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{{Short description|Sultanate in Egypt and Levant from 1174 to 1341}}
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{{Infobox country
| conventional_long_name = Ayyubid Sultanate of Egypt
| native_name            = {{native name|ar|الأيوبيون}}<br />{{transliteration|ar|al-Ayyūbīyūn}}
| common_name            = Ayyubids
| status                 = Sovereign state<br />{{bulletedlist|Nominal vassal of the [[Abbasid Caliphate]]{{sfn|Jackson|1996|p=36}}}}
| government_type        = [[Sultan]]ate (princely confederation)
| year_start             = 1171
| event_start            = [[Saladin in Egypt|Established by Saladin]]
| year_end               = 1260<sup>a</sup>
| p1                     = Fatimid Caliphate
| p2                     = Zengid dynasty
| p3                     = Kingdom of Jerusalem
| p4                     = Zurayids
| p5                     = Kingdom of Georgia
| p6                     = Shah-Armens
| p7                     = Artuqids
| s1                     = Mamluk Sultanate
| border_s1              = no
| s2                     = Rasulid dynasty
| s3                     = Emirate of Hasankeyf
| s4                     = Principality of Donboli
| s5                     = Emirate of Şirvan
| s6                     = Emirate of Kilis
| s7                     = Emirate of Bingöl
| image_map              = Ayyubid_Sultanate_1193_AD.jpg
| image_map_caption      = Ayyubid [[Sultan of Egypt|Sultanate of Egypt]] (in pink) at the death of [[Saladin]] in 1193
| capital                = {{plainlist|
* [[Cairo]] (1171–1174; 1218–1250)
* [[Damascus]] (1174–1218)
* [[Aleppo]] (1250–1260)}}
| common_languages       = [[Arabic]]<sup>b</sup> (<small>majority of population, poetry, numismatics</small>){{sfn|Humphreys|1987|p=164–167}}<ref name="France122-123">{{harvnb|France|1998|pp=122–123}}</ref><br />[[Kurdish language|Kurdish]] (<small>ruling dynasty, aristocracy, military oligarchy</small>){{sfn|Humphreys|1987|p=164–167}}{{sfn|Öpengin|2021|p=612}} <br />[[Persian language|Persian]] (<small>spoken by some sultans</small>){{sfn|Humphreys|1987|p=164–167}}<br />[[Turkish language|Turkish]]<ref name="Magill809">{{harvnb|Magill|1998|p=809}}</ref><ref name="France84">{{harvnb|France|1998|p=84}}</ref>
| religion               = {{plainlist|
* [[Sunni Islam]] (official)
* {{small|[[Madhab|School]]: [[Shafi'i]]}}<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ahmed |first1=Rumee |title=The Oxford Handbook of Islamic Law |year= 2018 |publisher=Oxford University Press |page=311 |isbn=978-0-19-166826-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Qs90DwAAQBAJ&q=ayyubid+shafi%27i&pg=PA311}}</ref>
* {{small|[[Islamic theology|Creed]]: [[Ash'ari]]}}}}<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Eliade |first1=Mircea |title=Kalam |journal=The Encyclopedia of Religion |year=1987 |volume=8 |page=238 |isbn=978-0-02-909790-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qyIkAAAAYAAJ&q=ayyubid+ash%27ari}}</ref>
| currency               = [[Dinar]], [[Dirham]]
| leader1                = [[Saladin]] (first)
| year_leader1           = 1174–1193
| leader2                = [[Al-Aziz Uthman|Al-Aziz]]
| year_leader2           = 1193–1198
| leader3                = [[Al-Mansur Nasir al-Din Muhammad|Al-Mansur]]
| year_leader3           = 1198–1200
| leader4                = [[Al-Adil I]]
| year_leader4           = 1200–1218
| leader5                = [[Al-Kamil]]
| year_leader5           = 1218–1238
| leader6                = [[Al-Adil II]]
| year_leader6           = 1238–1240
| leader7                = [[As-Salih Ayyub]]
| year_leader7           = 1240–1249
| leader8                = [[Shajar al-durr]]
| year_leader8           = 1250–1250
| leader9                = [[Al-Ashraf Musa, Sultan of Egypt|Al-Ashraf]] (last)
| year_leader9           = 1250–1254
| title_leader           = [[Sultan]]
| stat_year1             = 1190 est.
(high-end estimate of peak area)
| stat_area1             = 2000000
| ref_area1              = <ref name="TurchinAdamsHall223">{{harvnb|Turchin|Adams|Hall|2006|p=223}}</ref><ref name="OxfordArea">{{Cite book|last1=Bang|first1=Peter Fibiger|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9mkLEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA92|title=The Oxford World History of Empire: Volume One: The Imperial Experience|last2=Bayly|first2=C. A.|last3=Scheidel|first3=Walter|year=2020|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-977311-4|pages=92–94|language=en}}</ref>
| stat_year2             = 12th century
| stat_pop2              = 7,200,000 (estimate)<sup>c</sup>
| stat_year3             = 1200 est.
(Low-end estimate of peak area)
| stat_area3             = 1700000
| ref_area3              = {{sfn|Taagepera|1997|p=495}}
| footnotes              = <sup>a</sup>A branch of the Ayyubid dynasty ruled [[Hasankeyf]] until the early 16th century.<br /><sup>b</sup>For details of the languages spoken by the Ayyubid rulers and their subjects, see {{section link|#Religion, ethnicity and language}} below.<br /><sup>c</sup>The total population of the Ayyubid territories is unknown. This population figure only includes Egypt, [[Syria (region)|Syria]], [[Upper Mesopotamia]], [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]], and [[Transjordan (region)|Transjordan]]. Other Ayyubid territories, including coastal areas of Yemen, the [[Hejaz]], [[Nubia]] and [[Cyrenaica]] are not included.
}}

The '''Ayyubid dynasty''' ({{langx|ar|الأيوبيون|al-Ayyūbīyūn}}), also known as the '''Ayyubid Sultanate''', was a [[Sunni Islam|Sunni Muslim]] [[Kurds|Kurdish]] dynasty that founded the medieval [[Sultan of Egypt|Sultanate of Egypt]], which was established by [[Saladin]] in 1171, following his abolition of the [[Fatimid Caliphate]]. Saladin had originally served the [[Zengid dynasty|Zengid]] ruler [[Nur al-Din Zengi|Nur al-Din]], leading the latter's army against the [[Crusader invasions of Egypt|Crusaders in Fatimid Egypt]], where he was made [[vizier (Fatimid Caliphate)|vizier]]. Following the death of his Zengid suzerain Nur al-Din in 1174, Saladin was proclaimed as the first [[Sultan of Egypt]] by the [[Abbasid Caliphate]], and rapidly expanded the new sultanate beyond [[Lower Egypt|Egypt]] to encompass most of [[Syria (region)|Syria]], in addition to [[Hejaz]], [[Yemen (region)|Yemen]], northern [[Nubia]], [[Tripolitania]] and [[Upper Mesopotamia]]. Saladin's military campaigns set the general borders and sphere of influence of the sultanate of Egypt for the almost 350 years of its existence. Most of the [[Crusader states]] fell to Saladin after his victory at the [[Battle of Hattin]] in 1187, but the Crusaders reconquered the Syrian coastlands in the 1190s.

After Saladin's death in 1193, his sons contested control of the sultanate, but Saladin's brother [[al-Adil]] ultimately became sultan in 1200. All of the later Ayyubid sultans of Egypt were his descendants. In the 1230s, the emirs of Syria attempted to assert their independence from Egypt and the Ayyubid realm remained divided until Sultan [[as-Salih Ayyub]] restored its unity by subduing most of Syria, except [[Aleppo]], by 1247. By then, local Muslim dynasties had driven out the Ayyubids from Yemen, the Hejaz, and parts of [[Mesopotamia]]. After his death in 1249, as-Salih Ayyub was succeeded in Egypt by his son [[al-Mu'azzam Turanshah]]. However, the latter was soon overthrown by his [[Mamluk]] generals who had repelled a Crusader invasion of the [[Nile Delta]]. This effectively ended Ayyubid power in Egypt. Attempts by the emirs of Syria, led by [[an-Nasir Yusuf]] of Aleppo, to wrest back Egypt failed. In 1260, the [[Mongol Empire|Mongols]] [[Siege of Aleppo (1260)|sacked Aleppo]] and conquered the Ayyubids' remaining territories soon after. The [[Mamluk Sultanate|Mamluks]], who expelled the Mongols, maintained the Ayyubid principality of [[Hama]] until deposing its last ruler in 1341.

Despite their relatively short tenure, the Ayyubid dynasty had a transformative effect on the region, particularly Egypt. Under the Ayyubids, Egypt, which had previously been a formally Shia [[caliphate]], became the dominant Sunni political and military force, and the economic and cultural centre of the region, a status that it would retain until it was conquered by the Ottomans in 1517. Throughout the sultanate, Ayyubid rule ushered in an era of economic prosperity, and the facilities and patronage provided by the Ayyubids led to a resurgence in intellectual activity in the [[Islamic world]]. This period was also marked by an Ayyubid process of vigorously strengthening [[Sunni Muslim]] dominance in the region by constructing numerous ''[[madrasa]]s'' (Islamic schools of law) in their major cities.

==Name==
In medieval Islamic sources, the Ayyubids were referred to as the "Kurdish regime/dynasty" ({{langx|ar|دولة الکردية|Dawlat al-Kurdiyya}}),{{sfn|Bajalan|Karimi|2017|pp=19-21}} the "dynasty/regime of the Kurds" ({{langx|ar|دولة الأکراد|Dawlat al-Akrād|links=no}}),{{sfn|Bajalan|Karimi|2017|pp=19-21}}<ref>van den Bent, J. M. C. (2020). Mongols in Mamluk eyes: Representing ethnic others in the medieval Middle East. P. 27.</ref>  or as the "Kurdish Kingdom" ({{langx|ar|المملکة الحصينة الأکرادية|al-Mamlaka al-Ḥasina al-Akrādiyya|links=no}} ).<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Pohl |first1=Walter |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h3BEEAAAQBAJ |title=Empires and Communities in the Post-Roman and Islamic World, C. 400-1000 CE |last2=Kramer |first2=Rutger |date=2021 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-006794-6 |pages=40 |language=en}}</ref> For example, [[Muhammad ibn Ibrahim al-Khazraji]], a writer at the end of the Ayyubid period, wrote a history entitled {{Transliteration|ar|Tar'īkh al-Dawlat al-Akrād wal-Atrāk}} ("The history of the State of the Kurds and of the Turks"). The Kurds meant the Ayyubids while Turks where the Mamluks, who succeeded the Ayyubids of Egypt in 1250.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Cahen |first=Claude |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ec5mAAAAMAAJ&q=T%C3%A2r%C3%AEkh+dawlat+al-akr%C3%A2d+wa%E2%80%99l-atr%C3%A2k |title=La Syrie du nord à l'époque des croisades et la principauté franque d'Antioche |date=1940 |publisher=P. Geuthner |page=68 |language=fr}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Radpey |first=Loqman |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cevjEAAAQBAJ&dq=dawlat+al-akrad&pg=PA134 |title=Towards an Independent Kurdistan: Self-Determination in International Law |date=2023 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-1-003-82238-7 |page=134 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Satō |first=Tsugitaka |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MycQL-9_bqwC&pg=PA43 |title=State and Rural Society in Medieval Islam: Sultans, Muqtaʻs, and Fallahun |publisher=Brill |year=1997 |isbn=978-90-04-10649-9 |pages=43 |language=en}}</ref> They were also referred to as "Ayyubid Kurds" ({{langx|ar|الأکراد الأيوبية|links=no}} {{transliteration|ar| al-Akrād al-Ayyūbiyya}}) and "Kurdish rulers of Egypt".{{sfn|Bajalan|Karimi|2017|pp=19-21, 31–32}}

==History==
{{See also|List of Ayyubid rulers}}

===Origins===
[[File:Eagle of Saladin Sketch from Cairo Citadel.png|thumb|Late 19th-century sketch of the "[[Eagle of Saladin]]" on the walls of the [[Cairo Citadel]], [[Egypt]]. It was historically described as having two heads, now missing. It is commonly identified as Saladin's emblem, though historical sources do not confirm this.{{sfn|Rabbat|1995|p=24}}]]

The progenitor of the Ayyubid dynasty, [[Najm ad-Din Ayyub|Najm ad-Din Ayyub ibn Shadhi]], belonged to the Kurdish Rawadiya tribe, itself a branch of the large [[Hadhabani]] tribe.<ref>The biographer [[Ibn Khallikan]] wrote, "Historians agree in stating that [Saladin's] father and family belonged to [[Dvin (ancient city)|Duwin]]. ... They were Kurds and belonged to the Rawādiya [sic], which is a branch of the great tribe al-Hadāniya": Minorsky (1953), p. 124.</ref> Ayyub's ancestors settled in the town of [[Dvin (ancient city)|Dvin]], in northern [[Armenia]].<ref name="Humphreys1987">{{harvnb|Humphreys|1987}}</ref> The Rawadiya were part of the political-military elite of the town.

Circumstances became unfavorable in Dvin when Turks seized the town. Shadhi left with his two sons Ayyub and [[Asad ad-Din Shirkuh]].<ref name="Humphreys1987"/> His friend Mujahid ad-Din Bihruz—the military governor of northern Mesopotamia under the [[Seljuks]]—welcomed him and appointed him governor of [[Tikrit]]. After Shadhi's death, Ayyub succeeded him in governance of the city with the assistance of his brother Shirkuh. Together they managed the affairs of the city well, gaining them popularity from the local inhabitants.<ref name="Ali27">{{harvnb|Ali|1996|p=27}}.</ref> In the meantime, [[Imad ad-Din Zengi|Imad ad-Din Zangi]], the ruler of [[Mosul]], was defeated by the [[Abbasid Caliphate|Abbasid]]s under Caliph [[al-Mustarshid]] and Bihruz. In his bid to escape the battlefield to Mosul via Tikrit, Zangi took shelter with Ayyub and sought his assistance in this task. Ayyub complied and provided Zangi and his companions boats to cross the [[Tigris River]] and safely reach Mosul.<ref name="Ali28">{{harvnb|Ali|1996|p=28}}.</ref>

As a consequence for assisting Zangi, the Abbasid authorities sought punitive measures against Ayyub. Simultaneously, in a separate incident, Shirkuh killed a close confidant of Bihruz on charges that he had sexually assaulted a woman in Tikrit. The Abbasid court issued arrest warrants for both Ayyub and Shirkuh, but before the brothers could be arrested, they departed Tikrit for Mosul in 1138.<ref name="Ali28"/> When they arrived in Mosul, Zangi provided them with all the facilities they needed and he recruited the two brothers into his service. Ayyub was made commander of [[Ba'albek]] and Shirkuh entered the service of Zangi's son, [[Nur ad-Din Zangi|Nur ad-Din]]. According to historian Abdul Ali, it was under the care and patronage of Zangi that the Ayyubid family rose to prominence.<ref name="Ali28"/>

===Establishment in Egypt===
{{See also|Saladin in Egypt}}
[[File:Al-Nasir I Salah al-Din Yusuf (Saladin). AH 564-589 (1169-1193 CE) Æ Dirham (30.1mm, 13.28 g, 6h). Without mint-name. Dated AH 586 (AD 1190-91). Sultan sitting facing, cross-legged, on high-backed throne (obverse).jpg|thumb|A [[dirham]] in the name of [[Saladin]], dated 587 AH (1190/91 CE). Saladin is shown wearing the [[Seljuk Empire|Seljuk Turk]] ''[[sharbush]]'' hat, his rallying sign.<ref name="DN">{{harvnb|Nicolle|2011|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Ija3CwAAQBAJ&pg=PA26 26]}}: "This copper dirham, minted at Mayyafariqin in 587 AH (1190/01 AD) shows Saladin wearing the sharbush hat of a Saljuq-style Turkish ruler."</ref><ref name="auto">{{cite thesis |last1=Lesley Baker |first1=Patricia |title=A History of Islamic Court Dress in the Middle East |date=1988 |doi=10.25501/SOAS.00033676 |publisher=SOAS, London University |page=119 |url=https://eprints.soas.ac.uk/33676/1/11010439.pdf |type=phd |quote=By the end of the 12th century, the wearing of the [[sharbush]] demonstrated support for Salah al-Din. Under the later Bahri Mamluks of Egypt and Syria it formed part of the [[khil'a]] given to an amir on his investiture. }}</ref> Legend ''"The Victorious King, Righteousness of the World and the Faith, [[Saladin|Yusuf ibn Ayyub]]"''.<ref name="DN"/><ref name="BAL">{{cite book |last1=Balog |title=The Coinage of the Ayyubids |date=1980 |publisher=Royal Numismatic Society |location=London |page=Coin 182}}, also Whelan Type III, 258-60; Album 791.4</ref>]]
In 1164, Nur al-Din dispatched Shirkuh to lead an expeditionary force to prevent the [[Crusades|Crusader]]s from establishing a strong presence in an increasingly anarchic [[Lower Egypt|Egypt]]. Shirkuh enlisted Ayyub's son, [[Saladin]], as an officer under his command.<ref name="Shillington438">{{harvnb|Shillington|2005|p=438}}</ref> They successfully drove out Dirgham, the [[vizier (Fatimid Caliphate)|vizier of Egypt]], and reinstated his predecessor [[Shawar]]. After being reinstated, Shawar ordered Shirkuh to withdraw his forces from Egypt, but Shirkuh refused, claiming it was Nur al-Din's will that he remain.<ref name="LyonsJackson8">{{harvnb|Lyons|Jackson|1982|p=8}}</ref> Over the course of several years, Shirkuh and Saladin defeated the combined forces of the Crusaders and Shawar's troops, first at [[Bilbais]], then at a site near [[Giza]], and in [[Alexandria]], where Saladin would stay to protect while Shirkuh pursued Crusader forces in [[Lower Egypt]].<ref name="LyonsJackson14">{{harvnb|Lyons|Jackson|1982|p=14}}</ref>

Shawar died in 1169 and Shirkuh became vizier, but he too died later that year.<ref name="LyonsJackson25">{{harvnb|Lyons|Jackson|1982|p=25}}</ref> After Shirkuh's death, Saladin was appointed vizier by the [[Fatimid Caliphate|Fatimid]] caliph [[al-Adid]] because there was "no one weaker or younger" than Saladin, and "not one of the [[emir]]s obeyed him or served him", according to medieval Muslim chronicler [[Ibn al-Athir]].<ref name="LyonsJackson28">{{harvnb|Lyons|Jackson|1982|p=28}}</ref> Saladin soon found himself more independent than ever before in his career, much to the dismay of Nur al-Din who attempted to influence events in Egypt. He permitted Saladin's elder brother, [[Turan-Shah]], to supervise Saladin in a bid to cause dissension within the Ayyubid family and thus undermining its position in Egypt. Nur al-Din satisfied Saladin's request that he be joined by his father Ayyub. However, Ayyub was sent primarily to ensure that Abbasid suzerainty was proclaimed in Egypt, which Saladin was reluctant to undertake due to his position as the vizier of the Fatimids. Although Nur al-Din failed to provoke the Ayyubids into rivalry, the extended Ayyubid family, particularly a number of local governors in Syria, did not entirely back Saladin.<ref name="Lev96-97">{{harvnb|Lev|1999|pp=96–97}}</ref>

[[File:Ayyubid dynasty battle scene, Fustat, Cairo, Egypt, 12-13th century CE.jpg|thumb|Fatimid or Ayyubid dynasty battle scene, [[Fustat]], Cairo, Egypt, 12–13th century.<ref>{{cite web |title=Ayyubid dynasty battle scene |url=https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/W_1938-0312-0-1 |website=www.britishmuseum.org |publisher=British Museum |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bloom |first1=Jonathan M. |title=Painting in the Fatimid Period: A Reconsideration |journal=Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society |date=October 2022 |volume=32 |issue=4 |pages=730–742, Fig. 5 |doi=10.1017/S1356186322000359 |language=en |issn=1356-1863|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Nicolle |first1=David |title=Men-at-arms series 171 – Saladin and the saracens |date=1997 |publisher=Osprey publishing |url=https://www.ghazali.org/saladin/maas-171.pdf |page=13}}</ref>]]
Saladin consolidated his control in Egypt after ordering Turan-Shah to [[Battle of the Blacks|put down a revolt]] in [[Cairo]] staged by the [[Fatimid army]]'s 50,000-strong [[Nubia]]n regiments. After this success, Saladin began granting his family members high-ranking positions in the country and increased Sunni Muslim influence in Shia Muslim-dominated Cairo by ordering the construction of a college for the [[Maliki]] [[fiqh|school of jurisprudence]] of [[Sunni Islam]] in the city, and another for the [[Shafi'i]] school, to which he belonged, in [[al-Fustat]].<ref name="LyonsJackson41">{{harvnb|Lyons|Jackson|1982|p=41}}</ref> In 1171, al-Adid died and Saladin took advantage of this power vacuum, effectively taking control of the country. Upon seizing power, he switched Egypt's allegiance to the [[Baghdad]]-based Abbasid Caliphate which adhered to Sunni Islam.<ref name="Shillington438"/>

===Expansion===
====Conquest of North Africa and Nubia====
Saladin went to Alexandria in 1171–72 and found himself facing the dilemma of having many supporters in the city, but little money. A family council was held there by the Ayyubid emirs of Egypt where it was decided that [[Al-Muzaffar Umar|al-Muzaffar Taqi al-Din Umar]], Saladin's nephew, would launch an expedition against the coastal region of [[Barqa]] ([[Cyrenaica]]) west of Egypt with a force of 500 cavalry. In order to justify the raid, a letter was sent to the [[Bedouin]] tribes of Barqa, rebuking them for their robberies of travelers and ordering them to pay the alms-tax (''[[zakat]]''). The latter was to be collected from their livestock.<ref name="Lev101">{{harvnb|Lev|1999|p=101}}</ref>

[[File:Ayyubid expansion 1174-1193.png|thumb|upright=1.5|Ayyubid expansion 1174-1193, including the campaigns of [[Saladin]], [[Sharaf al-Din Qaraqush|Qaranqush]] and [[Turan-Shah]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Riley-Smith |first1=Jonathan Simon Christopher |title=The atlas of the Crusades |date=1991 |publisher=New York : Facts on File |isbn=978-0-8160-2186-4 |page=58 |url=https://archive.org/details/atlasofcrusadesc00jona/page/58/mode/1up}}</ref>]]
In late 1172, [[Aswan]] was besieged by former Fatimid soldiers from [[Nubia]] and the governor of the city, [[Banu Kanz#Conflict with the Ayyubids|Kanz al-Dawla]]—a former Fatimid loyalist—requested reinforcements from Saladin who complied. The reinforcements had come after the Nubians had already departed Aswan, but Ayyubid forces led by Turan-Shah advanced and conquered northern Nubia after capturing the town of [[Qasr Ibrim|Ibrim]]. Turan-Shah and his Kurdish soldiers temporarily lodged there. From Ibrim, they raided the surrounding region, halting their operations after being presented with an armistice proposal from the [[Moses Georgios of Makuria|Makurian king]]. Although Turan-Shah's initial response was [[war hawk|hawkish]], he later sent an envoy to Dongola, who upon returning, described the poverty of the city and of Nubia in general to Turan-Shah. Consequently, the Ayyubids, like their Fatimid predecessors, were discouraged from further southward expansion into Nubia due to the poverty of the region, but required Nubia to guarantee the protection of Aswan and [[Upper Egypt]].<ref name="Lev100">{{harvnb|Lev|1999|p=100}}</ref> The Ayyubid garrison in Ibrim withdrew to Egypt in 1175.<ref name="Fage583">{{harvnb|Fage|1978|p=583}}</ref>

Throughout the 1170s, the Ayyubids continued to push west as well. [[Sharaf al-Din Qaraqush]], a commander under al-Muzaffar Taqi al-Din Umar, led most of these expeditions on the frontier. He captured [[Siwa Oasis|Siwa]] in 1172 and conquered [[Cyrenaica]] before 1174.{{Sfn|Baadj|2015|pp=123–125}} He subsequently conquered [[Tripoli, Libya|Tripoli]] with an army of [[Turkish people|Turks]] and Kurds, joined by Arab troops from some of the region's Bedouin tribes. The exact date of Tripoli's capture is uncertain, but happened sometime in the 1170s or early 1180s.{{Sfn|Baadj|2015|pp=131, 137–138}} While some Ayyubid forces fought the Crusaders in the Levant, Qaraqush's forces went on to capture most of [[Ifriqiya]] (present-day [[Tunisia]]) from the [[Almohads]] by 1185–1186. By this point, Qaraqush had also entered into alliance with the [[Banu Ghaniya]], led by Ali ibn Ghaniya, another enemy of the Almohads.{{Sfn|Baadj|2015|p=141}}{{Sfn|Abun-Nasr|1987|p=99}} The Almohad caliph [[Yaqub al-Mansur]] reconquered Ifriqiya from 1187 to 1188, defeating both of them.{{Sfn|Baadj|2015|pp=142–146}}{{Sfn|Abun-Nasr|1987|p=100}} The Ayyubids made no further attempts to intervene in the Maghreb after this.{{Sfn|Baadj|2015|pp=153}}

====Conquest of Arabia====
[[File:Arabic trebuchet circa 1170 CE.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|Arabic [[trebuchet]], with its counterweight, in the ''Tabṣira'' by Murḍi Ibn cālī Ibn Murḍi al-Ṭarsūsī written for [[Saladin]], late Fāṭimid or early Ayyūbid Egypt, c.1170 CE ([[:Commons:Category:Bodleian Library MS Huntington 264|Ms. Hunt.264]], f.117, Bodleian Library, Oxford, UK).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=NIcolle |first1=David |title=The Iconography of a Military Elite (Part II) |journal=Mamluk Studies Review |date=2016 |volume=XIX |page=255, photograph 56 |url=https://knowledge.uchicago.edu/record/757/files/MamlukStudiesReview_XIX_2016.pdf}}</ref> This is the only manuscript directly attributable to the Ayyubids, although early manuscripts such as the ''[[Kalīla wa-Dimna]]'' (BNF Arabe 3465) are also generally considered as Ayyubid.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Brac de La Perrière |first1=Éloïse |last2=EL Khiari |first2=Aïda |last3=Vernay-Nouri |first3=Annie |title=Les périples de Kalila et Dimna: quand les fables voyagent dans la littérature et les arts du monde islamique |publisher=Brill |location=Leiden Boston |isbn=978-90-04-46710-1 |pages=98, caption of figure 4.1; 118 |quote=It would be reasonable to ascribe BnF Arabe 3465 to the early thirteenth-century Ayyubid cultural area.}}</ref>]]
In 1173, Saladin sent Turan-Shah to conquer [[Southern Arabia|Yemen]] and the [[Hejaz]]. Muslim writers Ibn al-Athir and later [[al-Maqrizi]] wrote that the reasoning behind the conquest of Yemen was an Ayyubid fear that should Egypt fall to Nur al-Din, they could seek refuge in a faraway territory. In May 1174, Turan-Shah conquered [[Zabid]]  and later that year captured [[Aden]].<ref name="HoutsmaWensinck884">{{harvnb|Houtsma|Wensinck|1993|p=884}}</ref> Aden became the principal maritime port of the dynasty in the [[Indian Ocean]] and the principal city of Yemen,<ref name="Margariti29"/> although the official capital of Ayyubid Yemen was [[Ta'iz]].<ref name="McLaughlin131">{{harvnb|McLaughlin|2008|p=131}}</ref> The advent of the Ayyubids marked the beginning of a period of renewed prosperity in the city which saw the improvement of its commercial infrastructure, the establishment of new institutions, and the minting of its own coins.<ref name="Margariti29">{{harvnb|Margariti|2007|p=29}}</ref> Following this prosperity, the Ayyubids implemented a new tax which was collected by [[galley]]s.<ref name="Lofgren181">{{harvnb|Lofgren|1960|p=181}}</ref>

Turan-Shah drove out the remaining [[Hamdanid sultans|Hamdanid]] rulers of [[Sana'a]], conquering the mountainous city in 1175.<ref name="HoutsmaWensinck884"/> With the conquest of Yemen, the Ayyubids developed a coastal fleet, ''al-asakir al-bahriyya'', which they used to guard the sea coasts under their control and protect them from pirate raids.<ref name="DumperStanley10">{{harvnb|Dumper|Stanley|2007|p=10}}</ref> The conquest held great significance for Yemen because the Ayyubids managed to unite the previous three independent states (Zabid, Aden, and Sana'a) under a single power. However, when Turan-Shah was transferred from his governorship in Yemen in 1176, uprisings broke out in the territory and were not quelled until 1182 when Saladin assigned his other brother [[Tughtakin ibn Ayyub|Tughtekin Sayf al-Islam]] as governor of Yemen.<ref name="HoutsmaWensinck884"/> The Ayyubid ''[[na'ib]]'' (deputy governor) of Yemen, Uthman al-Zandjili, conquered the greater part of [[Hadramaut]] in 1180, upon Turan-Shah's return to Yemen.<ref name="Brice338">{{harvnb|Brice|1981|p=338}}</ref>

From Yemen, as from Egypt, the Ayyubids aimed to dominate the [[Red Sea]] trade routes which Egypt depended on and so sought to tighten their grip over the Hejaz, where an important trade stop, [[Yanbu]], was located.<ref name="Salibi55">{{harvnb|Salibi|1998|p=55}}</ref> To favor trade in the direction of the Red Sea, the Ayyubids built facilities along the Red Sea-[[Indian Ocean]] trade routes to accompany merchants.<ref name="DalyPetry217-218">{{harvnb|Daly|Petry|1998|pp=217–218}}</ref> The Ayyubids also aspired to back their claims of legitimacy within the [[Caliphate]] by having sovereignty over the [[Islam]]ic holy cities of [[Mecca]] and [[Medina]].<ref name="Salibi55"/> The conquests and economic advancements undertaken by Saladin effectively established Egypt's hegemony in the region.<ref name="DalyPetry217-218"/>

====Conquest of Syria and Upper Mesopotamia====
{{Saladin|}}

Although still nominally a vassal of Nur al-Din, Saladin adopted an increasingly independent foreign policy. This independence became more publicly pronounced after Nur al-Din's death in 1174.<ref name="Shillington438"/> Thereafter, Saladin set out to conquer Syria from the [[Zengid dynasty|Zengids]]; and on November 23 he was welcomed in [[Damascus]] by the governor of the city. By 1175, he had taken control of [[Hama]] and [[Homs]] but failed to take [[Aleppo]] after besieging it.<ref name="Lane-Poole141">{{Harvnb|Lane-Poole|1906|p=141}}</ref> Control of Homs was handed to the descendants of Shirkuh in 1179 and Hama was given to Saladin's nephew, al-Muzaffar Umar.<ref name="Lane-Poole189476">{{harvnb|Lane-Poole|1894|p=76}}</ref> Saladin's successes alarmed Emir [[Ghazi II Saif ud-Din|Saif al-Din]] of [[Mosul]], the head of the Zengids at the time, who regarded Syria as his family's estate and was angered that it was being usurped by a former servant of Nur al-Din. He mustered an army to confront Saladin near Hama. Although heavily outnumbered, Saladin and his veteran soldiers decisively defeated the Zengids.<ref name="Lane-Poole141"/> After his victory, Saladin proclaimed himself king and suppressed the name of [[as-Salih Ismail al-Malik]] (Nur al-Din's adolescent son) in [[Friday prayers]] and Islamic coinage, replacing it with his own name. The Abbasid caliph, [[al-Mustadi]], graciously welcomed Saladin's assumption of power and gave him the title of "Sultan of Egypt and Syria".<ref name="Lane-Poole1906p142-146">{{harvnb|Lane-Poole|1906|pp=142–146}}</ref>

In the spring of 1176, another major confrontation occurred between the Zengids and the Ayyubids, this time at the [[Tell Sultan|Sultan's Mound]], {{convert|15|km|mi}} from Aleppo. Saladin again emerged victorious, but Saif al-Din managed to narrowly escape. The Ayyubids proceeded to conquer other Syrian cities in the north, namely [[Ma'arat al-Numan]], [[A'zaz]], Buza'a, and [[Manbij]], but failed to capture Aleppo during a second siege. An agreement was laid out, however, whereby [[Gumushtigin]], the governor of Aleppo, and his allies at [[Hisn Kayfa]] and [[Mardin]], would recognize Saladin as the sovereign of the Ayyubids' possessions in Syria, while Saladin allowed for Gumushtigin and as-Salih al-Malik to continue their rule over Aleppo.<ref name="Lane-Poole1906p146-148">{{harvnb|Lane-Poole|1906|pp=146–148}}</ref>

{{multiple image|perrow=2|total_width=350|caption_align=center
| align    = right
| direction =horizontal
| image1   = Palmer Cup ruler (British Museum).jpg
| image2   = Palmer cup right attendants (British Museum).jpg
| footer=Northern Mesopotamian illustrative art at the time of Ayyubid control: the ''[[Palmer Cup]]'' (1200–1215).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Contadini |first1=Anna |title=Arab Painting: Text and Image in Illustrated Arabic Manuscripts |date=2010 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-18630-9 |page=11 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HA55sqqsaoQC&pg=PA11 |language=en |quote=A case in point is the Ayyubid enamelled beaker known as the Palmer Cup}}</ref> The ruler and attendants are similar to those found in the manuscript ''[[Kitab al-Dariyaq]]'' or metalworks from the [[Mosul]] or North [[Jazira region|Jazira]] area. They wear [[Seljuk Empire|Seljuk]]-type clothes,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Behrens-Abouseif |first1=Doris |title=Dress and Dress Code in Medieval Cairo: A Mamluk Obsession |chapter=Chapter 12: Mamluk Dress between Text and Image |isbn=9789004684980 |date=2024 |pages=172–173 |doi=10.1163/9789004684980_013}}</ref> together with the typical ''[[sharbush]]'' headgear.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Contadini |first1=Anna |title=Poetry on Enamelled Glass: The Palmer Cup in the British Museum.' In: Ward, R, (ed.), Gilded and Enamelled Glass from the Middle East |publisher=British Museum Press |date=1998 |pages=58–59 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/299579571}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Contadini |first1=Anna |title=Text and Image on Middle Eastern Objects: The Palmer Cup in Context (in A Rothschild Renaissance: A New Look at the Waddesdon Bequest in the British Museum) |date=2017 |publisher=British Museum Research Publications |page=130 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/317006955 |quote=The iconography of its figures is very similar to that on the Palmer Cup, in the design of their robes, in the headgear (sharbūsh) and in the way that walking figures are rendered, with one leg straight and the other slightly bent, with a slim foot slightly raised from the ground. Although the candlestick does not have a date, it is securely datable to the early 13th century, as it clearly belongs to a group of metalwork that has now been established as of that period and coming from the Mosul or North Jaziran area. These elements also confirm the early 13th-century date of the Palmer Cup and further support the region of provenance.}}</ref>
}}
While Saladin was in Syria, his brother [[al-Adil]] governed Egypt,<ref name="Lev22">{{harvnb|Lev|1999|p=22}}</ref> and in 1174–75, [[Kanz al-Dawla]] of Aswan revolted against the Ayyubids with the intention of restoring Fatimid rule. His main backers were the local Bedouin tribes and the Nubians, but he also enjoyed the support of a multitude of other groups, including the [[Armenians]]. Coincidental or possibly in coordination, was an uprising by Abbas ibn Shadi who overran [[Qus]] along the [[Nile River]] in central Egypt. Both rebellions were crushed by al-Adil.<ref name="Lev100-101">{{harvnb|Lev|1999|pp=100–101}}</ref> For the rest of that year and throughout early 1176, Qaraqush continued his raids in western [[North Africa]], bringing the Ayyubids into conflict with the Almohads who ruled the [[Maghreb]].<ref name="Lev101"/>

In 1177, Saladin led a force of some 26,000 soldiers, according to Crusader chronicler [[William of Tyre]], into southern [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]] after hearing that most of the [[Kingdom of Jerusalem]]'s soldiers were besieging [[Harem, Syria]] west of Aleppo. Suddenly attacked by the [[Knights Templar|Templar]]s under [[Baldwin IV of Jerusalem]] near [[Ramla]], the Ayyubid army was defeated at the [[Battle of Montgisard]], with the majority of its troops killed. Saladin encamped at Homs the following year and a number of skirmishes between his forces, commanded by [[Farrukh Shah]], and the Crusaders occurred.<ref name="Lane-Poole1906p155-156">{{harvnb|Lane-Poole|1906|pp=155–156}}</ref> Undeterred, Saladin invaded the Crusader states from the west and defeated Baldwin at the [[Battle of Marj Ayyun]] in 1179. The following year, he destroyed the newly built Crusader castle of [[Daughters of Jacob Bridge|Chastellet]] at the [[Battle of Jacob's Ford]]. In the campaign of 1182, he sparred with Baldwin again in the inconclusive [[Battle of Belvoir Castle (1182)|Battle of Belvoir Castle]] in [[Kawkab al-Hawa]].<ref name="Smail35-36">{{harvnb|Smail|1995|pp=35–36}}</ref>

In May 1182, Saladin captured Aleppo after a brief siege; the new governor of the city, Imad al-Din Zangi II, had been unpopular with his subjects and surrendered Aleppo after Saladin agreed to restore Zangi II's previous control over [[Sinjar]], [[Raqqa]], and [[Nusaybin]], which would thereafter serve as vassal territories of the Ayyubids.<ref name="LyonsJackson195">{{harvnb|Lyons|Jackson|1982|p=195}}</ref> Aleppo formally entered Ayyubid hands on 12 June. The day after, Saladin marched to Harim, near the Crusader-held [[Antioch]] and captured the city when its garrison forced out their leader, Surhak, who was then briefly detained and released by al-Muzaffar Umar.<ref name="LyonsJackson202-203">{{harvnb|Lyons|Jackson|1982|pp=202–203}}</ref> The surrender of Aleppo and Saladin's allegiance with Zangi II had left [[Izz ad-Din Mas'ud|Izz al-Din al-Mas'ud]] of Mosul the only major Muslim rival of the Ayyubids. Mosul had been subjected to a short siege in the autumn of 1182, but after mediation by the Abbasid caliph [[an-Nasir]], Saladin withdrew his forces. Mas'ud attempted to align himself with the [[Artuqid]]s of [[Mardin]], but they became allies of Saladin instead. In 1183, [[Irbil]] too switched allegiance to the Ayyubids. Mas'ud then sought the support of Pahlawan ibn Muhammad, the governor of [[Whole Azerbaijan|Azerbaijan]], and although he did not usually intervene in the region, the possibility of Pahlawan's intervention made Saladin cautious about launching further attacks against Mosul.<ref name="BosworthDonzelHeinrichsPellat781">{{harvnb|Humphreys|1991|p=781}}</ref>

An arrangement was negotiated whereby al-Adil was to administer Aleppo in the name of Saladin's son [[al-Afdal ibn Salah ad-Din|al-Afdal]], while Egypt would be governed by al-Muzaffar Umar in the name of Saladin's other son [[al-Aziz Uthman|Uthman]]. When the two sons were to come of age they would assume power in the two territories, but if any died, one of Saladin's brothers would take their place.<ref name="LyonsJackson221">{{harvnb|Lyons|Jackson|1982|p=221}}</ref> In the summer of 1183, after ravaging eastern [[Galilee]], Saladin's raids there culminated in the [[Battle of Al-Fule (1183)|Battle of al-Fule]] in the [[Jezreel Valley]] between him and the Crusaders under [[Guy of Lusignan]]. The mostly hand-to-hand fighting ended indecisively. The two armies withdrew to a mile from each other and while the Crusaders discussed internal matters, Saladin captured the [[Golan Heights|Golan Plateau]], cutting the Crusaders off from their main supplies source. In October 1183 and then on 13 August 1184, Saladin and al-Adil besieged Crusader-held [[Al Karak|Karak]], but were unable to capture it. Afterward, the Ayyubids raided [[Samaria]], burning down [[Nablus]]. Saladin returned to Damascus in September 1184 and a relative peace between the Crusader states and the Ayyubid empire subsequently ensued in 1184–1185.<ref name="Lane-Poole1906p177-181">{{harvnb|Lane-Poole|1906|pp=177–181}}</ref>

Saladin launched his last offensive against Mosul in late 1185, hoping for an easy victory over a presumably demoralized Mas'ud, but failed due to the city's unexpectedly stiff resistance and a serious illness which caused Saladin to withdraw to [[Harran]]. Upon Abbasid encouragement, Saladin and Mas'ud negotiated a treaty in March 1186 that left the Zengids in control of Mosul, but had to cede the eastern region beyond [[Little Zab|lesser Zab]] to [[Shahrizor]] to direct Ayyubid control, and under the obligation to supply the Ayyubids with military support when requested.<ref name="BosworthDonzelHeinrichsPellat781"/><ref>{{Cite book |last=Minorsky |first=V. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Pzg8AAAAIAAJ&q=prehistory+of+Saladin |title=Studies in Caucasian History: I. New Light on the Shaddadids of Ganja II. The Shaddadids of Ani III. Prehistory of Saladin |date=1953 |publisher=CUP Archive |isbn=978-0-521-05735-6 |pages=147 |language=en}}</ref>

====Conquest of Palestine and Transjordan====
[[File:Battle of Cresson.jpg|thumb|right|Virtually the entire [[Kingdom of Jerusalem]] passed into Ayyubid hands after their victory against the [[Crusades|Crusader]]s in the [[Battle of Hattin]] in 1187; illustration from ''[[Passages d’outremer|Les Passages faits Outremer par les Français contre les Turcs et autres Sarrasins et Maures outremarins]]'', c. 1490]]

Saladin besieged [[Tiberias]] in the eastern Galilee on 3 July 1187 and the Crusader army attempted to attack the Ayyubids by way of [[Kafr Kanna]]. After hearing of the Crusaders' march, Saladin led his guard back to their main camp at [[Kafr Sabt]], leaving a small detachment at Tiberias. With a clear view of the Crusader army, Saladin ordered al-Muzaffar Umar to block the Crusaders' entry from [[Hittin|Hattin]] by taking a position near [[Lubya]], while [[Gökböri]] and his troops were stationed at a hill near [[Al-Shajara, Palestine|al-Shajara]]. On 4 July the Crusaders advanced toward the [[Horns of Hattin]] and charged against the Muslim forces, but were overwhelmed and [[Battle of Hattin|defeated decisively]]. Four days after the battle, Saladin invited al-Adil to join him in the reconquest of [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]], [[Galilee]] and Lebanese coast. On 8 July the Crusader stronghold of [[Acre, Israel|Acre]] was captured by Saladin, while his forces seized [[Nazareth]] and [[Saffuriya]]; other brigades took [[Haifa]], [[Caesarea Maritima|Caesarea]], [[Sebastia, Nablus|Sebastia]] and Nablus, while al-Adil conquered [[Migdal Afek|Mirabel]] and [[Jaffa]]. On 26 July, Saladin returned to the coast and received the surrender of [[Sarepta]], [[Sidon]], [[Beirut]], and [[Jableh]].<ref name="Lane-Poole1906p219">{{harvnb|Lane-Poole|1906|p=219}}</ref> In August, the Ayyubids conquered [[Ramla]], [[Deir al-Balah|Darum]], [[Gaza City|Gaza]], [[Bayt Jibrin]], and [[Latrun]]. [[Ashkelon|Ascalon]] was taken on 4 September.<ref name="Lane-Poole1906p223">{{harvnb|Lane-Poole|1906|p=223}}</ref> In September–October 1187, the Ayyubids [[Siege of Jerusalem (1187)|besieged Jerusalem]], taking possession of it on 2 October, after negotiations with [[Balian of Ibelin]].<ref name="Lane-Poole1906p230">{{harvnb|Lane-Poole|1906|p=230}}</ref>

Karak and [[Montreal (Crusader castle)|Mont Real]] in [[Oultrejordain|Transjordan]] soon fell, followed by [[Safad]] in the northeastern Galilee. By the end of 1187 the Ayyubids were in control of virtually the entire Crusader kingdom in the [[Levant]] with the exception of [[Tyre, Lebanon|Tyre]], which held out under [[Conrad of Montferrat]]. In December 1187, an Ayyubid army consisting of the garrisons of Saladin and his brothers from Aleppo, Hama, and Egypt besieged Tyre. Half of the Muslim naval fleet was seized by Conrad's forces on 29 December, followed by an Ayyubid defeat on the shoreline of the city. On 1 January 1188, Saladin held a war council where a withdrawal from Tripoli was agreed.<ref name="Lane-Poole1906p239-240">{{harvnb|Lane-Poole|1906|pp=239–240}}</ref>

====Third Crusade====
[[Pope Gregory VIII]] called for a [[Third Crusade]] against the Muslims in early 1189. [[Frederick Barbarossa]] of the [[Holy Roman Empire]], [[Philip Augustus]] of France, and [[Richard I of England|Richard the Lionheart]] of England formed an alliance to reconquer Jerusalem. Meanwhile, the Crusaders and the Ayyubids fought near Acre that year and were joined by the reinforcements from Europe. From 1189 to 1191, Acre was besieged by the Crusaders, and despite initial Muslim successes, it fell to Crusader forces. A [[Massacre at Ayyadieh|massacre]] of 2,700 Muslim prisoners of war ensued, and the Crusaders then made plans to take Ascalon in the south.<ref name="Lane-Poole1906p289-307">{{harvnb|Lane-Poole|1906|pp=289–307}}</ref>

As the Ayyubids faced a Crusader naval blockade in Acre and a steady flow of Crusader reinforcements arriving by sea, Saladin sought assistance from the Almohads, who had one of the largest navies in the Mediterranean.{{Sfn|Baadj|2015|p=146}} In 1189–1190, he sent letters to Yaqub al-Mansur requesting naval support in Palestine, which the Almohad caliph declined. Various explanations for this refusal have been suggest by historians, including the Almohads' focus on [[al-Andalus]], ideological differences between the two Muslim states, and the distrust caused by [[Almohad–Ayyubid war of 1187–1188|Qaraqush's invasion of Ifriqiya]].{{Sfn|Baadj|2015|p=|pp=146–153}}

The Crusaders, now under the unified command of Richard, defeated Saladin at the [[Battle of Arsuf]], allowing for the Crusader conquest of Jaffa and much of coastal Palestine, but they were unable to recover the interior regions. Instead, Richard signed a [[Treaty of Ramla|treaty]] with Saladin in 1192, restoring the Kingdom of Jerusalem to a coastal strip between Jaffa and Beirut. It was the last major war effort of Saladin's career, as he died the next year, in 1193.

===Quarrels over the sultanate===
[[File:Maqama 09 Abu Zayd and his wife before the Kadi of Alexandria, Egypt (Kadi detail).jpg|thumb|The [[Qadi]] of [[Alexandria]] in 1200–1210, according to the ''[[Maqamat al-Hariri]]'' (BNF 3929)]]
Rather than establishing a centralized empire, Saladin had established hereditary ownership throughout his lands, dividing his empire among his kinsmen, with family members presiding over semi-autonomous fiefs and principalities.<ref name="Shillington438"/> Although these princes (''emirs'') owed allegiance to the Ayyubid sultan, they maintained relative independence in their own territories.<ref name="MeriBacharach84">{{harvnb|Meri|Bacharach|2006|p=84}}</ref> Upon Saladin's death, [[Malik az-Zahir|az-Zahir]] took Aleppo from al-Adil per the arrangement and [[al-Aziz Uthman]] held Cairo, while his eldest son, al-Afdal retained Damascus,<ref name="RichardBirrell240">{{harvnb|Richard|Birrell|1999|p=240}}</ref> which also included Palestine and much of [[Mount Lebanon]].<ref name="Burns179">{{harvnb|Burns|2005|p=179}}</ref> Al-Adil then acquired [[Al-Jazira, Mesopotamia|al-Jazira]] (Upper Mesopotamia), where he held the Zengids of Mosul at bay. In 1193, Mas'ud of Mosul joined forces with Zangi II of Sinjar and together the Zengid coalition moved to conquer al-Jazira. However, before any major results could be achieved, Mas'ud fell ill and returned to Mosul, and al-Adil then compelled Zangi to make a quick peace before the Zengids suffered territorial losses at the hands of the Ayyubids.<ref name="BosworthDonzelHeinrichsPellat781"/> Al-Adil's son [[Al-Mu'azzam Isa|al-Mu'azzam]] took possession of Karak and Transjordan.<ref name="RichardBirrell240"/>

Soon, however, Saladin's sons squabbled over the division of the empire. Saladin had appointed al-Afdal to the governorship of Damascus with the intention that his son should continue to see the city as his principal place of residence in order to emphasize the primacy of the ''[[jihad]]'' (struggle) against the Crusader states. Al-Afdal, however, found that his attachment to Damascus contributed to his undoing. Several of his father's subordinate ''emirs'' left the city for Cairo to lobby Uthman to oust him on claims he was inexperienced and intended to oust the Ayyubid old guard. Al-Adil further encouraged Uthman to act in order prevent al-Afdal's incompetence putting the Ayyubid empire in jeopardy. Thus, in 1194, Uthman openly demanded the sultanate. Uthman's claim to the throne was settled in a series of assaults on Damascus in 1196, forcing al-Afdal to leave for a lesser post at [[Salkhad]]. Al-Adil established himself in Damascus as a lieutenant of Uthman, but wielded great influence within the empire.<ref name="Burns179"/>

{{Continental Asia in 1210 CE|right|The Ayyubid and contemporary Asian polities {{circa}} 1215||Map of Ayyubids.png}}
When Uthman died in a hunting accident near Cairo, al-Afdal was again made sultan (although Uthman's son al-Mansur was the nominal ruler of Egypt), al-Adil having been absent in a campaign in the northeast. Al-Adil returned and managed to occupy the [[Citadel of Damascus]], but then faced a strong assault from the combined forces of al-Afdal and his brother az-Zahir of Aleppo. These forces disintegrated under al-Afdal's leadership and in 1200, al-Adil resumed his offensive.<ref name="Burns180">{{harvnb|Burns|2005|p=180}}</ref> Upon Uthman's death, two clans of ''[[mamluks]]'' (slave soldiers) entered into conflict. They were the Asadiyya and Salahiyya, both of which Shirkuh and Saladin had purchased. The Salahiyya backed al-Adil in his struggles against al-Afdal. With their support, al-Adil conquered Cairo in 1200,<ref name="RichardBirrell241">{{harvnb|Richard|Birrell|1999|p=241}}</ref> and forced al-Afdal to accept internal banishment.<ref name="Burns180"/> He proclaimed himself Sultan of Egypt and Syria afterward and entrusted the governance of Damascus to al-Mu'azzam and al-Jazira to his other son [[al-Kamil]].<ref name="RichardBirrell241"/> Also around 1200, a ''[[sharif]]'' (tribal head related to the Islamic prophet [[Muhammad]]), [[Qatada ibn Idris]], seized power in Mecca and was recognized as the ''emir'' of the city by al-Adil.<ref name="Salibi55"/>

Al-Afdal attempted unsuccessfully to take Damascus his final time. Al-Adil entered the city in triumph in 1201.<ref name="Burns180"/>  Thereafter, al-Adil's line, rather than Saladin's line, dominated the next 50 years of Ayyubid rule.<ref name="Burns180"/> However, az-Zahir still held Aleppo and al-Afdal was given [[Samosata]] in Anatolia.<ref name="RichardBirrell241"/> Al-Adil redistributed his possessions between his sons: al-Kamil was to succeed him in Egypt, [[Al-Ashraf Musa, Emir of Damascus|al-Ashraf]] received al-Jazira, and [[al-Awhad Ayyub|al-Awhad]] was given [[Diyar Bakr]], but the latter territory shifted to al-Ashraf's domain after al-Awhad died.<ref name="RichardBirrell241"/>

Al-Adil aroused open hostility from the [[Hanbali]] lobby in Damascus for largely ignoring the Crusaders, having launched only one campaign against them. Al-Adil believed that the Crusader army could not be defeated in a direct fight. Prolonged campaigns also involved the difficulties of maintaining a coherent Muslim coalition. The trend under al-Adil was the steady growth of the empire, mainly through the expansion of Ayyubid authority in al-Jazira and incorporation of [[Shah-Armens|Shah-Armen]] domains (in [[eastern Anatolia]]). The Abbasids eventually recognized al-Adil's role as sultan in 1207.<ref name="Burns180"/>

By 1208 [[Kingdom of Georgia]] challenged Ayyubid rule in eastern Anatolia and besieged Khilat (possessions of al-Awhad). In response al-Adil assembled and personally led large Muslim army that included the emirs of Homs, Hama and Baalbek as well as contingents from other Ayyubid principalities to support al-Awhad. During the siege, Georgian general [[Ivane Mkhargrdzeli]] accidentally fell into the hands of the al-Awhad on the outskirts of Khilat and was released in 1210, only after the Georgians agreed to sign a [[Thirty Years' Truce]]. The truce ended the Georgian menace to Ayyubid Armenia,<ref>{{harvnb|Humphreys|1977|pp=130–131}}.</ref> leaving the [[Lake Van]] region to the Ayyubids of [[Damascus]].

A Crusader military campaign was launched on 3 November 1217, beginning with an offensive towards Transjordan. Al-Mu'azzam urged al-Adil to launch a counter-attack, but he rejected his son's proposal.<ref name="RichardBirrell297">{{harvnb|Richard|Birrell|1999|p=297}}</ref> In 1218, the fortress of [[Damietta]] in the [[Nile Delta]] was [[Siege of Damietta (1218)|besieged]] by the Crusaders. After two failed attempts, the fortress eventually capitulated on 25 August. Six days later al-Adil died of apparent shock at Damietta's loss.<ref name="RichardBirrell300">{{harvnb|Richard|Birrell|1999|p=300}}</ref>

Al-Kamil proclaimed himself sultan in Cairo, while his brother al-Mu'azzam claimed the throne in Damascus. Al-Kamil attempted to retake Damietta, but was forced back by [[John of Brienne]]. After learning of a conspiracy against him, he fled, leaving the Egyptian army leaderless. Panic ensued, but with the help of al-Mu'azzam, al-Kamil regrouped his forces. By then, however, the Crusaders had seized his camp. The Ayyubids offered to negotiate for a withdrawal from Damietta, offering the restoration of Palestine to the Kingdom of Jerusalem, with the exception of the forts of Mont Real and Karak.<ref name="RichardBirrell301">{{harvnb|Richard|Birrell|1999|p=301}}</ref> This was refused by the leader of the [[Fifth Crusade]], [[Pelagius of Albano]], and in 1221, the Crusaders were driven out of the Nile Delta after the Ayyubid victory at [[El Mansoura, Egypt|Mansura]].<ref name="Shillington438"/>

===Disintegration===
====Loss of territories and ceding of Jerusalem====
<!-- "Yemen" links here -->
[[File:Al-Kamil Muhammad al-Malik and Frederick II Holy Roman Emperor.jpg|thumb|right|upright|[[Al-Kamil]] (right) and [[Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor|Frederick II]] signed a treaty restoring [[Jerusalem]] to the [[Crusades|Crusader]]s for ten years; from ''[[Nuova Cronica]]'', mid-14th century]]

In the east, the [[Khwarazmian Empire]] under [[Jalal al-Din Mangburni]] captured the town of [[Ahlat|Khilat]] from al-Ashraf,<ref name="RichardBirrell315">{{harvnb|Richard|Birrell|1999|p=315}}</ref> while the traditionally loyalist [[Rasulid dynasty|Rasulids]] began to encroach on Ayyubid holdings in [[Arabia]]. In 1222 the Ayyubids appointed the Rasulid leader Ali ibn Rasul as governor of Mecca. Ayyubid rule in Yemen and the Hejaz was declining and the Ayyubid governor of Yemen, Mas'ud ibn Kamil, was forced to leave for Egypt in 1223. He appointed Nur ad-Din Umar as his deputy governor while he was absent.<ref name="Ali84"/> In 1224 a local dynasty gained control of [[Hadramaut]] from the Ayyubids, whose control of it had been weakened due to their troubled situation in Yemen proper.<ref name="Brice338"/> Following Mas'ud ibn Kamil's death in 1229, Nur ad-Din Umar declared his independence and discontinued the annual tribute payment to the Ayyubids in Egypt.<ref name="Ali84">{{harvnb|Ali|1996|p=84}}</ref>

Under [[Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor|Frederick II]], a [[Sixth Crusade]] was launched, capitalizing on the ongoing strife between al-Kamil of Egypt and al-Mu'azzam of Syria.<ref name="Shillington438"/> Subsequently, al-Kamil offered Jerusalem to Frederick to help prevent a Syrian invasion of Egypt, but Frederick refused. Al-Kamil's position was strengthened when al-Mu'azzam died in 1227 and was succeeded by his son [[an-Nasir Dawud]]. Al-Kamil continued negotiations with Frederick in Acre in 1228, leading to a truce signed in February 1229. The agreement gave the Crusaders control over an unfortified Jerusalem for over ten years, but also guaranteed Muslim control over Islamic holy places in the city.<ref name="MeriBacharach84"/> Although the treaty held little military significance, an-Nasir Dawud used it as a pretext to provoke the sentiments of Syria's inhabitants. A Friday sermon by a popular preacher at the [[Umayyad Mosque]] "reduced the crowd to violent sobbing and tears".<ref name="Burns184">{{harvnb|Burns|2005|p=184}}</ref>

The settlement with the Crusaders was accompanied by a proposed redistribution of the Ayyubid principalities whereby Damascus and its territories would by governed by al-Ashraf, who recognized al-Kamil's sovereignty. An-Nasir Dawud resisted, incensed by the Ayyubid-Crusader truce.<ref name="Burns184"/> Al-Kamil's forces reached Damascus to enforce the proposed agreement in May 1229. The [[Siege of Damascus (1229)|ensuing siege]] levied significant pressure on the inhabitants, but they rallied to an-Nasir Dawud, having been supportive of his father's stable rule and angered at the treaty with Frederick. After one month, an-Nasir Dawud sued for peace and was granted a new principality, centered around Karak, while al-Ashraf, the governor of Diyar Bakr, assumed the governorship of Damascus.<ref name="Burns185">{{harvnb|Burns|2005|p=185}}</ref>

Meanwhile, the [[Great Seljuq Empire|Seljuk]]s were advancing towards al-Jazira.<ref name="RichardBirrell322">{{harvnb|Richard|Birrell|1999|p=322}}</ref> The descendants of Qatada ibn Idris challenged Ayyubid rule in Mecca. The Rasulids took advantage of this to end Ayyubid suzerainty in the Hejaz and bring the region under their control, which they accomplished in 1238 when Nur al-Din Umar captured Mecca.<ref name="Salibi55"/><ref name="Ali84"/>

====Syro-Egyptian divide====
[[File:Bassin du sultan al-Adil II Abu Bak (Combat scene).jpg|thumb|Basin of Ayubbid Sultan [[Al-Adil II]], Syria, 1238-1240, combat scene.<ref>{{cite web |last1=al-Mawsili |first1=Ahmad ibn 'Umar al-Dhaki |title=Bassin au nom du sultan al-'Adil II Abu Bakr |url=https://collections.louvre.fr/en/ark:/53355/cl010329191 |publisher=Louvre Museum |date=1238}}</ref>]]
Al-Ashraf's rule in Damascus was stable, but he and the other ''emirs'' of Syria sought to assert their independence from Cairo. Amid these tensions, al-Ashraf died in August 1237 after a four-month illness and was succeeded by his brother [[as-Salih Ismail, Emir of Damascus|as-Salih Ismail]]. Two months later, al-Kamil's Egyptian army arrived and besieged Damascus, but as-Salih Ismail had destroyed the suburbs of the city to deny al-Kamil's forces shelter.<ref name="Burns186">{{harvnb|Burns|2005|p=186}}</ref> In 1232, al-Kamil installed his eldest son [[as-Salih Ayyub]] to govern Hisn Kayfa, but upon al-Kamil's death in 1238, as-Salih Ayyub disputed the proclamation of younger brother [[al-Adil II]] as sultan in Cairo. As-Salih Ayyub eventually occupied Damascus in December 1238, but his uncle Ismail retrieved the city in September 1239. Ismail's cousin an-Nasir Dawud had Ismail detained in Karak in a move to prevent the latter's arrest by al-Adil II. Ismail entered into an alliance with Dawud who released him the following year, allowing him to proclaim himself sultan in place of al-Adil II in May 1240.

Throughout the early 1240s, as-Salih Ayyub carried out reprisals against those who supported al-Adil II, and he then quarreled with an-Nasir Dawud who had reconciled with as-Salih Ismail of Damascus. The rival sultans as-Salih Ayyub and Ismail attempted to ally with the Crusaders against the other.<ref name="RichardBirrell328">{{harvnb|Richard|Birrell|1999|p=328}}</ref> In 1244, the breakaway Ayyubids of Syria allied with the Crusaders and confronted the coalition of as-Salih Ayyub and the Khwarizmids at [[Hirbiya]], near Gaza. A large [[Battle of La Forbie|battle ensued]], resulting in a major victory for as-Salih Ayyub and the virtual collapse of the Kingdom of Jerusalem.<ref name="RichardBirrell330">{{harvnb|Richard|Birrell|1999|p=330}}</ref>

====Restoration of unity====
In 1244–1245, as-Salih Ayyub had seized the area approximate to the modern-day [[West Bank]] from an-Nasir Dawud; he gained possession of Jerusalem, then marched on to take Damascus, which fell with relative ease in October 1245.<ref  name="RichardBirrell330"/> Shortly afterward, Sayf al-Din Ali surrendered his exposed principality of [[Ajlun]] and its fortress to as-Salih Ayyub. The rupture of the alliance between the Khwarizmids and as-Salih Ayyub ended with the virtual destruction of the former by [[al-Mansur Ibrahim]], the Ayyubid ''emir'' of Homs, in October 1246.<ref name="RichardBirrell330"/> With the Khwarizimid defeat, as-Salih Ayyub was able to complete the conquest of southern Syria.<ref name="Humphreys288">{{harvnb|Humphreys|1977|p=288}}</ref> His general Fakhr ad-Din went on to subdue an-Nasir Dawud's territories. He sacked the lower town of Karak, then besieged its fortress. A stalemate followed with neither an-Nasir Dawud or Fakhr ad-Din strong enough to dislodge the other's forces. A settlement was eventually reached whereby an-Nasir Dawud would retain the fortress, but cede the remainder of his principality to as-Salih Ayyub. Having settled the situation in Palestine and Transjordan, Fakhr ad-Din moved north and marched to [[Bosra]], the last place still held by Ismail. During the siege, Fakhr ad-Din fell ill, but his commanders continued the assault against the city, which fell in December 1246.<ref name="Humphreys290">{{harvnb|Humphreys|1977|p=290}}</ref>

By May 1247, as-Salih Ayyub was master of Syria south of [[Lake Homs]], having gained control over [[Banias|Banyas]] and Salkhad. With his fellow Ayyubid opponents subdued, except for Aleppo under [[an-Nasir Yusuf]], as-Salih Ayyub undertook a limited offensive against the Crusaders, sending Fakhr ad-Din to move against their territories in the Galilee. [[Tiberias]] fell on 16 June, followed by [[Mount Tabor]] and [[Kawkab al-Hawa]] soon thereafter. Safad with its Templar fortress seemed out of reach, so the Ayyubids marched south to Ascalon. Facing stubborn resistance from the Crusader garrison, an Egyptian flotilla was sent by as-Salih Ayyub to support the siege and on 24 October, Fakhr ad-Din's troops stormed through a breach in the walls and killed or captured the entire garrison. The city was razed and left deserted.<ref name="Humphreys290"/>

As-Salih Ayyub returned to Damascus to keep an eye on developments in northern Syria. [[Al-Ashraf Musa, Emir of Homs|Al-Ashraf Musa of Homs]] had ceded the important stronghold of [[Salamiyah]] to as-Salih Ayyub the previous winter, perhaps to underline their patron-client relationship. This troubled the Ayyubids of Aleppo who feared it would be used as a base for a military take-over of their city. An-Nasir Yusuf found this intolerable and decided to annex Homs in the winter of 1248. The city surrendered in August and an-Nasir Yusuf's terms forced al-Ashraf Musa to hand over Homs, but he was allowed to retain nearby [[Palmyra]] and Tell Bashir in the [[Syrian Desert]]. As-Salih Ayyub sent Fakhr ad-Din to recapture Homs, but Aleppo countered by sending an army to [[Kafartab|Kafr Tab]], south of the city.<ref name="Humphreys293-295">{{harvnb|Humphreys|1977|pp=293–295}}</ref> An-Nasir Dawud left Karak for Aleppo to support an-Nasir Yusuf, but in his absence, his brothers al-Amjad Hasan and az-Zahir Shadhi detained his heir al-Mu'azzam Isa and then personally went to as-Salih Ayyub's camp at [[al-Mansourah]] in Egypt to offer him control of Karak in return for holdings in Egypt. As-Salih Ayyub agreed and sent the [[eunuch]] Badr al-Din Sawabi to act as his governor in Karak.<ref name="Humphreys297">{{harvnb|Humphreys|1977|p=297}}</ref>

===Fall===
====Rise of the Mamluks and fall of Egypt====
[[File:Basin, Syria, c. 1240 AD, brass inlaid with silver - Freer Gallery of Art - DSC04710.jpg|thumb|Basin made for Ayyubid Sultan [[As-Salih Ayyub]], [[Damascus]], Syria, 1247–1249. Brass inlaid with silver. Freer Gallery of Art.<ref name="Basin">{{cite web |title=Basin |url=https://asia.si.edu/object/F1955.10/ |website=Smithsonian's National Museum of Asian Art |access-date=2023-02-03 |archive-date=2023-02-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230203191346/https://asia.si.edu/object/F1955.10/ |url-status=live }}</ref>]]
[[File:Basin, Syria, c. 1240 AD, brass inlaid with silver - Freer Gallery of Art (horseman playing Polo).jpg|thumb|Horseman playing [[Polo]] (detail). [[Damascus]], Syria, 1247–1249. Brass inlaid with silver. Freer Gallery of Art.<ref name="Basin"/>]]
In 1248, a Crusader fleet of 1,800 boats and ships arrived in [[Cyprus]] with the intent of launching a [[Seventh Crusade]] against the Muslims by conquering Egypt. Their commander, [[Louis IX]], attempted to enlist the [[Mongol Empire|Mongols]] to launch a coordinated attack on Egypt, but when this failed to materialize, the Crusader force sailed to Damietta and the local population there fled as soon as they landed. When as-Salih Ayyub, who was in Syria at the time, heard of this, he rushed back to Egypt, avoiding Damietta, instead reaching Mansurah. There, he organized an army and raised a commando force which harassed the Crusaders.<ref name="Ali35">{{harvnb|Ali|1996|p=35}}</ref>

As-Salih Ayyub was ill and his health deteriorated further due to the mounting pressure from the Crusader offensive. His wife [[Shajar al-Durr]] called a meeting of all the war generals and thus became commander-in-chief of the Egyptian forces. She ordered the fortification of Mansurah and then stored large quantities of provisions and concentrated her forces there. She also organized a fleet of war galleys and scattered them at various strategic points along the Nile River. Crusader attempts to capture Mansurah were thwarted and King Louis found himself in a critical position. He managed to cross the Nile to launch a surprise attack against Mansurah. Meanwhile, as-Salih Ayyub died, but Shajar al-Durr and as-Salih Ayyub's [[Bahri dynasty|Bahri Mamluk]] generals, including [[Baibars|Rukn al-Din Baybars]] and [[Aybak]], countered the assault and inflicted heavy losses on the Crusaders. Simultaneously, Egyptian forces cut off the Crusader's line of supply from Damietta, preventing the arrival of reinforcements. As-Salih Ayyub's son and the newly proclaimed Ayyubid sultan [[Al-Muazzam Turanshah|al-Mu'azzam Turan-Shah]] reached Mansurah at this point and intensified [[Battle of Mansurah (1250)|the battle]] against the Crusaders. The latter ultimately surrendered at the [[Battle of Fariskur (1250)|Battle of Fariskur]], and King Louis and his companions were arrested.<ref name="Ali36">{{harvnb|Ali|1996|p=36}}</ref>

Al-Mu'azzam Turan-Shah alienated the Mamluks soon after their victory at Mansurah and constantly threatened them and Shajar al-Durr. Fearing for their positions of power, the Bahri Mamluks revolted against the sultan and killed him in April 1250.<ref name="MeriBacharach84"/> Aybak married Shajar al-Durr and subsequently took over the government in Egypt in the name of [[Al-Ashraf Musa, Sultan of Egypt|al-Ashraf II]] who became sultan, but only nominally.<ref name="RichardBirrell349">{{harvnb|Richard|Birrell|1999|p=349}}</ref>

====Dominance of Aleppo====
Intent on restoring the supremacy of Saladin's direct descendants within the Ayyubid family,<ref name="Tabbaa29-30">{{harvnb|Tabbaa|1997|pp=29–30}}</ref> an-Nasir Yusuf was eventually able to enlist the backing of all of the Syria-based Ayyubid ''emirs'' in a common cause against Mamluk-dominated Egypt. By 1250, he took Damascus with relative ease and except for Hama and Transjordan, an-Nasir Yusuf's direct authority stood unbroken from the [[Khabur (Euphrates)|Khabur River]] in northern Mesopotamia to the [[Sinai Peninsula]]. In December 1250, he attacked Egypt after hearing of al-Mu'azzam Turan-Shah's death and the ascension of Shajar al-Durr. An-Nasir Yusuf's army was much larger and better-equipped than that of the Egyptian army, consisting of the forces of Aleppo, Homs, Hama, and those of Saladin's only surviving sons, Nusrat ad-Din and Turan-Shah ibn Salah ad-Din.<ref name="Humphreys316">{{harvnb|Humphreys|1977|p=316}}</ref> Nonetheless, it suffered a major defeat at the hands of Aybak's forces. An-Nasir Yusuf subsequently returned to Syria, which was slowly slipping out of his control.<ref name="Tabbaa29-30"/>

The Mamluks forged an alliance with the Crusaders in March 1252 and agreed to jointly launch a campaign against an-Nasir Yusuf. King Louis, who had been released after al-Mu'azzam Turan-Shah's murder, led his army to Jaffa, while Aybak intended to send his forces to Gaza. Upon hearing of the alliance, an-Nasir Yusuf immediately dispatched a force to [[Tell al-Ajjul]], just outside Gaza, in order to prevent the junction of the Mamluk and Crusader armies. Meanwhile, the rest of the Ayyubid army was stationed in the [[Jordan Valley (Middle East)|Jordan Valley]]. Realizing that a war between them would greatly benefit the Crusaders, Aybak and an-Nasir Yusuf accepted Abbasid mediation via Najm ad-Din al-Badhirai. In April 1253, a treaty was signed whereby the Mamluks would retain control over all of Egypt and Palestine up to, but not including, Nablus, while an-Nasir Yusuf would be confirmed as the ruler of Muslim Syria. Thus, Ayyubid rule was officially ended in Egypt.<ref name="Humphreys322-323">{{harvnb|Humphreys|1977|pp=322–323}}</ref> After conflict arose between the Mamluks and the Ayyubids reignited, al-Badhirai arranged another treaty, this time giving an-Nasir Yusuf control of the Mamluks' territories in Palestine and [[al-Arish]] in Sinai. Instead of placing Ayyubids in charge, however, an-Nasir Yusuf handed Jerusalem to a Mamluk named Kutuk while Nablus and [[Jenin]] were given to Baibars.<ref name="Humphreys328">{{harvnb|Humphreys|1977|p=328}}</ref>

For over a year after the settlement with the Mamluks, calm settled over an-Nasir Yusuf's reign, but on 11 December 1256 he sent two envoys to the Abbasids in Baghdad seeking formal investiture from the caliph, [[al-Musta'sim]], for his role as "Sultan". This request was connected to an-Nasir's rivalry with Aybak, as the title would be useful in future disputes with the Mamluks. However, the Mamluks had sent their envoys to Baghdad previously to precisely ensure that an-Nasir Yusuf would not gain the title, putting al-Musta'sim in a difficult position.<ref name="Humphreys328"/>

In early 1257, Aybak was killed in a conspiracy, and was succeeded by his 15-year-old son, [[al-Mansur Ali]], while [[Qutuz|Saif ad-Din Qutuz]] held an influential position. Soon after al-Mansur Ali's ascendancy rumors of another conspiracy to which an-Nasir Yusuf had an alleged connection emerged. The accused conspirator, al-Mansur Ali's vizier, Sharaf ad-Din al-Fa'izi, was strangled by Egyptian authorities. The Bahri Mamluks in Syria led by Baibars pressured an-Nasir Yusuf to intervene by invading Egypt, but he would not act, fearing the Bahri dynasty would usurp his throne if they gained Egypt.

====Karak asserts independence====
[[File:Ayyubids 1257.png|thumb|right|200px|Ayyubid territories in 1257. Area in bright red controlled by [[an-Nasir Yusuf]], while the area under dark red was under the nominal control of al-Mughith Umar of Kerak]]

Relations between an-Nasir Yusuf and the Bahri Mamluks grew tense after the former refused to invade Egypt. In October 1257, Baibars and his fellow Mamluks left Damascus or were expelled from the city and together they moved south to Jerusalem. When the governor Kutuk refused to aid them against an-Nasir Yusuf, Baibars deposed him and had al-Mugith Umar, the emir of Karak, pronounced in the ''[[khutba]]'' at the [[Al-Aqsa Mosque (building)|al-Aqsa Mosque]]; over the years, al-Mugith Umar had allowed the political dissidents of Cairo and Damascus, who sought protection from either the Mamluk and Ayyubid authorities, a safe haven within his territory.<ref name="Humphreys330-31"/>

Soon after gaining Jerusalem, Baibars conquered Gaza and an-Nasir Yusuf sent his army to Nablus in response. A battle ensued and the Mamluks ultimately fled across the [[Jordan River]] to the [[Balqa (region)|Balqa]] area. From there they reached [[Zoara|Zughar]] at the southern tip of the [[Dead Sea]] where they sent their submission to Karak. Al-Mughith Umar's new relationship with Baibars solidified his independence from an-Nasir Yusuf's Syria. To ensure his independence, al-Mughith Umar began to distribute the territories of Palestine and Transjordan among the Bahri Mamluks.<ref name="Humphreys330-31">{{harvnb|Humphreys|1977|pp=330–331}}</ref> The new allies assembled a small army and headed for Egypt. In spite of initial gains in Palestine and al-Arish, they withdrew after seeing how overwhelmingly outnumbered they were by the Egyptian army. Al-Mughith Umar and Baibars were not discouraged, however, and launched an army 1,500 regular cavalry to Sinai at the beginning of 1258, but again were defeated by the Mamluks of Egypt.<ref name="Humphreys332">{{harvnb|Humphreys|1977|p=332}}</ref>

====Mongol invasion and collapse of the empire====
{{Main|Mongol invasions of the Levant}}

[[File:Mongol raids in Syria and Palestine 1260.svg|thumb|right|250px|The Mongol conquest of Ayyubid Syria]]

The Ayyubids had been under the nominal sovereignty of the Mongol Empire after a Mongol force targeted Ayyubid territories in Anatolia in 1244. An-Nasir Yusuf sent an embassy to the Mongol capital [[Karakorum]] in 1250, shortly after assuming power. These understandings did not last, however, and the Mongol Great Khan, [[Möngke Khan|Möngke]], issued a directive to his brother [[Hulagu Khan|Hulagu]] to extend the realms of the empire to the Nile River. The latter raised an army of 120,000 and in 1258, sacked Baghdad and slaughtered its inhabitants, including Caliph al-Musta'sim and most of his family after the Ayyubids failed to assemble an army to protect the city.<ref name="Burns195-196">{{harvnb|Burns|2005|pp=195–196}}</ref> That same year the Ayyubids lost Diyar Bakr to the Mongols.<ref name="DumperStanley128">{{harvnb|Dumper|Stanley|2007|p=128}}</ref>

An-Nasir Yusuf sent a delegation to Hulagu afterward, repeating his protestations to submission. Hulagu refused to accept the terms and so an-Nasir Yusuf called on Cairo for aid. This plea coincided with a successful coup by the Cairo-based Mamluks against the remaining symbolic Ayyubid leadership in Egypt, with strongman [[Qutuz]] officially taking power. Meanwhile, an Ayyubid army was assembled at [[Barzeh, Syria|Birzeh]], just north of Damascus to defend the city against the Mongols who were now marching towards northern Syria. [[Siege of Aleppo (1260)|Aleppo was soon besieged]] within a week and in January 1260 it fell to the Mongols. The [[Great Mosque of Aleppo|Great Mosque]] and the [[Citadel of Aleppo]] were razed and most of the inhabitants were killed or sold [[slavery in the Ayyubid Sultanate|into slavery]].<ref name="Burns197"/> The destruction of Aleppo caused panic in Muslim Syria; The Ayyubid emir of Homs, al-Ashraf Musa, offered to ally with Mongols at the approach of their army and was allowed to continue governance of the city by Hulagu. Hama also capitulated without resisting, but did not join forces with the Mongols.<ref name="Grousset362">{{harvnb|Grousset|2002|p=362}}</ref> An-Nasir Yusuf opted to flee Damascus to seek protection in Gaza.<ref name="Burns197">{{harvnb|Burns|2005|p=197}}</ref>

Hulagu departed for Karakorum and left [[Kitbuqa]], a [[Nestorian Christian]] general, to continue the Mongol conquest. Damascus capitulated after the arrival of the Mongol army, but was not sacked like other captured Muslim cities. However, from Gaza, an-Nasir Yusuf managed to rally the small garrison he left in the Citadel of Damascus to rebel against the Mongol occupation. The Mongols retaliated by launching a massive artillery assault on the citadel and when it became apparent that an-Nasir Yusuf was unable to relieve the city with a newly assembled army, the garrison surrendered.<ref name="Burns197"/>

The Mongols proceeded by conquering Samaria, killing most of the Ayyubid garrison in Nablus, and then advanced south, as far as Gaza, unhindered. An-Nasir Yusuf was soon captured by the Mongols and used to persuade the garrison at Ajlun to capitulate. Afterward, the junior Ayyubid governor of [[Banias|Banyas]] allied with the Mongols,<ref name="Grousset362"/> who had now gained control of most of Syria and al-Jazira, effectively ending Ayyubid power in the region. On 3 September 1260, the Egypt-based Mamluk army led by Qutuz and [[Baibars]] challenged Mongol authority and decisively defeated their forces in the [[Battle of Ain Jalut]], outside of [[Zir'in]] in the [[Jezreel Valley]]. Five days later, the Mamluks took Damascus and within a month, most of Syria was in Bahri Mamluk hands.<ref name="Burns197"/> Meanwhile, an-Nasir Yusuf was killed in captivity.<ref name="AbulafiaMcKitterickFouracre616">{{harvnb|Irwin|1999|p=616}}</ref>

===Remnants of the dynasty===
{{see also|Emirate of Hasankeyf}}
Many of the Ayyubid ''emirs'' of Syria were discredited by Qutuz for collaborating with the Mongols, but since al-Ashraf Musa defected and fought alongside the Mamluks at Ain Jalut, he was allowed to continue his rule over Homs. Al-Mansur of Hama had fought alongside the Mamluks from the start of their conquest and because of this,<ref name="AbulafiaMcKitterickFouracre616"/> Hama continued to be ruled by the Ayyubid descendants of al-Muzaffar Umar. After al-Ashraf Musa's death in 1262, the new Mamluk sultan, Baibars, annexed Homs. The next year, al-Mughith Umar was tricked into surrendering Karak to Baibars and was executed soon after for having previously sided with the Mongols.<ref name="AbulafiaMcKitterickFouracre616"/>

The last Ayyubid ruler of Hama died in 1299 and Hama briefly passed through direct Mamluk suzerainty. However, in 1310, under the patronage of the Mamluk sultan [[al-Nasir Muhammad]], Hama was restored to the Ayyubids under the well-known geographer and author [[Abu'l-Fida|Abu al-Fida]]. The latter died in 1331 and was succeeded by his son [[al-Afdal Muhammad]], who eventually lost the favor of his Mamluk overlords. He was removed from his post in 1341 and Hama was formally placed under Mamluk rule.<ref name="DumperStanley163">{{harvnb|Dumper|Stanley|2007|p=163}}</ref>

In southeastern Anatolia, the Ayyubids continued to rule the [[Emirate of Hasankeyf|principality of Hisn Kayfa]] and managed to remain an autonomous entity, independent of the Mongol [[Ilkhanate]], which ruled northern Mesopotamia until the 1330s. After the breakup of the Ilkhanate, their former vassals in the area, the [[Artuqid]]s, waged war against the Ayyubids of Hisn Kayfa in 1334, but were decisively defeated, with the Ayyubids gaining the Artuqids' possessions on the left bank of the [[Tigris River]].<ref name="Singh203-204">{{harvnb|Singh|2000|pp=203–204}}</ref> In the 14th century, the Ayyubids rebuilt the castle of Hisn Kayfa which served as their stronghold. The Ayyubids of Hisn Kayfa were vassals of the Mamluks and later the [[Dulkadirids]] until being supplanted by the [[Ottoman Empire]] in the early 16th century.<ref name="AyliffeDubinGawthropRichardson913">{{harvnb|Ayliffe|Dubin|Gawthrop|Richardson|2003|p=913}}</ref>

==Military==
Fundamentally, [[Saladin|Saladin's]] army, which grew out of [[Nur al-Din Zengi|Nur ad-Din's]] army, was mainly based on Kurdo-Turkic troops, alongside some Fatimid and Arab tribal contingents. Kurds made up one-third of Saladin's army and were mostly organized in tribal units and corps, such as [[al-Hakkariyya]], al-Mehraniyya (branch of [[Hadhabani (tribe)|Hadhbāni]]), [[Humaydi (tribe)|al-Humaydiyya]] and [[Zerzar|al-Zarzariyya]].{{sfn|Humphreys|1987|p=164–167}} In 1181, Saladin's Egyptian army was composed of 111 amirs, 6,976 ''tawashi'' (cavalrymen) and 1,153 ''qara-ghulam''s (second grade cavalrymen). In addition to the dominant contribution of Egypt, each urban centre in the [[Levant]] and the [[Upper Mesopotamia|Jazira]] maintained contingents depending on its resources, which were called by Saladin when needed. The estimated total of 16,000 regular cavalry were directly subject to Saladin's command, in addition to 4000 troops which the [[Zengid dynasty|Zengids]] of Mosul and the other Zengid principalities supplied. It was with the large bulk of this army, some 12,000 cavalrymen, that Saladin defeated the Crusader forces at [[Battle of Hattin|Hattin]] and achieved his later victories.{{sfn|Humphreys|1977|p=416}}

Not much is known about how the Ayyubids graded their officer corps. A number of military titles appear in inscriptions on some Ayyubid buildings, including [[Emir|''amir'']], ''amir al-kabir'', [[Ispahsalar|''supasalar'']] and [[Amirspasalar|''amir supasalar'']]. These might refer to different ranks.{{sfn|Humphreys|1977|p=373}}

The Ayyubid army largely consisted of free-born soldiers, but the sultan, princes and amirs also acquired their own personal [[Mamluk]] contingents.{{sfn|Humphreys|1977|p=416}} These included, for instance, the ''Asadiyya'' (named after [[Shirkuh|Asad ad-Din Shirkuh]]), the ''Salahiyya'' (after Saladin), the ''<nowiki/>'Adiliyya'' (after [[Al-Adil I|Adil I]]), the ''Kamiliyya'' (after [[al-Kamil]]), and others. The lack of unity and the rivalries between these contingents eventually weakened the Ayyubid army.{{sfn|Humphreys|1977|p=|pp=29–30}} Furthermore, a few traces of ethnic hostility may have existed between [[Kurds]], who were free-born, and [[Turkic peoples|Turks]] who generally made up the Mamluk contingents. Although the army was paid by a monthly salary called ''jāmakiyya'', the amirs were often assigned an ''[[iqta']]'' (fiefdom) by the sultan or other rulers. From the income of these ''iqta'', they were required to provide a specific number of fully equipped and trained cavalrymen when the sultan called them to arms.{{sfn|Humphreys|1977|p=373}}

==Government==
{{See also|List of Ayyubid rulers|l1=List of Ayyubid rulers and related family trees}}

===Structure===
[[File:Ayyubid Az Zahir 1204 Aleppo.jpg|thumb|right|An Ayyubid coin minted in Aleppo bearing the name of Emir [[az-Zahir Ghazi|al-Zahir]] ]]

Saladin structured the Ayyubid empire around the concept of collective sovereignty i.e. a confederation of principalities held together by the idea of family rule. Under this arrangement there existed numerous "petty sultans" while one family member, ''as-Sultan al-Mu'azzam'', reigned supreme. After the death of Saladin, this coveted position became open to whoever was strong enough to seize it. Subsequent rivalry between the Ayyubids of Syria and Egypt reached a point where the rulers of each territory would at times collude with Crusaders against the other.<ref name="Jackson36"/> Ayyubid rule differed in these two regions. In Syria, each major city was ruled as a relatively independent principality under an Ayyubid family member, while in Egypt the long tradition of centralized rule enabled the Ayyubids to maintain direct control over the province from Cairo.<ref name="HouraniRuthven131">{{harvnb|Hourani|Ruthven|2002|p=131}}</ref> It was [[Baghdad]], seat of the [[Caliphate]], however, that exercised cultural and political hegemony over the Ayyubid territories, particularly those in [[Southwest Asia]]. For instance, the ''[[qadi]]'' ("chief justice") of Damascus was still appointed by the Abbasids during Ayyubid rule.<ref name="Jackson36">{{harvnb|Jackson|1996|p=36}}</ref>

Political power was concentrated in the Ayyubid household which was not necessarily characterized only by blood relation; slaves and intimates could acquire great, and even supreme power within it. It was a common occurrence for the mothers of young Ayyubid rulers to act as independent powers or in a few cases, rulers in their own right. [[Eunuch (court official)|Eunuchs]] exercised substantial power under the Ayyubids, serving as attendants and [[atabeg]]s within the household or as ''emirs'', governors, and army commanders outside the household. One of Saladin's most important supporters was the eunuch [[Baha ad-Din ibn Shaddad]] who helped him depose the Fatimids, dispossess their properties, and construct the wall of Cairo's citadel. Following the death of al-Aziz Uthman, he became the regent of his son al-Mansur and effectively ruled over Egypt for a short time before the arrival of al-Adil. Later sultans appointed eunuchs as deputy sultans and even awarded them sovereignty over certain cities, such as Shams al-Din Sawab who was given the [[Upper Mesopotamia|Jazira]]n cities of [[Amid]] and Diyar Bakr in 1239.<ref name="DalyPetry239-240">{{harvnb|Daly|Petry|1998|pp=239–240}}</ref>

The Ayyubids had three principal means of recruiting the educated elites whom they needed to administer their cities and towns. Some of these local leaders, known as ''[[shaykh]]s'', entered the service of an Ayyubid ruling household and thus their bids for power were supported from Ayyubid household revenues and influence. Others were paid directly out of revenues made from the ''[[divan|diwan]]'', a high governmental body of the state. The third method was assignment to the ''shaykhs'' of the revenues of charitable endowments, known as ''[[waqf]]s''.<ref name="DalyPetry231">{{harvnb|Daly|Petry|1998|p=231}}</ref> The Ayyubids, like their various predecessors in the region, had relatively few state agencies by which they could penetrate their cities and towns. To link themselves with the educated elite of their cities, they relied on the political usage of patronage practices. The assignment of ''waqf'' revenue to this elite was similar to the assignment of fiefs (''iqta'at'') to the commanders and generals of the army. In both cases, it enabled the Ayyubids to recruit a dependent, but not administratively subordinate elite.<ref name="DalyPetry232">{{harvnb|Daly|Petry|1998|p=232}}</ref>

[[File:Governor of Rahba. Maqamat of al-Hariri, Baghdad 1237.jpg|thumb|The Governor of [[al-Rahba]]. Ayyubid period. ''[[Maqamat of al-Hariri]]'', Baghdad (1237). The red beard denotes foreigness.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ettinghausen |first1=Richard |title=Arab painting |date=1977 |publisher=New York : Rizzoli |isbn=978-0-8478-0081-0 |pages=114–115 |url=https://archive.org/details/arabpainting0000etti/page/114/mode/2up}}</ref>]]
Following their conquest of Jerusalem in 1187, the Ayyubids under Saladin may have been the first to establish the position of ''[[amir al-hajj]]'' (commander of the pilgrimage) to protect the annual [[Hajj]] caravans leaving Damascus for [[Mecca]] with the appointment of Tughtakin ibn Ayyub to the office.<ref name="Sato134">{{harvnb|Sato|2014|p=134}}</ref>

===Seat of government===
The seat of Ayyubid government from Saladin's rule from the 1170s up to al-Adil's reign in 1218 had been Damascus. The city provided a strategic advantage in the constant war with the Crusaders and allowed the sultan to keep an eye on his relatively ambitious vassals in Syria and al-Jazira. Cairo was too remote to serve as a base of operations, but had always served as the economic foundation of the empire. This rendered the city a critical constituent in the repertoire of the Ayyubid possessions.<ref name="Jackson36"/> When Saladin was proclaimed sultan in Cairo in 1171, he chose the Fatimid-built Lesser Western Palace (part of a larger palace complex in Cairo isolated from the urban sprawl) as the seat of government. Saladin himself resided in the former Fatimid vizier palace, Turan-Shah took up a former Fatimid prince's living quarter, and their father occupied the Pearl Pavilion which was situated outside of Cairo overlooking the city's canal. The successive Ayyubid sultans of Egypt would live in the Lesser Western Palace.<ref name="Lev11">{{harvnb|Lev|1999|p=11}}</ref>

After al-Adil I seized the throne in Cairo and with it the sultanate of the Ayyubid oligarchy, the period of rivalry between Damascus and Cairo to become capital of the Ayyubid empire commenced. Under al-Adil and al-Kamil, Damascus continued as an autonomous province whose ruler reserved the right to designate his own heir, but during as-Salih Ayyub's rule, military campaigns against Syria reduced Damascus to a vassal of Cairo.<ref name="Jackson37">{{harvnb|Jackson|1996|p=37}}</ref> In addition, Ayyub established new rules both in administration and government in order to centralize his regime; he conferred the most prominent positions of the state to his close confidants, instead of his Ayyubid relatives. His wife Shajar al-Durr, for example, managed the affairs of Egypt while he was in Syria. Ayyub officially delegated his authority to his dead son Khalil and made al-Durr act formally on Khalil's behalf.<ref name="VermeulenDeSmetVanSteenbergen211-212">{{harvnb|Vermeulen|De Smet|Van Steenbergen|2001|pp=211–212}}</ref>

===Iqta' system===
{{Main|Iqta'}}

Saladin established the ''iqta'<nowiki/>'' system that remained in practice until the end of Ayyubid rule. The ''iqta'' system of the Ayyubids was modeled after the [[Seljuk Empire|Seljuk]] system, but was more centralized. An Ayyubid fief holder had two different kinds of fiefs: a special one (''khassa''), for his own personal needs, and another one called ''iqta'<nowiki/>'', for the maintenance of his troops. Ayyubid [[feudalism]] in [[Egypt]] differed from the feudal system in the other parts of the sultanate ([[Syria (region)|Syria]] and [[Al-Jazira (caliphal province)|Al-Jazirah]]), as the Ayyubid feudal lords in Syria had more power and independence than their Egyptian counterparts.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Fage |first1=J. D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GWjxR61xAe0C&dq=ayyubid+Feudal&pg=PA28 |title=The Cambridge History of Africa |last2=Oliver |first2=Roland |date=1975 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-20981-6 |pages=28 |language=en}}</ref> The ''iqta''' was held mainly by Ayyubid dynasty members, Kurds or Mamluks. The Kurdish fief holders consisted of four tribes, the [[al-Hakkariyya]], [[Humaydi (tribe)|al-Humaydiyya]], al-Mihraniyya and [[Zerzar|al-Zarzariyya]]. However, during the reign of [[al-Salih Ayyub]], the [[Qaymariyya (tribe)|al-Qaymariyya]] became the dominant Kurdish tribe within the Ayyubid military oligarchy.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Sato |first=Tsugitaka |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BGZjEAAAQBAJ&dq=the+iqta+system+of+Egypt+and+Syria+under+the+Ayyubids&pg=PA42 |title=State and Rural Society in Medieval Islam: Sultans, Muqta's and Fallahun |date=2021-12-06 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-04-49318-6 |pages=51–52 |language=en}}</ref>

==Demographics==
===Religion, ethnicity and language===
[[File:Minaret of the Aleppo Citadel Mosque Aleppo Syria.jpg|thumb|right|Minaret of the Great Mosque of the Aleppo Citadel, built by [[az-Zahir Ghazi]] in 1214]]

By the 12th century, [[Islam]] was the dominant religion in the Middle East. It is not certain, however, if it was the religion of the majority outside the [[Arabian Peninsula]]. Arabic was the language of high culture and of the urban population, although other languages dating to pre-Islamic rule were still being used to a certain extent.<ref name="HouraniRuthven96-97">{{harvnb|Hourani|Ruthven|2002|pp=96–97}}</ref> Most Egyptians were speaking Arabic by the time the Ayyubids took power there.<ref name="Goldschmidt48">{{harvnb|Goldschmidt|2008|p=48}}</ref>

[[Kurdish languages|Kurdish]] was the mother tongue of the Ayyubids,{{sfn|Humphreys|1987|p=164–167}} at the time of their departure from Dvin. Sultan Saladin spoke both Arabic and [[Kurdish language|Kurdish]], and likely [[Turkish language|Turkish]] as well.<ref name="Magill809"/><ref name="France84"/> There was a strong ethnic consciousness between the Ayyubids and other Kurds. According to the historian [[R. Stephen Humphreys]], Saladin obtained the Fatimid vizierate partly on the strength of it.{{sfn|Humphreys|1977|p=|pp=29–30}} Kurdish ethnic consciousness was reinforced by the existence of ethnic friction. After Shirkuh's death, Saladin's close associate Diya' al-Din Isa al-Hakkari, a Kurd, visited the leaders of each faction contending for power to try to win them over to the election of Saladin, and to one Kurdish emir, Qutb al-Din Khusrau ibn al-Talal, he used the following argument: "Verily, everybody is for Saladin except you and al-Yaruqi [a Turkmen amir from the north Syrian Yürük tribe]. What is needed now, above all, is an understanding between you and Saladin, especially because of his Kurdish origin, so that the command does not go from him to the Turks." Within a few months of Saladin's election, all the Turkish amirs had returned to Syria to save the Turks, although no conflict happened.<ref>{{cite book |last1=ibn Shaddad |first1=Baha ad-Din |title=The Life of Saladin |year=2014 |publisher=Committee of the Palestine Exploration Fund |location=Minnesota |isbn=978-1-4021-9246-3 |page=420 |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Baha-al-Din |access-date=8 December 2020 |archive-date=12 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210512151617/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Baha-al-Din |url-status=live }}</ref>

The Ayyubid period represents the climax of Kurdish integration in Egypt and Syria, to the extent that the Ayyubid dynasty appeared as Kurdish dynasty par excellence. The Ayyubids acted as a Kurdish dynasty, functioning as a tribal catalyst. Kurds from various tribes and social status occupied high positions within the Ayyubid realm, from military to religious elites. The Ayyubids reinforced the nexus between the Sultanate and their Kurdish kinsmen, while the Kurds maintained their tribal ethos, solidarities and link to their original homeland.{{sfn|Öpengin|2021|p=30-31}} While the Ayyubid military was very ethnically diverse, elite units were dominated by Kurds, and Saladin's personal guard was generally reserved for Kurds.<ref>Andrew S. Ehrenkreutz, Saladin (State University of New York Press, 1972), pp. 44–45</ref><ref>Stephen Humphreys, From Saladin to the Mongols: The Ayyubids of Damascus 1193–1260 (SUNY Press, 1977), p. 23</ref><ref>Carole Hillenbrand, The Crusades: Islamic Perspectives (Edinburgh University Press, 1999), pp. 116–117</ref> [[Ibn Fadlallah al-Umari]] wrote that many [[Lurs]] had migrated from [[Lorestan province|Luristan]] to the Levant and Egypt and had a significant presence there, although Saladin saw them as a potential challenge to his elite Kurdish troops and eventually ordered the massacre of all Lurs, after which the Luri population in the Levant and Egypt had vanished.<ref>The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Volume 5, 1986, pp. 822</ref>

{{multiple image
| perrow            = 2
| total_width       = 400
| caption_align     = center
| align             = left
| direction         = horizontal
| image1            = Kalila_wa_Dimna_BNF_Arabe_3465,_folio_34r.jpg
| image2            = Kalila-wa-Dimna_1.jpg
| footer            = The first known illustrated manuscript of ''[[Kalīla wa-Dimna]]'' (BNF, Arabe 3465), written in Arabic c.1220 in Egypt or Syria, is generally considered as an Ayyubid work.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Brac de La Perrière |first1=Éloïse |last2=EL Khiari |first2=Aïda |last3=Vernay-Nouri |first3=Annie |title=Les périples de Kalila et Dimna: quand les fables voyagent dans la littérature et les arts du monde islamique |publisher=Brill |location=Leiden Boston |isbn=978-90-04-46710-1 |pages=98, caption of figure 4.1; 118 |quote=It would be reasonable to ascribe BnF Arabe 3465 to the early thirteenth-century Ayyubid cultural area.}}</ref>
}}

According to Yasser Tabbaa, an anthropologist specializing in medieval Islamic culture, the Ayyubid rulers who reigned in the late 12th-century were far removed from their Kurdish origins, and unlike their Seljuq predecessors and their Mamluk successors, they were firmly "Arabized."<ref name="Tabbaa31"/> [[Arabic culture]] and language<ref name="Angold391">{{harvnb|Angold|2006|p=391}}</ref> formed the main component of their identity instead of their Kurdish heritage.<ref name="FageOliver37-38">{{harvnb|Fage|Oliver|1977|pp=37–38}}</ref> Arabic surnames were much more prevalent among the Ayyubids, a tribe that had already been partially assimilated into the Arabic-speaking world before its members came to power, than non-Arabic names. However, the Ayyubids continued their connection with their original homeland, that is Iranic culture. As it is evident that [[Al-Adil I|Al-Adil]] along with his son and successor, [[Al-Mu'azzam Isa]] spoke [[Kurdish language|Kurdish]] and maybe even [[New Persian|Persian]].{{sfn|Humphreys|1987|p=164–167}} As Al-Mu'azzam Isa ordered the translation of [[Shahnameh]] into Arabic, the translation was completed in 1224 by the well-known writer Fath ibn Ali al-Bundari.{{sfn|Minorsky|1953|pp=137}} Some Iranic romanticism can be detected in names such as [[Nur ad-Din Shahanshah|Shahan-Shah]], [[Bahramshah|Bahram-Shah]], [[Farrukh Shah|farrukh-Shah]] and ''[[Turan-Shah]].{{sfn|Minorsky|1953|pp=136}}'' Under the Ayyubids, many scholars note that [[Kurmanji]] gained a privileged status but admit that there is a paucity of evidence due to the lack of written Kurmanji documents from the Ayyubid court.''{{sfn|Öpengin|2021|pp=612-613}}'' The Ayyubid Military class often spoke Kurdish and Turkish rather than Arabic.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hillenbrand |first=Carole |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6UP-vjDzbB8C |title=The Crusades: Islamic Perspectives |date=1999 |publisher=Psychology Press |isbn=978-1-57958-210-4 |pages=332 |language=en}}</ref> Most of the Ayyubid rulers spoke fluent Arabic and a number of them, such as az-Zahir Ghazi, [[al-Mu'azzam Isa]] and the minor emirs of Hama, composed [[Arabic poetry]].''<ref name="Humphreys189-190">{{harvnb|Humphreys|1977|pp=189–190}}</ref>'' [[Al-Salih Ayyub]], however, did not write poetry, but was a patron of two great Arab poets, [[Baha al-Din Zuhayr]] and Ibn Matrouh.''<ref name="France122-123" />''

Kurds and free-born Kurdish mercenaries<ref>Houtsma, M. Th (1993). E. J. Brill's First Encyclopaedia of Islam, 1913–1936. Brill. p. 164. {{ISBN|978-90-04-09790-2}}</ref> dominated the cavalry and nomadic [[Turkmen people|Turcomans]] and Arabs filled the ranks of the infantry. These groups typically settled in the pastoral areas outside of the cities, the centers of cultural life, and as such they were relatively isolated from the Arabic-dominant urban environment. This isolation allowed them to preserve their traditions.<ref name="Tabbaa31">{{harvnb|Tabbaa|1997|p=31}}</ref> Like their Fatimid predecessors, the Ayyubid rulers of Egypt maintained a substantial force of ''[[mamluk]]s'' (military slaves). By the first half of the 13th century ''mamluks'' were mostly drawn from [[Kipchaks|Kipchak]] Turks and [[Circassians]] and there is strong evidence that these forces continued to speak [[Kipchak language|Kipchak Turkish]].<ref name="Catlos425">{{harvnb|Catlos|1997|p=425}}</ref><ref name="Flinterman16-17">{{harvnb|Flinterman|2012|pp=16–17}}</ref>

[[File:Coptic Gospel, Damietta, Egypt, 1179-80.jpg|thumb|Miniatures from a [[Copts|Coptic]] Gospel (BNF Copte 13), Damietta, Egypt, Ayyubid period, 1179-80.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Brac de La Perrière |first1=Éloïse |last2=EL Khiari |first2=Aïda |last3=Vernay-Nouri |first3=Annie |title=Les périples de Kalila et Dimna: quand les fables voyagent dans la littérature et les arts du monde islamique |publisher=Brill |location=Leiden Boston |isbn=978-90-04-46710-1 |page=107}}</ref>]]
In Egypt, there were large communities of [[Coptic Christian]]s, [[Melkite]]s, [[Turkish people|Turks]], [[Armenians]], and [[Black African]]s.<ref name="Lev192" /> Coptic Christians, who had formed the majority of Egypt's population during the early Islamic period, remained a substantial minority.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=Parker |first=Kenneth S. |date=2013 |title=Coptic Language and Identity in Ayyūbid Egypt 1 |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/09503110.2013.799953 |journal=Al-Masāq |language=en |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=222–239 |doi=10.1080/09503110.2013.799953 |issn=0950-3110|url-access=subscription }}</ref> The native [[Coptic language]] had by this point largely ceased to be spoken but continued as a literary and liturgical language.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Werthmuller |first=Kurt J. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RrxIBXFUGV8C |title=Coptic Identity and Ayyubid Politics in Egypt, 1218-1250 |publisher=American Univ in Cairo Press |year=2010 |isbn=978-977-416-345-6 |pages=16, 125 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":0" /> The translation of [[Coptic literature]] into Arabic, which had begun in preceding centuries, also accelerated during the 13th century, engendering a "Coptic Renaissance" that enabled Coptic identity to be preserved within a wider Arabic cultural environment.<ref name=":0" />

Under the Fatimids, non-Muslims in Egypt generally prospered, with the exception of Caliph [[Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah|al-Hakim]]'s reign. However, with Shirkuh's ascendancy to the vizier position, a number edicts were enacted against the non-Muslim population. With the advent of the Syrian expeditionary force (consisting of [[Oghuz Turks]] and Kurds) into Egypt, waves of maltreatment of minorities occurred, irrespective of religion.<ref name="Lev192" /> These incidents occurred while Shirkuh and Saladin were viziers to the Fatimid caliph.<ref name="Lev192" />

At the beginning of Saladin's reign as sultan in Egypt, upon the encouragement of his adviser, [[Qadi al-Fadil]], Christians were prohibited from employment in the fiscal administration, but various Ayyubid emirs continued to allow Christians to serve in their posts. A number of other regulations were imposed, including the bans on alcohol consumption, religious processions, and the ringing of church bells. Conversion of formerly high-ranking Christians and their families to Islam took place throughout the early period of Ayyubid rule.<ref name="Lev187-189">{{harvnb|Lev|1999|pp=187–189}}</ref> According to historian Yaakov Lev, the [[persecution of non-Muslims]] had some permanent effects on them, but nonetheless, the effects were local and contained.<ref name="Lev192">{{harvnb|Lev|1999|p=|pages=187–193}}</ref> To manage Mediterranean trade, the Ayyubids permitted [[Europe]]ans—mainly [[Italians]], but also [[French people|French]] and [[Catalan people|Catalan]]s—to settle in [[Alexandria]] in large numbers. However, in the aftermath of the [[Fifth Crusade]], 3,000 merchants from the area were arrested or expelled.<ref name="DalyPetry231"/>

The majority of Syria's population in the 12th century consisted of [[Sunni Muslim]]s, typically from Arab or Kurdish backgrounds. There were also sizable Muslim communities of [[Twelver Shia]]s, [[Druze]]s, and [[Alawite]]s. The [[Ismaili]] presence was small and most were of [[Persian people|Persian]] origin, having migrated from [[Alamut]]. They mostly resided in the mountainous area near the northern Syrian coastline.<ref name="Willey41">{{harvnb|Willey|2005|p=41}}</ref> Large Christian communities existed in northern Syria, Palestine, Transjordan and Upper Mesopotamia. They were [[Aramaic language|Aramaic]]-speaking and indigenous to the area, mostly belonging to the [[Syriac Orthodox Church]]. They lived in villages of Christian or mixed Christian and Muslim population, monasteries, and in small towns where they appear to have been on friendly terms with their Muslim neighbors. Ideologically, they were led by the [[Patriarch of Antioch]].<ref name="Baer2-3">{{harvnb|Baer|1989|pp=2–3}}</ref>

In Yemen and Hadramaut, much of the population adhered to [[Shia Islam]] in its [[Zaydi]] form. The inhabitants of Upper Mesopotamia were made up of Sunni Muslim Kurds and Turks, although there was a significant [[Yazidi]] minority in that region as well. [[Jew]]s were spread throughout the [[Islamic world]] and most Ayyubid cities had Jewish communities due to the important roles Jews played in trade, manufacture, finance, and medicine. In Yemen and some parts of Syria, Jews also lived in rural towns. The Ayyubid ''emir'' of Yemen in 1197–1202, al-Malik Mu'izz Isma'il, attempted to forcibly convert the Jews of Aden, but this process ceased after his death in 1202. Within the Jewish community, particularly in Egypt and Palestine, there existed a minority of [[Karaite Judaism|Karaites]].<ref name="HouraniRuthven96-97"/>

The Ayyubids generally employed Kurds, Turks, and people from the [[Caucasus]] for the higher-ranking posts of the military and bureaucratic fields. Not much is known about the foot soldiers of the Ayyubid army, but the numbers of cavalrymen are known to have fluctuated between 8,500 and 12,000. The cavalry was largely composed of free-born Kurds and Turks whom Ayyubid ''emirs'' and sultans purchased as military slaves or ''mamluks''; in the early days of the Ayyubids, there was also a large contingent of [[Turkmen people|Turkoman]]s. In addition, there existed Arab auxiliaries, former Fatimid units such as the [[Nubian people|Nubians]], and separate Arab contingents—notably from the [[Banu Kinanah|Kinaniyya tribe]], who were largely devoted to the defense of Egypt. Rivalry between Kurdish and Turkish troops occurred occasionally when leading positions were at stake and towards the end of Ayyubid rule, Turks outnumbered Kurds in the army. Despite their Kurdish background, the sultans remained impartial to both groups.<ref name="DalyPetry226">{{harvnb|Daly|Petry|1998|p=226}}</ref>

===Population===
There is no accurate figure for the population of the various territories under Ayyubid rule. Colin McEvedy and Richard Jones suggest that in the 12th century, Syria had a population of 2.7 million, Palestine and Transjordan had 500,000 inhabitants, and Egypt had a population of under 5 million.<ref name="Shatzmiller57-58">{{harvnb|Shatzmiller|1994|pp=57–58}}</ref> Josiah C. Russel states that in this same period there were 2.4 million people in Syria living in 8,300 villages, leaving a population of 230,000–300,000 living in ten cities, eight of which were Muslim cities under Ayyubid control. The largest were [[Edessa, Mesopotamia|Edessa]] (pop.&nbsp;24,000), Damascus (pop.&nbsp;15,000), Aleppo (pop.&nbsp;14,000), and Jerusalem (pop.&nbsp;10,000). Smaller cities included Homs, Hama, Gaza, and [[Hebron]].<ref name="Shatzmiller59-60">{{harvnb|Shatzmiller|1994|pp=59–60}}</ref>

Russel estimated the Egyptian village population to be 3.3 million in 2,300 villages, a high density for rural populations in the time period. He attributes it to the high productivity of Egyptian soil which allowed for increased agricultural growth. The urban population was much lower, 233,100, consisting of 5.7% of the total Egyptian population. The largest cities were Cairo (pop.&nbsp;60,000), Alexandria (pop.&nbsp;30,000), [[Qus]] (pop.&nbsp;25,000), Damietta (pop.&nbsp;18,000), [[Fayyum]] (pop.&nbsp;13,000), and [[Bilbeis]] (pop.&nbsp;10,000). Numerous smaller cities dotted the Nile River. Among the latter were [[Damanhur]], [[Asyut]], and [[Tanta]]. Cities in Egypt were also densely populated, mainly because of greater urbanization and industrialization than elsewhere.<ref name="Shatzmiller59-60"/>

==Economy==
[[File:Siria, damasco, versatoio in rame incrostato d'oro e argento firmato husayn ibn muhammad al mawsili (reworked).jpg|thumb|Ayyubid inlaid metal ewer,  in the name of Ayyubid Sultan [[An-Nasir Yusuf|al-Malik al-Nasir Salah al-din Yusuf]]. 1258–1259, [[Damascus]], Syria. [[Louvre Museum]].]]
[[File:Egyptian vase MBA Lyon 1939-10.jpg|thumb|right|An example of Ayyubid pottery from Egypt]]
Having pushed the Crusaders out of most of Syria, the Ayyubids generally adopted a policy of peace with them. The war with the Crusaders did not prevent Muslims under Ayyubid governance from developing good commercial relations with [[Europe]]an states. This led to fruitful interaction between both sides in different fields of economic activity, particularly in agriculture and trade.<ref name="Ali37">{{harvnb|Ali|1996|p=37}}</ref>

Numerous measures were undertaken by the Ayyubids to increase agricultural production. Canals were dug to facilitate the irrigation of agricultural lands throughout the empire. Cultivation of [[sugarcane]] was officially encouraged to meet the great demand of it by both the local inhabitants and the Europeans. Meanwhile, as a result of the Crusades, several new plants were introduced to Europe, including [[sesame]], [[carob]], millet, rice, lemons, melons, [[apricot]]s, and shallots.<ref name="Ali37"/>

The main factor which boosted industry and trade under the Ayyubids was the new interests Europeans developed when they came into contact with the Muslims. Commodities included incense, scents, fragrant oils, and aromatic plants from [[Arabia]] and [[India]], as well as ginger, [[alum]], and [[aloe]]s. Likewise, Europeans developed new tastes in the matter of fashions, clothing, and home furnishing. Rugs, carpets, and tapestries manufactured in the [[Middle East]] and [[Central Asia]] were introduced to the [[West]] through Crusader-Ayyubid interaction. Christian pilgrims visiting Jerusalem returned with Arab reliquaries for the keeping of relics. In addition, eastern works of art in glass, pottery, gold, silver, etc., were highly prized in Europe.<ref name="Ali37"/>

The European demand for agricultural products and industrial commodities stimulated maritime activity and international trade to an unprecedented extent. The Ayyubids played a leading role in this as they controlled sea-trade routes which passed through the ports of Yemen and Egypt via the [[Red Sea]].<ref name="Ali37"/> The trade policy of the Ayyubids placed them in a position of great advantage; although they cooperated with the [[Republic of Genoa|Genoans]] and [[Republic of Venice|Venetians]] in the [[Mediterranean Sea]], they prevented them from having access to the Red Sea. Thus, they kept the trade of the [[Indian Ocean]] exclusively in their hands. In the Mediterranean trade, the Ayyubids also profited through taxes and commissions levied upon [[Italians|Italian]] merchants.<ref name="Ali38">{{harvnb|Ali|1996|p=38}}</ref>

Upon the development of international trade, the elementary principles of credit and banking were developed. Both [[Jew]]ish and Italian merchants had regular banking agents in Syria, who transacted business on behalf of their masters. Bills of exchange were also used by them in their dealings with one another and money was deposited in various banking centers throughout Syria. The encouragement of trade and industry provided the Ayyubid sultans with the funds needed for military expenditure as well as for developmental and everyday lifestyle works. Special attention was made to the economic state of the empire under al-Adil and al-Kamil. The latter maintained a strict control over expenditure; it is said that on his death he left a treasury which was equivalent to the budget of one full year.<ref name="Ali38"/>

===Education===
Being well-educated themselves, the Ayyubid rulers became munificent patrons of learning and educational activity. Different ''[[madrasa]]''-type schools were built by them throughout the empire, not only for education, but also to popularize knowledge of Sunni Islam. According to [[Ibn Jubayr]], under Saladin, Damascus had 30 schools, 100 baths, and a large number of [[Sufi]] ''[[dervish]]'' monasteries. He also built several schools in Aleppo, Jerusalem, Cairo, Alexandria, and in various cities in the Hejaz. Similarly, many schools were built by his successors also. Their wives and daughters, commanders, and nobles established and financed numerous educational institutions as well.<ref name="Ali38"/>

Although the Ayyubids were from the [[Shafi'i]] denomination, they built schools for imparting instruction in all four of the Sunni systems of religious-juridical thought. Before the Ayyubid takeover, there were no schools for the Hanbali and Maliki denominations in Syria, but the Ayyubids founded separate schools for them. In the mid-13th century, [[Baha ad-Din ibn Shaddad|Ibn Shaddad]] counted in Damascus 40 Shafi'i, 34 [[Hanafi]], 10 Hanbali, and three Maliki schools.<ref name="Ali39">{{harvnb|Ali|1996|p=39}}</ref>

When Saladin restored Sunni orthodoxy in Egypt, 10 ''madrasas'' were established in Cairo during his reign, and an additional 25 during the entire Ayyubid period of rule. Each of their locations had religious, political, and economic significance, in particular those in al-Fustat. Most of the schools were dedicated to the Shafi'i denomination, but others belonged to the Maliki and Hanafi ''[[madhab]]s''. The ''madrasas'' built near the [[Mausoleum of Imam al-Shafi'i|tomb]] of [[Al-Shafi‘i|Imam al-Shafi'i]] were located adjacent to the important centers of pilgrimage and were a major focus of Sunni devotion.<ref name="Yeomans111">{{harvnb|Yeomans|2006|p=111}}</ref>

About 26 schools were built in Egypt, Jerusalem and Damascus by high-ranking government officials, and unusual for the time, commoners also founded in Egypt about 18 schools, including two medical institutions.<ref name="Ali39"/> Most schools were residential whereby both teachers and students resided as a rule. The teachers appointed were jurists, theologians, and traditionalists who received their salary from endowments to the institutions they taught in. Each student was offered a lodging where he would resort, a teacher to instruct him in whatever art he requested, and regular grants to cover all his needs. ''Madrasas'' were considered prestigious institutions in society. Under the Ayyubids, it was not possible to obtain a job in the government without receiving an education from a ''madrasa''.<ref name="Ali39"/>

==Science and medicine==
The facilities and patronage provided by the Ayyubids led to a resurgence in intellectual activity in different branches of knowledge and learning throughout the territories they controlled. They took special interest in the fields of medicine, pharmacology, and botany. Saladin built and maintained two hospitals in Cairo emulating the well-known Nuri Hospital in Damascus which not only treated patients, but also provided medical schooling. Many scientists and physicians flourished in this period in Egypt, Syria, and [[Iraq]]. Among them were [[Maimonides]], Ibn Jami, [[Abd al-Latif al-Baghdadi (medieval writer)|Abdul Latif al-Baghdadi]], [[al-Dakhwar]], [[Rashidun al-Suri]], and [[Ibn al-Baitar]]. Some of these scholars served the Ayyubid household directly, becoming the personal physicians of sultans.<ref name="Ali39-41">{{harvnb|Ali|1996|pp=39–41}}</ref>

==Architecture==
[[File:Aleppo Madrasa Firdows 0207.jpg|thumb|The [[Firdaws Madrasa]] was built in 1236 under the patronage of [[Dayfa Khatun]], [[Aleppo]]]]
Military architecture was the supreme expression of the Ayyubid period, as well as an eagerness to fortify the restoration of Sunni Islam, especially in a previously [[Shia]]-dominated Egypt by constructing [[Sunni Islam|Sunni]] ''madrasas''. The most radical change Saladin implemented in Egypt was the enclosure of Cairo and al-Fustat within one city wall.<ref name="Yeomans104-105">{{harvnb|Yeomans|2006|pp=104–107}}</ref> Some of the techniques of fortification were learned from the [[Crusaders]], such as curtain walls following the natural topography. Many were also inherited from the Fatimids like [[machicolations]] and round towers, while other techniques were developed simultaneously by the Ayyubids, particularly concentric planning.<ref name="Peterson26">{{harvnb|Petersen|1996|p=26}}</ref>

Muslim women, particularly those from the Ayyubid family, the families of local governors, and the families of the ''[[ulema]]'' ("religious scholars") took an active role in Ayyubid architecture. Damascus witnessed the most sustained patronage of religious architecture by women. They were responsible for the construction of 15 ''madrasas'', six Sufi hospices, and 26 religious and charitable institutions. In Aleppo, the [[Firdaws Madrasa]], known as the most impressive Ayyubid building in Syria, had regent queen [[Dayfa Khatun]] as its patron.<ref>{{harvnb|Humphreys|1994|p=35}}</ref>
[[File:Ayyubid wall Cairo DSCF1591.jpg|thumb|The 12th-century [[Fortifications of Cairo|Ayyubid wall]] of Cairo, as seen from present-day [[al-Azhar Park]]. This wall was part of an ambitious fortification project begun by Saladin in 1176 that also included the construction of the [[Cairo Citadel]].{{Sfn|Raymond|2000|pp=90–91}}]]
In September 1176, construction of the [[Citadel of Cairo|Cairo Citadel]] began under Saladin's orders. According to [[al-Maqrizi]], Saladin chose the [[Mokattam|Muqattam Hills]] to build the citadel because the air there was fresher than anywhere else in the city, but its construction was not so much determined by the salubrious atmosphere; rather it was out of defensive necessity and example of existing fortresses and citadels in Syria. The walls and towers of the northern section of the citadel are largely the works of Saladin and al-Kamil.<ref name="Yeomans104-105"/> Al-Kamil completed the citadel; he strengthened and enlarged some of the existing towers (such as two of Saladin's towers that were enlarged by totally encasing them in semi-circular units), and also added a number of square towers which served as self-contained keeps. According to Richard Yeomans, the most impressive of al-Kamil's structures was the series of massive rectangular keeps which straddled the walls of the northern enclosure.<ref name="Yeomans109-110">{{harvnb|Yeomans|2006|pp=109–110}}</ref> All of al-Kamil's fortifications can be identified by their embossed, rusticated masonry, whereas Saladin's towers have smooth dressed stones. This heavier rustic style became a common feature in other Ayyubid fortifications, and can be seen in the [[Citadel of Damascus]] and that of [[Bosra]] in Syria.<ref name="Yeomans111"/>

In religious architecture, the Ayyubid period of Egypt marked a new focus on the construction of Sunni [[madrasas]].<ref name=":0522">{{Cite book |last=Korn |first=Lorenz |url= |title=Encyclopaedia of Islam, Three |publisher=Brill |year=2007 |isbn=9789004161658 |editor-last=Fleet |editor-first=Kate |location= |pages= |language=en |chapter=Ayyūbid art and architecture |editor-last2=Krämer |editor-first2=Gudrun |editor-last3=Matringe |editor-first3=Denis |editor-last4=Nawas |editor-first4=John |editor-last5=Rowson |editor-first5=Everett |chapter-url=https://referenceworks.brill.com/display/entries/EI3O/COM-0034.xml}}</ref> This was partly motivated by a desire to counter the presence of Shia Islam from the previous two centuries of Fatimid rule.{{Sfn|Raymond|2000|p=103}}{{Sfn|Williams|2018|p=153}} The first madrasa of this kind in Egypt was founded next to the [[Mausoleum of Imam al-Shafi'i]] by Salah ad-Din.{{Sfn|Williams|2018|p=153}} The mausoleum itself, a large square building covered by a dome, was built in its current form by al-Kamil in 1211 (though the present dome was reconstructed at a later period).{{Sfn|Williams|2018|p=152}} The first madrasas seem to have employed a [[hypostyle]] design similar to mosques, but later madrasas began to use [[Iwan|iwans]] (vaulted halls open on one side to a courtyard). The earliest known example of the latter is the Madrasa of al-Kamil, founded in 1225.<ref name=":05222">{{Cite book |last=Korn |first=Lorenz |url= |title=Encyclopaedia of Islam, Three |publisher=Brill |year=2007 |isbn=9789004161658 |editor-last=Fleet |editor-first=Kate |location= |pages= |language=en |chapter=Ayyūbid art and architecture |editor-last2=Krämer |editor-first2=Gudrun |editor-last3=Matringe |editor-first3=Denis |editor-last4=Nawas |editor-first4=John |editor-last5=Rowson |editor-first5=Everett |chapter-url=https://referenceworks.brill.com/display/entries/EI3O/COM-0034.xml}}</ref>

Decorative techniques and forms in Egypt developed in large part from those of earlier [[Fatimid architecture]], with frequent use of [[Blind arch|blind]] and [[Fluting (architecture)|fluted]] keel-shaped arches on façades, inclusion of [[Stucco decoration in Islamic architecture|carved stucco decoration]], and the further development of ''[[muqarnas]]'' (also known as "stalactite" sculpting). [[Minaret]]s developed a distinct character, with a square ([[cuboid]]) lower shaft and an octagonal upper shaft topped by a [[Roof lantern|lantern]]-like summit known as ''[[mabkhara]]''.<ref name=":05222" />{{Sfn|Williams|2018|p=30}} Arabic inscriptions in architecture began to shift from the traditional [[Kufic]] script to the newer cursive or [[Naskh (script)|Naskhi]] style.{{Sfn|Williams|2018|p=30}}
[[File:Madrasa of al-Salih Ayyub (R Prazeres 2019) DSCF4361.jpg|thumb|The [[minaret]] and part of the façade of the [[Madrasa of al-Salih Ayyub]] in Cairo, built in 1242. The decorative niches on the façade reflect an earlier [[Fatimid architecture|Fatimid style]],{{Sfn|Williams|2018|p=216}} but the overall form shows an evolution towards later Cairene minarets.<ref name=":0522" />]]
The end of the Ayyubid period was marked by the creation of the first multi-purpose funerary complexes in Cairo. The last Ayyubid sultan, [[As-Salih Ayyub|al-Salih Ayyub]], founded the [[Salihiyya Madrasa|Madrasa al-Salihiyya]] in 1242. His wife, [[Shajar al-Durr|Shajar ad-Durr]], added his mausoleum to it after his death in 1249, and then built [[Mausoleum of Shajar al-Durr|her own mausoleum and madrasa complex]] in 1250 at another location south of the Citadel.<ref name="Ruggles1">{{Cite book |last=Ruggles |first=D. Fairchild |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MKXaDwAAQBAJ |title=Tree of Pearls: The Extraordinary Architectural Patronage of the 13th-Century Egyptian Slave-Queen Shajar al-Durr |publisher=Oxford University Press. |year=2020 |pages=|isbn=978-0-19-087320-2 }}</ref> These two complexes were the first in Cairo to combine a founder's mausoleum with a religious and charitable complex, which would come to characterize the nature of later [[Mamluk architecture|Mamluk royal foundations]].<ref name="Ruggles1" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Behrens-Abouseif |first=Doris |author-link=Doris Behrens-Abouseif |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AyLqAAAAMAAJ |title=Cairo of the Mamluks: A History of Architecture and its Culture |publisher=The American University in Cairo Press |year=2007 |isbn=9789774160776 |pages=114 |language=en}}</ref>

Aleppo underwent major transformations in the Ayyubid period, specifically during the reign of [[Malik az-Zahir|az-Zahir Ghazi]]. Ayyubid architectural achievements focused on four areas: the [[Citadel of Aleppo|citadel]], the waterworks, fortifications, and the extramural developments. The total rebuilding of the city enclosure began when az-Zahir Ghazi removed the [[vallum]] of Nur ad-Din—which by then outlived its temporary need—and rebuilt the northern and northwestern walls—the most susceptible to outside attack—from [[Bab al-Jinan]] to [[Bab al-Nasr (Aleppo)|Bab al-Nasr]]. He parceled out the building of the towers on this stretch of the wall to his princes and military officers; each tower was identified with a particular prince who inscribed his name into it. Later, az-Zahir Ghazi extended the eastern wall to the south and east, reflecting his desire to incorporate a dilapidated fortress, Qala'at al-Sharif, outside the city into Aleppo's enclosure.<ref name="Tabbaa19">{{harvnb|Tabbaa|1997|p=19}}</ref> [[Bab Qinnasrin]] was completely rebuilt by an-Nasir Yusuf in 1256. This gate stands today as a masterpiece of medieval Syrian military architecture.<ref name="Tabbaa21-22">{{harvnb|Tabbaa|1997|pp=21–22}}</ref> Cumulatively, Ayyubid architecture left a lasting impression in [[Aleppo]]. The citadel was rebuilt, the water network was expanded, and streets and quarters were provided fountains and baths. In addition, dozens of shrines, mosques, ''madrasas'', and mausoleums were built throughout the city.<ref name="Tabbaa26">{{harvnb|Tabbaa|1997|p=26}}</ref>

The Ayyubid period in Jerusalem following its conquest by Saladin was marked by a huge investment in the construction of houses, markets, public bathes, and pilgrim hostels. Numerous works were undertaken at the [[Temple Mount]].<ref name="DumperStanley209">{{harvnb|Dumper|Stanley|2007|p=209}}</ref> Saladin ordered all the inner walls and pillars of the [[Dome of the Rock]] to be covered in [[marble]] and he initiated the renovation of the mosaics on the dome's drum. The ''[[mihrab]]'' of the al-Aqsa Mosque was repaired and in 1217, al-Mu'azzam Isa built the northern porch of the mosque with three gates.<ref>{{harvnb|Ma'oz & Nusseibeh|2000|pp=137–138}}</ref> The [[Dome of the Ascension]] was also built and restoration work was done to the existing free-standing domes of the Temple Mount.<ref name="leStrange154-155">{{harvnb|le Strange|1890|pp=154–155}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[List of Kurdish dynasties and countries]]
* [[List of Sunni dynasties]]

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{{refend}}

==Further reading==
* {{Encyclopaedia Islamica|last1=Mazaheri|first1=Mas‘ud Habibi|last2=Gholami|first2=Rahim|title=Ayyūbids|year=2008|url=https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-islamica/ayyubids-COM_0323?s.num=8&s.f.s2_parent=s.f.book.encyclopaedia-islamica&s.q=fatimid+caliph}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Ayyubid dynasty}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20111114213156/http://archive.cyark.org/bab-albarqiyya-intro Fatimid-era Ayyubid Wall of Cairo Digital Media Archive] ([[creative commons]]-licensed photos, laser scans, panoramas), data from an [[Aga Khan Foundation]]/[[CyArk]] research partnership

{{S-start}}
{{s-royalhouse|Ayyubid dynasty||}}
|-
{{s-bef|before = [[Fatimid Caliphate|Fatimid dynasty]]}}
{{s-ttl|title  = Ruling house of [[Egypt]]|years=1171–1254<br />''as [[Abbasid dynasty|Abbasid autonomy]]''}}
{{s-aft|after  = [[Bahri dynasty]]}}
|-
{{S-end}}
{{Ayyubid dynasty}}
{{Muslim dynasties in Mashriq region}}
{{Empires|state collapsed}}
{{Egypt topics}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Ayyubid Dynasty}}
[[Category:Ayyubid dynasty| ]]
[[Category:1171 establishments in Asia]]
[[Category:1260s disestablishments in Asia]]
[[Category:12th-century establishments in Africa]]
[[Category:13th-century disestablishments in Africa]]
[[Category:Former countries in Africa]]
[[Category:Former countries in West Asia]]
[[Category:Historical transcontinental empires]]
[[Category:History of North Africa]]
[[Category:History of Nubia]]
[[Category:Medieval Upper Mesopotamia]]
[[Category:History of the Kurdish people]]
[[Category:History of the Levant]]
[[Category:Medieval Cairo]]
[[Category:Medieval history of Jordan]]
[[Category:Medieval history of Lebanon]]
[[Category:Medieval history of Palestine]]
[[Category:Medieval history of Syria]]
[[Category:States and territories disestablished in 1260]]
[[Category:States and territories established in 1171]]
[[Category:States and territories disestablished in the 1340s]]