eu|mendi altuak}} 'high mountains' [mountain high.PLURAL.ART] and ''mendi altuagoak'' 'higher mountains' [mountain higher.PLURAL.ART]. The noun preceding a superlative often takes the partitive suffix ''-(r)ik'', either {{lang|eu|mendi altuenak}} or {{lang|eu|mendirik altuenak}} 'the highest mountains' is possible.

Occasionally, such suffixes may be added to other word forms: from ''gora'' 'up' (irregular allative of the relational ''goi-'', hence literally 'to above') can be formed ''gorago'' (for ''gora + -ago''), 'more up', i.e. 'higher'. Just as English has a few irregular forms of comparison such as ''better'' and ''best'' (from ''good'' or ''well''), so does Basque: ''on'' 'good' but ''hobe'' 'better'. Other ways of comparing quality or manner, in both Basque and English, involve using a separate word, such as ''hain handi'' 'so big'.

Special words are used to compare quantities (how much or how many of something), such as {{lang|eu|gehiago}} 'more', {{lang|eu|gehien(a)}} '(the) most', {{lang|eu|gehiegi}} 'too much, too many'. They follow the noun quantified: {{lang|eu|liburu gehiago}} 'more books', {{lang|eu|gatz gehiegi}} 'too much salt', and {{lang|eu|hainbeste}} 'so much, so many', which precedes the noun: {{lang|eu|hainbeste diru}} 'so much money'. All of them can also be used adverbially (comparing the extent to which something occurs or is the case): {{lang|eu|Ez pentsatu hainbeste!}} 'Don't think so much!'.

Comparisons may involve reference to a ''standard (of comparison)'': compare ''English is easier'' (no standard mentioned) to ''English is easier '''than Basque''''' (there, Basque is referred to as the standard of comparison). English puts the word ''than'' in front of the standard. In ''Fish is as expensive '''as meat''''', ''meat'' is the standard, indicated by the second ''as'' (compare ''Fish is as expensive'' or ''Fish is so expensive'', where no standard is mentioned). Comparisons of the ''as...as'' type are called ''[[equative case|equative]]''. With superlatives, as in ''Donostia is the prettiest city '''in the Basque Country''''', on the other hand, ''the Basque Country'' is not really a standard but a ''domain'' or range within which the superlative applies. The structures used in such comparisons in Basque are as follows (the second table shows examples); the word orders shown are the most common and considered basic, but certain variations are also possible.

{| {{table}}
|+ Comparison constructions
! rowspan=2 align="center"|
! colspan=2 align="center"|Qualitative
! colspan=2 align="center"|Quantitative
|-
! align="center"|Construction
! align="center"|Meaning
! align="center"|Construction
! align="center"|Meaning
|-
! align="center"|Comparative
| STANDARD ''baino'' COMPARATIVE
| ADJ/ADV-er than STANDARD
| STANDARD ''baino'' NOUN ''gehiago''
| more NOUN(s) than STANDARD
|-
! align="center"|Superlative
| DOMAIN''-(e)ko'' NOUN''-(r)ik'' SUPERLATIVE''-a''
| the ADJ/ADV-est NOUN in the DOMAIN
| DOMAIN''-(e)ko'' NOUN''-(r)ik gehienak'' 
| most NOUNs in the DOMAIN
|-
! align="center"|Equative
| STANDARD ''bezain'' ADJ/ADV
| as ADJ/ADV as STANDARD
| STANDARD ''adina'' NOUN
| as much/many NOUN(s) as STANDARD
|}

{| {{table}}
|+ Examples of comparison constructions
! colspan=2 align="center"|
! align="center"|Example
! align="center"|Meaning
|-
! rowspan=2 align="center"|Comparative
! align="center"|Qualitative
| ''Euskara ingelesa '''baino''' erraz'''ago'''a da.''
| 'Basque is easier than English.'
|-
! align="center"|Quantitative
| ''Zuk nik '''baino''' diru '''gehiago''' daukazu.''
| 'You've got more money than me.'
|-
! rowspan=2 align="center"|Superlative
! align="center"|Qualitative
| ''Donostia Euskal Herri'''ko''' hiri'''rik''' polit'''ena''' da.''
| 'Donostia is the prettiest city in the Basque Country.'
|-
! align="center"|Quantitative
| ''Araba'''ko''' lanpostu'''rik gehienak''' Gasteizen daude.''
| 'Most of the jobs in Araba are in Gasteiz.'
|-
! rowspan=2 align="center"|Equative
! align="center"|Qualitative
| ''Arraina haragia '''bezain''' garestia da.''
| 'Fish is as expensive as meat.'
|-
! align="center"|Quantitative
| ''Zuk nik '''adina''' lagun dituzu.''
| 'You have as many friends as I (do).'
|}

==Verbs==

{{main|Basque verbs}}

Although several verbal categories are expressed [[morphology (linguistics)|morphologically]], [[periphrastic]] [[grammatical tense|tense]] formations predominate. Up to three [[Verb argument|arguments]] (subject, direct object and indirect object) can be indexed morphologically on single verb forms, and further sets of [[synthetic language|synthetic]] [[allocutive]] forms make for an even more complex morphology. The verb is also an area of the language subject to a fair amount of dialectal variation. Due to the complexity of this subject and its traditional centrality in descriptions of Basque grammar, it is the subject of a separate article.

==Syntax==

===Information structure===

====The focus rule and the topic rule====

Basque word order is largely determined by the notions of [[Focus (linguistics)|focus]] and [[Topic (linguistics)|topic]] which are employed to decide how to "package" or structure the [[proposition]]al content (information) in [[utterance]]s. Focus is a [[Semantic feature|feature]] that attaches to a part of a sentence considered to contain the most important information, the "point" of the utterance. Thus in different discourse contexts, the focus of the same (basic) sentence can be on different parts, giving rise (in a language like Basque) to different grammatical forms. Topic, on the other hand, refers to a part of a sentence that serves to put the information it contains into context, i.e. to establish "what we are talking about". Basque [[word order]] involves in a very basic way two rules, the "focus rule" and the "topic rule", as follows:

* '''Focus rule:''' Whichever [[Constituent (linguistics)|constituent]] of a sentence is in focus immediately precedes the verb.
* '''Topic rule:''' A topic is emphasised by placing it at the beginning of the sentence.

Compare, for example:

{{columns-start}}
{{interlinear|lang=eu|indent=2|
|Txakurrek '''hezurrak''' jaten dituzte.
|dog.PL.ART.ERG bone.PL.ART eat.IMPERF AUX
|'Dogs eat bones.'}}
* Topic: {{lang|eu|Txakurrek}} 'dogs'
* Focus: {{lang|eu|'''hezurrak'''}} 'bones'
* Verb: {{lang|eu|jaten dituzte}} '(they) eat (them)'
{{column}}
{{interlinear|lang=eu|indent=2|
|Hezurrak '''txakurrek''' jaten dituzte.
|bone.PL.ART dog.PL.ART.ERG eat.IMPERF AUX
|'Dogs eat bones,' 'Bones are eaten by dogs,' 'It is dogs who eat bones.'}}
* Topic: {{lang|eu|Hezurrak}} 'bones'
* Focus: {{lang|eu|'''txakurrek'''}} 'dogs'
* Verb: {{lang|eu|jaten dituzte}} '(they) eat (them)'
{{columns-end}}

Basque is sometimes called an [[subject–object–verb|SOV]] (i.e. subject–object–verb) language, but as one can see, the order of elements in the Basque sentence is not rigidly determined by grammatical roles (such as [[Subject (grammar)|subject]] and [[Object (grammar)|object]]) and has to do with other criteria (such as focus and topic). In Basque the SOV is more common and less [[Markedness|marked]] than the OSV order, although each is appropriate in different contexts (as are other word orders). That is to say, it is more common and less marked (other things being equal) for the subject to be topic and for the object to be in focus than vice versa. This may be explained by intrinsic qualities of the concepts "subject" and "object". It is compatible with the cross-linguistic tendency for topichood to be a characteristic feature of prototypical [[Subject (grammar)|subjects]], for example.

====Verbal focus====

A possibility seemingly not taken into account by the above focus rule, which states that the focused element precedes the verb, is the circumstance wherein the verb itself is in focus. One situation in which this occurs is a [[clause]] with no (or no focused) non-verbal [[Constituent (linguistics)|constituents]], only perhaps a topic-subject, as in 'He knows' or 'John is coming' (in contexts where 'he' or 'John' are not focused). Of course there may be other constituents, as long as none of them are focused, e.g. 'She has money' (where the point of the utterance is not to tell us ''what'' she has, but whether or not she has it). This type of sentence is sometimes described as one in which what is in focus is not so much the verb as the affirmation of the [[Predicate (grammar)|predicate]]; i.e. 'She has money' does not really stand in contrast to, say, 'She eats money', but only to 'She doesn't have money'. For the present practical purpose this distinction may be ignored and the term "verbal focus" will be applied to such cases.

The most notable verb-focusing strategy in Basque grammar is use of the affirmative prefix ''ba-''. Attached to a synthetically [[Grammatical conjugation|conjugated]] [[finite verb]], this has the effect of putting that verb (or its affirmation, if one prefers) in focus, thereby implying that whatever (if anything) precedes the verb is not in focus. Thus the use of ''ba-'' looks as if it blocks application of the general focus rule which assigns focus to an element in pre-verbal position.

{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
{{interlinear|'''Berak''' daki.|he.ERG (he).knows.(it)|'He knows,' 'He's the one who knows.'}}
* Focus: '''''berak''''' 'he'
* Verb: ''daki'' '(he) knows (it)'

{{col-break}}
{{interlinear|'''Ba'''daki.|''ba''-(he).knows.(it)|'He ''knows''.'}}
* Verb/Focus: '''''(ba)daki''''' '(he) knows (it)'

{{col-break}}
''Berak '''ba'''daki.'' (or: '''''Ba'''daki berak.'')

'(As for) him, he ''knows'',' 'He knows, (he does).'
* Topic: ''Berak'' 'he'
* Verb/Focus: '''''(ba)daki''''' '(he) knows (it)'
{{col-end}}

The affirmative use of ''ba-'' (not to confused with the [[Homophony|homophonous]] subordinating prefix meaning 'if') is normally used with synthetic finite forms, thus also {{lang|eu|John badator}} or ''Badator John'' 'John is coming' (as opposed to {{lang|eu|John dator}} '' 'John'' is coming'), ''Badu dirua'' (or in western Basque ''Badauka dirua'') 'She has money'. In most varieties of Basque, however, affirmative ''ba-'' is not so common with compound [[Tense (grammar)|tenses]] or compound verbs.

To place a compound verb form (or its affirmation) in focus, it may be enough to place the main [[Stress (linguistics)|sentence stress]] (which normally goes on the focused item) on the first component of the verbal compound expression. Here it seems that the [[Auxiliary verb|auxiliary]] part of the expression is treated as representing the "verb" in the general focus rule, thereby predictably throwing the focus onto the preceding component, which is now the main verb. In western dialects an alternative procedure used to emphasise the placement of focus on the verb is to make this a [[Complement (linguistics)|complement]] of the verb ''egin'' 'do'.

{|
| width="30%"; |
'''''Bérak''' ikusi du.''

'' 'He'' has seen it,' 'He's the one who has seen it.'
* Focus: '''''berak''''' 'he'
* Verb: ''ikusi du'' '(he) has seen (it)'
| width="30%"; |
'''''Ikúsi''' du.''

'He has seen it (he has indeed!).'
* Verb/Focus: '''''ikusi du''''' '(he) has seen (it)'
|
''BERAK '''ikúsi''' du.'' (or: '''''Ikúsi''' du BERAK.'')

'(As for) him, he has (indeed) seen it.'
* Topic: ''BERAK'' 'he'
* Verb/Focus: '''''ikusi du''''' '(he) has seen (it)'

Western Basque alternative:

''(Berak) ikusi egin du.'' 
|}

====Further observations on focus and topic====
There are certain exceptions to the general focus rule:

[[Heavy NP shift|"Heavy"]] constituents may be placed after an unfocused verb even when they are ([[Pragmatics|pragmatically]]) focused.

* ''Atzo ikusi nuen '''asto bat betaurrekoekin'''.'' 'Yesterday I saw a donkey with (i.e. wearing) glasses.'

[[Imperative mood|Imperative]] verbs often precede other constituents (except for topics).

* '''''Ekarri''' hona bi botila ardo mesedez!'' 'Bring two bottles of wine here please!'
* ''Bihar arratsaldean, '''zatoz''' nire etxera.'' 'Tomorrow afternoon, come to my house.'

Some [[subordinate clause]]s are exempt from certain rules. For example, an unfocused verb is allowed to occur without any focused clause constituent in such clauses.

* '''''datorren''' astean'' 'next week' (lit. 'the week that is coming', 'the coming week')
* '''''dakigunez''''' 'as we know'

Systematic exceptions apart, focus assignment (as defined in the preceding sections) is an obligatory feature of Basque clauses. Because it is obligatory and automatic, such focus assignment need not be pragmatically [[Markedness|marked]] and does not necessarily signify emphatic focusing or [[foregrounding]]. This observation is particularly applicable when focus is assigned in accordance with predictable or prototypical patterns, such as when the direct object takes the focus position in a transitive clause, or when the verb is formally focused in an intransitive clause.

In some varieties or styles of Basque, e.g. in poetic diction, one may achieve more emphatic focus (even on an object) by inverting the usual verb-auxiliary order: {{lang|eu|Txakurrek hezurrak dituzte jaten.}} In ordinary colloquial usage many speakers do not allow this, but some allow other such "inversions", e.g. with compound verbs (light-verb constructions), e.g. normal ''Irakaslearekin hitz egingo dut'' 'I'll speak to the teacher' (ordinary focus on ''irakaslearekin'') versus more marked ''Irakaslearekin egingo dut hitz'' (emphatic focus on ''irakaslearekin'').

A topic may be backgrounded (although arguably still remaining a topic) by placement at the end of a sentence rather than at the beginning, e.g. {{lang|eu|Hezurrak jaten dituzte txakurrek}}, roughly 'They eat bones, dogs'; so also {{lang|eu|Ez dakit, nik}} 'I don't know', where {{lang|eu|nik}} is no doubt a topic of sorts since if it weren't there would be no need to mention it at all (unmarked: {{lang|eu|Ez dakit}}).

====Clause-initial verbs====

Although the following restrictions on the placement of verbs within the clause are the outcome of the various rules already given, it may be useful to summarise those restrictions here.

A '''finite verb form''' (a synthetically conjugative verb or auxiliary) cannot stand in absolute clause-initial position unless:
# it is preceded by affirmative (verb-focusing) ''ba-''...
#: ''Badakit.'' 'I know.'
# it is preceded by negative ''ez'' (see below)...
#: '''''Ez dauka''' dirurik.'' 'She hasn't got any money.'
# it is imperative (or optative)...
#: '''''Zatoz''' hona!'' 'Come here!'
#: '''''Datorrela''' bihar.'' 'Let him come tomorrow.'
# certain subordinate clauses...
#: '''''datorren''' astean'' 'next week'

A '''compound verb form''' (a verb in a compound tense or a compound verb construction) may be clause-initial in cases of verbal focus:

* ''Ikusi (egin) du.'' 'He has seen it.'
* ''Maite nau.'' 'He loves me.'

===Negation===
Negation is expressed by ''ez'' preceding the [[finite verb]] form.  

* ''John '''ez dator.''''' (Or: '''''Ez dator''' John.'') 'John is not coming.'

If there is no finite verb in the [[clause]], such as when the [[participle]] on its own is used as an [[Imperative mood|imperative]] or in [[Non-finite verb|non-finite]] [[subordinate clause]]s, ''ez'' may precede a [[non-finite verb]]. (VN stands for [[verbal noun]] here.)

* '''''Ez etorri'''!'' 'Do not come!'
{{interlinear|lang=eu|indent=2|Esan nion '''ez''' '''etortzeko'''.|say.PTCP AUX not come.VN-''ko''|'I told him not to come.'}}

There is a strong tendency for other sentence [[Constituent (linguistics)|constituents]] to ''follow'' a negated finite verb, except when [[Topic (linguistics)|topicalised]]. Thus the general focus rule (see above) does not apply with negated finite verb forms (in the same way as it doesn't apply with verbs with the affirmative ''ba-'' prefix, see also above).

{{interlinear|lang=eu|indent=2|Ez dauka '''dirurik'''.|not (she).has.(it) money.ART|'She hasn't got any money.'}}
* cf. ''Dirurik ez dauka.'' 'Money she hasn't got.' (here 'money' is emphatically topicalised or foregrounded)

Compound tense forms of verbs, and also compound verbs, are negated by placing ''ez'' in front of the finite [[Auxiliary verb|auxiliary]] (or [[light verb]]); the other components of the verbal construction are normally placed ''after'' the negated finite form.

{{columns-start}}
{{interlinear|lang=eu|indent=2|Ez du '''ikusi'''.|not AUX see.PTCP|'He hasn't seen it.'|bottom=(cf. ''Ikusi du.'' 'He has seen it.')}}
{{column}}
{{interlinear|lang=eu|indent=2|Johnek ez nau '''maite'''.|John.ERG not AUX love|'John doesn't love me.'|bottom=(cf. ''Johnek maite nau.'' 'John loves me.')}}
{{columns-end}}

In this construction the postposed verb component(s) may be separated from the finite auxiliary or light verb. Focused constituents, unless somewhat heavy, will be placed between the two.

{{columns-start}}
{{interlinear|lang=eu|indent=2|Ez dut '''inor''' ikusi hemen.|not AUX anyone see.PTCP here|'I haven't seen anyone here.'}}
{{interlinear|lang=eu|indent=2|Berak ez du '''John''' maite.|he.ERG not AUX John love|'He doesn't love John.'}}
{{column}}
{{interlinear|lang=eu|indent=2|Ez dut irakurri '''liburu''' '''hori'''.|not AUX read.PTCP book that|'I haven't read that book.'}}
{{columns-end}}

An indefinite subject of an intransitive verb, or an indefinite direct object of a transitive verb, usually take the negative polarity article ''-(r)ik'' instead of the normal article ''-a, -ak'' in negative (or other negative-polar) sentences.

{{columns-start}}
{{interlinear|lang=eu|indent=2|Ez dut '''dirurik''' ikusi hemen.|not AUX money.-''ik'' see.PTCP here|'I haven't seen any money here.'}}
{{interlinear|lang=eu|indent=2|Ez dago '''urik'''.|not is water-''ik''|There is no water.'}}
{{column}}
{{interlinear|lang=eu|indent=2|Badago '''urik'''?|''ba''-is water-''ik''|'Is there any water?'}}
{{columns-end}}

There are no true negative pronouns (or adverbs, etc.) as such. The negative-polar pronouns etc. are used in negative contexts (and other negative-polarity contexts too). All such words may be combined directly with ''ez'' (or ''gabe'' 'without', which also has an intrinsically negative meaning). Some speakers do accept uses of negative-polar words in isolation, with ''ez'' implicit.

{{columns-start}}
{{interlinear|lang=eu|indent=2|Ez dut '''inor''' ikusi hemen.|not AUX anyone see.PTCP here|'I haven't seen anyone (I have seen no one) here.'}}
{{interlinear|lang=eu|indent=2|Ez dut '''ezer''' nahi.|not I.have.(it) anything want|'I don't want anything.'}}
{{interlinear|lang=eu|indent=2|Ez dago '''inon'''.|not (it).is anywhere|'It isn't anywhere.'}}
{{column}}
{{interlinear|lang=eu|indent=2|Ba al dago '''inor'''?|''ba'' INTERR is anyone|'Is there anyone (there)?'}}
{{interlinear|lang=eu|indent=2|Inor ez!|anyone not|'No one!'}}
{{interlinear|lang=eu|indent=2|'''Ezer''' '''gabe''' etorri da.|anything without come.PTCP AUX|'He has come without anything.'}}
{{columns-end}}

===Questions===

Yes–no [[question]]s either take the same form as the corresponding statement, or incorporate a question [[Marker (linguistics)|marker]].

* ''John ikusi duzu?'' or ''John ikusi '''al''' duzu?'' 'Have you seen John?'<br>[John see.PARTICIPLE (''al'') AUXILIARY]
* ''Badaki?'' or ''Ba '''al''' daki?'' 'Does he know?' [''ba'' (''al'') he.knows.it]

There are two [[interrogative particle|question markers]]: ''al'' for straightforward yes–no questions, and ''ote'' for tentative questions of any kind (yes–no or not). Both ''al'' and ''ote'' are placed immediately in front of the [[finite verb]] form. The question marker ''al'' is not used pan-dialectally. In some dialects the same function is performed by a suffix ''-a'' attached to the finite verb form (thus the equivalents of the above examples are ''John ikusi duzu(i)a?'' and ''Badakia?''). Still other dialects lack either interrogative ''al'' or interrogative ''-a''.

See Negation above concerning the use of [[negative polarity item]]s; these may occur in yes–no questions.

{{columns-start}}
{{interlinear|lang=eu|indent=2|Badator '''inor'''?|''ba''-(he).comes anyone|'Is anyone coming?'}}
{{column}}
{{interlinear|lang=eu|indent=2|'''Ardorik''' edan duzu?|wine-''ik'' drink.PTCP AUX|'Have you drunk any wine?'}}
{{columns-end}}

In choice questions, 'or' is either ''ala'' or ''edo'', although the former is often taught as more correct.

* ''Zer nahiago duzu, beltza '''ala''' gorria?'' 'What do you prefer, red wine or rosé?' ({{lit}} 'black or red')

{| {{table}}
|+ Question words (see also Pronouns and adverbs)
| 
* '''''nor''''' 'who'
* '''''zer''''' 'what'
* '''''zein''''' 'which'
* '''''zenbat''''' 'how many'
|
* '''''non''''' 'where'
* '''''noiz''''' 'when'
* '''''nola''''' 'how'
* '''''zergatik''''' 'why'
|}

[[Word order]] in wh-questions (i.e. those with question words) is fully accounted for by the general rules of Basque word order, granted a further rule for Basque (shared by many other languages) which states that [[interrogative word]]s and phrases (e.g. ''nor'' 'who?', {{lang|eu|zein etxe zuritan?}} 'in which white house?', {{lang|eu|zenbat diru}} 'how much money?', etc.) are obligatorily focused.

Therefore, wh-expressions must immediately precede the verb, and none of the verb-focusing constructions are possible (since these would result in moving the focus away from the wh-expression).

* '''''Zer''' da hau?'' 'What is this?'
* '''''Nora''' zoaz?'' 'Where are you going?'
* '''''Nora''' joango zara?'' 'Where will you go?'
* '''''Non''' bizi da zure laguna?'' 'Where does your friend live?'
* '''''Zenbat etxetan''' bizi izan zara zure bizitzan?'' 'How many houses have you lived in <!-- not a mistake-->in your life?'
* NOT: *'''''Nora''' bazoaz?'' 'Where are you going?' (because ''ba-'' focuses ''zoaz'', the verb, but ''nora'', the question word, needs to have the focus)

The interrogative phrase is often placed first, but as in other sentences, topics may be foregrounded through fronting and so precede the wh-expression; such constructions are fairly common in Basque.

* '''''Hau''' zer da?'' 'What is ''this''?'
* ''Eta '''zure laguna''' non bizi da?'' 'And your friend, where does she live?'
* '''''Zure bizitzan''' zenbat etxetan bizi izan zara?'' 'In your life how many houses have you lived in?'

==Bibliography==

* Agirre Berezibar, J.M. (1991). ''Euskal gramatika deskriptiboa.'' Bilbao: Labayru Ikastegia. (in Basque)
* Allières, Jacques (1979). ''Manuel pratique de basque.'' Paris: Picard. (in French)
* Altube, S. (1929/1975). ''Erderismos.'' Bilbao. (in Spanish)
* Azkue, R.M. (1905/1969). ''Morfología vasca.'' Bilbao: La Gran Enciclopedia Vasca. (in Spanish)
* Campión, Arturo (1884). ''Gramática de los cuatro dialectos literarios de la lengua euskara.'' Bilbao: La Gran Enciclopedia Vasca. (in Spanish)
* Goenaga, Patxi (1980). ''Gramatika bideetan'' (second edition). Donostia: Erein. (in Basque)
* Hualde, José Ignacio & Ortiz de Urbina, Jon, eds. (2003). ''A grammar of Basque.'' Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2003. {{ISBN|3-11-017683-1}}.
* King, Alan R. (1994). ''The Basque language: A practical introduction.'' University of Nevada Press. {{ISBN|0-87417-155-5}}.
* King, Alan R. & Olaizola Elordi, Begotxu (1996). ''Colloquial Basque: A complete language course.'' London and New York: Routledge. {{ISBN|0-415-12109-4}}.
* [[Pierre Lafitte Ithurralde|Lafitte, Pierre]] (1944/1979). ''Grammaire basque : navarro-labourdin littéraire.'' Donostia: Elkar. (in French)
* {{citation |first=Rudolf P.G. de | last=Rijk |author-link=Rudolf de Rijk |title=Standard Basque: a progressive grammar |publisher=[[MIT Press]] |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts |year=2008 }}
* Saltarelli, M. (1988). ''Basque.'' London: Croom Helm.
* Trask, R, Larry (1996). ''The history of Basque.'' London and New York: Routledge. {{ISBN|0-415-13116-2}}.

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INSTR:instrumental
</div><section end="list-of-glossing-abbreviations"/>

{{Language grammars}} 

[[Category:Basque grammar| ]]