View source for Atlantic Canadian English

{{Short description|Dialects of Canadian English}}
{{Use Canadian English|date = March 2019}}
{{Use mdy dates|date = March 2019}}
{{IPA notice}}
[[File:Atlantic provinces map.png|thumb|Atlantic Provinces]]
{{listen|filename=Lyse Doucet - From Our Own Correspondent - 8 June 2013.flac|type=speech|title=Speech example|description=An example of a woman from northern [[New Brunswick]] ([[Lyse Doucet]]).}}
'''Atlantic Canadian English''' is a class of [[Canadian English]] dialects spoken in [[Atlantic Canada]] that is notably distinct from [[Standard Canadian English]].<ref>[[William Labov|Labov, William]]; Sharon Ash; Charles Boberg (2006). ''[[The Atlas of North American English]]''. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. pp. 141, 148.</ref> It is composed of '''Maritime English''' (or '''Maritimer English''') and [[Newfoundland English]]. It was mostly influenced by [[British English|British]] and [[Hiberno-English|Irish English]], [[Irish language|Irish]] and [[Scottish Gaelic]], and some [[Acadian French]]. Atlantic Canada is the easternmost region of Canada, comprising four provinces located on the Atlantic coast: [[Newfoundland and Labrador]], plus the three [[Maritime provinces]] of [[Nova Scotia]], [[New Brunswick]], and [[Prince Edward Island]].<ref name="Chambers 2010" />

Areas like [[Miramichi]] and [[Cape Breton]] feature a diverse array of unique phrases and vocabulary that are rarely heard outside their regions. Additionally, the English accent exhibits considerable variation across different population centres.

==History==
[[Canadian English]] owes its very existence to important historical events, especially the [[Treaty of Paris of 1763]]. English was first spoken in Canada in the 17th century in seasonal fishing communities along the Atlantic coast, including the island of Newfoundland, and at fur trade posts around Hudson Bay.<ref name="Chambers 2010" /> Treated as a marker of upper-class prestige in the 19th century and the early part of the 20th, [[Canadian dainty]] was marked by the use of some features of British English pronunciation, resulting in an accent similar to the [[Northeastern elite accent]] known in the United States. Students in school were not permitted to use Gaelic, upon threat of punishment for not using the [[Received Pronunciation|King's English]], and thus Gaelic fell into disuse. The Canadian dainty accent faded in prominence after [[World War II]], when it became stigmatized as pretentious, and is now almost never heard in contemporary Canadian life outside of archival recordings used in film, television, or radio documentaries.<ref name=dainty>[http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/toronto/canadian-dainty-accent-canada-day-1.4167610 "Some Canadians used to speak with a quasi-British accent called Canadian Dainty"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170705044421/http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/toronto/canadian-dainty-accent-canada-day-1.4167610 |date=5 July 2017}}. [[CBC News]], 1 July 2017.</ref>

Distinctive regional settlement histories have also created several smaller, less broadly recognized speech enclaves within Canada, which likewise challenge the notion of a unified Canadian English, if not as starkly as the case of Newfoundland. Today, these are found mostly in Nova Scotia, where they include Cape Breton Island (the northern part of Nova Scotia), settled mostly by Scottish Highlanders; Pictou County, a second centre of Highland Scots settlement on the mainland; Lunenburg, a town on the south shore settled largely by Germans; and an African-Canadian community, dispersed among several locations, made up of descendants of the servants who accompanied Loyalist immigrants and of refugees from American slavery.<ref>Boberg, C. (2012). Standard Canadian English. Standards of English, 159–178. https://doi.org/10.1017/cbo9781139023832.009.</ref>

==Phonology==
''[[The Atlas of North American English]]'' (2006) revealed many of the sound changes active within Atlantic Canadian English, including the fronting of {{sc2|PALM}} in the {{sc2|START}} sequence ({{IPAc-en|ɑːr}}) and a mild [[Canadian raising]], but notably a lack of the [[Canadian Shift]] of the short [[front vowel]]s that exists in the rest of English-speaking Canada. Canadian raising means that the diphthongs {{IPA|/aɪ/}} and {{IPA|/aʊ/}} are raised to, respectively, {{IPA|[ʌɪ]}} and {{IPA|[ʌʊ]}} before [[voiceless consonant]]s like {{IPA|/p/}}, {{IPA|/t/}}, {{IPA|/k/}}, {{IPA|/s/}}, {{IPA|/f/}}. In all Atlantic Canadian English, {{IPAc-en|æ}} (the "short ''a'' sound") is raised before [[nasal consonant]]s. That is strongly true in Nova Scotia's Sydney English specifically, which also features a merger of {{IPAc-en|æ|g}} and {{IPAc-en|eɪ|g}} (making ''haggle'' sound like ''Hagel'').<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Labov|Ash|Boberg|2006|p=182}}</ref> The merger, typical of Standard Canadian English as well, is not typical of the rest of Atlantic Canadian English, however. Nova Scotia's Halifax English and New Brunswick's [[Saint John, New Brunswick|Saint John]] English show [[/æ/ tensing|{{IPA|/æ/|cat=no}} raising]] before a few consonants, somewhat reminiscent of a [[New York accent]], but nowhere near as defined (''bad'' has a different vowel sound than ''bat'' and ''back''),<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Labov|Ash|Boberg|2006|pp=182, 223}}</ref> though [[Charles Boberg]] suspects that to be an older recessive feature.<ref>Boberg, Charles (2011). "Regional variation in the allophones of CANADIAN ENGLISH". Canadian Acoustics, [S.l.], v. 39, n. 3, p. 170-171, sep. 2011. {{ISSN|2291-1391}}. Available at: <https://jcaa.caa-aca.ca/index.php/jcaa/article/view/2465/2214>.</ref> Nova Scotia's [[Lunenburg English]] may show [[rhoticity in English|non-rhotic]] behaviour,<ref name="Chambers 2010">{{cite web|last=Chambers |first=Jack K. |title=English in Canada |url=http://www.queensu.ca/strathy/apps/OP6v2.pdf |publication-place=Kingston, Ontario|access-date=2012-07-20 |year=2010 |page=14}}</ref> and Nova Scotia English generally has a conservatively-back {{IPAc-en|u:}} compared with other Canadian English dialects.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Labov|Ash|Boberg|2006|p=103}}</ref>

Certain Atlantic Canadian English dialects have been recognized by both popular and scholarly publications for distinctly sounding like [[Hiberno-English|Irish English]] dialects.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hickey|first=Raymond|year=2007|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p3vDuPNG7nUC|title=Irish English: History and Present-Day Forms|location=Cambridge, UK|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-85299-9|pages=407–408}}</ref><ref>Hertz, Kayla (2020). "[https://www.irishcentral.com/culture/craic/canadian-irish-accent This Canadian woman's Irish accent sounds straight out of Ireland]". ''IrishCentral''. Irish Studio LLC. {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230414133019/https://www.irishcentral.com/culture/craic/canadian-irish-accent|date=April 14, 2023}}.</ref> Irish immigration patterns have caused a strong influence of Irish English features in [[Newfoundland English]], Cape Breton English, and some Halifax English, including a fronting of {{IPAc-en|ɑː}}~{{IPAc-en|ɒ}},<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Labov|Ash|Boberg|2006|p=89}}</ref><ref name="Jones">{{cite book|author=Mari Jones|title=The Lesser-Known Varieties of English: An Introduction|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-TGSgT2SyH0C&pg=PA35|date=4 March 2010|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-139-48741-2|pages=65–69|doi=10.1017/CBO9780511676529.004}}</ref> a [[slit fricative]] realization of {{IPA|/t/}}, and a rounded realization of {{IPA|/ʌ/}}.<ref name="Jones"/> Newfoundland English further shows the [[cheer–chair merger]], the [[line–loin merger]], and a distinct lack of the [[Mary–marry–merry merger|marry–merry merger]],<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Labov|Ash|Boberg|2006|p=219}}</ref> which is the merger of /e/ and /æ/ before /r/.

The varied but similar Maritimer accents are influenced by an overwhelming majority of early Scottish and Irish immigration namely in the regions of [[Saint John, New Brunswick|Saint John]], Miramichi, [[Cape Breton]] and parts of Halifax.

===Maritimes===
In addition to the above, the English of the Maritime Provinces (New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and Prince Edward Island) has some unique phonological features:
* Like most other Canadian English, Maritimer English usually contains Canadian raising though to a less extreme degree than the rest of the country. Also, both variants of {{IPA|/aɪ/}} can have notably rounded realizations.<ref name="Jones"/>
* A merger of ''coach'' and ''couch'' is possible because of the raised variant of {{IPA|/aʊ/}} being rounded.<ref name="Jones"/>
* The [[flapping]] of intervocalic {{IPA|/t/}} and {{IPA|/d/}} to an [[alveolar tap]] {{IPA|[ɾ]}} between vowels, as well as pronouncing it as a [[glottal stop]] {{IPA|[ʔ]}}, is less common in the Maritimes than elsewhere in Canada and so "battery" is pronounced {{IPA|[ˈbætɹi]}} instead of with a glottal stop.
* Especially among the older generation, {{IPA|/w/}} and {{IPA|/hw/}} are not merged; that is, the beginning sound of ''why'', ''white'', and ''which'' is different from that of ''witch'', ''with'', and ''wear''.
* A devoiced and retracted {{IPA|/z/}} is traditionally common.<ref name="Jones"/>

==Lexicon==
The interrogative "right?" is raised to {{IPA|[ˈɹʌɪt]}} and is also used as an [[adverb]], as in "It was right foggy today!" That sense may be influenced by Yorkshire dialect "reight" {{IPA|[ˈreit]}},<ref name="Chambers 2010" /> which means "very, rather, or considerably".

[[Ingressive sound|Ingressive]] speech exists; "yeah" and "no" are spoken by people while they inhale (colloquial pronunciation). That is often referred to as a "Gaelic gasp."<ref name="Chambers 2010" />{{pages needed|date=October 2021}}

Prince Edward Islanders use more British terms more often than any other Maritimers because of the overwhelming homogeneity of the province's Scottish and Irish ethnicity.<ref name="Chambers 2010" />

Some Maritimers add an {{IPA|/s/}} to the end of "somewhere" and "anywhere" and produce "somewheres" and "anywheres".<ref name="Chambers 2010" />

== New Brunswick ==
Canada as a country has two official languages: English and French. This is due to the long withstanding history of its colonization and settlement by both France and Britain, as well as the continuation of the French language which was sanctioned by the ruling British authorities at the time. There was no assimilation of English into the francophone population simply due to their solid establishment into the province. According to historians,<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last=Boberg |first=Charles |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/cbo9780511781056 |title=The English Language in Canada |date=2010-08-26 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |doi=10.1017/cbo9780511781056 |isbn=978-0-521-87432-8}}</ref> the consensus is that approximately 15,000 New York Loyalists emigrated and settled into New Brunswick. However, it was not until a wave of 35,000 Loyalists<ref name=":2" /> arrived in New Brunswick in 1783 that cemented a substantive English-speaking community, combined with the francophones in creating a larger population, which enabled it to become its own province.

Most of the French settlers in New Brunswick were descendants of Acadians during the great emigration.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Grenier |first=Gilles |date=1997-07-01 |title=Linguistic and Economic Characteristics of Francophone Minorities in Canada: A Comparison of Ontario and New Brunswick |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/01434639708666321 |journal=Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development |volume=18 |issue=4 |pages=285–301 |doi=10.1080/01434639708666321 |issn=0143-4632|url-access=subscription }}</ref> The francophones in New Brunswick constitute more than 5% of the francophone population in Canada. Francophones are not outnumbered by the speakers of non-official languages and make up a third of the population, thus making them the only official bilingual province. In comparison to its Maritime neighbours, New Brunswick is considered less anglophone due to its relatively big francophone population.<ref name=":2" />

In a reported merger of couch and coach, observations from [[Charles Boberg]] indicate that lower values for the F2 of /awT/ tend to occur in New Brunswick.<ref name=":2" />

=== Variations in vocabulary ===
In [[New Brunswick]], the combination of typical standardized toppings at Canadian pizzerias that includes pepperoni sausage, mushroom, green pepper, tomato sauce, and cheese is referred to as "''the works''". Additionally, where the term "''notebook''"is used to describe lined paper that is bound together, in the Maritimes, the type 1 Canadianism ''scribbler'' takes over.<ref name=":2" />

== Nova Scotia ==
The distinct regional differences have led to the creation of less widely recognised speech enclaves in Canada: Nova Scotia, which includes Cape Breton Island (the northern part of Nova Scotia), settled mostly by Scottish Highlanders; Pictou County, a second centre of Highland Scots settlement on the mainland; Lunenburg, a town on the south shore settled largely by Germans; and an African-Canadian community, dispersed among several locations, made up of descendants of the servants who accompanied Loyalist immigrants and of refugees from American slavery.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Boberg |first=Charles|editor-first1=Raymond |editor-last1=Hickey |title=Standards of English |chapter= Standard Canadian English |publisher=Standards of English |year=2012 |pages=159–178|doi= 10.1017/cbo9781139023832.009|isbn=9781139023832 }}</ref> 

The town of Lunenberg, in particular, has been a huge influence in Nova Scotia English; its dialect traditionally includes the familiar "all" for "all gone", and a final "ain't" as a request for confirmation.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Wilson |first=HR |title=The dialect of Lunenburg County, Nova Scotia: A study of the English of the county, with reference to its sources, preservation of relics, and vestiges of bilingualism.|publisher=Canadian Journal of Linguistics |year=2017|pages=97–105}}</ref> The most distinctive characteristic of Lunenberg speech is the complete absence of /r/ postvocalically. The Lunenberg dialect today is very much like that of the surrounding region along the South Shore of Nova Scotia and bears far greater resemblance to the Yankee New England speech likely spoken by the early planters.{{cn|date=October 2024}} Outside of the treatment of /r/, South Shore speech shares many similarities with other parts of the Maritimes owing to its (indirect) English ancestry throughout Atlantic Canada. Contrary to reports of velar /r/, the most distinctive characteristic of Lunenberg speech is the complete absence of /r/ postvocalically, making it much more similar to neighbouring South Shore dialects, so that it is often confused with the speech of New England by outsiders.<ref>{{Cite book |last= Keifte M |first= Main & K Raining Bird. Ltf] |title=Canadian and Maritime English |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |year=2017 |pages=1}}</ref>

== Prince Edward Island ==
The total population of Prince Edward Island is approximately 130,000 – only slightly larger than that of Cape Breton.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Kiefte |first1=Michael |last2=Kay-Raining Bird |first2=Elizabeth |date=2010 |title=The Lesser-Known Varieties of English: An Introduction |chapter=Canadian Maritime English |series=Studies in English Language | publisher= Cambridge University Press |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/lesserknown-varieties-of-english/canadian-maritime-english/22431CFDAD829E174DAACD6E11D9C53C | pages= 62|doi=10.1017/CBO9780511676529.005 |isbn=9780521883962 }}</ref> As with other provinces, PEI's urban population steadily increased throughout the 19th, 20th, and 21st centuries, but at a much slower rate than seen in most other provinces. Between 2001 and 2006, PEI's urban population grew by only 0.8% while its rural population declined by 12.8%. Nevertheless, 45% of PEI's population dwelled in urban areas as of 2016.<ref name="Holman 2021">{{Cite web |last1=Holman |first1=H.t. |last2=Robb |first2=Andrew |date=2021 |title=Prince Edward Island. In The Canadian Encyclopedia |url=https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/prince-edward-island |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210624020027/https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/prince-edward-island |archive-date=June 24, 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref> Along with Canada's Eastern Arctic, PEI is one of the most culturally homogeneous regions in Canada. The overwhelming majority of the Island's population (91.5%) reported English as their mother tongue in the 2016 census, while only 3.8% of the total population reported French. The most commonly reported ethnic origins were Canadian, Scottish, and English. Visible minorities comprise 4.8% of the population, with Chinese, South Asian, and Black people making up the largest visible minority communities. Indigenous people (including First Nations, Métis, and Inuit) make up 2% of the population.<ref name="Holman 2021"/>

=== Dictionary of Prince Edward Island English ===
The ''Dictionary of Prince Edward Island English'' was first published in 1988 by the University of Toronto Press in conjunction with T.K. Pratt, a professor of English at the University of Prince Edward Island. There are approximately 1000 entries of non-standard or dialect words, past and present. The notes by Pratt deal with usage, pronunciation, alternate forms and spellings, and stylistic and regional labels.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Pratt|first=T.K.|title= Dictionary of Prince Edward Island English |publisher=University of Toronto Press |year=1988 |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.3138/j.ctt2ttx17 |pages=1|jstor=10.3138/j.ctt2ttx17 |isbn=9780802079046 }}</ref>  Much of the increased public interest in Canadian English seen during the past half century emerged from lexicographical work and landmark publications such as the Dictionary of Prince Edward Island English.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Dollinger |first1=Stefan |last2=Clarke|first2=Sandra |date=2012 |title=On the autonomy and homogeneity of Canadian English |journal=World Englishes |volume=31 |issue=4 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-971X.2012.01773.x |pages= 452}}</ref>

Below is a list of words that are distinctive of Newfoundland English found in the Dictionary of Prince Edward Island English:<ref>{{Cite book |last=Pratt|first=T.K.|title= Dictionary of Prince Edward Island English |publisher=University of Toronto Press |year=1988 |jstor=10.3138/j.ctt2ttx17 |isbn=9780802079046 |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.3138/j.ctt2ttx17}}</ref>

'''1. Angishore''' ''hangashore'' (DPEIE Page 5) 

''n. — Prince Edward Island'', A fisherman who is too lazy to fish. Critical term. Someone who didn't want to fish (II 083).

'''2. Ballast Lath''' (DPEIE Page 9)

''n. — Prince Edward Island'', One of the strips of wood on the bottom of a lobster trap that secures the ballast. 

'''3. Cork''' ''corker'' (DPEIE Page 38)

''n. — Prince Edward Island'', A hired hand on a fishing boat, especially a lobster boat. 

'''4. Grayback''' (DPEIE Page 68)

''n. — Prince Edward Island'', A large ocean wave. 

'''5. Hiller''' ''Potato Hiller'' (DPEIE Page 73)

''n. — Prince Edward Island'', A machine with two rotating discs used to hill or pile soil around potatoes. 

'''6. Kippy''' ''Kipper, Dilsey, Trappy'' (DPEIE Page 86)

''verb. — Prince Edward Island'', Usually of a woman, well dressed or attractive.

'''7. Round White''' (DPEIE Page 123)

''n. — Prince Edward Island'', Any roundish, white-fleshed variety of potato. 

'''8. Scoff''' (DPEIE Page 126)

''n. — Prince Edward Island'', A big meal, often of seafood or other seasonal food and in connection with a party. 

'''9. Slobby''' ''Lolly, Slob Ice, Slurry'' (DPEIE Page 138)

''adj. — Prince Edward Island'', Of the sea, covered with a dense, slushy, mass of ice fragments, snow, and freezing water. 

'''10. Whitewashed Islander''' ''Whitewashed American'' (DPEIE Page 166)
 
n. — Prince Edward Island, A Prince Edward Islander who has picked up affected 'foreign' manners, especially in the 'Boston States.'

== Newfoundland ==
{{Main article|Newfoundland English}}
The distinctiveness of Newfoundland English derives from a variety of factors: historical, economical and geographic.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Clarke |first=Sandra |title=Newfoundland and Labrador English |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |year=2010 |pages=3 |doi=10.1515/9780748631414|isbn=9780748631414 }}</ref> In the eighteenth century there was a divide between the small managerial class, which consisted of English merchants and agents from Devon, Dorset, and neighboring counties and laborers, most of which were Irish.<ref name=":3" /> English was transmitted in the families in towns and outports, infused every summer with folk speech from England and Ireland.<ref name=":3">{{Cite book |last=Kirwin |first=William J. |title=The Cambridge History of the English Language |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2008 |editor-last=Algeo |editor-first=John |edition=6 |pages=442–445 |chapter=Newfoundland English |doi=10.1017/CHOL9780521264792.014|isbn=9781139053822 }}</ref> The 19th century provided a model of educated and cultural English and Anglo-Irish speech due to the governor becoming the focus of a small elite circle in the capital city of St. John's that included naval officers, principal merchants, clergymen, doctors, officials, and a steady stream of educated visitors and scientists.<ref name=":3" /> Newfoundland English, especially its common and folk varieties, began before many English speakers had settled in the present area of Canada, and at least 200 years before the Dominion of Canada was created in 1867.<ref name=":3" /> Researchers find it difficult to identify specific Canadian pronunciations, intonations, grammatical forms, idioms, or regional vocabulary brought from other provinces to Newfoundland before 1949.<ref name=":3" /> Newfoundland's linguistic development has also been influenced by the United States. During World War II many Newfoundland brides were brought home by American soldiers and consequently close familial ties in both countries.<ref name=":3" /> Other activities like the medical and missionary activities in Northern Newfoundland and Labrador of the Englishman Dr. Wilfred Grenfell drew American nurses, teachers, and volunteer college students to northern outports.<ref name=":3" /> Thus, the personal relations within families may have resulted in subtle American influences in some Newfoundland areas.<ref name=":3" />

The following list provides the principal grammatical features of various folk speech types that are in Newfoundland and Labrador as outlined in the Dictionary of Newfoundland English:<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |last1=Kirwin |first1=W. J. |last2=Story |first2=G.M. |last3=Widdowson |first3=J.D.A |date=1990 |title=Dictionary of Newfoundland English Introduction |url=https://www.heritage.nf.ca/dictionary/introduction-page-two.php |website=Heritage Newfoundland & Labrador |edition=2nd |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160220043554/https://www.heritage.nf.ca/dictionary/introduction-page-two.php |archive-date=February 20, 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref>

# Nouns after numerals above one have no plural -s. 'Now a cod-trap is about sixty fathom on the round.'
# Finite verbs in the present tense take -(''e'')s for all person and numbers: 'I thinks this is unlawful, and as other informs me is onproper and impossible, and this the livi-ers here, all could tell ye.'
# Only one form is employed for both the past tense and past participle of strongverbs: 'She was gangboarded, fore-cuddy an' after-cuddy on her, and freeze ''come'' on they got ''drove'' off.'
# ''Am, is,'' and ''are'' are employed for an assertion about an event at the present moment, while ''be's,'' for all persons, indicates continuous or repeated activity: 'There's a sunken rock. You know when the water's high, that it be's under water.'
# ''To have (already) done (something)'' is not a normal usage, the notion being expressed by ''to be after doing (something):'' 'How many times am I after tellin' you?'
# The unstressed object form for ''he'' is ''un:'' 'We'd see the sun steady for three months, never lose un.'
# The stressed forms for the personal pronouns after verbs (including forms of ''be'') and prepositions are /, ''he, she, we, they:'' '[Fairies] was only little small people, they used to tell we.' 'He thought to hisself he'd killed the two of 'em [but] 'twasn't they now.' 'Never mind they – let 'em bite.' (The unstressed forms, except for example 6 above, are the same as in standard colloquial English.)
# Stressed ''he'' and ''she'' are often used as substitutes for count nouns, but ''it'' for mass and abstract nouns like ''crookedness, fog, weather:'' 'But the first hour we hauled in the log, and he registered three miles. So the next hour we hauled 'im in again, and she's got another three miles.'
# Adjectives derived from names of materials end in -''en:'' 'tinnen cup, glassen pole.'
# For many speakers the plural demonstrative determiners are those with objects and events that are current, and ''them'' with objects and events that are past: 'Years ago, not so much, those days, you'd always have a gun line.'

Below is a list of words that are distinctive of Newfoundland English found in the [[A Dictionary of Canadianisms on Historical Principles|DCHP-2]]<ref>{{Cite web |year=2017 |editor-last=Dollinger |editor-first=Stefan |editor2-last=Fee |editor2-first=Margery |others=With the assistance of Baillie Ford, Alexandra Gaylie and Gabrielle Lim |title=DCHP-2: The Dictionary of Canadianisms on Historical Principles |url=https://www.dchp.ca/dchp2/ |website=Dictionary of Canadianisms on Historical Principles (DCHP) |place=Vancouver, BC |publication-place=University of British Columbia |edition=2nd}}</ref> as well as the Dictionary of Newfoundland English.<ref name=":1" /> The definitions are taken from DCHP-2 with a link to the definitions from Dictionary of Newfoundland English (with the exception of 8 and 10, linked to the DCHP-2 definitions):

'''1.[https://www.heritage.nf.ca/dictionary/index.php#160 bangbelly]''' ''bang-belly'' (DCHP-2 October 2016)

''n.'' — ''Newfoundland, Food''

a pudding, cake, or pancake.

'''2. [https://www.heritage.nf.ca/dictionary/index.php#950 Cockabaloo]''' (DCHP-2 April 2016)

''n.'' — ''Newfoundland''

someone who teases; a bully.

'''3. [https://www.heritage.nf.ca/dictionary/index.php#1442 duckish]''' ''duckies, duckest'' (DCHP-2 July 2016)

''exp.'' — ''Newfoundland, somewhat rare''

dusk or twilight.

'''4. [https://www.heritage.nf.ca/dictionary/index.php#1615 figgy duff]''' ''Figgy Duff'' (DCHP-2 October 2016)

''n.'' — ''Newfoundland, Food''

a boiled pudding made with raisins.

'''5. [https://www.heritage.nf.ca/dictionary/index.php#1669 flahoolach]''' ''flahoolagh, flooholic,'' < Gaelic 'flaitheamhlach' (DCHP-2 May 2016)

''adj.'' — ''Newfoundland''

generous, extravagant, or wasteful.

'''6. [https://www.heritage.nf.ca/dictionary/index.php#2426 jinker]''' ''joner, jonah, jader'' (DCHP-2 April 2016)

''n.'' — ''Newfoundland''

a person believed to bring bad luck.

'''7. [https://www.heritage.nf.ca/dictionary/index.php#2980 mummering]''' ''mumming'' (DCHP-2 October 2016)

''n.'' — ''also attributively, Newfoundland, Social customs''

the practice of visiting houses in elaborate costumes and disguises, participating in various group activities over Christmas.
{{See|Mummering}}

'''8. [http://apps.plotandscatter.com:8080/dchp2/Entries/view/screech-in screech-in]''' ''Screech-in, Screech-In'' (DCHP-2 October 2016)

''n.'' — ''Newfoundland, Social customs''

an informal bonding ceremony in Newfoundland, involving drinking rum and kissing a (dead) fish, usually cod
{{See|Newfoundland Screech#Screech-in}}

'''9. [https://www.heritage.nf.ca/dictionary/index.php#4291 sleeveen]''' ''sleveen, slieveen, sleiveen,'' < Irish Gaelic ''slighbín'' 'trickster' (DCHP-2 May 2016)

''n.'' — ''Newfoundland, slang, informal''

a sly, mischievous person; a rascal.

'''10. [http://apps.plotandscatter.com:8080/dchp2/Search/advanced/ Jiggs' dinner]''' ''Jigg's dinner, Jiggs dinner, Jigg's Dinner'' (DCHP-2 October 2016)

''n.'' — ''Food, Newfoundland''

a dinner of corned beef and cabbage, with potatoes and other vegetables on the side.

== See also ==
{{Portal|Canada|Nova Scotia|Language}}
* [[Canadian English]]
* [[Languages of Canada]]
* [[Newfoundland English]]
* [[The Maritimes]]
* [[Acadian French]]
* [[Acadians]]

==References==
{{reflist}}
*{{cite book
|title= The Lesser-Known Varieties of English: An Introduction
|last= Schreier, etc. all|author2=Daniel Schreier |author3=Peter Trudgill |author4=Edgar W. Schneider
 |year= 2010
|publisher= Cambridge University Press
|isbn= 978-0-521-71016-9
|page= 59|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=-TGSgT2SyH0C&q=%22Canadian+Maritime+English%22&pg=PA59}}
* {{citation
|last1=Labov
|first1=William
|author-link=William Labov
|last2=Ash
|first2=Sharon
|last3=Boberg
|first3=Charles
|year=2006
|title=The Atlas of North American English
|location=Berlin
|publisher=Mouton-de Gruyter
|pages=187–208
|isbn=3-11-016746-8
}}

{{English dialects by continent}}

[[Category:Canadian English]]
[[Category:Acadian culture]]
[[Category:Culture of Atlantic Canada]]
[[Category:Culture of the Maritimes|English]]
[[Category:English language in Canada]]