View source for Bakelite

{{Short description|First synthetic plastic}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=February 2018}}
{{Chembox
|ImageFile = Bakelit Struktur.svg
|ImageSize =
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|Section1={{Chembox Identifiers
| CASNo = 9003-35-4
| ChemSpiderID = none
| SMILES = Oc0ccccc0Cc0cc(C1)c(O)c(c0)Cc0c(O)ccc(c0)Cc0ccc(O)c(c0)Cc0c(O)ccc(c0)Cc0c(O)ccc(c0)Cc0c(O)c(C2)cc(c0)Cc0c(O)ccc(c0)Cc(c0O)cc2cc0Cc0cc(Cc2ccc(O)cc2)c(O)c(c0)Cc0c(O)ccc(c0)C1
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|Section2 = {{Chembox Properties
| Formula = (C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>6</sub>O·CH<sub>2</sub>O)<sub>n</sub>
| MolarMass = Variable
| Appearance = Brown solid
| Density = 1.3 g/cm<sup>3</sup><ref name=b1>{{cite book|author1=Laughton M A |author2=Say M G |title=Electrical Engineer's Reference Book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N9z8BAAAQBAJ&pg=SA1-PA21|date=2013|publisher=Elsevier|isbn=978-1-4831-0263-4|pages=1.21}}</ref>
| ThermalConductivity = 0.2 W/(m·K)<ref name=b1/>
| RefractIndex = 1.63<ref>{{cite book|author=Tickell, F. G. |title=The techniques of sedimentary mineralogy|url=https://archive.org/details/techniquesofsedi0000tick|url-access=registration |date=2011|publisher=Elsevier|isbn=978-0-08-086914-8|page=[https://archive.org/details/techniquesofsedi0000tick/page/57 57]}}</ref>
| MeltingPt =
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| HeatCapacity = 0.92 kJ/(kg·K)<ref name=b1/>
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'''Bakelite''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|b|eɪ|k|ə|l|aɪ|t}} {{Respell|BAY|kə|lyte}}), formally '''{{Soft hyphen|poly|oxy|benzyl|methylen|glycol|anhydride}}''', is a [[thermosetting polymer|thermosetting]] [[phenol formaldehyde resin]], formed from a [[condensation reaction]] of [[phenol]] with [[formaldehyde]]. The first [[plastic]] made from synthetic components, it was developed by Belgian chemist [[Leo Baekeland]] in [[Yonkers, New York]], in 1907, and patented on December 7, 1909.<ref name="patent">{{US patent|942699A}}</ref>

Bakelite was one of the first plastic-like materials to be introduced into the modern world and was popular because it could be [[Molding (process)|molded]] and then hardened into any shape.

Because of its electrical [[nonconductor|nonconductivity]] and heat-resistant properties, it became a great commercial success. It was used in [[electrical insulators]], radio and telephone casings, and such diverse products as kitchenware, jewelry, pipe stems, children's toys, and firearms.

The [[retro]] appeal of old Bakelite products has made them collectible.<ref name=CookSlessor>{{cite book|last1=Cook|first1=Patrick |last2=Slessor |first2=Catherine|title=An illustrated guide to bakelite collectables |date=1998 |publisher=Quantum |location=London |isbn=9781861602121 }}<!--|access-date=February 23, 2015--></ref>

The creation of a synthetic plastic was revolutionary for the chemical industry, which at the time made most of its income from cloth dyes and explosives. Bakelite's commercial success inspired the industry to develop other synthetic plastics. As the world's first commercial [[synthetic plastic]],  Bakelite was named a [[National Historic Chemical Landmarks|National Historic Chemical Landmark]] by the [[American Chemical Society]].<ref name=Landmark>{{cite web|last1=American Chemical Society National Historic Chemical Landmarks|title=Bakelite: The World's First Synthetic Plastic|url=http://www.acs.org/content/acs/en/education/whatischemistry/landmarks/bakelite.html|access-date=February 23, 2015}}</ref>

==History==
The reaction between phenol and aldehyde was first reported in 1872 by [[Adolf von Baeyer]], though its use as a commercial product was not considered at the time.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.chemistry-online.com/organic-chemistry/named-reactions/bakelite-process/ | title=▷ Bakelite process | date=February 14, 2023 }}</ref>

[[Leo Baekeland]] was already wealthy due to his invention of Velox [[photographic paper]] when he began to investigate the reactions of [[phenol]] and [[formaldehyde]] in his home laboratory. Chemists had begun to recognize that many natural resins and fibers were [[polymer]]s.{{Source?|date=December 2024|reason=way too early}} Baekeland's initial intent was to find a replacement for [[shellac]], a material in limited supply because it was made naturally from the secretion of [[lac insect]]s (specifically ''[[Kerria lacca]]''). He produced a soluble phenol-formaldehyde shellac called [[Novolak]], but it was not a market success,<ref name="Landmark"/> even though it is still used to this day{{cn|date=March 2025}} (e.g., as a [[photoresist]]).

He then began experimenting on strengthening wood by impregnating it with a synthetic resin rather than coating it.<ref name="Landmark"/> By controlling the pressure and temperature applied to phenol and formaldehyde, he produced a hard moldable material that he named Bakelite, after himself<ref name="time" >{{cite magazine
| last = Amato | first = Ivan
| title = Leo Baekeland
| magazine = [[Time (magazine)|Time]] | date = March 29, 1999
| url = http://www.time.com/time/time100/scientist/profile/baekeland.html
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20000407201944/http://www.time.com/time/time100/scientist/profile/baekeland.html
| url-status = dead
| archive-date = April 7, 2000
}}</ref><ref name="History">{{cite web
| title = Leo Baekeland
| work = Plastics
| date = June 28, 2000
| url = http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/plastic.htm
}}</ref> and the heat curing process it required. It was the first synthetic [[thermoset]]ting plastic produced, and Baekeland speculated on "the thousand and one&nbsp;... articles" it could be used to make.<ref name="Meikle"/>{{rp|58–59}} He considered the possibilities of using a wide variety of filling materials, including cotton, powdered bronze, and slate dust, but was most successful with wood and asbestos fibers,<ref name="Meikle"/> though [[asbestos]] was gradually abandoned by all manufacturers in the latter quarter of the 20th century due to stricter environmental laws.<ref name="fundermax.at">{{cite web |url=https://www.fundermax.at/fileadmin/redakteure/user_upload/Exterior_Technik_2020_GB_web.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.fundermax.at/fileadmin/redakteure/user_upload/Exterior_Technik_2020_GB_web.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |title=Technique Exterior |publisher=Fundermax |date=December 2020 |access-date=24 May 2022}}</ref>{{rp|9}}<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.asbestos123.com/news/asbestos-in-vintage-products/#:~:text=However%2C%20vintage%20Bakelite%20telephones%20contain,subsequently%20be%20inhaled%20and%20ingested | title=The Risk of Asbestos Exposure from Vintage Products &#124; Asbestos 123 }}</ref>

Baekeland filed a substantial number of related patents.<ref name="Landmark"/> Bakelite, his "method of making insoluble products of phenol and formaldehyde", was filed on July 13, 1907, and granted on December 7, 1909.<ref name="Patent942699">{{US patent reference
| number= 942699
| issue-date=December 7, 1909
| inventor= Leo H. Baekeland
| title= Method of making insoluble products of phenol and formaldehyde
}}</ref> He also filed for patent protection in other countries, including Belgium, Canada, Denmark, Hungary, Japan, Mexico, Russia, and Spain.<ref name=Mercelis>{{cite journal|last1=Mercelis|first1=Joris|title=Leo Baekeland's Transatlantic Struggle for Bakelite: Patenting Inside and Outside of America|journal=Technology and Culture|year=2012|volume=53|issue=2|pages=366–400|url=https://www.academia.edu/4217504|access-date=February 23, 2015|doi=10.1353/tech.2012.0067|s2cid=145724031}}</ref> He announced his invention at a meeting of the [[American Chemical Society]] on February 5, 1909.<ref>{{cite news
| title=New Chemical Substance
| work=[[The New York Times]]
| date=February 6, 1909
| url=https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1909/02/06/101025892.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1909/02/06/101025892.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live
}}</ref>

[[File:First Semi-commercial Bakelizer 1935 Bakelite Review Silver Anniversary p6.tif|thumb|upright |The first semi-commercial Bakelizer, from Baekeland's laboratory, 1935]]

Baekeland started semi-commercial production of his new material in his home laboratory, marketing it as a material for electrical insulators. In the summer of 1909, he licensed the continental European rights to Rütger AG. The subsidiary formed at that time, Bakelite AG, was the first to produce Bakelite on an industrial scale.

By 1910, Baekeland was producing enough material in the US to justify expansion. He formed the General Bakelite Company of [[Perth Amboy, New Jersey]], as a U.S. company to manufacture and market his new industrial material, and made overseas connections to produce it in other countries.<ref name="Landmark"/>

The Bakelite Company produced "transparent" cast resin (which did not include [[Filler (materials)|filler]]) for a small market during the 1910s and 1920s.<ref name="Bijker"/>{{rp|172–174}} Blocks or rods of [[casting process|cast]] resin, also known as "artificial amber", were machined and carved to create items such as [[Tobacco pipe|pipe stems]], [[cigarette holders]], and [[jewelry]].<ref name="Bijker"/><ref name=Ellis2>{{cite book|last1=Ellis|first1=Carleton|title=Synthetic resins and their plastics|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.45132|date=1923|publisher=The Chemical Catalog Co.|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.45132/page/n166 164]–165}}</ref> However, the demand for molded plastics led the company to concentrate on molding rather than cast solid resins.<ref name="Bijker">{{cite book|chapter=The Fourth Kingdom: The Social Construction of Bakelite|pages=101–198|last1=Bijker|first1=Wiebe E.|title=Of bicycles, bakelites, and bulbs: toward a theory of sociotechnical change|date=1997|publisher=MIT Press|location=Cambridge, Massachusetts|isbn=9780262522274|edition=1st MIT Press pbk|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IsbmwN8-m1cC&pg=PA138|access-date=September 2, 2015}}</ref>{{rp|172–174}}

The Bakelite Corporation was formed in 1922 after patent litigation favorable to Baekeland, from a merger of three companies: Baekeland's General Bakelite Company; the Condensite Company, founded by J. W. Aylesworth; and the [[Redmanol Chemical Products Company]], founded by [[Lawrence V. Redman]].<ref name=aice>{{cite book|author=[[American Institute of Chemical Engineers]] Staff|title=Twenty-Five Years of Chemical Engineering Progress|publisher=Ayer Publishing|year=1977|page=216|isbn=978-0-8369-0149-8}}</ref> Under director of advertising and public relations Allan Brown, who came to Bakelite from Condensite, Bakelite was aggressively marketed as "the material of a thousand uses".<ref name="Meikle"/>{{rp|58–59}}<ref name=PlasticsArticle>{{cite journal|last1=Brown|first1=Allan|title=Bakelite – What It Is|journal=Plastics|date=1925|volume=1|issue=1|pages=17, 28–29}}</ref> A filing for a [[trademark]] featuring the letter B above the [[infinity symbol]] was made August 25, 1925, and claimed the mark was in use as of December 1, 1924. A wide variety of uses were listed in their trademark applications.<ref name=PlasticsTate>{{cite journal|last1=Tate|first1=A. C.|title=The Protective Power of a Good Trade Mark|journal=Plastics|date=1925|volume=1|issue=2|page=53}}</ref>

[[File:Bakelite color chart 1924 Gifts to Treasure Embed Art Company Jewel only.tif|thumb | Color chart for Bakelite "jewel" quality colors (cast resin or "Clear Material"), 1924]]

The first issue of ''Plastics'' magazine, October 1925, featured Bakelite on its cover and included the article "Bakelite – What It Is" by Allan Brown. The range of colors that were available included "black, brown, red, yellow, green, gray, blue, and blends of two or more of these".<ref name=PlasticsCover>{{cite journal|title=Cover Illustration|journal=Plastics|date=1925|volume=1|issue=1}}</ref> The article emphasized that Bakelite came in various forms.

{{quote|Bakelite is manufactured in several forms to suit varying requirements. In all these forms the fundamental basis is the initial Bakelite resin. This variety includes clear material, for jewelry, smokers' articles, etc.; cement, for sealing electric light bulbs in metal bases; varnishes, for impregnating electric coils, etc.; lacquers, for protecting the surface of hardware; enamels, for giving resistive coating to industrial equipment; Laminated Bakelite, used for silent gears and insulation; and molding material, from which are formed innumerable articles of utility and beauty. The molding material is prepared ordinarily by the impregnation of cellulose substances with the initial "uncured" resin.<ref name=PlasticsArticle/>{{rp|17}}
}}

In a 1925 report, the United States Tariff Commission hailed the commercial manufacture of synthetic [[phenolic resin]] as "distinctly an American achievement", and noted that "the publication of figures, however, would be a virtual disclosure of the production of an individual company".<ref name=Tariff>{{cite book|last1=United States Tariff Commission|title=Census of dyes and of other synthetic organic chemicals|date=1925|publisher=U. S. Tariff Commission|location=Washington, D. C.|page=59|volume=34|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bfhIAQAAIAAJ&pg=RA4-PA59|access-date=August 31, 2015}}</ref>

In the UK, Bakelite Limited, a merger of three British phenol formaldehyde resin suppliers (Damard Lacquer Company Limited of [[Birmingham]], Mouldensite Limited of [[Darley Dale]] and Redmanol Chemical Products Company of [[London]]), was formed in 1926. A new Bakelite factory opened in [[Tyseley]], Birmingham, around 1928.<ref name=Travis>{{cite book|editor-last1=Travis|editor-first1=Anthony S.|title=Determinants in the evolution of the European chemical industry : 1900–1939 : new technologies, political frameworks, markets and companies|date=1998|publisher=Kluwer Acad. Publ.|location=Dordrecht|isbn=9780792348900|page=180|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gvP7CAAAQBAJ&pg=PA180|access-date=August 27, 2015}}</ref> It was the "heart of Bakelite production in the UK" until it closed in 1987.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Reboul |first1=Percy |title=Pioneers of plastics |journal=Interdisciplinary Science Reviews |date=1998 |volume=23 |issue=2 |page=173 |doi=10.1179/isr.1998.23.2.169 |bibcode=1998ISRv...23..169R |url=https://doi.org/10.1179/isr.1998.23.2.169 |access-date=13 June 2022|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

A factory to produce phenolic resins and precursors opened in [[Bound Brook, New Jersey]], in 1931.<ref name="Meikle"/>{{rp|75}}

In 1939, the companies were acquired by [[Union Carbide|Union Carbide and Carbon Corporation]].

In 2005, German Bakelite manufacturer Bakelite AG was acquired by Borden Chemical of Columbus, Ohio, now [[Hexion]] Inc.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.plasticsnews.com/article/20041025/NEWS/310259976/borden-chemical-buys-bakelite-from-rutgers|title=Borden-Chemical-buys-Bakelite-from-Rutgers &#124; Plastics News|date=January 6, 2013 |accessdate=February 16, 2024}}</ref>

In addition to the original Bakelite material, these companies eventually made a wide range of other products, many of which were marketed under the brand name "Bakelite plastics". These included other types of cast phenolic resins similar to [[Catalin]], and [[urea-formaldehyde resins]], which could be made in brighter colors than {{Soft hyphen|poly|oxy|benzyl|methylene|glycol|anhydride}}.<ref name=CookSlessor/><ref name="Meikle">{{cite book|title=American Plastic: A Cultural History|url=https://archive.org/details/americanplasticc00meik|url-access=registration|last1=Meikle|first1=Jeffrey L.|date=1995|publisher=Rutgers University Press|location=New Brunswick, NJ|isbn=978-0-8135-2235-7}}</ref>

Once Baekeland's heat and pressure patents expired in 1927, Bakelite Corporation faced serious competition from other companies. Because molded Bakelite incorporated fillers to give it strength, it tended to be made in concealing dark colors.<ref name="Meikle"/> In 1927, beads, bangles, and earrings were produced by the Catalin company, through a different process which enabled them to introduce 15 new colors. Translucent jewelry, poker chips and other items made of phenolic resins were introduced in the 1930s or 1940s by the Catalin company under the Prystal name.<ref name=Leshner>{{cite book|last1=Leshner|first1=Leigh|title=Collecting art plastic jewelry : identification and price guide|date=2005|publisher=KP Books|location=Iola, WI|isbn=978-0873499545|pages=11–13|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vJomBfX6pqkC&pg=PA11|access-date=February 23, 2015}}</ref><ref name=Katz>{{cite book|last1=Katz|first1=Sylvia|title=Plastics : designs and materials.|date=1978|publisher=Studio Vista|location=London, Angleterre|isbn=9780289707838|page=65}}<!--|access-date=February 23, 2015--></ref> The creation of marbled phenolic resins may also be attributable to the Catalin company.{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}

==Synthesis==
{{external media | width = 210px | float = right | headerimage= | video1 = "[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=phNLecfyWS8 Making Bakelite Plastic]", [[NileRed]]}}

Making Bakelite is a multi-stage process. It begins with the heating of phenol and formaldehyde in the presence of a catalyst such as hydrochloric acid, [[zinc chloride]], or the base ammonia. This creates a liquid condensation product, referred to as ''Bakelite A'', which is soluble in alcohol, acetone, or additional phenol. Heated further, the product becomes partially soluble and can still be softened by heat. Sustained heating results in an "insoluble hard gum". However, the high temperatures required to create this tend to cause violent foaming of the mixture when done at standard atmospheric pressure, which results in the cooled material being porous and breakable. Baekeland's innovative step was to put his "last condensation product" into an egg-shaped "Bakelizer". By heating it under pressure, at about {{convert|150|C|F}}, Baekeland was able to suppress the foaming that would otherwise occur. The resulting substance is extremely hard and both infusible and insoluble.<ref name=CookSlessor/>{{rp|67}}<ref name="Meikle"/>{{rp|38–39}}

<gallery widths="200px" class="center">
File:Weigh Room Liquid Materials 1935 Bakelite Review Silver Anniversary p12.tif | Weigh room
File:Still room 1935 Bakelite Review Silver Anniversary p12.tif | Still room
File:Bakelite Cooling Room 1935 Bakelite Review Silver Anniversary p13.tif | Cooling room
File:Resin and Varnish inspection laboratory 1935 Bakelite Review Silver Anniversary p17.tif | Resin and varnish inspection laboratory
File:Test samples 1935 Bakelite Review Silver Anniversary p17.tif | Testing resin samples
File:Resin and Varnish Development Laboratory 1935 Bakelite Review Silver Anniversary p17.tif | Development laboratory
</gallery>

===Compression molding===
[[File:RotorBakelite-2.jpg|thumb|upright|A combustion engine's spark [[distributor]] rotor made of Bakelite]]

Molded Bakelite forms in a condensation reaction of phenol and formaldehyde, with wood flour or asbestos fiber as a filler, under high pressure and heat in a time frame of a few minutes of [[Curing (chemistry)|curing]]. The result is a hard plastic material.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rsc.org/chemistryworld/podcast/CIIEcompounds/transcripts/bakelite.asp|title=Chemistry in its element – bakelite|website=Royal Society of Chemistry – RSC.org|last=Clegg|first=Brian|access-date=May 4, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140504173337/http://www.rsc.org/chemistryworld/podcast/CIIEcompounds/transcripts/bakelite.asp|archive-date=May 4, 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref> Asbestos was gradually abandoned as filler because many countries banned the production of asbestos.<ref name="fundermax.at"/>{{rp|9}}<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Molded Asbestos Plastic Products - Brands & Products |url=https://www.asbestos.com/products/plastics/ |access-date=2024-11-19 |website=Mesothelioma Center - Vital Services for Cancer Patients & Families |language=en}}</ref>

Bakelite's molding process had a number of advantages. Bakelite resin could be provided either as powder or as preformed partially cured slugs, increasing the speed of the casting. Thermosetting resins such as Bakelite required heat and pressure during the molding cycle but could be removed from the molding process without being cooled, again making the molding process faster. Also, because of the smooth polished surface that resulted, Bakelite objects required less finishing.<ref name=Metallography>{{cite book|last1=Vander Voort|first1=George F.|title=Metallography, Principles and Practice|date=1984|publisher=McGraw-Hill|location=New York|isbn=978-1615032365|pages=75–81|edition=1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GRQC8zYqtBIC&pg=PA75}}</ref> Millions of parts could be duplicated quickly and relatively cheaply.<ref name="Meikle"/>{{rp|42–43}}

===Phenolic sheet===
Another market for Bakelite resin was the creation of phenolic sheet materials. A phenolic sheet is a hard, dense material made by applying heat and pressure to layers of paper or glass cloth impregnated with synthetic resin.<ref name="Meikle"/>{{rp|53}} Paper, cotton fabrics, synthetic fabrics, glass fabrics, and unwoven fabrics are all possible materials used in lamination. When heat and pressure are applied, [[polymerization]] transforms the layers into [[Thermosetting plastic|thermosetting]] industrial laminated plastic.<ref name=Nimrod>{{cite web|title=Bakelite|url=http://www.nimrodplastics.com.au/product-bakelite.htm|website=Nimrod Plastics|access-date=February 26, 2015|archive-date=April 19, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200419111644/http://www.nimrodplastics.com.au/product-bakelite.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Bakelite phenolic sheet is produced in many commercial grades and with various additives to meet diverse mechanical, electrical, and thermal requirements. Some common types include:<ref name=Micarta>{{cite web|title=Micarta ® Laminates – Various Grades Technical Information|url=http://www.professionalplastics.com/professionalplastics/MicartaGrades-DataSheet.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.professionalplastics.com/professionalplastics/MicartaGrades-DataSheet.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live|website=Professional Plastics|access-date=February 26, 2015}}</ref>
* Paper reinforced [[National Electrical Manufacturers Association|NEMA]] XX per MIL-I-24768 PBG. Normal electrical applications, moderate mechanical strength, continuous [[operating temperature]] of {{convert|250|°F}}.
* Canvas-reinforced NEMA C per MIL-I-24768 TYPE FBM NEMA CE per MIL-I-24768 TYPE FBG. Good mechanical and impact strength with a continuous operating temperature of 250 °F.
* Linen-reinforced NEMA L per MIL-I-24768 TYPE FBI NEMA LE per MIL-I-24768 TYPE FEI. Good mechanical and electrical strength. Recommended for intricate high-strength parts. Continuous operating temperature convert 250 °F.
* Nylon reinforced NEMA N-1 per MIL-I-24768 TYPE NPG. Superior electrical properties under humid conditions, fungus resistant, continuous operating temperature of {{convert|160|°F}}.

==Properties==
Bakelite has a number of important properties. It can be molded very quickly, decreasing production time. Moldings are smooth, retain their shape, and are resistant to heat, scratches, and destructive solvents. It is also resistant to electricity, and prized for its low conductivity. It is not flexible.<ref name="Meikle"/>{{rp|44–45}}<ref name=Metallography/><ref name=Wijk2015>{{cite book|last1=van Wijk|first1=A.J.M.|last2=van Wijk|first2=I.|title=3D Printing with Biomaterials: Towards a Sustainable and Circular Economy|date=2015|publisher=IOS Press|isbn=978-1614994862|page=39|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tEAoBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA39}}</ref>

Phenolic resin products may swell slightly under conditions of extreme humidity or perpetual dampness.<ref name=Swell>{{cite book|title=Plastics|date=1952|publisher=Ministry of Supply|location=Great Britain|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GZu5AAAAIAAJ&q=phenolic+resin+swell+damp}}</ref> When rubbed or burnt, Bakelite has a distinctive, acrid, sickly-sweet or fishy odor.<ref name=Wireless>{{cite book|last1=Malanowski|first1=Gregory|title=The Race for Wireless|date=2011|publisher=Author House|location=Bloomington, IN|isbn=9781463437503|page=79|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IAjtEeVtXqAC&pg=PA79}}</ref>

==Applications==
[[File:Wehrmacht Morsetaste WaA 376 1).jpg|thumb|Bakelite cover of a German [[telegraph key]]]]
The characteristics of Bakelite made it particularly suitable as a molding compound, an adhesive or binding agent, a varnish, and a protective coating, as well as for the emerging electrical and automobile industries because of its extraordinarily high resistance to electricity, heat, and chemical action.<ref name="Meikle"/>{{rp|44–45}}

The earliest commercial use of Bakelite in the electrical industry was the molding of tiny insulating bushings, made in 1908 for the Weston Electrical Instrument Corporation by Richard W. Seabury of the Boonton Rubber Company.<ref name="Meikle"/>{{rp|43}}<ref name=OldTimer>{{cite journal|last1=The Old Timer|title=I Remember When|journal=Bakelite Review|date=1935|volume=7|issue=3|pages=24–28}}</ref> Bakelite was soon used for non-conducting parts of telephones, radios, and other electrical devices, including bases and sockets for light bulbs and electron tubes ([[vacuum tubes]]), supports for any type of electrical components, automobile [[distributor cap]]s, and other insulators.<ref name="Meikle"/><ref name="Advertisement">{{Cite magazine |title=Bakelite: The Material of a Thousand Uses |format=Advertisement |date=March 1926 |magazine=[[Popular Science]] |page=105 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2CgDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA105 |access-date=August 5, 2015 }}</ref> By 1912, it was being used to make billiard balls, since its elasticity and the sound it made were similar to ivory.<ref name=Couteur>{{cite book|last1=Le Couteur|first1=Penny|last2=Burreson|first2=Jay|title=Napoleon's buttons : 17 molecules that changed history|url=https://archive.org/details/napoleonsbuttons00cout_029|url-access=limited|date=2003|publisher=Jeremy P. Tarcher/Penguin|location=New York|isbn=9781585423316|pages=[https://archive.org/details/napoleonsbuttons00cout_029/page/n144 135]–137}}</ref><ref name=Lokensgard>{{cite book|last1=Lokensgard|first1=Erick|title=Industrial plastics : theory and application|date=2010|publisher=Delmar Cengage Learning|location=Clifton Park, NY|isbn=978-1428360709|edition=5th|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5SYEAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA8}}</ref>

During World War I, Bakelite was used widely, particularly in electrical systems. Important projects included the [[Liberty L-12|Liberty airplane engine]],<ref name=Liberty>{{cite book|last1=Navy Department Bureau of Steam Engineering|title=Notes on Liberty engine ignition system|date=1919|publisher=Government Printing Office|location=Washington, D. C.|pages=8, 20|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JZAoAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA8|access-date=August 27, 2015}}</ref> the wireless telephone and radio phone,<ref name=Hirsch>{{cite journal|last1=Hirsch|first1=William Crawford|title=Radio Apparatus – What is it made of?|journal=Electrical Record and Buyer's Reference|date=1922|volume=31|pages=392–398|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cm42AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA396|access-date=August 27, 2015}}</ref> and the use of [[micarta]]-bakelite propellers in the [[Martin NBS-1|NBS-1 bomber]] and the [[Airco DH.4|DH-4B aeroplane]].<ref name=Carr>{{cite journal|last1=Carr|first1=Gardner W.|title=Organization and Activities of Engineering Division of the Army Air Service|journal=United States Air Services|date=1922|volume=7|pages=22–27|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1887AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA25}}</ref><ref name=Mumford>{{cite book|last1=Mumford|first1=John Kimberly|title=The story of bakelite|date=1924|publisher=Robert L. Stillson Co.|location=New York|pages=70–80|url=http://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/003913673|access-date=August 27, 2015}}</ref>

Bakelite's availability and ease and speed of molding helped to lower the costs and increase product availability so that telephones and radios became common household consumer goods.<ref name="Meikle"/>{{rp|116–117}}<ref name=AnniversaryMaterials>{{cite journal|title=Bakelite Materials in Industry|journal=Bakelite Review|date=1935|volume=7|issue=3|pages=30–36}}</ref><ref name=Radios>{{cite web|title=Vintage Bakelite and Catalin Radios|url=http://www.collectorsweekly.com/radios/catalin-bakelite|website=Collectors Weekly|access-date=August 6, 2015}}</ref> It was also very important to the developing automobile industry.<ref name=Balinski>{{cite news|last1=Balinski|first1=Brent|title=Manufacturers' Monthly Material of the Month part 1: Bakelite|url=http://www.manmonthly.com.au/features/manufacturers-monthly-material-of-the-month-part-1|access-date=August 6, 2015|work=Manufacturer's Monthly|date=September 12, 2014|archive-date=May 14, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160514043808/http://www.manmonthly.com.au/features/manufacturers-monthly-material-of-the-month-part-1|url-status=dead}}</ref> It was soon found in myriad other consumer products ranging from pipe stems and buttons to saxophone mouthpieces, cameras, early machine guns, and appliance casings. Bakelite was also very commonly used in the pistol grip, hand guard, and buttstock of firearms. Also magazines for Kalashnikov rifles - though components of the [[AKM]], and some early [[AK-74]] rifles are frequently mistakenly identified as using Bakelite, but most were made with [[AG-4S]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Kokalis|first1=Peter|title=Weapons Tests And Evaluations: The Best Of Soldier Of Fortune|date=2001|publisher=Paladin Press|pages=45, 49}}</ref> Other uses through the first half of the 20th century include knife handles and "scales".{{cn|reason=What?|date=March 2025}}<ref name=Franklin>{{cite book|last1=Franklin|first1=Adrian|title=Collecting the 20th Century|date=2010|publisher=UNSW Press|location=Sydney|pages=48–53|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Jsmr9T0uIncC&pg=PA53|isbn=9781742230016}}</ref>

Beginning in the 1920s, it became a popular material for jewelry.<ref name=Tortoriello>{{cite book|last1=Tortoriello|first1=Lyn|last2=Lyons|first2=Deborah|title=Bakelite jewelry : the art of the carver|date=2008|publisher=Schiffer Pub.|location=Atglen, PA|isbn=978-0764329142}}</ref> Designer [[Coco Chanel]] included Bakelite bracelets in her costume jewelry collections.<ref name=Jewelry>{{cite book|last1=Davidov|first1=Corinne|last2=Dawes|first2=Ginny Redington|title=The bakelite jewelry book|date=1988|publisher=Abbeville Press|location=New York|isbn=9780896598676|edition=1st}}</ref>{{rp|27–29}} Designers such as [[Elsa Schiaparelli]] used it for jewelry and also for specially designed dress buttons.<ref name=Brandt>{{cite journal|last1=Brandt|first1=Anne|title=Bakelite: The Beautiful Plastic|url=http://www.antiqueshoppefl.com/articles/january07/bakelite.htm|journal=Antique Shoppe Newspaper|date=2007|access-date=August 6, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151107054810/http://www.antiqueshoppefl.com/articles/january07/bakelite.htm|archive-date=November 7, 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name=Codina>{{cite book|last1=Codina|first1=Carles|title=The new jewelry : contemporary materials & techniques|date=2005|publisher=Lark Books|location=New York|isbn=978-1579907341|page=11|edition=1st|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sX5ZUxwvYxgC&pg=PA11|access-date=August 6, 2015}}</ref> Later, [[Diana Vreeland]], editor of ''[[Vogue (magazine)|Vogue]]'', was enthusiastic about Bakelite.<ref name=Garcia>{{cite book|last1=Garcia|first1=Nina|title=The one hundred: a guide to the pieces every stylish woman must own|date=2010|publisher=It Books|location=New York, NY|isbn=978-0061664632|edition=1st}}</ref> Bakelite was also used to make presentation boxes for [[Breitling SA|Breitling]] watches.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Dominik|date=2020-05-13|title=Bak is Beautiful|url=https://www.neold.com/post/bak-is-beautiful|access-date=2021-11-21|website=NEOLD|language=en}}</ref>

[[File:Handbag made of textured aluminium and bakelite, Paris, ca. 1925.jpg|thumb|Handbag made of textured aluminium and bakelite, 1925, collection of the [[Victoria and Albert Museum]]]]
By 1930, designer [[Paul T. Frankl]] considered Bakelite a "Materia Nova", "expressive of our own age".<ref name="Meikle"/>{{rp|107}} By the 1930s, Bakelite was used for game pieces like [[chess piece]]s, [[poker chips]],<ref name=Clark>{{cite book|last1=Clark|first1=Tessa|title=Bakelite style|date=1997|publisher=Apple|location=London|isbn=978-1850768630}}</ref> [[dominoes]],<ref name=Kelley>{{cite book|last1=Kelley|first1=Jennifer A.|title=Great book of domino games|date=1999|publisher=Sterling Pub.|location=New York|isbn=978-0806942599|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/greatbookofdomin00jenn}}</ref> and [[mahjong]] sets.<ref name=Israel>{{cite book|last1=Israel|first1=Ann|last2=Swain|first2=Greg|title=Mah Jong: The Art & History of the Game|date=2014|publisher=Tuttle Pub|chapter=Chapter 5: Bakelite and Catalin|isbn=9784805313237}}</ref><ref name=Rep>{{cite book|last1=Rep|first1=Jelte|title=The great mahjong book: history, lore and play|date=2007|publisher=Tuttle Pub|location=North Clarendon, VT|isbn=978-0804837194|edition=1st|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RfjEMn0rz4oC&pg=PA23}}</ref> Kitchenware made with Bakelite, including canisters and tableware, was promoted for its resistance to heat and to chipping.<ref name=Mauzy>{{cite book|last1=Mauzy|first1=Barbara E.|title=Bakelite in the kitchen|date=2001|publisher=Schiffer Pub.|location=Atglen, PA|isbn=978-0764313790|edition=2nd}}</ref><ref name=Daniels>{{cite news|last1=Daniels|first1=Mary|title=Once Touted As 'Kitchen Jewelry', Bakelite Flatware Is Making A Comeback|url=https://www.chicagotribune.com/1993/09/19/once-touted-as-kitchen-jewelry-bakelite-flatware-is-making-a-comeback/|access-date=August 6, 2015|work=Chicago Tribune|date=September 19, 1993}}</ref> In the mid-1930s, Northland marketed a line of skis with a black "Ebonite" base, a coating of Bakelite.<ref name=Masia>{{cite journal|last1=Masia|first1=Seth|title=Milestones and detours in ski design|journal=Skiing Heritage Journal|date=2004|volume=March|pages=18–22, 36|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_7YDcDEqBcEC&pg=PA20|access-date=August 5, 2015}}</ref><ref name=Bryden>{{cite book|last1=Bryden|first1=Allison|title=From tip to tail|date=1999|publisher=Aspen Historical Society|location=Aspen, CO.|url=http://archiveaspen.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/FromTiptoTailsearchable.pdf#page=20&zoom=auto,-73,680 |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://archiveaspen.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/FromTiptoTailsearchable.pdf#page=20&zoom=auto,-73,680 |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live}} pg 15</ref> By 1935, it was used in [[Rickenbacker|solid-body electric guitars]]. Performers such as [[Jerry Byrd]] loved the tone of Bakelite guitars but found them difficult to keep in tune.<ref name=Bacon>{{cite book|last1=Bacon|first1=Tony|last2=Day|first2=Paul|title=The Rickenbacker book : [a complete history of Rickenbacker electric guitars]|date=1994|publisher=GPI Books|location=San Francisco|isbn=978-0879303297|pages=31–36|edition=1st American|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NlscjoFVcs0C&pg=PA31}}</ref>

Charles Plimpton patented BAYKO in 1933 and rushed out his first construction sets for Christmas 1934. He called the toy [[Bayko|Bayko Light Constructional Sets]], the words "Bayko Light" being a pun on the word "Bakelite".<ref>{{Cite web|title=BAYKO Toys {{!}} BAYKO Shop|url=https://www.baykoshop.com/ |access-date=2021-03-13|website=www.baykoshop.com}}</ref>

During World War II, Bakelite was used in a variety of wartime equipment including pilots' goggles and field telephones.<ref name=Graf>{{cite book|last1=Graf|first1=John Adams|title=Warman's World War II Collectibles Identification and Price Guide.|date=2014|publisher=Krause Pubns Inc|isbn=978-1440240706|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6zp3Crxzp50C&q=Bakelite&pg=PA101}}{{Dead link|date=April 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> It was also used for patriotic wartime jewelry.<ref name=WWII>{{cite web|title=Home Front Friday: Bakelite for the Fight|url=http://www.nww2m.com/2015/04/bakelite-for-the-fight/|website=The National WWII Museum|access-date=August 6, 2015|date=2015-04-17}}</ref><ref name=Tanenbaum>{{cite book|last1=Tanenbaum|first1=Carole|title=Fabulous fakes : a passion for vintage of costume jewelry|date=2006|publisher=Artisan|location=New York|isbn=978-1579652920|page=70|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sM1hoi9RHegC&pg=PA70|access-date=August 6, 2015}}</ref> In 1943, the thermosetting phenolic resin was even considered for the manufacture of coins, due to a shortage of traditional material. Bakelite and other non-metal materials were tested for usage for the [[Penny (United States coin)|one cent coin]] in the US before the [[United States Mint|Mint]] settled on [[1943 steel cent|zinc-coated steel]].<ref>[http://uspatterns.com/p2073.html J2051/P2073] USPatterns.com. Retrieved July 28, 2006</ref><ref>''[[The New Yorker]]''. [http://www.newyorker.com/reporting/2008/03/31/080331fa_fact_owen Penny Dreadful]. David Owen. March 31, 2008.</ref>

During World War II, Bakelite buttons were part of British uniforms. These included brown buttons for the Army and black buttons for the [[RAF]].<ref>{{cite book |last= Froom |first= Phil |oclc= 1061720454 |title= Evasion and Escape Devices: Produced by MI9, MIS-X and SOE in World War II |year= 2015 |page= 228 |isbn= 9780764348396 |publisher= Schiffer Publishing }}</ref>

In 1947, Dutch art forger [[Han van Meegeren]] was convicted of forgery, after chemist and curator [[Paul B. Coremans]] proved that a purported [[Johannes Vermeer|Vermeer]] contained Bakelite, which van Meegeren had used as a paint hardener.<ref name=Williams>{{cite book|last1=Williams|first1=Robert C.|title=The forensic historian : using science to reexamine the past|date=2013|publisher=M.E. Sharpe|location=Armonk, N.Y.|isbn=978-0765636621|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CG6sBwAAQBAJ&pg=PT27|access-date=August 27, 2015}}</ref>

By the late 1940s, newer materials were superseding Bakelite in many areas.<ref name=Balinski/> [[Phenolic resin|Phenolics]] are less frequently used in general consumer products today due to their cost and complexity of production, and brittle nature. They still appear in some applications where their specific properties are required, such as small precision-shaped components, molded disc brake cylinders, saucepan handles, electrical plugs, switches and parts for electrical irons, [[FR-2|printed circuit boards]], as well as in the area of inexpensive board and tabletop games produced in China, Hong Kong, and India. Items such as billiard balls, dominoes and pieces for board games such as chess, checkers, and backgammon are constructed of Bakelite for its look, durability, fine polish, weight, and sound.{{Citation needed|date=February 2021}} Common dice are sometimes made of Bakelite for weight and sound, but the majority are made of a thermoplastic polymer such as [[acrylonitrile butadiene styrene]] (ABS).
Bakelite continues to be used for wire insulation, brake pads and related automotive components, and industrial electrical-related applications. Bakelite stock is still manufactured and produced in sheet, rod, and tube form for industrial applications in the electronics, power generation, and aerospace industries, and under a variety of commercial brand names.<ref name=Balinski/>

Phenolic resins have high heat resistance and tend to smolder rather than burn or melt. For this reason Phenolics are used in welding and other high heat applications and have been commonly used in [[ablative heat shield]]s.<ref name=Ellis>{{cite book|last1=Ellis|first1=Bryan|last2=Smith|first2=Ray|title=Polymers a property database|date=2009|publisher=CRC Press/Taylor & Francis Group|location=Boca Raton|isbn=978-1420005707|page=372|edition=2nd|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S-TKBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA372}}</ref> Soviet heatshields for ICBM warheads and spacecraft reentry consisted of asbestos textolite, impregnated with Bakelite.<ref>''Roads to Space: an oral history of the Soviet space program''. Aviation Week Group (1995) {{ISBN|0076070956}}</ref> Bakelite is also used in the mounting of metal samples in [[metallography]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/StructuresMaterials/ASG/MetLab/mounting.html |title=Metallographic Preparation Mounting |publisher=NASA |date=May 13, 2008 |access-date=May 2, 2009 |archive-date=September 24, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924040850/http://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/StructuresMaterials/ASG/MetLab/mounting.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> <gallery widths="120px" class="center">
File:Ericsson bakelittelefon 1931.jpg|[[Ericsson DBH 1001 telephone|Ericsson Bakelite telephone]], {{circa|1931}}
File:Bakelite letter opener.jpg|Bakelite letter opener {{circa|1920}}
File:Bakelite radio.jpg|Bakelite radio at Bakelite museum
File:Old Bakelit light switches and socket.jpg|Old tumbler switch composed of Bakelite
File:Bakelite Domino (5467420994).jpg|A Bakelite [[domino]]
File:AK74andAKS74U.jpg|[[AK-74]] and [[AK-74#AKS-74U|AKS-74U]] with Bakelite magazines and pistol grips
</gallery>

==Collectibles==
[[File:Zap and Co display case of bakelite bracelets 2008.jpg|alt=colorful bracelets on a glass table|thumb|Bracelets made of Bakelite]]

Bakelite items, particularly jewelry and radios, have become popular collectibles.<ref name="Balinski" />

The term ''Bakelite'' is sometimes used in the [[Used good|resale market]] as a catch-all for various types of early plastics, including [[Catalin]] and [[Faturan]], which may be brightly colored, as well as items made of true Bakelite material.<ref name="Radios" /><ref name="Cycleback">{{cite web|last1=Cycleback|first1=David|title=Bakelite and catalin: Collectible early plastics|url=https://cycleback.wordpress.com/2013/01/31/bakelite-and-catalin-phenol-formaldehyde-identifying-the-popular-early-plastics/|website=Looking at Art, Artifacts and Ideas|access-date=August 6, 2015|date=2013-01-31}}</ref>

Due to its aesthetics, a similar material ''fakelite'' (fake bakelite) exists made from modern safer materials which do not contain [[asbestos]].<ref name=":0" />

==Patents==
The [[United States Patent and Trademark Office]] granted Baekeland a patent for a "Method of making insoluble products of phenol and formaldehyde" on December 7, 1909.<ref name="Patent942699"/> Producing hard, compact, insoluble, and infusible condensation products of phenols and formaldehyde marked the beginning of the modern [[plastics industry]].<ref>Baekeland, Leo H (December 7, 1909) "Method of making insoluble products of phenol and formaldehyde" {{US Patent|942699}}</ref>

==Similar plastics==
* [[Catalin]] is also a phenolic resin, similar to Bakelite, but contains different mineral fillers that allow the production of light colors.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://wshu.org/post/catalin-crown-jewel-table-radios#stream/0 |title=Catalin: The Crown Jewel Of Table Radios |last=Litwinovich |first=Paul |date=January 6, 2015 |work=WSHU | publisher=[[Sacred Heart University]] |access-date=February 4, 2018 |language=en}}</ref>
* Condensites are similar thermoset materials having much the same properties, characteristics, and uses.<ref name="Carey2014">{{cite book|last=Carey|first=Charles W.|title=American Inventors, Entrepreneurs, and Business Visionaries|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XKiGgl36bkgC&pg=PA13|access-date=February 4, 2018|date=May 14, 2014|publisher=Infobase Publishing|isbn=9780816068838|page=13}}</ref>
* [[Crystalate]] is an early plastic.<ref name="ERS">{{cite encyclopedia
 |url=http://www.bookrags.com/tandf/crystalate-gramophone-record-tf/
 |title=Crystalate Gramophone Record Manufacturing Co., Ltd.
 |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Recorded Sound
 |edition=2nd
 |volume=1: A–L
 |isbn=978-0-203-48427-2
 |year=2004
 |publisher=Taylor & Francis Group
 |access-date=July 2, 2011
 |archive-date=March 6, 2023
 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306070335/http://www.bookrags.com/tandf/crystalate-gramophone-record-tf/
 |url-status=dead
 }} In turn citing "Andrews 1983/1984" for most of this information.</ref>
* [[Faturan]] is a phenolic resin, also similar to Bakelite, that turns red over time, regardless of its original color.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.amber-island.com/2015/faturan-oxidization/ |title=Faturan Oxidization |last=Ibrahim |first=Jalal |date=May 27, 2015 |website=Amber Island Islamic Antiques & Arts |language=en-US |access-date=February 4, 2018}}</ref>
* [[Galalith]] is an early plastic derived from milk products.<ref name=ganoksin>{{cite web|url=http://www.ganoksin.com/borisat/nenam/milk-stone.htm|title=Galalith – Jewelry Milk Stone|first=Christel |last=Trimborn|publisher=Ganoskin Jewelry Making Resources|date=August 2004|access-date=May 17, 2010}}</ref>
* [[Micarta]] is an early composite insulating plate that used Bakelite as a binding agent. It was developed in 1910 by the [[Westinghouse Electric Corporation|Westinghouse]] Electric & Manufacturing Company, which put the new material to use for casting synthetic blades for Westinghouse electric fans.<ref name="Meikle1995">{{cite book|last=Meikle|first=Jeffrey L.|title=American Plastic: A Cultural History|url=https://archive.org/details/americanplasticc00meik|url-access=registration|access-date=February 4, 2018|year=1995|publisher=Rutgers University Press|isbn=9780813522357|page=[https://archive.org/details/americanplasticc00meik/page/53 53]}}</ref>
* [[Novotext]] is a brand name for cotton textile-phenolic resin.<ref>{{cite journal|title="Novotext" Bearings|author=F. Armbruster|year=1935|page=1107|journal=Science Abstracts}}</ref>
* [[G-10_(material)|G-10]] or garolite is made with fiberglass and epoxy resin.

==See also==
* [[Ericsson DBH 1001 telephone]]
* [[Lacquer]], including antique Asian [[lacquerware]]
* [[Tenite]], a cellulosic thermoplastic material
* [[Ebonite]], a similar material

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Bakelite}}
{{Wiktionary}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Baekeland |first1=L. H. |title=The Synthesis, Constitution, and Uses of Bakelite |journal=Journal of Industrial & Engineering Chemistry |date=March 1909 |volume=1 |issue=3 |pages=149–161 |doi=10.1021/ie50003a004 |language=EN |issn=0095-9014|url=https://zenodo.org/record/2250803 }}
* [https://allthingsbakelite.com/#watch ''All Things Bakelite: The Age of Plastic'']—trailer for a film by John Maher, with additional video & resources
* [http://www.amsterdambakelitecollection.com Amsterdam Bakelite Collection]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070624110231/http://www.bakelit.ch/index_eng.html Large Bakelite Collection]
* [http://www.bakelitemuseum.de Bakelite: The Material of a Thousand Uses]
* [http://juliensart.be/bakeliet Virtual Bakelite Museum of Ghent 1907–2007]

{{Authority control}}
[[Category:Plastics]]
[[Category:1909 introductions]]
[[Category:Bakelite| ]]
[[Category:Belgian inventions]]
[[Category:Composite materials]]
[[Category:Dielectrics]]
[[Category:Phenol formaldehyde resins]]
[[Category:Plastic brands]]
[[Category:Thermosetting plastics]]