View source for Assyrians in Syria

{{Short description|Ethnic group}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2023}}
{{Infobox ethnic group
| group            = Assyrians in Syria
| image            = Christians In Syria (141836329).jpeg
| image_caption    = Assyrian Christian baptism in Syria
| pop              = 400,000-877,000 (pre-[[Syrian civil war]])<ref>"Prior to the start of the war in Syria, it is estimated that the country was home to approximately 200,000 ethnic Assyrians" [https://www.assyrianpolicy.org/syria] at [http://www.assyrianpolicy.org/ Syria: Assyrian Policy Institute]</ref><ref>"The Assyrian population in Iraq, estimated at approximately 200,000, constitutes the largest remaining concentration of the ethnic group in the Middle East." [https://50f3ad00-5b28-4016-898f-6130d301c97a.filesusr.com/ugd/6ae567_41177671fb884482adfdc52d459a40b1.pdf] at [http://www.assyrianpolicy.org/ Assyrian Policy Institute's Erasing the Legacy of the Khabour: Destruction of Assyrian Cultural Heritage in the Khabour Region of Syria]</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/security/2014/04/syria-assyrians-threat-crisis.html |title=Syria's Assyrians threatened by extremists |access-date=2020-05-24 |archive-date=2020-11-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201112035913/https://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/security/2014/04/syria-assyrians-threat-crisis.html |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="Today's Zaman">[https://web.archive.org/web/20110812191457/http://www.todayszaman.com/newsDetail_getNewsById.action?load=detay&link=140085 Turkey-Syria deal allows Syriacs to cross border for religious holidays] "An estimated 25,000 Syriacs live in Turkey, while Syria boasts some 877,000."</ref><ref name="Shoup">{{citation |last=Shoup|first=John A.|year=2018|chapter=Syria|title=The History of Syria|page=6|publisher=[[ABC-CLIO]]|isbn=978-1440858352|quote=Syria has several other ethnic groups, the Kurds... they make up an estimated 9 percent...Turkomen comprise around 4-5 percent. of the total population. The rest of the ethnic mix of Syria is made of Assyrians (about 4 percent), Armenians (about 2 percent), and Circassians (about 1 percent).}}</ref>
| regions          = {{center|[[Al-Hasakah Governorate]], [[Damascus]], [[Homs]], [[Aleppo]] }}
| languages        = [[Sureth]] and [[North Mesopotamian Arabic]]
| religions        = [[Syriac Christianity]]<br>([[Syriac Orthodox Church]], [[Assyrian Church of the East]], [[Chaldean Catholic Church]], [[Syriac Catholic Church]], [[Maronite Church]])<ref name="minorityrights.org">{{cite web|title=Syria - Christians, Armenians and Assyrians|url=http://minorityrights.org/minorities/christians-armenians-and-assyrians/|website=[[Minority Rights Group International]]|date=19 June 2015 |access-date=27 October 2016}}</ref>
| native_name      = ܣܘܪ̈ܝܝܐ ܕܣܘܪܝܐ ([[Syriac language|Syriac]])
| native_name_lang = syr
| flag             = {{flagicon|Assyria}} [[File:Flag of the Syrian revolution.svg|24px]]
| related_groups   = 
}}
{{Assyrian culture}}

'''Assyrians in Syria''' ({{langx|syr|ܣܘܪ̈ܝܝܐ ܕܣܘܪܝܐ}}, {{langx|ar|الآشوريون في سوريا}}), also known as '''Syriacs'''/'''Arameans''', are an [[ethnic]] and linguistic minority [[Indigenous peoples|indigenous]] to [[Upper Mesopotamia]], the north-eastern half of Syria. Syrian-Assyrians are people of [[Assyrian people|Assyrian descent]] living in [[Syria]], and those in the [[Assyrian diaspora]] who are of Syrian-Assyrian heritage.

They live primarily in [[Al-Hasakah Governorate]], with a significant presence in [[Hasakah]] city and the cities of [[Qamishli]], [[Al-Malikiyah|Malikiyah]], [[Ras al-Ayn]], and [[Al-Qahtaniyah, al-Hasakah Governorate|Qahtaniyah]], as well as in [[Tell Tamer]] and nearby villages. Some have migrated to [[Damascus]] and other western cities beyond the border of their indigenous Mesopotamia at the [[Euphrates|Euphrates River]].<ref name=":0">{{cite news|title=IS entführt mindestens 90 Christen in Syrien|url=https://www.welt.de/newsticker/dpa_nt/infoline_nt/brennpunkte_nt/article137767466/IS-entfuehrt-mindestens-90-Christen-in-Syrien.html|access-date=27 October 2016|work=[[Die Welt]]|date=24 February 2015|language=de}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=ISIS Attacks Assyrian Villages in Syria, 4 Killed, Dozens Captured, Churches Burned Posted|url=http://www.aina.org/news/20150223174904.htm|access-date=27 October 2016|work=[[Assyrian International News Agency]]|date=23 February 2015}}</ref> They share a common history and [[Assyrian identity|ethnic identity]], rooted in shared [[Syriac language|linguistic]], [[Assyrian culture|cultural]] and [[Syriac Christianity|religious traditions]], with [[Assyrians in Turkey]], [[Assyrians in Iraq]] and [[Assyrians in Iran]], as well as with the [[Assyrian diaspora]].{{sfnp|Hooglund|2008|pp=100–101}} 

Historically, the related [[Arameans]] of [[Maaloula]] and [[Jubb'adin]] in Southwestern Syria were sometimes included under the term 'Assyrians', although those two particular Aramean communities in Syria speak [[Western Neo-Aramaic]], in contrast to the [[Northeastern Neo-Aramaic]] spoken by Assyrians proper. 

In addition, the [[Terms for Syriac Christians#Assyrian identity|Assyrian identity]] in Syria (as in Iraq) is usually seen as inseparable from being Christian and even adhering to specific churches. In contrast, the [[Terms for Syriac Christians#Aramean identity|Aramean identity]] can also encompass Muslim Arameans, as in the case of the Arameans of Jubb'adin and the pre-[[Syrian civil war]] village (now destroyed) of [[Al-Sarkha (Bakhah)|Bakh'a]]. The inhabitants of both of these villages are overwhelmingly Muslim, although the historical evidence suggests that conversion to Islam happened more recently around the 1700s.

==History==
{{More citations needed section|date=April 2021}}

===Ancient history===
During the [[Old Assyrian Empire]] (2000–1750 BC), [[Middle Assyrian Empire]] (1365–1020 BC) and [[Neo Assyrian Empire]] (911–599 BC) much of, and often the entirety of the modern country of [[Syria]], was under Assyrian rule, which founded in Northwestern [[Mesopotamia]] (modern-day [[Iraq]]). The northeastern part of the land became an integral part of Assyria proper during the 2nd millennium BC. Thus the presence of originally [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]]-speaking and later [[Eastern Aramaic]]-speaking Assyrians in the northeastern part of the modern country dates back over 4000 years, where they lived alongside a diverse set of other peoples such as [[Hittites]], [[Hurrians]] and [[Amorites]] throughout the ages. Traces of the long era of Assyrian settlement can be seen at numerous archaeological sites across the region. Important Assyrian cities in the region in ancient times include [[Til-Barsip]], [[Carchemish]], [[Guzana]], [[Shubat-Enlil]] and [[Dur-Katlimmu]].

The northeast of modern-day Syria was a part of [[Achaemenid Assyria]] ([[Athura]]) which was a geographical area within the [[Achaemenid Empire]] in [[Mesopotamia]] between 546 and 332 BC, then [[Seleucid Syria]] (312-150 BC), when the name ''Syria'' which was originally a 9th-century BC [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] corruption of ''Assyria'' and had hitherto referred only to [[Assyria]] itself, also became applied to a region long known as [[Aramea]]/[[Eber Nari]]. During the [[Parthian Empire]] (150 BC-224 AD) and early [[Sassanid Empire]] (224 -650 AD) (when the land was renamed [[Assuristan]]) a number of [[Neo-Assyrian]] kingdoms arose, and parts of northeast Syria became a part of the Neo-Assyrian state of [[Osroene]] until the mid-3rd century AD. [[Christianity]] became established amongst the Assyrians as early as the 1st century AD, and the region of [[Athura]] became the birthplace of [[Eastern Christianity]] and [[Syriac literature]], with the [[Assyrian Church of the East]] and [[Syriac Orthodox Church]] being founded in the region.

===Middle Ages===
After the [[Arab]] [[Early Muslim conquests|Islamic Conquest]] of the mid-7th century AD, Assyria/Athura/Assuristan was dissolved as a geo-political entity, and the region gradually saw an influx of [[Muslim]] [[Arab]], [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]] and [[Iranian peoples|Iranic peoples]]. However, settlement in the northeastern areas often proved unsustainable in the long-term, leading to numerous episodes of population exodus. In addition to experiencing such destabilising factors such as climate shifts and [[over-cultivation of land]], the area was also vulnerable to attack from nomadic peoples. Following the [[Mongol Empire|Mongol]] and [[Timurid Empire|Timurid]] invasions and subsequent massacre of [[Assyrian people|Assyrians]], it was left with only a scant permanent population. In the centuries that followed, a number of nomadic and semi-nomadic [[Arabic]]- and [[Kurdish languages|Kurdish]]-speaking tribes wandered the area with their livestock into the 20th century, when most of them were forced to settle by governmental policies.

===Early modern period===
When the [[Ottoman Empire]] conducted [[Persecution of Christians#Ottoman Empire|ethnic cleansing against its Christian populations]], Kurds were responsible for most of the atrocities against Assyrians.<ref>Joan A. Argenter, R. McKenna Brown 2004 199" On the Margins of Nations: Endangered Languages and Linguistic Rights,  Foundation for Endangered Languages. Eds:Joan A. Argenter, R. McKenna Brown</ref><ref>[http://www.americanmesopotamian.org/uploads/66603/A_brief_history_of_the_plight_of_the_Christian_Assyrians_in_modern_day_Iraq.pdf A brief history of the plight of the Christian Assyrians* in modern day Iraq] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150417082428/http://www.americanmesopotamian.org/uploads/66603/A_brief_history_of_the_plight_of_the_Christian_Assyrians_in_modern_day_Iraq.pdf |date=2015-04-17 }}. American Mespopotamian.</ref>{{Better source needed|date=April 2021}} At the onset of the 20th century, Kurdish tribes cooperated with the Ottoman authorities in the genocides against [[Armenian genocide|Armenian]] and [[Assyrian genocide|Assyrian]] Christians in [[Upper Mesopotamia]].<ref name="R. S. Stafford 2006 25">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LSzuzsRh37gC&pg=PA25|title= The Tragedy of the Assyrians|author= R. S. Stafford|pages= 24–25|year= 2006|publisher= Gorgias Press, LLC|isbn= 9781593334130}}</ref> Many Assyrians from [[Hakkari (historical region)|Hakkari]] settled in Syria after they were displaced and driven out by [[Ottoman Turks]] in the early 20th century.<ref>Betts, Robert Brenton, Christians in the Arab East (Atlanta, 1978)</ref> During the 1930s and 1940s, many Assyrians resettled in northeastern Syrian villages, such as [[Tel Tamer]], [[Al-Qahtaniyah, al-Hasakah Governorate|Al-Qahtaniyah]], [[Al Darbasiyah]], [[Al-Malikiyah]], [[Qamishli]] and a few other small towns in [[Al-Hasakah Governorate]].<ref>Dodge, Bayard, "The Settlement of the Assyrians on the Khabur," Royal Central Asian Society Journal, July 1940, pp. 301-320.</ref>

===Modern history===
[[File:Assyrian priest with manuscript.jpg|thumb|Assyrian priest with manuscript, [[Khabur (Euphrates)|Khabur]] river valley area, 1939]] 
Most of the current population of [[Assyrians]] in Hasakah dates back to the [[French Mandate of Syria]], when refugees from the now-[[Turkey|Turkish]] areas north of present-day Syria (such as [[Tur Abdin]]) were settled together with displaced [[Armenians]] who had survived the [[Assyrian genocide]] and [[Armenian genocide]] in the area by the authorities as part of an effort to promote economic development. Given preferential treatment on the basis of their [[Christianity|Christian]] religion by the French, they soon formed most of the new urban elite in the region. An additional influx of Eastern Assyrians began to resettle along the [[Khabur (Euphrates)|Khabur River]] in 1933 after the massacres of Assyrians in newly independent Iraq (see [[Simele massacre]]) forced the flight. These were refugees twice over—originally from the highlands of [[Hakkari (historical region)|Hakkari]], they had initially sought refuge amongst other Assyrians in Iraq in the face of the [[Assyrian genocide]] before the attacks.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.ipsnews.net/2006/05/rights-assyrians-face-escalating-abuses-in-new-iraq/|title=RIGHTS: Assyrians Face Escalating Abuses in "New Iraq" &#124; Inter Press Service|website=www.ipsnews.net|date=3 May 2006}}</ref>

[[File:Assyrian refugees on wagon.jpg|thumb|Assyrian refugees travelling to Khabur after escaping the Simele massacre]]
In 1936, religious and political leaders—mainly from the Assyrian and Armenian Christian and Kurdish communities, with a few Arab groups as well—pressured the French authorities to give autonomous status to the Syrian [[Al-Jazira province]] (nowadays the [[Al-Hasakah Governorate|Al Hasakah]]) for its mixed-ethnic population, like in the [[Hatay Province|Sanjak of Alexandretta]], the [[Alawite State]], or [[Jabal al-Druze]]. The push for autonomy was marked by civil strife and inter-communal violence in the province, and angry hostility on the part of the mainly Arab nationalists pushing for outright independence for Syria. Long having viewed the settlement of Assyrians and Armenians in the country as the product of French colonialism, they were further incensed by the arrival of additional Assyrian refugees on the Khabur, and mobilized support from many Arab tribes and some Kurdish groups to counter the autonomists. The French forcibly cracked down on both sides as they grew increasingly violent, and the movement for autonomy soon failed. Later on, in 1957, the [[Assyrian Democratic Organization]] was set up in [[Syria]] by center-left intellectuals.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://en.ado-world.org/ |title=ADO World |access-date=2011-07-24 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110724224229/http://en.ado-world.org/ |archive-date=2011-07-24 }}</ref>

Though officially and incorrectly designated as ''Arabs'' by the Syrian Arab Nationalist [[Baathist]] government, the Assyrians are a distinct pre-Arab ethnic group with a history in the region dating perhaps as far back as the 25th century BC. They are a [[Syriac language|Syriac]] speaking community that traditionally belong to the [[Ancient Church of the East]], [[Assyrian Church of the East]], [[Syriac Orthodox Church]] and the [[Chaldean Catholic Church]].<ref name="minorityrights.org"/> The modern Assyrians are native to "northern [[Iraq]], southeastern [[Turkey]], northwestern [[Iran]] and northeastern [[Syria]]".<ref name="books.google.ca">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bwLdCQAAQBAJ&q=northern+Iraq%2C+southeastern+Turkey%2C+northwestern+Iran%2C+northeastern+Syria+Assyrians&pg=PT18|title=Reforging a Forgotten History: Iraq and the Assyrians in the Twentieth Century|isbn=9780748686056|access-date=24 April 2016|last1=Donabed|first1=Sargon|date=February 2015}}</ref>

First settled by Assyrians fleeing the [[Assyrian genocide]] and then the [[Simele massacre]], there are over 30 Assyrian villages on the [[Khabur (Euphrates)|Khabur river]] in Syria. According to a 1994 report they are: Tell Tawil, Tell Um Rafa, Tell Um Keff, Tell Kefdji, Tell Djemaa, [[Tell Tamer]], Tell Nasri, Upper Tell Chamran, Lower Tell Chamran, Tell Chamran, Tell Hafian, Tell Talaa, Tell Maghas, Tell Massas, Abu Tine, [[Tel Goran]], Fouedate, Dimchij, Kabar Chamie, Tell Balouet (Dezn), Tell Baz, Upper Tell Rouman, Lower Tell Rouman, El-Kharita, Tell Chame, Tell Wardiat, El-Makhada, Taal, Tell Sakra, El-Breij, Arbouche, and Tell Hormiz.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.aina.org/articles/asotk.pdf|issue=11|access-date=17 April 2023|website=aina.org|title=Dawn at Tell Tamir: The Assyrian Christian Survival on the Khabur River|author=Alberto M. Fernandez}}</ref> About 9,000 ethnic Assyrians moved from northern Iraq to join already extant Assyrian populations in northeastern Syria following the [[Simele massacre]] of 1933. They settled in the Jazirah near Tall Tamir on the upper Khabur River. The French established this Assyrian settlement with the assistance of the League of Nations, and in 1942 it became an integral part of Syria. The Assyrian settlement on the Khabur valley consists of about 20 villages, primarily agricultural. They have faced severe economic pressures over the years, despite owning their own irrigated lands, and some of them immigrated to the US, where there exists a large community.<ref name="minorityrights.org"/>

In an interview with [[Aid to the Church in Need]], bishop Jules Boutros, of the [[Syriac Catholic Church]], said most young Syriacs were trying to get out of Syria. "Most of our young people are trying to get out of Iraq and Syria. (...) Things are worse in Syria, because the war is still going on. Military service is the biggest issue for our young men, because you have to serve for 9 or 10 years. After that time, if you return alive, you need to start from zero. This is in all of Syria. Things are worse in the Kurdish controlled area. Our young men have to serve with the Kurdish military, and then with the Syrian military. That is why in Syria it is so rare to find young men, they are all leaving. After five years abroad, if they pay US$8,000 dollars they can return without their military service. We are losing an entire generation."<ref name=":0" />

==Culture==

Assyrians celebrate religious holidays such as [[Easter]] and [[Christmas]], as well as feasts of saints venerated in their respective churches.

All Assyrians celebrate [[Assyrian New Year]], known as Ha b'Nison or Kha b'Nisan, on the 1st of April each year to celebrate the turn of the new year in the ancient Assyrian calendar. Assyrian New Year festivities have previously been outlawed in Syria.<ref>{{cite web |last1=El-Deeb |first1=Sarah |title=Syria's tiny Assyrian community celebrates its survival |url=https://apnews.com/2271eba367914ab5985effa3f281d042 |website=AP |access-date=10 July 2019}}</ref>

==Religion==
The majority of Assyrians in Syria adhere to both the East and West Syriac Rite. These include the following churches:

===Catholic Assyrians===
[[File:Saint Joseph Cathedral, Aleppo.jpg|thumb|Chaldean Catholic Cathedral of Saint Joseph, Aleppo]]

====Chaldean Catholic Church====

The presence of the [[Chaldean Catholic Church]] dates back to the 16th century when Assyrians from [[Diyarbakir]] migrated to [[Aleppo]].

The [[Chaldean Catholic Eparchy of Aleppo]], under the tenure of the Bishop of Aleppo, Mar Antony Audo, was established in 1957 and is divided into 14 parishes.

====Syriac Catholic Church====

There are four [[diocese]]s of the [[Syriac Catholic Church]] in Syria including the:

* Metropolitan [[Syriac Catholic Archeparchy of Damascus]]
* Metropolitan [[Syriac Catholic Archeparchy of Homs]] (vacant since 2013)
* [[Syriac Catholic Archeparchy of Aleppo]]
* [[Syriac Catholic Archeparchy of Hassaké-Nisibi]]

===Orthodox Assyrians===

====Syriac Orthodox Church====
[[File:Syrian Orthodox Patriarchate 2k18.jpg|thumb|[[Cathedral of Saint George, Damascus]], headquarters of the [[Syriac Orthodox Church|Syriac Orthodox Patriarchate of Antioch]] since 1959.]]
The [[Syriac Orthodox Church|Syriac Orthodox Church's]] patriarchal seat is located in [[Damascus]] after being transferred in 1959.{{sfn|Parry|2010|p=259}} The Syriac Orthodox Church in Syria is represented by the Patriarch, [[Ignatius Aphrem II]], with three archbishopric's located across Syria in the following:

* Patriarchal Office Director in Damascus Archbishop Timotheus Matta Al-Khoury.
* Archbishopric of Jazirah and Euphrates under the spiritual guidance and direction of acting Archbishop Maurice Amsih.
* Archbishopric of Aleppo under the spiritual guidance and direction of Archbishop Yohanna Ibrahim.
* Archbishopric of Homs & Hama under the spiritual guidance and direction of Archbishop Selwanos Petros AL-Nemeh.
* Patriarchal Vicariate for the Archdiocese of Damascus under the spiritual guidance and direction of Archbishop Timothius Matta AlKhouri.

In the mid-1970s, it was estimated that 82,000 Syriac Orthodox lived in Syria.{{sfn|Joseph|1983|p=110}}

==Demographics==

In 2018 Professor John Shoup stated that the Assyrian population in Syria formed 4% of the country's total population, making it the fourth largest ethnic group in the country.<ref name="Shoup"/>

==Politics==
[[File:Mtakasto.svg|thumb|150px|Logo of 'Mtakasto', the oldest Assyrian political party in Syria]]

===Assyrian Democratic Organization===

The [[Assyrian Democratic Organization]] (ADO), more commonly known as "Mtakasto", was founded in 1957 and serves as the oldest Assyrian political party in Syria. The principles of the party are based around huyodo/khoyada, unity, and gained a foothold amongst western Assyrian youth.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Travis |first1=Hannibal |title=The Assyrian genocide: Cultural and Political Legacies |date=20 Jul 2017 |publisher=Routledge}}</ref> [[Gabriel Moushe Gawrieh]], the current leader of the party, was detained by the Syrian government and imprisoned for 2 years, until his release in June 2016.<ref>{{cite web |title=Christians Under Threat in Syria |url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/prs/ps/2014/03/222802.htm |website=U.S. Department of State |access-date=10 July 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Assyrian faction linked to Syrian opposition meets with Kurdish TEV-DEM after office closure |url=http://aranews.net/files/2017/04/assyrian-faction-linked-syrian-opposition-meets-kurdish-tev-dem-office-closure/ |website=AraNews |date=13 April 2017 |access-date=10 July 2019 |archive-date=4 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200504200136/http://aranews.net/files/2017/04/assyrian-faction-linked-syrian-opposition-meets-kurdish-tev-dem-office-closure/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>

===[[Assyrian Democratic Party (Syria)]]===
{{expand section|date=October 2021}}

===[[Syriac Union Party (Syria)]]===
{{expand section|date=October 2021}}

==Syrian Civil War==

Assyrians have been caught between different political sides from the onset of the [[Syrian Civil War]] with some Assyrian groups allying with the [[Syrian Government]] and others with the Kurdish-led [[Syrian Democratic Forces]].

===Assyrian militias===

With the onset of the Syrian Civil War, Assyrians have formed numerous military forces in order to protect their communities. These range from military groups to police forces concentrated in the Al-Hasakah Governorate, mainly in Qamishli and Khabur. These militias include:

====Gozarto Protection Force====

[[Sootoro|Gozarto Protection Force]] (GPF), or Sootoro, are a light infantry militia formed in 2012 that are aligned to the [[Syrian Government]]. The militia is composed mainly of Assyrians, with a smaller number of Armenians in the group. GPF mainly clash with ISIL, although they have also been involved in clashes with Kurdish forces stationed nearby.

====Syriac Military Council====

The [[Syriac Military Council]] (MFS) are a militia of the [[Dawronoye]] ideology that are a component of the [[Syrian Democratic Forces]] (SDF) and under the [[Syriac Union Party (Syria)|Syriac Union Party]]. MFS have been involved in numerous offensives alongside the YPG, including some in northern Iraq ([[Nineveh Governorate|Nineveh]] & [[Sinjar]]). The [[Bethnahrain Women's Protection Forces]] are the female brigade of the MFS and assume guard roles in the Assyrian communities of northeast Syria.

====Sutoro====

[[Sutoro]] are the police wing of the Syriac Military Council and have been active in Syria from 2012 onwards. Sutoro police the Assyrian communities of northeast Syria, as well as working in concert with Asayish to safeguard the region.

====Khabour Guards====

[[Khabour Guards]], as well as [[Nattoreh]] are a militia tied to the [[Assyrian Democratic Party]] and are active in the Khabur Valley of Syria. Founded in 2012, Khabour Guards have been involved in SDF campaigns and in 2019, merged with the Syriac Military Council to form the Syriac-Assyrian Military Council.

===Clashes with Kurdish Forces===

The main group aligned with the Assad-government are the [[Sootoro]] forces stationed in northeast Syria. In early 2016, Sootoro forces set up checkpoints in the Assyrian-controlled districts of Qamishli due to increasing terrorist attacks targeting Assyrians in the city. Members of Asayish, the security-wing of the YPG, approached the checkpoints and demanded they be dismantled. When Sootoro refused, Asayish fired at Sootoro soldiers, causing several casualties on both sides.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Al Rifai |first1=Diana |title=Assyrians and Kurds clash for first time in north Syria |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2016/01/assyrians-kurds-qamishli-160112165041894.html |website=Al-Jazeera |access-date=21 June 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Isaac |first1=Mardean |title=Under Fire From All Sides: Syria's Assyrians |url=https://www.newsdeeply.com/syria/community/2016/06/03/under-fire-from-all-sides-syrias-assyrians |website=NewsDeeply |access-date=22 June 2019}}</ref>

===Persecution by ISIL===
{{See also|Human rights in ISIL-controlled territory|2015 Qamishli bombings}} 
The Syrian Civil War initially put much strain on Assyrians in Syria. As of November 2014, due to occupation by the [[ISIL]], only 23 Assyrian and Armenian families remain in the city of [[Raqqa]]. Christian bibles and holy books have reportedly been burned by ISIL militants.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.christianpost.com/news/23-christian-families-trapped-in-isis-stronghold-raqqa-facing-violence-forced-taxes-129809/|title=23 Christian Families Trapped in ISIS Stronghold Raqqa Facing Violence, Forced Taxes|work=Christian Post|date=17 November 2014 |access-date=24 April 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fides.org/en/news/36768-ASIA_SYRIA_25_Christian_families_still_in_Raqqa_Obligation_to_pay_a_protection_tax#.VGqsmxwqAhu|title=Agenzia Fides News|access-date=24 April 2016}}</ref>

====Assyrians kidnapped====

On 23 February 2015, ISIL abducted 232 Assyrians from villages near [[Tell Tamer]] in the Khabur valley.<ref name="BBC-abducts">{{cite web | url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-31601451 | title=Islamic State 'abducts dozens of Christians in Syria' | date=23 February 2015 | access-date=23 February 2015|publisher=BBC }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Islamic State: Fears grow as jihadists abduct 220 Assyrian Christians in north-eastern Syria |url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2015-02-27/fears-grow-as-islamic-state-seizes-220-assyrian-christians/6267472 |newspaper=ABC News |date=26 February 2015 |access-date=22 June 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Dozens of Christians abducted by ISIL in Syria |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2015/02/monitor-90-christians-abducted-isil-syria-150224083452197.html |website=Al-Jazeera |access-date=22 June 2019}}</ref> According to US diplomat Alberto M. Fernandez, of the 232 of the Assyrians kidnapped in the ISIL attack on the Assyrian Christian farming villages on the banks of the Khabur River in Northeast Syria, 51 were children and 84 women. "Most of them remain in captivity with one account claiming that ISIL is demanding $22 million (or roughly $100,000 per person) for their release."<ref name=Fernandez>{{cite web|last1=Fernandez|first1=Alberto M.|title=The "Sayfo" Continues Responding to Global Christian Persecution|url=http://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/cornerstone/global-christian-persecution/responses/the-sayfo-continues|website=Berkeley Center Cornerstone|publisher=Georgetown University Religious Freedom Project|access-date=20 June 2015|date=June 16, 2015}}</ref> On 8 October, ISIL released a video showing three of the Assyrian men kidnapped in Khabur being executed. It was reported that 202 of the 232 kidnapped Assyrians were still in captivity, each one with a demanded ransom of $100,000.<ref name="The Guardian - Isis appears to have killed three Christian hostages in Syria">{{cite web | url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/oct/08/isis-killed-three-christians-hostages-syria-assyrian-ransom | title=Isis appears to have killed three Christian hostages in Syria | date=8 October 2015 | access-date=13 November 2015|work=The Guardian }}</ref> In early 2016, ISIL freed the remaining 42 hostages in exchange for an undisclosed ransom mediated by the [[Assyrian Church of the East]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Islamic State 'releases Assyrian Christian hostages' |work=BBC News |date=22 February 2016 |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-35630196 |access-date=22 June 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Islamic State gets millions in ransom money for kidnapped Christians |url=https://www.chicagotribune.com/nation-world/ct-islamic-state-kidnapped-christians-20160222-story.html |website=Chicago Tribune |access-date=22 June 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=IS releases last of kidnapped Assyrian Christians after ransom payment |url=https://www.dw.com/en/is-releases-last-of-kidnapped-assyrian-christians-after-ransom-payment/a-19066155 |website=DW |access-date=22 June 2019}}</ref>

====Wusta Bombings====

On 30 December 2015, 16 people were killed and 30 wounded when three blasts struck restaurants in the Assyrian district of Wusta in Qamishli. An IS-linked news agency, [[Amaq News Agency|Amaq]], said the group carried out the bombings. This prompted the Gozarto Protection Forces to set up checkpoints in the district as the Syrian government, nor the Kurdish-led DFNS could guarantee their safety.<ref>{{cite news |title=Syria conflict: 'At least 16 dead' in three restaurants blasts |work=BBC News |date=31 December 2015 |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-35204041 |access-date=22 June 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Loveluck |first1=Louisa |title=More than 55,000 died in Syria in 2015 as Isil claims twin attacks in Syrian Christian neighbourhood |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/islamic-state/12076252/Islamic-State-twin-bomb-attacks-kill-at-least-16-in-Christian-neighbourhood-Qamishli.html |website=The Telegraph |access-date=22 June 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=16 dead, 30 wounded in three blasts in northeast Syria: Monitor |url=http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/16-dead-30-wounded-in-three-blasts-in-northeast-syria-monitor--93258 |website=Hurriyet Daily News |access-date=22 June 2019}}</ref>

==Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria==
{{See also|Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria|Human rights in North and East Syria}}
[[File:Gozartoflag.svg|thumb|An unofficial flag of Assyrians in the [[Jazira Region]], used by the [[Syriac Military Council]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://sutoro-forces.blogspot.com.tr/2017/04/blog-post.html|title=Syriac flags adorn the city of Hasaka|work=Syriac Military Council|date=20 March 2017}}</ref>]]
The decrease of political repression after government withdrawal and the inclusion of Assyrian political and military movements in the [[Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria]] has led to greater inclusion of Assyrians in the governance of the region. The [[Syriac Union Party (Syria)|Syriac Union Party]] (SUP), committed to the secular leftist "[[Dawronoye]]" ideology,<ref name=Dawronoye>{{cite web|author=Carl Drott|url=http://www.warscapes.com/reportage/revolutionaries-bethnahrin|title=The Revolutionaries of Bethnahrin|publisher=Warscapes|date=25 May 2015|access-date=18 September 2016}}</ref> is a part of the governing [[Movement for a Democratic Society]] (TEV-DEM) coalition. The [[Sutoro]] is an Assyrian police force, working in concert with the general [[Asayish (NES regions)|Asayish]] police force with the mission to police ethnic Assyrian areas and neighbourhoods.

While [[Syriac language|Syriac]] was an official language of the Jazira Region from the outset, in August 2016, the ''Ourhi Centre'' in the city of [[Qamishli]] was started by the Assyrian community, to educate teachers in order to make Syriac-Aramaic an additional language to be taught in public schools,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://aranews.net/2016/08/syriac-christians-revive-ancient-language-despite-war-2/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160817064715/http://aranews.net/2016/08/syriac-christians-revive-ancient-language-despite-war-2/|url-status=dead|archive-date=17 August 2016|title=Syriac Christians revive ancient language despite war|publisher=ARA News|date=2016-08-19|access-date=2016-08-19}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://en.hawarnews.com/the-syriacs-are-taught-their-language-for-the-first-time/|title=The Syriacs are taught their language for the first time|publisher=[[Hawar News Agency]]|date=2016-09-24|access-date=2016-09-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160924094715/http://en.hawarnews.com/the-syriacs-are-taught-their-language-for-the-first-time/|archive-date=2016-09-24|url-status=dead}}</ref> which then started with the 2016/17 academic year.<ref name=syriaclanguage>{{cite web|url=http://syrianobserver.com/EN/News/31729/Hassakeh_Syriac_Language_Be_Taught_PYD_controlled_Schools/|title=Hassakeh: Syriac Language to Be Taught in PYD-controlled Schools|publisher=The Syrian Observer|date=3 October 2016|access-date=2016-10-05}}</ref> With that academic year, states the region's Education Committee, "three curriculums have replaced the old one, to include teaching in three languages: Kurdish, Arabic and Syriac."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://aranews.net/2016/10/rojava-administration-launches-new-education-system-kurdish-arabic-assyrian-2/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161007194102/http://aranews.net/2016/10/rojava-administration-launches-new-education-system-kurdish-arabic-assyrian-2/|url-status=dead|archive-date=7 October 2016|title=Rojava administration launches new curriculum in Kurdish, Arabic and Assyrian|publisher=ARA News|date=7 October 2016|access-date=2016-10-07}}</ref>

===Human rights violation claims===
The region, however, has been accused of closing down 14 Assyrian schools that have refused to adhere to a curriculum produced by the Kurdish-led government. Many Assyrians have rejected the new curriculum, stating that the curriculum is not recognized or accredited elsewhere, while the Syrian government-led curriculum is.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Souleiman |first1=Delil |title=Syriacs protest Kurdish authorities over Syria school curriculum |url=https://news.yahoo.com/kurds-christians-split-over-syria-school-curriculum-041427147.html |website=Yahoo! News |access-date=21 June 2019}}</ref> There is also opposition by Assyrians against the curriculum produced by the region's administration, which some Assyrian leaders say has been an attempt to impose a [[Kurdish nationalism|Kurdish nationalist]] curriculum across the region.<ref>{{cite web |title=Assyrians in Syria Protest PYD's Closure of Schools in Qamishli |url=https://www.assyrianpolicy.org/post/assyrians-in-syria-protest-pyd-s-closure-of-schools-in-qamishli |website=Assyrian Policy Institute |date=28 August 2018 |access-date=21 June 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Safi |first1=Marlo |title=Closure of Syrian Schools: Another Bleak Sign for Christians in Syria |url=https://www.nationalreview.com/2018/09/assyrian-christians-face-persecution-kurdish-nationalists/ |website=National Review |date=25 September 2018 |access-date=22 June 2019}}</ref>

In April 2015, David Jendo, the leader of the Khabur Guards, was assassinated after being kidnapped alongside fellow commander, Elias Nasser. Both men were blindfolded and driven to a remote location, supposedly to have an urgent meeting with YPG leadership. Jendo and Nasser were then shot and David Jendo immediately died, while Elias Nasser was severely wounded. Jendo had publicly spoken against the YPG looting Assyrian homes in 2015. The attackers were allegedly arrested and tried in a regional court, resulting in 20 years prison for the two killers, 4 and 1 years respectively for the other two attackers.<ref>{{cite web |title=Assyrians Under Kurdish Rule: The Situation in Northeastern Syria |url=https://docs.wixstatic.com/ugd/4ec518_40e8089a630c45e58a9e70db4b274d97.pdf |website=Assyrian Confederation of Europe |access-date=24 June 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=TRIAL OF MARTYR DAWUD JENDO |url=https://twitter.com/SyriacMFS/status/624928282304229376 |website=Twitter |publisher=Syriac Military Council |access-date=24 June 2019}}</ref>

In November 2015, sixteen Assyrian and Armenian civic and church organizations issued a joint statement protesting Kurdish expropriation of private property. The statement accuses the PYD of human rights violations, expropriation of private property, illegal military conscription and interference in church school curricula.<ref>{{cite web |title=Assyrians, Armenians in Syria Protest Kurdish Confiscation of Property |url=http://www.aina.org/news/20151102170051.htm |website=AINA |access-date=24 June 2019}}</ref>

Kurds in Syria have been accused of silencing Assyrian critics of their administration, usually using Assyrian proxy forces such as Sutoro to intimidate these critics. On September 30, 2018, prominent Assyrian writer Souleman Yousph was arrested without being informed of charges, in what is alleged to be in response to an article published by Mr. Yousph in which he criticized the de facto Kurdish authorities for closing Assyrian schools, as well as the assault on Issa Rashid, a fellow Assyrian writer. One day after his arrest, Sutoro announced a statement saying that ''"Action had to be taken against those spreading lies, that democracy has rules and limitations, and that defamation is punishable by law in Western countries"''.<ref>{{cite web |title=Prominent Syrian writer Yousph arrested in northeastern Syria, held for five days |url=https://cpj.org/2018/10/prominent-syrian-writer-yousph-arrested-in-northea.php |website=Committee to Protect Journalists |date=9 October 2018 |access-date=22 June 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Syrien: christlicher Journalist Yusph freigelassen |url=https://www.vaticannews.va/de/welt/news/2018-10/syrien-journalist-yusph-freigelassen-hindo.html |website=Vatican News |date=11 October 2018 |access-date=22 June 2019}}</ref>

==See also==
*[[List of Assyrian settlements]]
*[[Assyria]]
*[[Assyrian people]]
*[[Assyrian continuity]]
*[[Assyrian homeland]]
*[[Assyrian Democratic Organization]]
*[[Syriac Union Party (Syria)]]
*[[Syriac Military Council]]
*[[Sutoro]]
*[[Assyrian diaspora]]

==References==
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}

== Sources ==
* {{cite book |last=Hooglund |first=Eric |author-link=Eric Hooglund |editor1-first=Glenn E. |editor1-last=Curtis |editor2-first=Eric |editor2-last=Hooglund |editor2-link=Eric Hooglund |others=[[United States Library of Congress]], [[Federal Research Division]] |title=Iran: A Country Study |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/irancountrystudy00curt_2/page/81 |chapter-format=PDF |access-date=13 October 2013 |edition=5th |series=Area Handbook Series |year=2008 |publisher=[[United States Government Printing Office]] |location=[[Washington, D.C.]] |isbn=978-0-8444-1187-3 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/irancountrystudy00curt_2/page/81 81–142] |chapter=The Society and Its Environment |chapter-url-access=registration }}
* {{cite book |last=Joseph |first=John |title=Muslim-Christian Relations and Inter-Christian Rivalries in the Middle East: The Case of the Jacobites in an Age of Transition |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lKaL3_dfFJAC |year=1983 |publisher=SUNY Press |isbn=978-0-87395-600-0}}
* {{cite book |last=Parry |first=Ken |title=The Blackwell Companion to Eastern Christianity |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fWp9JA3aBvcC |year=2010 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-4443-3361-9}}

==External links==
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20160924094715/http://en.hawarnews.com/the-syriacs-are-taught-their-language-for-the-first-time/ "The Syriacs are taught their language for the first time" (Article and Videos], [[Hawar News Agency]], September 2016)

{{Assyrian communities}}
{{Asia in topic|Assyrians in}}
{{Demographics of Syria}}

[[Category:Assyrians in Syria| ]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Syria]]