View source for Asbestos

{{Short description|Carcinogenic fibrous silicate mineral}}
{{Other uses}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2020}}
{{infobox mineral
| name        = Asbestos
| image       = Asbestos with muscovite.png
| imagesize   = 
| alt         =
| caption     = Fibrous [[tremolite]] asbestos on [[muscovite]]
| category    = [[Silicate minerals]]
| formula     =
| strunz      = 09.ED.15
| dana        = 71.01.02d.03
| symmetry    =
| unit cell   =
| molweight   = 277.11 g
| color       = Green, red, yellow, white, gray, blue
| habit       = Amorphous, granular, massive
| system      = [[Orthorhombic]], [[monoclinic]]
| twinning    =
| cleavage    = [[Prismatic surface|Prismatic]]
| fracture    = Fibrous
| tenacity    =
| mohs        = 2.5.6.0
| luster      = Silky
| streak      = White
| diaphaneity =
| gravity     =2.4–3.3
| density     =
| polish      =
| opticalprop = Biaxial
| refractive  =1.53–1.72
| birefringence = 0.008
| pleochroism =
| 2V          = 20° to 60°
| dispersion  = Relatively weak
| extinction  =Parallel or oblique
| length fast/slow =
| fluorescence = Non-fluorescent
| absorption  =
| melt        ={{convert|400 to 1040|C}}
| fusibility  =
| diagnostic  =
| solubility  =
| impurities  =
| alteration  =
| other       =
| prop1       =
| prop1text   =
| references =
}}

'''Asbestos''' ({{IPAc-en|æ|s|ˈ|b|ɛ|s|t|ə|s|,_|æ|z|-|,_|-|t|ɒ|s}} {{respell|ass|BES|təs|,_|az|-|,_|-|toss}})<ref>{{cite Dictionary.com|asbestos}}</ref> is a group of naturally occurring, [[Toxicity|toxic]], [[carcinogen]]ic and fibrous [[silicate mineral]]s. There are six types, all of which are composed of long and thin fibrous [[Crystal habit|crystals]], each fibre ([[particulate]] with length substantially greater than width)<ref>{{cite book |chapter-url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK20329/ |title=Exposure and Disposition – Asbestos – NCBI Bookshelf |chapter=Exposure and Disposition |chapter-format= |year=2006 |publisher=National Academies Press (US) |accessdate=}}</ref> being composed of many microscopic "fibrils" that can be released into the atmosphere by [[Abrasion (mechanical)|abrasion]] and other processes. Inhalation of asbestos fibres can lead to various dangerous [[lung]] conditions, including [[mesothelioma]], [[asbestosis]], and [[lung cancer]]. As a result of these health effects, asbestos is considered a serious [[Health hazard|health]] and [[safety hazard]].<ref name=blf/>

Archaeological studies have found evidence of asbestos being used as far back as the [[Stone Age]] to strengthen [[ceramic]] pots,<ref>{{cite book|author1=Yildirim Dilek|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eYHEEWhye94C&pg=PA449|title=Ophiolite Concept and the Evolution of Geological Thought|author2=Sally Newcomb|publisher=Geological Society of America|year=2003|isbn=978-0-8137-2373-0|page=449}}</ref> but large-scale mining began at the end of the 19th century when manufacturers and builders began using asbestos for its desirable physical properties. Asbestos is an excellent [[Thermal insulation|thermal]] and [[Insulator (electricity)|electrical insulator]], and is highly fire resistant, so for much of the 20th century, it was very commonly used around the world as a building material (particularly for its fire-retardant properties), until [[Asbestos-related diseases|its adverse effects on human health]] were more widely recognized and acknowledged in the 1970s.<ref>Bureau of Naval Personnel, ''Basic Electricity''. 1969: US Navy.</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Kazan-Allen|first=Laurie|date=15 July 2019|title=Chronology of Asbestos Bans and Restrictions|url=http://www.ibasecretariat.org/chron_ban_list.php|publisher=International Ban Asbestos Secretariat}}</ref> Many buildings constructed before the 1980s contain asbestos.<ref name=kazan>{{cite web|last=Kazan-Allen|first=Laurie|date=2 May 2002|title=Asbestos: Properties, Uses and Problems|url=http://ibasecretariat.org/lka_prop.php|publisher=International Ban Asbestos Secretariat}}</ref>

The use of asbestos for construction and [[fireproofing]] has been made illegal in many countries.<ref name=blf>{{cite web |url=https://www.blf.org.uk/support-for-you/asbestos-related-conditions/what-is-asbestos |publisher=British Lung Foundation |title=What is asbestos? |date=28 September 2015 |access-date=26 May 2019 |archive-date=16 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200416095014/https://www.blf.org.uk/support-for-you/asbestos-related-conditions/what-is-asbestos |url-status=dead }}</ref> Despite this, around 255,000 people are thought to die each year from diseases related to asbestos exposure.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Furuya |first1=Sugio |last2=Chimed-Ochir |first2=Odgerel |last3=Takahashi |first3=Ken |last4=David |first4=Annette |last5=Takala |first5=Jukka |title=Global Asbestos Disaster |journal=International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health |date=May 2018 |volume=15 |issue=5 |pages=1000 |doi=10.3390/ijerph15051000 |doi-access=free |pmid=29772681 |pmc=5982039 |issn=1661-7827}}</ref> In part, this is because many older buildings still contain asbestos; in addition, the consequences of exposure can take decades to arise. The latency period (from exposure until the diagnosis of negative health effects) is typically 20 years.<ref name=kazan/><ref name="chemistryworld.com">{{cite web|last=King|first=Anthony|date=25 June 2017|title=Asbestos, explained|url=https://www.chemistryworld.com/news/why-asbestos-is-still-used-around-the-world/3007504.article|publisher=Royal Society of Chemistry}}</ref> The most common diseases associated with chronic asbestos exposure are [[asbestosis]] (scarring of the lungs due to asbestos inhalation) and [[mesothelioma]] (a type of cancer).<ref name=":1" />

Many developing countries still support the use of asbestos as a [[building material]], and mining of asbestos is ongoing, with the top producer, [[Russia]], having an estimated production of 790,000 tonnes in 2020.<ref>{{Cite book|chapter-url=https://doi.org/10.3133/mcs2021|chapter=Mineral Commodity Summaries 2021|first1=Daniel M. |last1=Flanagan|title=Mineral Commodity Summaries|publisher=U.S. Geological Survey|date=29 January 2021|pages=26–27|doi=10.3133/mcs2021|s2cid=242973747}}</ref>

==Etymology==
The word "asbestos", first used in the 1600s, ultimately derives from the {{langx|grc|ἄσβεστος}}, meaning "unquenchable" or "inextinguishable".<ref name=Alleman&Mossman1997>{{Cite journal|date=July 1997 |author=Alleman, James E. |author2=Mossman, Brooke T|author2-link= Brooke T. Mossman |title=Asbestos Revisited |journal=[[Scientific American]] |pages=54–57 |url=http://virlab.virginia.edu/Nanoscience_class/lecture_notes/Lecture_14_Materials/Asbestos_CNT/Sci%20Am%20-%20Asbestos%20Revisited%20-%20July%201997.pdf |access-date=26 November 2010 |bibcode=1997SciAm.277a..70A |volume=277 |issue=1 |doi=10.1038/scientificamerican0797-70 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100603095555/http://www.virlab.virginia.edu/Nanoscience_class/lecture_notes/Lecture_14_Materials/Asbestos_CNT/Sci%20Am%20-%20Asbestos%20Revisited%20-%20July%201997.pdf |archive-date=3 June 2010  }}</ref><ref name=Bostock&Riley1856>{{Cite book |year=1856 |author=Bostock, John |translator=[[Henry Thomas Riley|Riley, H. T.]] |chapter=Asbestinon |page=137 |chapter-url=https://archive.org/stream/naturalhistoryof04plinrich#page/137/mode/1up/search/asbestinon |title=The Natural History of Pliny|volume=IV |place=London |publisher=Henry G. Bohn |url=https://archive.org/stream/naturalhistoryof04plinrich#page/n3/mode/2up |access-date=26 November 2010|author-link=John Bostock (physician) }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Shorter Oxford English Dictionary|url=https://archive.org/details/shorteroxfordeng00will_0|url-access=registration|publisher=Oxford University Press|edition= 5th|year=2002|isbn=978-0-19-860457-0 }}</ref><ref>{{LSJ|a)/sbestos|ἄσβεστος|ref}}.</ref> The name reflects use of the substance for [[Candle wick|wick]]s that would never burn up.<ref name=Alleman&Mossman1997/>

It was adopted into English via the [[Old French]] ''abestos'', which got the word from Greek via [[Latin]], but in the original Greek, "asbestos" actually referred to [[Calcium oxide|quicklime]]. It is said by the [[Oxford English Dictionary]] that the word was wrongly used by [[Pliny the Younger|Pliny]] for what we now call asbestos, and that he popularized the [[misnomer]]. Asbestos was originally referred to in Greek as ''amiantos'', meaning "undefiled",<ref>{{LSJ|a)mi/antos|ἀμίαντος|shortref}}.</ref> because when thrown into a [[fire]] it came out unmarked. "Amiantos" is the source for the word for asbestos in many languages, such as the [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]], the [[Spanish language|Spanish]], and the [[Italian language|Italian]] ''amianto'' and the [[French language|French]] ''amiante''. It had also been called "amiant" in English in the early 15th century, but this usage was superseded by "asbestos".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.etymonline.com/word/asbestos|title=asbestos {{!}} Origin and meaning of asbestos by Online Etymology Dictionary|website=www.etymonline.com|language=en|access-date=2018-12-14}}</ref> The word is pronounced {{IPAc-en|æ|s|ˈ|b|ɛ|s|t|ə|s}} or {{IPAc-en|æ|s|ˈ|b|ɛ|s|t|ɒ|s}}.<ref>{{cite web |title=asbestos |url=https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/asbestos |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190321081058/https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/asbestos |archive-date=21 March 2019 |website=Oxford Living Dictionaries |publisher=Oxford University Press |access-date=21 March 2019}}</ref>

== History ==
{{More citations needed section|date=May 2016}}
Asbestos has been used for thousands of years to create flexible objects that resist fire, such as [[napkins]] and other textiles. Mass production of asbestos-containing consumer goods began in the modern era.<ref name="Education1979">{{cite book | date = 1979 | title = Oversight Hearings on Asbestos Health Hazards to Schoolchildren: Hearings Before the Subcommittee on Elementary, Secondary, and Vocational Education of the Committee on Education and Labor, House of Representatives, Ninety-sixth Congress, First Session, on H.R. 1435 and H.R. 1524 | publisher = U.S. Government Printing Office | page = 485 | oclc = 1060686493 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=aVrRAAAAMAAJ}}</ref> Today, the risk of asbestos has been recognized; the use of asbestos is completely banned in 66 countries and strictly regulated in many others.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Kazan-Allen |first1=Laurie |title=Current Asbestos Bans |url=http://ibasecretariat.org/alpha_ban_list.php |website=International Ban Asbestos Secretariat |access-date=10 August 2022}}</ref><ref name="TaylorCullinanBlanc2016">{{cite book | author1 = Anthony Newman Taylor | author2 = Paul Cullinan | author3 = Paul Blanc | author4 = Anthony Pickering | date = 25 November 2016 | title = Parkes' Occupational Lung Disorders | publisher = CRC Press | page = 157 | isbn = 978-1-4822-4142-6 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=Us9BDgAAQBAJ|access-date=10 August 2022}}</ref>

===Early references and uses===
{{For|Chinese "fire-laundered cloth" in antiquity and medieval accounts|huoshu}}
Asbestos use dates back at least 4,500 years, when the inhabitants of the Lake [[Juojärvi]] region in East [[Finland]] strengthened earthenware pots and cooking utensils with the asbestos mineral [[anthophyllite]]; archaeologists call this style of pottery "[[asbestos-ceramic]]".<ref name="Ross&Nolan2003">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eYHEEWhye94C|title=Ophiolite Concept and the Evolution of Geological Thought|author=Ross, Malcolm|author2=Nolan, Robert P|publisher=[[Geological Society of America]]|year=2003|isbn=978-0-8137-2373-0|editor=Dilek, Yildirim|series=Special Paper 373|place=Boulder, Colorado|chapter=History of asbestos discovery and use and asbestos-related disease in context with the occurrence of asbestos within the ophiolite complexes|editor2=Newcomb, Sally|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eYHEEWhye94C&pg=PA447|name-list-style=amp}}</ref> Some archaeologists believe that ancient peoples{{clarify|date=March 2024}} made shrouds of asbestos, wherein they burned the bodies of their kings to preserve only their ashes and to prevent the ashes being mixed with those of wood or other combustible materials commonly used in [[Pyre|funeral pyres]].<ref name="histsci">{{cite book|url=https://search.library.wisc.edu/digital/A4C5AV6Q7LZ5DY8E/full/A5PMBHDE7IMK3S86|title=Cyclopædia|last=Chambers|first=Ephraim|date=1728|access-date=3 March 2024|page=147}}</ref><ref>Pliny the Elder. [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0137%3Abook%3D19%3Achapter%3D4 Ch. 4.—LINEN MADE OF ASBESTOS.] In ''The Natural History''</ref> Others assert that these peoples used asbestos to make perpetual wicks for [[sepulchre|sepulchral]] or other lamps.<ref name="Ucalgary" /> A famous example is the golden lamp ''asbestos lychnis'', which the sculptor [[Callimachus (sculptor)|Callimachus]] made for the [[Erechtheion]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Acropolis museum guide|last1=Eleftheratou|first1=S.|date=2016|publisher=Acropolis Museum Editions|page=258}}</ref> In more recent centuries, asbestos was indeed used for this purpose.

A once-purported first description of asbestos occurs in [[Theophrastus]], ''On Stones'', from around 300 BC, but this identification has been refuted.<ref>{{cite book|last=Needham |first=Joseph |author-link=Joseph Needham |chapter=Asbestos |title=Science and Civilisation in China: Volume 3, Mathematics and the Sciences of the Heavens and the Earth |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=1959 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jfQ9E0u4pLAC&pg=RA1-PA656 |pages=656<!--655ff–--> |isbn=<!--0521058015, -->9780521058018}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|chapter-url=http://www.farlang.com/gemstones/theophrastus-on-stones/page_088|title=Theophrastus on Stones: Introduction, Greek Text, English Translation, and Commentary|last1=Caley |first1=Earl R. |last2=Richards |first2=John F. C. |series=Graduate School Monographs: Contributions in Physical Science, No. 1 |publisher=The Ohio State University |year=1956 |location=Columbus, OH |pages=87–88|chapter=Commentary|quote=Moore thought that Theophrastus was really referring to asbestos. The colour of the stone makes this unlikely, though its structure makes it less improbable since some forms of decayed wood do have a fibrous structure like asbestos&nbsp;... It is, however, unlikely that Theophrastus is alluding to asbestos since the mineral does not occur in the locality mentioned&nbsp;... It is much more probable that Theophrastus is referring to the well-known brown fibrous [[lignite]].|access-date=31 January 2013|archive-date=24 December 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131224114624/http://www.farlang.com/gemstones/theophrastus-on-stones/page_088}}</ref> In both modern and ancient [[Greek language|Greek]], the usual name for the material known in English as "asbestos" is ''amiantos'' ("undefiled", "pure"), which was adapted into the French as ''amiante'' and into Italian, Spanish and Portuguese as ''amianto''. In [[modern Greek]], the word ἀσβεστος or ασβέστης stands consistently and solely for [[lime (mineral)|lime]].

The term ''asbestos'' is traceable to Roman naturalist [[Pliny the Elder]]'s first-century manuscript ''[[Natural History (Pliny)|Natural History]]'' and his use of the term ''asbestinon'', meaning "unquenchable"; he described the mineral as being more expensive than [[pearls]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20240207-asbestos-the-strange-past-of-the-magic-mineral|title=Asbestos: The strange past of the 'magic mineral'|work=[[BBC]]|date = February 7, 2024}}</ref><ref name="Alleman&Mossman1997" /><ref name="Bostock&Riley1856" /><ref name="Ross&Nolan2003" /> While Pliny or his nephew [[Pliny the Younger]] is popularly credited with recognising the detrimental effects of asbestos on human beings,<ref name="Env_Chem">{{cite web|url=http://environmentalchemistry.com/yogi/environmental/asbestoshistory2004.html|title=History of Asbestos|last=Barbalace|first=Roberta C.|date=22 October 1995|publisher=Environmentalchemistry.com|access-date=12 January 2010}}</ref> examination of the primary sources reveals no support for either claim.<ref name="Maines2005">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5r2jEGLvxP4C|title=Asbestos and Fire: Technological Trade-offs and the Body at Risk|last=Maines|first=Rachel|publisher=[[Rutgers University Press]]|year=2005|isbn=978-0-8135-3575-3|page=7}}</ref>

In China, accounts of obtaining ''huo huan bu'' ({{lang|zh|火浣布}}) or "fire-laundered cloth" certainly date to the Wei dynasty, and there are claims they were known as  early as in the [[Zhou dynasty]], though not substantiated except in writings thought to date much later (see ''[[huoshu]]'' or "fire rat").<ref name="cheng1991">{{cite book|last=Cheng |first=Weiji |author-link=<!--Weiji Cheng--> |title=History of Textile Technology of Ancient China  |publisher=Science Press New York |date=1992 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nM0fAQAAIAAJ&q=%22huo+huan%22 |page=451|isbn=<!--7030005481,-->9787030005489}}</ref>{{sfnp|Needham|1959|pp=656–657}}

[[Athanasius of Alexandria]], a Christian bishop living in 4th-century Egypt, references asbestos in one of his writings. Around the year 318, he wrote as follows:
{{blockquote|The natural property of fire is to burn. Suppose, then, that there was a substance such as the Indian asbestos is said to be, which had no fear of being burnt, but rather displayed the impotence of the fire by proving itself unburnable. If anyone doubted the truth of this, all he need do would be to wrap himself up in the substance in question and then touch the fire.<ref>{{cite book |author=Athanasius |title=On the Incarnation |year=2018 |publisher=GLH Publishing |isbn=978-1-948648-24-0 |page=49}}</ref>}}

Wealthy [[Persians]] amazed guests by cleaning a cloth by exposing it to [[fire]]. For example, according to [[Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari|Tabari]], one of the curious items belonging to [[Khosrow II]] Parviz, the great [[Sassanian]] king (r. 590–628), was a napkin ({{langx|fa|منديل}}) that he cleaned simply by throwing it into fire. Such cloth is believed to have been made of asbestos imported over the [[Hindu Kush]].<ref>New Encyclopædia Britannica (2003), vol. 6, p. 843</ref> According to [[Biruni#ref-16|Biruni]] in his book ''Gems'', any cloths made of asbestos ({{langx|fa|آذرشست}}, ''āzarshost'') were called ''shostakeh'' ({{langx|fa|شستكه}}).<ref>[[Dehkhoda Dictionary|Dehkhoda Persian Dictionary]]</ref> Some Persians believed the fiber was the fur of an animal called the ''[[Salamander (legendary creature)|samandar]]'' ({{langx|fa|سمندر}}), which lived in fire and died when exposed to water;<ref name="Ucalgary">{{cite web|url=http://www.iras.ucalgary.ca/~volk/sylvia/Asbestos.htm|title=University of Calgary|date=30 September 2001|publisher=Iras.ucalgary.ca|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091105005311/http://www.iras.ucalgary.ca/~volk/sylvia/Asbestos.htm|archive-date=5 November 2009|access-date=12 January 2010}}</ref><ref>[http://environmentalchemistry.com/yogi/environmental/asbestoshistory2004.html A Brief History of Asbestos Use and Associated Health Risks] EnvironmentalChemistry.com website</ref> this was where the former belief originated that the [[salamander]] could tolerate fire.<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://www.wired.com/2014/08/fantastically-wrong-homicidal-salamander/|title=Fantastically Wrong: The Legend of the Homicidal Fire-Proof Salamander|magazine=WIRED|language=en-US|access-date=2016-05-03}}</ref> [[Charlemagne]], the first [[Holy Roman Emperor]] (800–814), is also said to have possessed such a tablecloth.<ref name="TIME1926">{{Cite magazine|date=29 November 1926|title=Science: Asbestos|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,729732,00.html|magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110131223759/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0%2C9171%2C729732%2C00.html|archive-date=31 January 2011|access-date=11 January 2011}}</ref>

[[Marco Polo]] recounts having been shown, in a place he calls ''Ghinghin talas'', "a good vein from which the cloth which we call of salamander, which cannot be burnt if it is thrown into the fire, is made&nbsp;..."<ref name="PoloMoule1938">{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/stream/descriptionofwor01polo#page/156/mode/2up/search/salamander|title=Marco Polo: the Description of the World: A.C. Moule & Paul Pelliot|last1=Polo|first1=Marco|author2=A C. Moule|author3=Paul Pelliot|publisher=G. Routledge & Sons|year=1938|pages=156–57|access-date=31 January 2013}}</ref>

===Industrial era===
[[File:Asbestos mining 1876.jpg|thumb|right|Industrial scale asbestos mining began in 1878 in [[Thetford Mines|Thetford township]], [[Quebec]]. By 1895, mining was increasingly mechanized.]]
The large-scale asbestos industry began in the mid-19th century. Early attempts at producing asbestos paper and cloth in Italy began in the 1850s but were unsuccessful in creating a market for such products. Canadian samples of asbestos were displayed in London in 1862, and the first companies were formed in England and Scotland to exploit this resource. Asbestos was first used in the manufacture of yarn, and German industrialist Louis Wertheim adopted this process in his factories in Germany.<ref name="Selikoff">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ARKaW4uP9BgC|title=Asbestos and Disease|author=Selikoff, Irving J.|publisher=Elsevier|year=1978|isbn=978-0-323-14007-2|pages=8–20}}</ref> In 1871, the Patent Asbestos Manufacturing Company was established in [[Glasgow]], and during the following decades, the [[Clydebank]] area became a centre for the nascent industry.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.clydebankasbestos.org/index.php?page=asbestos-clydebank|title=Asbestos & Clydebank|publisher=Clydebank Asbestos Group|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140606230508/http://www.clydebankasbestos.org/index.php?page=asbestos-clydebank|archive-date=6 June 2014}}</ref>

[[File:Asbestos, Quebec, Canada.jpg|thumb|Canada's biggest power shovel loading an ore train with asbestos at the [[Johns Manville|Jeffrey Mine, Johns-Manville Co.]], [[Asbestos, Quebec]], June 1944]]

Industrial-scale mining began in the [[Thetford Mines|Thetford hills]], [[Quebec]], from the 1870s. Sir [[William Edmond Logan]] was the first to notice the large deposits of [[chrysotile]] in the hills in his capacity as head of [[Geological Survey of Canada]]. Samples of the minerals from there were displayed in London and elicited much interest.<ref name="Selikoff" /> With the opening of the [[Quebec Central Railway]] in 1876, mining entrepreneurs such as [[Andrew Stuart Johnson]] established the asbestos industry in the province.<ref name="wood">[http://www.ourroots.ca/e/toc.aspx?id=11253 ''The storied province of Quebec : past and present. Volume V'' (1931)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303173753/http://www.ourroots.ca/e/toc.aspx?id=11253 |date=3 March 2016 }} Wood, WCH; Atherton, WH; Conklin, EP pp. 814–5</ref> The 50-ton output of the mines in 1878 rose to over 10,000 tonnes in the 1890s with the adoption of machine technologies and expanded production.<ref name="Selikoff" /><ref>Udd, John (1998) [http://www.horton.ednet.ns.ca/staff/webb/geology/3Minerals/Chronology%20of%20Minerals%20in%20Canada.pdf "A Chronology of Minerals Development in Canada"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130509055546/http://www.horton.ednet.ns.ca/staff/webb/geology/3Minerals/Chronology%20of%20Minerals%20in%20Canada.pdf|date=9 May 2013}} National Resources Canada</ref> For a long time, the world's largest asbestos mine was the Jeffrey mine in the town of [[Asbestos, Quebec]].<ref name="Book">{{cite book |editor=Jessica Elzea Kogel |display-editors=etal |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zNicdkuulE4C&pg=PA195|title=Industrial minerals & rocks: commodities, markets, and uses|date=2006|isbn=978-0-87335-233-8|page=195 |publisher=Society for Mining, Metallurgy, and Exploration}}</ref>

[[File:Asbestos iron ad.jpg|thumb|left|The applications of asbestos multiplied at the end of the 19th century—this is an advertisement for an asbestos-lined [[clothes iron]] from 1906]]

Asbestos production began in the [[Urals]] of the [[Russian Empire]] in the 1880s, and the [[Alps|Alpine regions]] of [[Northern Italy]] with the formation in [[Turin]] of the Italo-English Pure Asbestos Company in 1876, although this was soon swamped by the greater production levels from the Canadian mines. Mining also took off in [[South Africa]] from 1893 under the aegis of the British businessman Francis Oates, the director of the [[De Beers]] company.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://archiver.rootsweb.ancestry.com/th/read/CORNISH-GEN/2006-11/1164135304|title=Oats, Francis of Golant|date=November 2006|publisher=South African Who's Who 1916|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160601054610/http://archiver.rootsweb.ancestry.com/th/read/CORNISH-GEN/2006-11/1164135304|archive-date=1 June 2016|access-date=6 June 2014}}</ref> It was in South Africa that the production of amosite began in 1910. The U.S. asbestos industry had an early start in 1858 when fibrous anthophyllite was mined for use as asbestos insulation by the Johns Company, a predecessor to the current [[Johns Manville]], at a quarry at Ward's Hill on [[Staten Island, New York]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Betts|first=John|date=May–June 2009|title=The Minerals of New York City|url=http://www.johnbetts-fineminerals.com/jhbnyc/articles/nycminerals1.htm|journal=Rocks & Mineral Magazine|volume=84|issue=3|pages=204–252|doi=10.3200/RMIN.84.3.204-223|s2cid=128683529|access-date=21 April 2011}}</ref> US production began in earnest in 1899 with the discovery of large deposits in [[Eden, Vermont#Belvidere Mountain|Belvidere Mountain]] in Vermont.

The use of asbestos became increasingly widespread toward the end of the 19th century when its diverse applications included fire-retardant coatings, concrete, bricks, pipes and fireplace cement, heat-, fire-, and acid-resistant gaskets, pipe insulation, ceiling insulation, fireproof drywall, flooring, roofing, lawn furniture, and drywall joint compound. In 2011, it was reported that over 50% of UK houses still contained asbestos, despite a ban on asbestos products some years earlier.<ref name="guardian2011">Don, Andrew (1 May 2011) [https://www.theguardian.com/money/2011/may/01/asbestos-hidden-health-hazard Asbestos: the hidden health hazard in millions of homes]. ''The Guardian''.</ref>

In Japan, particularly after [[World War II]], asbestos was used in the manufacture of [[ammonium sulfate]] for purposes of rice production, sprayed upon the ceilings, iron skeletons, and walls of railroad cars and buildings (during the 1960s), and used for energy efficiency reasons as well. Production of asbestos in Japan peaked in 1974 and went through ups and downs until about 1990 when production began to drop dramatically.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hvbg.de/e/asbest/konfrep/konfrep/repbeitr/morinaga_en.pdf|title=Asbestos in Japan|author=Morinaga, Kenji|work=European Conference 2003|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719043338/http://www.hvbg.de/e/asbest/konfrep/konfrep/repbeitr/morinaga_en.pdf|archive-date=19 July 2011|access-date=12 January 2010}}</ref>

===Discovery of toxicity===
{{for|additional chronological citations|List of asbestos disease medical articles}}

The 1898 Annual Report of the Chief Inspector of Factories and Workshops in the United Kingdom noted the negative health effects of asbestos,<ref>{{cite web |title=PDF link to relevant page of report |url=https://www.rochdaleonline.co.uk/uploads/f1/news/document/2008911_16159.pdf}}</ref> the contribution having been made by [[Lucy Deane Streatfeild]], one of the first women [[factory inspector]]s.

In 1899, H. Montague Murray noted the negative health effects of asbestos.<ref name="nih_mp">{{Cite journal|last1=Luus|first1=K|year=2007|title=Asbestos: Mining exposure, health effects and policy implications|journal=McGill Journal of Medicine|volume=10|issue=2|pages=121–6|pmc=2323486|pmid=18523609}}</ref> The first documented death related to asbestos was in 1906.<ref name="svdell_hist">{{cite web|url=http://www.silverdell.plc.uk/images/downloads/Silverdell_History_of_Asbestos.pdf|title=The History of Asbestos in the UK – The story so far ... Asbestos uses and regulations timeline|date=30 April 2012|publisher=silverdell.plc.uk|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131021061734/http://www.silverdell.plc.uk/images/downloads/Silverdell_History_of_Asbestos.pdf|archive-date=21 October 2013}}</ref>

In the early 1900s, researchers began to notice a large number of early deaths and lung problems in asbestos-mining towns. The first such study was conducted by Murray at the [[Charing Cross Hospital]], [[London]], in 1900, in which a postmortem investigation discovered asbestos traces in the lungs of a young man who had died from [[pulmonary fibrosis]] after having worked for 14 years in an asbestos textile factory. [[Adelaide Anderson]], the Inspector of Factories in Britain, included asbestos in a list of harmful industrial substances in 1902. Similar investigations were conducted in France in 1906 and Italy in 1908.<ref name="Selikoff2">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ARKaW4uP9BgC|title=Asbestos and Disease|author=Selikoff, Irving J.|publisher=Elsevier|year=1978|isbn=978-0-323-14007-2|pages=20–32}}</ref>

[[File:Heat-resistant asbestos fabric.jpg|thumb|Asbestos fabric]]
[[File:Rockbestos- the asbestos covered wire ad in Exhibitor's Herald The Independent Film Trade Paper (weekly, September 18, 1926 to December 11, 1926) - Internet Archive - exhibitorsherald27unse (page 1360 crop).jpg|thumb|Rockbestos, asbestos covered wire advertisement in ''[[Exhibitors Herald]]'', 1926]]
The first diagnosis of [[asbestosis]] was made in the UK in 1924.<ref name="svdell_hist" /><ref name="cooke">{{Cite journal|last=Cooke|first=W.E.|date=26 July 1924|journal=[[BMJ|Br Med J]]|location=London|publisher=[[British Medical Association|BMA]]|volume=2|issue=3317|pages=140–2, 147|doi=10.1136/bmj.2.3317.147|issn=0959-8138|pmc=2304688|pmid=20771679|title=Fibrosis of the Lungs Due to the Inhalation of Asbestos Dust}}</ref><ref name="selikoff">{{Cite journal|last1=Selikoff|first1=Irving J.|last2=Greenberg|first2=Morris|date=20 February 1991|title=A Landmark Case in Asbestosis|url=http://jama.ama-assn.org/cgi/reprint/265/7/898.pdf|journal=[[Journal of the American Medical Association|JAMA]]|location=Chicago, Illinois|publisher=[[American Medical Association|AMA]]|volume=265|issue=7|pages=898–901|doi=10.1001/jama.265.7.898|issn=0098-7484|pmid=1825122|access-date=20 April 2010}}</ref> [[Nellie Kershaw]] was employed at [[Turner & Newall|Turner Brothers Asbestos]] in [[Rochdale]], [[Greater Manchester]], [[England]], from 1917, spinning raw asbestos fibre into yarn.<ref name="selikoff" /><ref name="dusty">{{Cite book|title=The Way from Dusty Death: Turner and Newall and the Regulation of the British Asbestos Industry 1890s–1970|last=Bartrip|first=P.W.J.|publisher=The Athlone Press|year=2001|isbn=978-0-485-11573-4|location=London|page=12}}</ref> Her death in 1924 led to a formal inquest. [[pathology|Pathologist]] William Edmund Cooke testified that his examination of the lungs indicated old scarring indicative of a previous, healed [[tuberculosis]] infection, and extensive [[fibrosis]], in which were visible "particles of mineral matter&nbsp;... of various shapes, but the large majority have sharp angles."<ref name="cooke" /> Having compared these particles with samples of asbestos dust provided by S. A. Henry, His Majesty's Medical Inspector of Factories, Cooke concluded that they "originated from asbestos and were, beyond a reasonable doubt, the primary cause of the fibrosis of the lungs and therefore of death."<ref name="selikoff" /><ref name="bartrip">{{Cite journal|last=Bartrip|first=Peter|year=1998|title=Too little, too late? The home office and the asbestos industry regulations, 1931|journal=Med. Hist.|location=London|publisher=The Wellcome Trust Centre for the History of Medicine at UCL|volume=42|issue=4|pages=421–438|doi=10.1017/s0025727300064334|issn=0025-7273|pmc=1044071|pmid=10505397}}</ref>

As a result of Cooke's paper, [[Parliament of the United Kingdom|Parliament]] commissioned an inquiry into the effects of asbestos dust by E. R. A. Merewether, Medical Inspector of Factories, and {{nowrap|C. W. Price}}, a [[History of labour law in the United Kingdom#Factory and Workshop Act 1901|factory inspector]] and pioneer of dust monitoring and control.<ref name="gee">{{Cite journal|last1=Gee|first1=David|last2=Greenberg|first2=Morris|date=9 January 2002|title=Asbestos: from 'magic' to malevolent mineral|url=http://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/environmental_issue_report_2001_22/issue-22-part-05.pdf|journal=Late Lessons from Early Warnings: The Precautionary Principle 1896–2000|location=Copenhagen|publisher=[[European Environment Agency|EEA]]|issue=22|pages=52–63|isbn=978-92-9167-323-0|access-date=20 April 2010}}</ref> Their subsequent report, ''Occurrence of Pulmonary Fibrosis & Other Pulmonary Affections in Asbestos Workers'', was presented to Parliament on 24 March 1930.<ref>Published as ''Report on the effects of asbestos dust on the lungs and dust suppression in the asbestos industry. Part I. Occurrence of pulmonary fibrosis and other pulmonary affections in asbestos workers. Part II. Processes giving rise to dust and methods for its suppression.'' London: [[Office of Public Sector Information|HMSO]], 1930.</ref> It concluded that the development of asbestosis was irrefutably linked to the prolonged inhalation of asbestos dust, and included the first health study of asbestos workers, which found that 66% of those employed for 20 years or more suffered from asbestosis.<ref name="gee" /> The report led to the publication of the first asbestos industry regulations in 1931, which came into effect on 1 March 1932.<ref name="sb_classpap">{{cite web|url=http://scienceblogs.com/thepumphandle/2012/11/27/classic-papers-in-public-health-annual-report-of-the-chief-inspector-of-factories-for-the-year-1947-by-e-r-a-merewether/|title=Classic papers in Public Health: Annual Report of the Chief Inspector of Factories for the Year 1947 by E.R.A. Merewether – The Pump Handle|date=21 October 2013|publisher=scienceblogs.com|access-date=21 October 2013}}</ref> These rules regulated ventilation and made asbestosis an excusable work-related disease.<ref name="qsqlui">{{cite web |title=What is asbestos? |url=http://www.cancer.org/Cancer/CancerCauses/OtherCarcinogens/Pollution/asbestos?sitearea=PED |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150216111902/http://www.cancer.org/cancer/cancercauses/othercarcinogens/pollution/asbestos?sitearea=PED |archive-date=16 February 2015 |access-date=12 January 2010 |work=American Cancer Society}}</ref> The term ''[[mesothelioma]]'' was first used in medical literature in 1931; its association with asbestos was first noted sometime in the 1940s. Similar legislation followed in the U.S. about ten years later.

Approximately 100,000 people in the United States have died, or are terminally ill, from asbestos exposure related to shipbuilding.{{Citation needed|date=April 2024}} In the [[Hampton Roads]] area, a shipbuilding center, mesothelioma occurrence is seven times the national rate.<ref>Burke, Bill (6 May 2001) [https://web.archive.org/web/20071012143526/http://hamptonroads.com/pilotonline/special/asbestos/intro.html "Shipbuilding's Deadly Legacy: Introduction: Horrible Toll Could Have Been Avoided"] ''Virginian-Pilot'' Norfolk, Virginia (newspaper); from [[Internet Archive]]</ref> Thousands of tons of asbestos were used in World War II ships to insulate piping, boilers, steam engines, and steam turbines. There were approximately 4.3 million shipyard workers in the United States during the war; for every 1,000 workers, about 14 died of mesothelioma and an unknown number died of asbestosis.<ref name="hamptonroads">Burke, Bill (6 May 2001) [http://www.asbestos-attorney.com/pilot3-1.htm "Shipyards, a Crucible for Tragedy: Part 1: How the war created a monster"] ''Virginian-Pilot'' Norfolk, Virginia (newspaper)</ref>

The United States government and the asbestos industry have been criticized for not acting quickly enough to inform the public of dangers and to reduce public exposure. In the late 1970s, court documents proved that asbestos industry officials knew of asbestos dangers since the 1930s and had concealed them from the public.<ref name="hamptonroads" />

In Australia, asbestos was widely used in construction and other industries between 1946 and 1980. From the 1970s, there was increasing concern about the dangers of asbestos, and following community and union campaigning, its use was phased out, with mining having ceased in 1983.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Commons Librarian |date=2023-12-22 |title=Campaigns that Changed Western Australia |url=https://commonslibrary.org/campaigns-that-changed-western-australia/ |access-date=2024-04-19 |website=The Commons Social Change Library |language=en-AU}}</ref> The use of asbestos was phased out in 1989 and banned entirely in December 2003. The dangers of asbestos are now well known in Australia, and there is help and support for those suffering from asbestosis or mesothelioma.<ref>Lavelle, Peter (29 April 2004) [http://www.abc.net.au/health/library/stories/2004/04/29/1828906.htm Australian Broadcasting Corporation Fact File: Asbestos]. Australian Broadcasting Corporation</ref>

==Use by industry and product type==
{{more citations needed section|date=April 2018}}
Six mineral types are defined by the EPA as "asbestos" including those belonging to the serpentine class and those belonging to the amphibole class. All six asbestos mineral types are known to be human [[carcinogens]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Asbestos, CAS No. 1332-21-4 |url=https://ntp.niehs.nih.gov/ntp/roc/content/profiles/asbestos.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110429155522/http://ntp.niehs.nih.gov/ntp/roc/eleventh/profiles/s016asbe.pdf |archive-date=29 April 2011}}</ref><ref name="epa2003">{{cite book |last1=Berman |first1=D Wayne |title=Final draft:technical support document for a protocol to assess asbestos-related risk |last2=Crump |first2=Kenny S |publisher=U.S. Environmental Protection Agency |year=2003 |location=Washington DC |page=474}}</ref> The visible fibers are themselves each composed of millions of microscopic "fibrils" that can be released by abrasion and other processes.<ref name="gee" />
<gallery widths="200px" heights="180px">
File:White asbestos (Chrysotile).jpg|Chrysotile asbestos
File:Asbestos fibres.jpg|Asbestos fibers
File:Asbestos3USGOV.jpg|Asbestos
File:Blue asbestos.jpg|[[Blue asbestos]] (crocidolite); the ruler is 1&nbsp;cm
File:Blue asbestos (teased).jpg|Blue asbestos, teased to show the fibrous nature of the mineral
</gallery>
[[File:Epa 450 2-78-014 march 1978 asbestos comparison.JPG|thumb|Size of asbestos fibers compared to other particles (USEPA, March 1978)]]
"[[Mountain leather]]" is an old-fashioned term for flexible, sheet-like natural formations of asbestiform minerals which resemble [[leather]]. Asbestos-containing minerals known to form mountain leather include: actinolite, [[sepiolite]], and tremolite.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mountain Leather |url=https://www.mindat.org/min-9168.html |access-date=2021-09-20 |website=www.mindat.org}}</ref>

Artificial Christmas snow, known as flocking, was previously made with asbestos.<ref>{{cite book |last=Otway |first=Helen |title=1001 unbelievable Facts |publisher=Capella |year=2005 |isbn=978-1-84193-783-0 |page=191 |chapter=Unbelievable Random Facts}}</ref> It was used as an effect in films including ''[[The Wizard of Oz (1939 film)|The Wizard of Oz]]'' and department store window displays and it was marketed for use in private homes under brand names that included "Pure White", "Snow Drift" and "White Magic".<ref name="ems">[http://www.ems-asbestos.co.uk/asbestos-in-fake-snow-wizard-of-oz-1939/ Asbestos in Fake Snow Wizard of Oz]. Retrieved 19 December 2014</ref>

===Serpentine group===
[[File:Guy's Hospital- Life in a London Hospital, England, 1941 D2325.jpg|thumb|In [[Guy's Hospital]], London, 1941, nurses arrange asbestos blankets over an electrically heated frame to create a hood over patients to help warm them quickly]]
[[File:Industry during the First World War Q28240.jpg|thumb|Workers sewing asbestos mattresses, used to line the boilers of navy vessels, in a Lancashire factory during the First World War.]]
[[Serpentine subgroup|Serpentine]] minerals have a sheet or layered structure, and produce curly fibers.

[[Chrysotile]], CAS No. {{Cas|12001-29-5}}, is the only asbestos serpentine fiber. It is obtained from [[serpentinite]] rocks which are common throughout the world. Its idealized [[chemical formula]] is [[Magnesium|Mg]]{{sub|3}}([[Silicon|Si]]{{sub|2}}[[Oxygen|O]]{{sub|5}})([[Hydroxide|OH]]){{sub|4}}.<ref name="qsqlui" /> Chrysotile appears under the microscope as a white fiber.

Chrysotile has been used more than any other type, and was the type most commonly used in the [[United States]].   According to the U.S. [[United States Environmental Protection Agency|Environmental Protection Agency]] (EPA) Asbestos Building Inspectors Manual, chrysotile accounts for about 95% of the asbestos found in buildings in America.<ref name="wdnr">{{cite web |date=31 August 2007 |title=Asbestos – History and Uses |url=http://www.dnr.state.wi.us/org/aw/air/reg/asbestos/asbes3.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071228042633/http://www.dnr.state.wi.us/org/aw/air/reg/asbestos/asbes3.htm |archive-date=28 December 2007 |publisher=Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Franck |first1=Harold |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mgfSBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA103 |title=Forensic Engineering Fundamentals |last2=Franck |first2=Darren |date=2016 |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=978-1-4398-7840-8 |location=Boca Raton FL |page=103}}</ref>

Chrysotile is more flexible than amphibole asbestos and can be spun and woven into fabric. The most common use was corrugated asbestos cement roofing primarily for outbuildings, warehouses, and garages. It may also be found in sheets or panels used for ceilings and sometimes for walls and floors. Chrysotile has been a component in [[joint compound]] and some plasters. Numerous other items have been made containing chrysotile including brake linings, fire barriers in fuseboxes, pipe insulation, floor tiles, residential shingles, and gaskets for high-temperature equipment.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Loreto |first=Olga |date=2018-09-18 |title=What is Asbestos? Asbestos is a set of six naturally occurring... |url=https://www.eeandg.com/blog-post/asbestos/ |access-date=2023-10-21 |website=EE&G |language=en-US}}</ref>

Chrysotile is often present in a wide variety of products and materials, including:
* Chlor Alkali diaphragm membranes [[Chloralkali process|used to make chlorine]] (currently in the US)<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20090421081929/http://www.olinchloralkali.com/Library/Literature/OverviewOfProcess.aspx Caustic Soda Production]. Olin Corporation</ref>
* [[Drywall]] and joint compound (including texture coats)
* [[Plaster]]
* Gas mask filters throughout World War II until the 1960s for most countries; Germany and the USSR's Civilian issued filters up until 1988 tested positive for asbestos
* Vinyl floor tiles, sheeting, adhesives
* Roofing tars, felts, siding, and shingles<ref>{{cite journal|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=td4DAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA62|title=Popular Mechanics|author=Hearst Magazines|journal=Popular Mechanics |date=July 1935|publisher=Hearst Magazines|page=62|issn=0032-4558|access-date=10 January 2012}}</ref>
* "[[Transite]]" panels, siding, countertops, and pipes
* [[Popcorn ceiling]]s, also known as acoustic ceilings
* [[Fireproofing]]
* [[Caulk]]
* Industrial and marine [[gasket]]s
* [[Brake]] pads and shoes
* Stage curtains
* Fire blankets
* Cement pipework
* Interior fire doors
* Fireproof clothing for firefighters
* Thermal pipe insulation
* Filters for removing fine particulates from chemicals, liquids, and wine
* Dental cast linings
* HVAC flexible duct connectors
* [[Drilling fluid]] additives

In the European Union and Australia, it has been banned as a potential health hazard<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ascc.gov.au/ascc/NewsEvents/MediaReleases/2001/NOHSCdeclaresprohibitiononuseofchrysotileasbestos.htm |title=NOHSC declares prohibition on use of chrysotile asbestos |date=17 October 2001 |publisher=Ascc.gov.au |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080607010556/http://www.ascc.gov.au/ascc/NewsEvents/MediaReleases/2001/NOHSCdeclaresprohibitiononuseofchrysotileasbestos.htm |archive-date=7 June 2008 }}</ref> and is no longer used at all.

<gallery widths="200px" heights="200px">
File:Arcon mk post-war pre-fab.jpg|Example of [[asbestos cement]] siding and lining on a post-war temporary house in [[Yardley, Birmingham]].  Nearly 40,000 of these structures were built between 1946 and 1949 to house families
File:Heat-resistant asbestos glove.jpg|An asbestos glove
File:M60 machine gun barrel change DF-ST-90-04667.jpg| The [[M60 machine gun]] crew member responsible for a hot barrel change was issued protective asbestos gloves to prevent burns to the hands
File:AsbestosHeatSpreaderForCooking.jpg|A household heat spreader for cooking on gas stoves, made of asbestos (probably 1950s; "{{lang|fr|amiante pur}}" is French for "pure asbestos")
File:Asbesthaltige Flachdichtungen.jpg|Gasket, containing nearly unbound asbestos
File:Asbestos pipe 'REAL ASBESTOS BEST QUALITY'.jpg|Asbestos pipe for tobacco smoking from Belgium, with inscription "Real asbestos best quality".
</gallery>

===Amphibole group===
Amphibole class fibers are needle-like. [[Amosite]], [[crocidolite]], [[tremolite]], [[anthophyllite]] and [[actinolite]] are members of the amphibole class.

[[Amphibole]]s including [[amosite]] (brown asbestos) and [[crocidolite]] (blue asbestos) were formerly used in many products until the early 1980s. {{citation needed|date=August 2012}} [[Tremolite]] asbestos constituted a contaminant of many if not all naturally occurring chrysotile deposits. The use of all types of asbestos in the amphibole group was banned in much of the Western world by the mid-1980s, and in Japan by 1995.<ref>{{Cite web |title=International Bans on Asbestos Use – Asbestos and Libby Health – the University of Montana |url=http://www.umt.edu/bioethics/libbyhealth/Resources/Legal%20Resources/international_ban_asbestos.aspx}}</ref> Some products that included amphibole types of asbestos included the following:
* Low-density insulating board (often referred to as AIB or asbestos insulating board) and ceiling tiles;
* [[Asbestos cement]] sheets and pipes for construction, casing for water and electrical/telecommunication services;
* Thermal and chemical insulation (e.g., fire-rated doors, limpet spray, lagging, and gaskets).
* Electrical wiring, braided cables, cable wrap, wire insulation (usually [[crocidolite]])

Cigarette manufacturer [[Lorillard]] ([[Kent (cigarette)|Kent's]] [[cigarette filter|filtered cigarette]]) used crocidolite asbestos in its "Micronite" filter from 1952 to 1956.<ref>[http://www.snopes.com/medical/toxins/filter.asp Cigarette Filter Danger]. Snopes.com. Retrieved 10 January 2012.</ref>

While mostly chrysotile asbestos fibers were once used in automobile [[brake pads]], shoes, and [[clutch|clutch discs]], contaminants of amphiboles were present. Since approximately the mid-1990s, brake pads, new or replacement, have been manufactured instead with linings made of ceramic, carbon, metallic, and [[Aramid|aramid fiber]] ([[Twaron]] or [[Kevlar]]—the same material used in [[bulletproof vest]]s).

====Amosite====
[[Grunerite|Amosite]], CAS No. {{Cas|12172-73-5}}, often referred to as brown asbestos, is a [[trade name]] for the amphiboles belonging to the [[cummingtonite]]-[[grunerite]] [[solid solution]] series, commonly from South Africa, named as a partial [[acronym]] for "Asbestos Mines of South Africa". One formula given for amosite is {{chem2|[[iron|Fe]]7Si8O22(OH)2}}. Amosite is seen under a microscope as a grey-white vitreous fiber. It is found most frequently as a fire retardant in thermal insulation products, [[asbestos insulating board]] and ceiling tiles.<ref name="wdnr" />

====Crocidolite====
[[Crocidolite]],{{pronunciation needed|date=June 2025}} CAS No. {{Cas|12001-28-4}}, commonly known as blue asbestos, is the fibrous form of the amphibole [[riebeckite]], found primarily in southern Africa, but also in Australia and Bolivia. One formula given for crocidolite is {{chem2|[[sodium|Na]]2Fe^{II}3Fe^{III}2Si8O22([[hydroxyl|OH]])2}}. Crocidolite is seen under a microscope as a blue fiber.

Crocidolite commonly occurs as soft [[friability|friable]] fibers. Asbestiform amphibole may also occur as soft friable fibers but some varieties such as amosite are commonly straighter. All forms of asbestos are fibrillar in that they are composed of fibers with breadths less than 1 [[micrometre|micrometer]] in bundles of very great widths. Asbestos with particularly fine fibers is also referred to as "amianthus".

====Tremolite, anthophyllite, actinolite====
Other regulated asbestos minerals, such as tremolite asbestos, CAS No. {{Cas|77536-68-6}}, {{chem2|[[Calcium|Ca]]2Mg5Si8O22(OH)2}}; actinolite asbestos, CAS No. 77536-66-4, {{chem2|Ca2(Mg,Fe^{II})5(Si8O22)(OH)2}}; and anthophyllite asbestos, CAS No. {{Cas|77536-67-5}}, {{chem2|(Mg,Fe^{II})7Si8O22(OH)2}}; are less commonly used industrially but can still be found in a variety of construction materials and insulation materials and have been used in a few [[product (business)|consumer products]].

Other natural asbestiform minerals, such as [[richterite]], {{chem2|Na(CaNa)(Mg,Fe^{II})5(Si8O22)(OH)2}}, and [[winchite]], {{chem2|(CaNa)Mg4(Al,Fe^{III})(Si8O22)(OH)2}}, though not regulated, are said by some to be no less harmful than tremolite, amosite, or crocidolite.<ref name="osha.gov">[https://www.osha.gov/pls/oshaweb/owadisp.show_document?p_table=PREAMBLES&p_id=782 Occupational Exposure to Asbestos, Tremolite, Anthophyllite and Actinolite] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170503230609/https://www.osha.gov/pls/oshaweb/owadisp.show_document?p_table=PREAMBLES&p_id=782|date=3 May 2017}}. U.S. Department of Labor. 1992</ref> They are termed "asbestiform" rather than asbestos. Although the U.S. [[Occupational Safety and Health Administration]] (OSHA) has not included them in the asbestos standard, NIOSH and the American Thoracic Society have recommended them for inclusion as regulated materials because they may also be hazardous to health.<ref name="osha.gov" />

===Potential use in carbon sequestration===
The potential for use of asbestos to [[Climate change mitigation|mitigate climate change]] has been raised. Although the adverse aspects of mining of minerals, including health effects, must be taken into account, exploration of the use of mineral wastes to [[Carbon sequestration|sequester carbon]] is being studied. The use of [[mining waste]] materials from [[nickel]], [[copper]], [[diamond]], and [[platinum]] mines have the potential as well, but asbestos may have the greatest potential and is the subject of research now in progress in an emerging field of scientific study to examine it. The most common type of asbestos, chrysotile, chemically reacts with [[carbon dioxide]] to produce ecologically stable [[magnesium carbonate]]. Chrysotile, like all types of asbestos, has a large surface area that provides more places for chemical reactions to occur, compared to most other naturally occurring materials.<ref>Temple, James, ''[https://www.technologyreview.com/2020/10/06/1009374/asbestos-could-be-a-powerful-weapon-against-climate-change-you-read-that-right/ Asbestos could be a powerful weapon against climate change (you read that right)]'', MIT Technology Review, October 6, 2020</ref>

===Construction===
====Developed countries====
[[File:Asbestos ceiling.jpg|thumb|right|Older decorative ceilings, similar to this one, may contain small amounts of [[white asbestos]]]]
[[File:Durabestos advertisement.jpg|thumb|right|1929 newspaper advertisement from [[Perth, Western Australia]], for [[asbestos sheeting]] for residential building construction]]
[[File:Asbestospla.jpg|300px|thumb| Asbestos as slab as roof material]]
The use of asbestos in new construction projects has been banned for health and safety reasons in many developed countries or regions, including the European Union, the United Kingdom, Australia, Hong Kong, Japan, and New Zealand. A notable exception is the United States, where asbestos continues to be used in construction such as cement asbestos pipes.{{citation needed|date=October 2024}} The [[5th Circuit Court of Appeals|5th Circuit Court]] prevented the EPA from banning asbestos in 1991 because EPA research showed the ban would cost between US$450 and 800 million while only saving around 200 lives in a 13-year timeframe, and that the EPA did not provide adequate evidence for the safety of alternative products.<ref>[http://openjurist.org/947/f2d/1201/corrosion-proof-fittings-v-environmental-protection-agency 947 F. 2d 1201 – Corrosion Proof Fittings v. Environmental Protection Agency]. Openjurist.org. Retrieved 10 January 2012.</ref> Until the mid-1980s, small amounts of white asbestos were used in the manufacture of [[Artex]], a decorative stipple finish,<ref>[http://www.asbestossurveyingltd.co.uk/where_asbestos_ceiling_artex.htm ''Where can asbestos be found'', Asbestos Surveying Ltd, Birmingham, UK, 2 08 2008] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170611224259/http://www.asbestossurveyingltd.co.uk/where_asbestos_ceiling_artex.htm |date=11 June 2017 }}. Retrieved 29 December 2008.</ref> however, some of the lesser-known suppliers of Artex-type materials were still adding white asbestos until 1999.<ref>[http://www.artex.co.uk/ Artex website], Click the "Asbestos in Artex" button.</ref>

Before the ban, asbestos was widely used in the construction industry in thousands of materials. Some are judged to be more dangerous than others due to the amount of asbestos and the material's friable nature. Loose fill asbestos, sprayed coatings, pipe insulation, and [[Asbestos insulating board|Asbestos Insulating Board]] (AIB) are thought to be the most dangerous due to their high content of asbestos and friable nature.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.hse.gov.uk/asbestos/location-materials.htm | title=Locations of asbestos and taking the right action - HSE }}</ref> Many older buildings built before the late 1990s contain asbestos. In the United States, there is a minimum standard for asbestos surveys as described by [[ASTM]] standard E 2356–18. In the UK, the [[Health and Safety Executive]] have issued guidance called HSG264 describing how surveys should be completed although other methods can be used if they can demonstrate they have met the regulations by other means.<ref>{{cite book|url=http://www.hse.gov.uk/pubns/books/hsg264.htm|title=Asbestos: The survey guide |publisher=House and Safety Executive |date=2012 |edition=Second |access-date=12 September 2022 |isbn=978-0-7176-6502-0}}</ref> The EPA includes some, but not all, asbestos-contaminated facilities on the [[Superfund National Priorities List]] (NPL). Renovation and demolition of asbestos-contaminated buildings are subject to EPA [[NESHAP]] and OSHA Regulations. Asbestos is not a material covered under [[CERCLA]]'s innocent purchaser defense. In the UK, the removal and disposal of asbestos and substances containing it are covered by the [[Control of Asbestos Regulations 2006]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.hse.gov.uk/asbestos/regulations.htm |title=''Control of Asbestos Regulations 2006'', Health and Safety Executive, London, UK, Undated. Retrieved 29 December 2008. |access-date=29 December 2008 |archive-date=19 May 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090519080718/http://www.hse.gov.uk/asbestos/regulations.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref>

U.S. asbestos consumption hit a peak of 804,000 tons in 1973; world asbestos demand peaked around 1977, with 25 countries producing nearly 4.8 million metric tons annually.<ref>{{citation|title=History of Asbestos|url=http://www.asbestos.com/asbestos/history/|publisher=Asbestos.com|access-date=7 April 2016}}</ref>

In older buildings (e.g. those built before 1999 in the UK, before white asbestos was banned), asbestos may still be present in some areas. Being aware of asbestos locations reduces the risk of disturbing asbestos.<ref name="Wrekin housing trust pdf">{{cite web|url=http://www.wrekinhousingtrust.org.uk/publications/leaflets/Asbestos%20in%20the%20Home%20Booklet%2006-20061.pdf|title=Asbestos in the home booklet. Wrekin housing trust.|access-date=26 October 2010}}</ref>

Removal of asbestos building components can also remove the fire protection they provide, therefore fire protection substitutes are required for proper fire protection that the asbestos originally provided.<ref name="Wrekin housing trust pdf" /><ref>[http://www.sandwell.gov.uk/info/415/pollution_control-asbestos/483/asbestos_removal Asbestos Removal] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120829191651/http://www.sandwell.gov.uk/info/415/pollution_control-asbestos/483/asbestos_removal |date=29 August 2012 }}. Laws.sandwell.gov.uk (1 April 2005). Retrieved 10 January 2012.</ref>

====Outside Europe and North America====
Some countries, such as [[India]], Indonesia, China and Russia, have continued widespread use of asbestos. The most common is corrugated asbestos-cement sheets or "A/C sheets" for roofing and sidewalls. Millions of homes, factories, schools or sheds, and shelters continue to use asbestos. Cutting these sheets to size and drilling holes to receive 'J' bolts to help secure the sheets to roof framing is done on-site. There has been no significant change in production and use of A/C sheets in [[developing country|developing countries]] following the widespread restrictions in developed nations.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Globalization: Threat or Opportunity? An IMF Issues Brief |url=https://www.imf.org/external/np/exr/ib/2000/041200to.htm |access-date=2023-10-21 |website=www.imf.org}}</ref>

====September 11 attacks====
{{See also|Health effects arising from the September 11 attacks}}
As [[New York City]]'s [[World Trade Center (1973-2001)|World Trade Center]] collapsed following the [[September 11 attacks]], [[Lower Manhattan]] was blanketed in a mixture of building debris and combustible materials. This complex mixture gave rise to the concern that thousands of residents and workers in the area would be exposed to known hazards in the air and dust, such as asbestos, lead, glass fibers, and pulverized concrete.<ref name="stephenson2007">{{cite book|title=World Trade Center: preliminary observations on EPA's second program to address indoor contamination (GAO-07-806T): testimony before the Subcommittee on Superfund and Environmental Health, U.S. Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works|last=Stephenson|first=John B.|date=20 June 2007|publisher=U.S. [[Government Accountability Office]]|location=Washington, D.C.}}</ref> More than 1,000 tons of asbestos are thought to have been released into the air following the buildings' destruction.<ref name="tg20091111">{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2009/nov/11/cancer-new-york-rescuers|title=9/11's delayed legacy: cancer for many of the rescue workers|last=Pilkington|first=Ed|date=11 November 2009|newspaper=The Guardian|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170512181338/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2009/nov/11/cancer-new-york-rescuers|archive-date=12 May 2017|location=London}}</ref> Monitoring at and near Ground Zero immediately after the attacks indicated that the dust contained fibers, including various forms of asbestos.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Lioy |first1=PJ |last2=Weisel |first2=CP |last3=Millette |first3=JR |last4=Eisenreich|first4=S |last5=Vallero |first5=D |last6=Offenberg |first6=J |last7=Buckley |first7=B |last8=Turpin |first8=B |last9=Zhong |first9=M |last10=Cohen |first10=MD |last11=Prophete |first11=C|last12=Yang |first12=I|last13=Stiles|first13=R|last14=Chee|first14=LC|last15=Johnson |first15=W|last16=Porcja|first16=R|last17=Alimokhtari|first17=S|last18=Hale|first18=RC|last19=Weschler|first19=C |date=2002|last20=Chen|first20=LC |title=Characterization of the dust/smoke aerosol that settled east of the World Trade Center (WTC) in lower Manhattan after the collapse of the WTC 11 September 2001 |url=|journal=Environmental Health Perspectives|volume=110|issue=7|pages=703–14|doi=10.1289/ehp.02110703|pmid=12117648 |pmc=1240917 |bibcode=2002EnvHP.110..703L |eissn=1552-9924 |issn=0091-6765}}</ref> Inhalation of a mixture of asbestos and other toxicants is thought to be linked to the unusually high death rate from cancer of emergency service workers since the disaster.<ref name="tg20091111" /> Thousands more are now thought to be at risk of developing cancer due to this exposure with those who have died so far being only the "tip of the iceberg".<ref name="tg20091111" />

In May 2002, after numerous cleanup, dust collection, and air monitoring activities were conducted outdoors by EPA, other federal agencies, New York City, and the state of New York, New York City formally requested federal assistance to clean and test residences in the vicinity of the World Trade Center site for airborne asbestos.<ref name="stephenson2007" />

===Asbestos contaminants in other products===
====Vermiculite====
[[Vermiculite]] is a hydrated laminar magnesium-aluminum-iron silicate that resembles [[mica]]. It can be used for many industrial applications and has been used as insulation. Some deposits of vermiculite are contaminated with small amounts of asbestos.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.epa.gov/asbestos/pubs/verm.html|title=EPA Asbestos Contamination in Vermiculite|date=28 June 2006|publisher=Epa.gov|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100111080049/http://www.epa.gov/asbestos/pubs/verm.html|archive-date=11 January 2010|url-status=live}}</ref>

One vermiculite mine operated by [[W. R. Grace and Company]] in [[Libby, Montana]] exposed workers and community residents to danger by mining vermiculite contaminated with asbestos, typically [[richterite]], winchite, [[actinolite]] or [[tremolite]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Meeker|first=G.P|year=2003|title=The Composition and Morphology of Amphiboles from the Rainy Creek Complex, Near Libby, Montana|url=https://pubs.er.usgs.gov/publication/70024962|journal=American Mineralogist|volume=88|issue=11–12|pages=1955–1969|bibcode=2003AmMin..88.1955M|doi=10.2138/am-2003-11-1239|s2cid=12134481}}</ref> Vermiculite contaminated with asbestos from the Libby mine was used as insulation in residential and commercial buildings through Canada and the United States. W. R. Grace and Company's loose-fill vermiculite was marketed as [[Zonolite]] but was also used in sprayed-on products such as [[Monokote]].

In 1999, the EPA began cleanup efforts in Libby and now the area is a [[Superfund]] cleanup area.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.epa.gov/region8/superfund/libby/|title=Libby Asbestos – US EPA Region 8|publisher=Epa.gov|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100205101037/http://www.epa.gov/region8/superfund/libby/|archive-date=5 February 2010|access-date=12 January 2010}}</ref> The EPA has determined that harmful asbestos is released from the mine as well as through other activities that disturb soil in the area.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.epa.gov/region8/superfund/libby/risk.html|title=Risk Assessment – US EPA|date=22 December 2008|publisher=Epa.gov}}</ref>

====Talc====
[[File:A laboratory heat spreader made of asbestos, over Teclu burner.jpg|thumb|A laboratory [[wire gauze]] made of asbestos, on a tripod over a [[Teclu burner]]]]
[[Talc]] can sometimes be contaminated with asbestos due to the proximity of asbestos ore (usually [[tremolite]]) in underground talc deposits.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2004/1092/|title=A USGS Study of Talc Deposits and Associated Amphibole Asbestos Within Mined Deposits of the Southern Death Valley Region, California |author=Van Gosen, Bradley S. |author2=Lowers, Heather A. |author3=Sutley, Stephen J.|year=2004|publisher=Pubs.usgs.gov}}</ref> By 1973, US federal law required all talc products to be asbestos-free.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2016/feb/29/is-it-safe-to-use-talcum-baby-powder-ovarian-cancer-johnson-johnson|title=Is it safe to use talcum powder?|last=Dillner|first=Luisa|date=29 February 2016|newspaper=The Guardian|access-date=2017-04-03|language=en-GB|issn=0261-3077}}</ref> Separating [[cosmetic-grade]] talc (e.g. talcum powder) from [[industrial-grade]] talc (often used in friction products) has largely eliminated this issue for consumers.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.straightdope.com/columns/read/996/is-talcum-powder-asbestos|title=The Straight Dope: Is talcum powder asbestos?|website=www.straightdope.com|date=16 February 1990|language=en|access-date=2017-04-03}}</ref> Cosmetics companies, including Johnson & Johnson, have known since the 1950s that talc products could be contaminated with asbestos.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |date=2023-05-05 |title=Cosmetics companies face major concern over asbestos contamination of talc {{!}} Environmental Working Group |url=https://www.ewg.org/news-insights/news/2023/05/cosmetics-companies-face-major-concern-over-asbestos-contamination-talc |access-date=2024-09-06 |website=www.ewg.org |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Girion |first=Lisa |date=December 14, 2018 |title=J&J knew for decades that asbestos lurked in its baby powder |url=https://www.reuters.com/investigates/special-report/johnsonandjohnson-cancer/ }}</ref> In 2020, laboratory tests of 21 talc-based cosmetics products found that 15 percent were contaminated with asbestos.<ref name=":2" /> In July 2024, the World Health Organization (WHO) heightened its health warning about talc exposure. In a study published in The Lancet, the WHO changed its classification of talc from "possibly carcinogenic" to "probably carcinogenic."<ref>{{Cite web |title=WHO: Talc 'Probably Carcinogenic' to Humans |url=https://www.drugwatch.com/news/2024/07/09/who-talc-probably-carcinogenic-to-humans/ |access-date=2024-09-06 |website=Drugwatch.com |language=en}}</ref>

In 2000, tests in a certified asbestos-testing laboratory found the tremolite form of amphibole asbestos used to be found in three out of eight popular brands of children's [[crayon]]s that were made partly from talc: [[Crayola]], Prang, and RoseArt.<ref name="seattlepi-a">{{cite news|url=http://www.commondreams.org/headlines/052300-02.htm|title=Major brands of kids' crayons contain asbestos, tests show|date=23 May 2000|work=[[Seattle Post-Intelligencer]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120304003203/http://www.commondreams.org/headlines/052300-02.htm|archive-date=4 March 2012}}</ref> In Crayola crayons, the tests found asbestos levels around 0.05% in ''Carnation Pink'' and 2.86% in ''Orchid''; in Prang crayons, the range was from 0.3% in ''Periwinkle'' to 0.54% in ''Yellow''; in Rose Art crayons, it was from 0.03% in ''Brown'' to 1.20% in ''Orange''. Overall, 32 different types of crayons from these brands used to contain more than trace amounts of asbestos, and eight others contained trace amounts. The [[Art and Creative Materials Institute]], a [[trade association]] which tested the safety of crayons on behalf of the makers, initially insisted the test results must have been incorrect, although they later said they do not test for asbestos.<ref name="seattlepi-a" /> In May 2000, Crayola said tests by Richard Lee, a materials analyst whose testimony on behalf of the asbestos industry has been accepted in lawsuits over 250 times, found its crayons tested negative for asbestos.<ref name="seattlepi-b">{{cite news|url=http://www.carollsmith.com/pdf/crayonfirm.pdf|title=Crayon firms agree to stop using talc|author1=Schneider, Andrew|date=13 June 2000|work=[[Seattle Post-Intelligencer]]|author2=Smith, Carol|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120713182250/http://www.carollsmith.com/pdf/crayonfirm.pdf|archive-date=13 July 2012}}</ref> In spite of that, in June 2000 Binney & Smith, the maker of Crayola, and the other makers agreed to stop using talc in their products, and changed their product formulations in the United States.<ref name="seattlepi-b" />

The mining company R T Vanderbilt Co of [[Gouverneur (town), New York|Gouverneur, New York]], which supplied the talc to the crayon makers, states that "to the best of our knowledge and belief" there had never been any asbestos-related disease among the company's workers.<ref name="seattlepi-c">{{cite news |last1=Schneider |first1=Andrew |last2=Smith |first2=Carol |url=https://www.upstate.edu/pathenvi/studies/cases/ny_talc_dispute.pdf|title=Old dispute rekindled over content of mine's talc|date=30 May 2000|work=[[Seattle Post-Intelligencer]]|access-date=7 March 2021}}</ref> However media reports claim that the [[United States Mine Safety and Health Administration]] (MSHA) had found asbestos in four talc samples tested in 2000.<ref name="seattlepi-a" /> The Assistant Secretary for Mine Safety and Health subsequently wrote to the news reporter, stating that "In fact, the abbreviation ND (non-detect) in the laboratory report – indicates no asbestos fibers actually were found in the samples."<ref>McAteer, J. Davitt Assist. Secretary for Mine Safety and Health correspondence to Andrew Schneider of the Seattle Post-Intelligencer dated 14 June 2000 – copy obtainable through records archives MSHA.</ref> Multiple studies by mineral chemists, cell biologists, and toxicologists between 1970 and 2000 found neither samples of asbestos in talc products nor symptoms of asbestos exposure among workers dealing with talc,<ref>For studies finding no asbestos in talcum powder samples, see:
*Van Orden, D., R. J. Lee: Weight Percent Compositional Analysis of Seven RTV Talc Samples. Analytical Report to R. T. Vanderbilt Company, Inc. 22 November 2000. Submitted to Public Comments Record – C. W. Jameson, National Toxicology Program, 10th ROC Nominations "Talc (containing asbestiform fibers)". 4 December 2000.
*Nord, G. L, S. W. Axen, R. P. Nolan: Mineralogy and Experimental Animal Studies of Tremolitic Talc. Environmental Sciences Laboratory, Brooklyn College, The City University of New York. Submitted to Public Comments Record – C. W. Jameson, National Toxicology Program, 10th ROC Nominations "Talc (containing asbestiform fibers)". 1 December 2000.
*{{cite journal|author=Kelse, J. W.|author2=Thompson, C. Sheldon|year=1989|title=The Regulatory and Mineralogical Definitions of Asbestos and Their Impact on Amphibole Dust Analysis|journal=AIHA Journal|volume=50|issue=11|pages=613–622|doi=10.1080/15298668991375245}}
*Wylie, A.G. (2 June 2000) Report of Investigation. Analytical Report on RTV talc submitted to R. T. Vanderbilt Company, Inc. 13 February 1987 (Submitted to Public Comments Record – C. W. Jameson, National Toxicology Program, 10th ROC Nominations "Talc (containing asbestiform fibers)".
*Crane, D. (26 November 1986) Letter to Greg Piacitelli (NIOSH) describing the analytical findings of the Occupational Safety and Health Administration regarding R. T. Vanderbilt Talc (In OSHA Docket H-33-d and in Public Comments Record – C. W. Jameson, National Toxicology Program, 10th ROC Nominations – 2 June 2000).
*Crane, D. (12 June 2000) Background Information Regarding the Analysis of Industrial Talcs. Letter to the Consumer Product Safety Commission from the Occupational Safety and Health Administration. (Appended to CPSC Staff Report on "Asbestos in Children's Crayons" Aug. 2000).
*McCrone Associates – Atlanta Lab.: Report on the Analysis of Paint CLS-5067-1 and Mineral Filler CLS-N-439-1. To Unspecified Paint Company 23 September 1992. (Submitted to Public Comments Record – C. W. Jameson, National Toxicology Program, 10th ROC Nominations "Talc (containing asbestiform fibers)". 2 June 2000.
*Langer, A. M., Nolan, R. P. (November 2000) "Mineralogical Characterization of Vanderbilt Talc Specimens & Comparison of the 1976 Rohl Talc Report to NIOSH and Analysis Performed in 1988". In ''Public Comments – Nat'l Toxicology Program 10th ROC review''. W. Jameson NIEHS MED EC-14, 79 Alexander Drive Research Triangle Park, NC "Talc (containing asbestiform fibers)".
*United States Department of the Interior: Selected Silicate Minerals and Their Asbestiform Varieties by W. J. Campbell, et al. (Bureau of Mines Information Circular, I. C. 8751). Washington, D.C.: Dept. of the Interior, Bureau of Mines. (1977).
For studies finding no biological effects associated with talcum powder, see:
*{{cite journal|last1=Stille|first1=WT|last2=Tabershaw|first2=IR|year=1982|title=The mortality experience of upstate New York talc workers|journal=Journal of Occupational Medicine|volume=24|issue=6|pages=480–4|pmid=7097380}}
*{{cite journal|last1=Lamm|first1=SH|last2=Levine|first2=MS|last3=Starr|first3=JA|last4=Tirey|first4=SL|year=1988|title=Analysis of excess lung cancer risk in short-term employees|journal=American Journal of Epidemiology|volume=127|issue=6|pages=1202–9|pmid=3369419|doi=10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a114913}}
*{{cite journal|last1=Gamble|first1=JF|year=1993|title=A nested case control study of lung cancer among New York talc workers|journal=International Archives of Occupational and Environmental Health|volume=64|issue=6|pages=449–56|doi=10.1007/BF00517952|pmid=8458662|bibcode=1993IAOEH..64..449G |s2cid=40683280}}</ref> but more recent work has rejected these conclusions in favor of "same as" asbestos risk.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Dement|first1=JM|last2=Brown|first2=DP|year=1982|title=Occupational exposure to talc containing asbestos|journal=American Industrial Hygiene Association Journal|volume=43|issue=6|pages=A24–5|pmid=7113917}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Hull|first1=M. J.|last2=Abraham|first2=J. L.|last3=Case|first3=B. W.|year=2002|title=Mesothelioma among Workers in Asbestiform Fiber-Bearing Talc Mines in New York State|journal=Annals of Occupational Hygiene|volume=46|pages=132–135|doi=10.1093/annhyg/46.suppl_1.132|doi-access=free}}</ref>{{clarify|date=November 2018}}

On 12 July 2018, a Missouri jury ordered [[Johnson & Johnson]] to pay a record $4.69 billion to 22 women who alleged the company's talc-based products, including its baby powder, contain asbestos and caused them to develop ovarian cancer.<ref name=":0">{{Cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-johnson-johnson-cancer-lawsuit/jury-orders-jj-to-pay-4-7-billion-in-missouri-asbestos-cancer-case-idUSKBN1K234U|title=Jury orders J&J to pay $4.7 billion in Missouri asbestos cancer case|last=Bellon|first=Tina|work=U.S.|access-date=2018-07-13|language=en-US}}</ref>

==Production==
[[File:Asbestos-world-production-1900-2100.jpg|thumb|World production of asbestos (metric tons) from 1900 to 2017 with trend line]]
In 2017, 1.3 million [[tonne]]s of asbestos were mined worldwide. [[mining in Russia|Russia]] was the largest producer with 53% of the world total, followed by [[Mining in Kazakhstan|Kazakhstan]] (16%), [[Mining in China|China]] (15%), and [[mining in Brazil|Brazil]] (11.5%).<ref name=usgs>{{cite web|title=Mineral Commodity Summaries 2018 |url=https://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/mcs/2018/mcs2018.pdf|publisher=U.S. Geological Survey|last1=Flanagan|first1= Daniel M.
|location=Reston, Virginia|page=27|date=31 January 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Asbestos |url=http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/asbestos/mcs-2016-asbes.pdf |publisher=U.S. Geological Survey Mineral Resources Program |date=January 2016 |access-date=25 August 2016 |archive-date=4 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160404024148/http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/asbestos/mcs-2016-asbes.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> Asia consumes some 70% of the asbestos produced in the world with China, India and Indonesia the largest consumers.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Tsujimura |first1=Tatsuya |title=Japanese docs trying to stop all asbestos use in Asia |url=https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2014/11/18/national/japanese-docs-trying-to-stop-all-asbestos-use-in-asia/#.XJM9TqrVI2w |work=The Japan Times |date=18 November 2014 |location=Tokyo}}</ref>

In 2009, about 9% of the world's asbestos production was mined in [[mining in Canada|Canada]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Asbestos|url=http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/asbestos/mcs-2010-asbes.pdf|publisher=U.S. Geological Survey Mineral Resources Program|date=January 2010}}</ref> In late 2011, Canada's remaining two asbestos mines, both located in [[Quebec]], halted operations.<ref>[https://www.cbc.ca/news/business/asbestos-mining-stops-for-first-time-in-130-years-1.1103672 Asbestos mining stops for the first time in 130 years]. Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. 24 November 2011</ref> In September 2012, the Quebec government halted asbestos mining.<ref>Dougherty, Kevin (20 November 2012) [https://web.archive.org/web/20121129012206/http://www.ottawacitizen.com/news/Quebec%2BBudget%2BFinance%2BMinister%2BNicolas%2BMarceau%2Btightens/7586017/story.html Quebec Budget: Finance Minister Nicolas Marceau tightens spending, levies new taxes]. ''Ottawa Citizen''</ref>

==Health impact==
{{main|Health impact of asbestos}}
[[File:MesotheliomaCT.jpg|thumb|right|Left-sided [[mesothelioma]] (seen on the right of the image): chest [[X-ray computed tomography|CT]]]]
The most common diseases associated with chronic asbestos exposure are [[asbestosis]] (scarring of the lungs due to asbestos inhalation) and [[mesothelioma]] (cancer associated with asbestos).<ref name=":1">[https://web.archive.org/web/20060214182013/http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/asbestos/asbestos/health_effects/ ATSDR – Asbestos – Health Effects]. (1 April 2008). ATSDR Home. Retrieved 24 January 2011</ref> Mesothelioma is an aggressive form of cancer and often leads to a life expectancy of less than 12 months after diagnosis.<ref name="Asbestos Awareness Website">{{cite web |title=Asbestos Related Diseases |url=https://www.asbestosawareness.org.uk/asbestos-related-diseases/ |access-date=23 February 2022 |website=Asbestos Awareness|date=27 April 2021 }}</ref>

All types of asbestos fibers are known to represent serious health hazards in humans and animals.<ref>[https://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs343/en/ Asbestos: elimination of asbestos-related diseases]. World Health Organization. July 2014</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | pmid = 19418618|url=http://www.asbestosdiseaseawareness.org/wp-content/uploads/IARC-Special-Report-200911.pdf |doi=10.1016/S1470-2045(09)70134-2| year = 2009| last1 = Straif| first1 = K| title = A review of human carcinogens—Part C: Metals, arsenic, dusts, and fibres| journal = The Lancet. Oncology| volume = 10| issue = 5| pages = 453–4| last2 = Benbrahim-Tallaa| first2 = L| last3 = Baan| first3 = R| last4 = Grosse| first4 = Y| last5 = Secretan| first5 = B| last6 = El Ghissassi| first6 = F| last7 = Bouvard| first7 = V| last8 = Guha| first8 = N| last9 = Freeman| first9 = C| last10 = Galichet| first10 = L| last11 = Cogliano| first11 = V| author12 = WHO International Agency for Research on Cancer Monograph Working Group}}</ref><ref>[http://www.collegiumramazzini.org/download/15_FifteenthCRStatement(2010).pdf Collegium Razmzzini 2010 Statement on Asbestos]. collegiumramazzini.org</ref> Amosite and crocidolite are considered the most hazardous asbestos fiber types;<ref>{{Cite web|title=Types of Asbestos – Chyrsotile, Actinolite, Tremolite & More|url=https://www.asbestos.com/asbestos/types/|access-date=2020-06-25|website=Mesothelioma Center – Vital Services for Cancer Patients & Families|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |author=Hodgson, J |author2=Darnton, A|date=2000|title=The quantitative risks of mesothelioma and lung cancer in relation to asbestos exposure|journal=The Annals of Occupational Hygiene|volume=44|issue=8|pages=565–601|doi=10.1016/s0003-4878(00)00045-4|pmid=11108782|issn=0003-4878}}</ref> however, chrysotile asbestos has also produced tumors in animals and is a recognized cause of asbestosis and malignant mesothelioma in humans,<ref>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1016/j.annepidem.2011.05.010| pmid = 21820631| title = Mesothelioma from Chrysotile Asbestos: Update| journal = Annals of Epidemiology| volume = 21| issue = 9| pages = 688–97| year = 2011| last1 = Kanarek | first1 = M. S. }}</ref> and mesothelioma has been observed in people who were occupationally exposed to chrysotile, family members of the occupationally exposed, and residents who lived close to asbestos factories and mines.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Marbbn, C.A. |title=Asbestos Risk Assessment|journal=The Journal of Undergraduate Biological Studies|year=2009|pages=12–24}}</ref>

During the 1980s and again in the 1990s, the asbestos industry suggested at times that the process of making asbestos cement could "neutralize" the asbestos, either via chemical processes or by causing the cement to attach to the fibers and changing their physical size; subsequent studies showed that this was untrue and that decades-old asbestos cement, when broken, releases asbestos fibers identical to those found in nature, with no detectable alteration.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hse.gov.uk/research/hsl_pdf/2007/hsl0711.pdf|title=Investigation of the chrysotile fibres in an asbestos cement sample (2006) – HSL/2007/11, p.26 onward|website=www.hse.gov.uk]|access-date=5 April 2015|archive-date=14 February 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190214180028/http://www.hse.gov.uk/research/hsl_pdf/2007/hsl0711.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Exposure to asbestos in the form of fibers is always considered dangerous. Working with, or exposure to, material that is [[friable]], or materials or works that could cause the release of loose asbestos fibers, is considered high risk. In general, people who become ill from inhaling asbestos have been regularly exposed in a job where they worked directly with the material.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://cpdonline.co.uk/knowledge-base/health-and-safety/what-does-asbestos-do/|title=What does asbestos do to you? {{!}} Affects of exposure and who is at risk|date=17 July 2019|website=CPD Online College|language=en-GB|access-date=2019-08-13}}</ref>

The US [[Occupational Safety and Health Administration]] (OSHA) has standards to protect workers from the hazards of exposure to asbestos in the workplace. The permissible exposure limit for asbestos is 0.1 fiber per cubic centimeter of air as an eight-hour time-weighted average, with an excursion limit of 1.0 asbestos fibers per cubic centimeter over a 30-minute period.<ref>{{cite web |title=OSHA Fact Sheet |url=https://www.osha.gov/Publications/OSHA3507.pdf |publisher=US Department of Labor, Occupational Safety and Health Administration |access-date=28 April 2020}}</ref>

== Regulation ==
{{Main|Asbestos and the law}}

===Complete bans on asbestos===
[[File:Countries that have banned asbestos.svg|right|thumb|Map of countries that have banned the use of asbestos]]
[[File:76 769 EEC Asbestos warning labels (White text).svg|thumb|503x503px|Asbestos warning label under EU directive of 1983]]
Worldwide, 66 countries and territories (including all those in the [[European Union]]) have banned the use of asbestos. Exemptions for minor uses are permitted in some countries listed; however, all countries listed must have banned the use of all types of asbestos.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://ibasecretariat.org/alpha_ban_list.php|title= National Asbestos Bans |access-date=2020-06-22|publisher= ibasecretariat.org}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.ibasecretariat.org/chron_ban_list.php|title= Chronology of Asbestos Bans and Restrictions|access-date=2020-06-22|publisher= ibasecretariat.org}}</ref>

{|class="wikitable sortable"
! Country !! Ban Date
|-
|{{flag|Algeria}} ||
|-
|{{flag|Argentina}} ||
|-
|{{flag|Australia}} ||December 31, 2003
|-
|{{flag|Austria}} ||
|-
|{{flag|Bahrain}} ||
|-
|{{flag|Belgium}} || 1998
|-
|{{flag|Brazil}} ||
|-
|{{flag|Brunei}} ||
|-
|{{flag|Bulgaria}} ||
|-
|{{flag|Canada}} || December 31, 2018
|-
|{{flag|Chile}} ||
|-
|{{flag|Colombia}} ||
|-
|{{flag|Croatia}} ||
|-
|{{flag|Cyprus}} ||
|-
|{{flag|Czech Republic}} ||1995
|-
|{{flag|Denmark}} ||
|-
|{{flag|Djibouti}} ||
|-
|{{flag|Egypt}} ||
|-
|{{flag|Estonia}} ||
|-
|{{flag|Finland}} || January 1, 1994<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.finlex.fi/fi/lainsaadanto/saadoskokoelma/1992/852 |title=852/1992 |language=fi |publisher=Finlex |access-date=22 January 2025}}</ref>
|-
|{{flag|France}} ||
|-
|{{flag|Gabon}} ||
|-
|{{flag|Germany}} ||
|-
|{{flag|Gibraltar}} ||
|-
|{{flag|Greece}} ||
|-
|{{flag|Honduras}} ||
|-
|{{flag|Hong Kong}} ||
|-
|{{flag|Hungary}} ||
|-
|{{flag|Iceland}} || 1983
|-
|{{flag|Iraq}} ||
|-
|{{flag|Iran}} ||
|-
|{{flag|Ireland}} ||
|-
|{{flag|Israel}} ||
|-
|{{flag|Italy}} || 1992
|-
|{{flag|Japan}} || March 2012
|-
|{{flag|Jordan}} ||
|-
|{{flag|South Korea}} || January 2009
|-
|{{flag|Kuwait}} ||
|-
|{{flag|Latvia}} ||
|-
|{{flag|Liechtenstein}} ||
|-
|{{flag|Lithuania}} ||
|-
|{{flag|Luxembourg}} ||
|-
|{{flag|Malta}} ||
|-
|{{flag|Mauritius}} ||
|-
|{{flag|Monaco}} ||
|-
|{{flag|Mozambique}} ||
|-
|{{flag|Netherlands}} ||
|-
|{{flag|New Caledonia}} ||
|-
|{{flag|New Zealand}} || 2015
|-
|{{flag|North Macedonia}} ||
|-
|{{flag|Norway}} ||
|-
|{{flag|Oman}} ||
|-
|{{flag|Poland}} || 1997
|-
|{{flag|Portugal}} ||
|-
|{{flag|Qatar}} ||
|-
|{{flag|Romania}} ||
|-
|{{flag|Saudi Arabia}} ||
|-
|{{flag|Serbia}} ||
|-
|{{flag|Seychelles}} ||
|-
|{{flag|Slovakia}} ||
|-
|{{flag|Slovenia}} ||
|-
|{{flag|South Africa}} ||
|-
|{{flag|Spain}} ||
|-
|{{flag|Sweden}} ||1982<ref>{{cite web|date=2025-01-17|title=Asbest|url=https://www.av.se/halsa-och-sakerhet/kemiska-risker/risker-for-vissa-amnen-produkter-och-verksamheter/asbest/|trans-title=Asbestos|language=sv|publisher=[[Swedish Work Environment Authority]]|access-date=2025-03-23|quote=Asbest är förbjudet att använda i Sverige sedan 1982, men finns ofta kvar i äldre byggnader.|trans-quote=It is forbidden to use asbestos in Sweden since 1982, but it often still exists in older buildings.}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=2012-10-11|title=Asbest totalförbjudet sedan 1982|url=https://www.svt.se/nyheter/lokalt/vasternorrland/asbest-totalforbjudet-sedan-1982|trans-title=Asbestos completely banned since 1982|language=sv|publisher=[[Sveriges Television#News|SVT News]]|access-date=2025-03-23|quote=Totalt förbud blev det 1982.|trans-quote=A complete ban came in 1982.}}</ref>
|-
|{{flag|Switzerland}} ||
|-
|{{flag|Taiwan}} ||
|-
|{{flag|Turkey}} ||
|-
|{{flag|Ukraine}} || September 6, 2022
|-
|{{flag|United Kingdom}} ||
|-
|{{Flag|United States}}
|2024<ref>{{Cite web |date=March 14, 2024 |title=Asbestos Part 1; Chrysotile Asbestos; Regulation of Certain Conditions of Use Under the Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA) |url=https://www.epa.gov/system/files/documents/2024-03/prepubcopy_8332-01_fr_doc_for_esignature_admin_verified_2024-03-14.pdf |access-date=August 16, 2024 |website=[[United States Environmental Protection Agency|Environmental Protection Agency]]}}</ref>
|-
|{{flag|Uruguay}} ||
|}

====Australia====
[[File:SLNSW 20132 Asbestos Products Ltd exporting.jpg|thumb|Asbestos Products Ltd (Sydney) asbestos cement corrugated roofing for export]]
[[File:Rozelle Parklands Asbestos Mulch.jpg|thumb|[[Sydney asbestos mulch crisis|Asbestos-contaminated mulch]] in Sydney]]

The use of crocidolite (blue asbestos) was banned in 1967, while the use of amosite (brown asbestos) continued in the construction industry until the mid-1980s. It was finally banned from building products in 1989, though it remained in gaskets and brake linings until 31 December 2003, and cannot be imported, used, or recycled.<ref>{{cite web|title=Mesothelioma in Australia | publisher=Asbestos.com | url=http://www.asbestos.com/mesothelioma/australia/asbestos.php | access-date=13 December 2012}}
</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=National Health and Medical Research Council|url=http://www.nhmrc.gov.au/your-health/asbestos-related-diseases|access-date=13 December 2012}}</ref>

Asbestos continues to be a problem in Australia. Two out of three homes in Australia built between World War II and the early 1980s still contain asbestos.<ref>{{cite news|title= Building unions seek laws to clear asbestos | work=[[The Sydney Morning Herald]] | url=http://www.smh.com.au/opinion/political-news/building-unions-seek-laws-to-clear-asbestos-20130212-2eb3l.html |access-date=2 February 2013 }}</ref>

The United Services Union, representing workers tasked with modifying electrical meter boxes at residences, stated that workers should refuse to do this work until the boxes have been inspected for asbestos,<ref>
{{cite news|title=Unions warn on meter board asbestos| url=http://news.smh.com.au/breaking-news-national/unions-warn-on-meter-board-asbestos-20121029-28ecg.html|agency=Australian Associated Press|access-date=10 August 2013}}</ref> and the head of the Australian Council of Trade Unions ([[Australian Council of Trade Unions|ACTU]]) has called on the government to protect its citizens by ridding the country of asbestos by 2030.<ref>{{cite web|title=All buildings should be cleared of asbestos by 2030 to save future generations |work=ACTU |date=16 September 2011 |url=http://www.actu.org.au/Media/Mediareleases/Allbuildingsshouldbeclearedofasbestosby2030tosavefuturegenerations.aspx |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140413132136/http://www.actu.org.au/Media/Mediareleases/Allbuildingsshouldbeclearedofasbestosby2030tosavefuturegenerations.aspx |archive-date=13 April 2014 }}</ref>

Handlers of asbestos materials must have a B-Class license for bonded asbestos and an A-Class license for friable asbestos.{{citation needed|date=October 2023}}

The town of [[Wittenoom, Western Australia|Wittenoom]], in Western Australia, was built around a (blue) asbestos mine. The entire town continues to be contaminated and has been disincorporated, allowing local authorities to remove references to Wittenoom from maps and road signs.{{citation needed|date=October 2023}}

In January 2024, asbestos was found in garden [[mulch]] supplied to dozens of sites including parks, playgrounds and schools across [[Sydney]], triggering the [[Sydney asbestos mulch crisis]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=2024-02-19 |title=Sydney asbestos scare: How a mulch discovery has sent a city scrambling |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-australia-68302052 |website=BBC News |first1=Tiffanie |last1=Turnbull |language=en-GB |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240225195500/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-australia-68302052 |archive-date= Feb 25, 2024 }}</ref>

====Canada====
As of December 31, 2018, it is illegal to import, manufacture, sell, trade, or use products made from asbestos. There are exemptions for its use in the [[chloralkali]] industry, the military, nuclear facilities, and for magnesium extraction from asbestos mining residues.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Povtak |first1=Tim |title=/ News / Asbestos Exposure & Bans Canada Announces Asbestos Ban with Exemptions |work=Asbestos.com |publisher=The Mesothelioma Center |date=22 October 2018 |location=Orlando, FL}}</ref>

==== Iran ====
On 23 July 2000, the Supreme Council of Environmental Protection of Iran banned any use of asbestos. In a note it states that after 44 years if there is no replacement technically, economically or financially the law is appealable and will be subject to review.<ref name="ایران">{{Cite web |last=ایران |first=عصر |title=استفاده از هر گونه آزبست برای همیشه ممنوع شد |url=https://www.asriran.com/fa/news/190472/استفاده-از-هر-گونه-آزبست-برای-همیشه-ممنوع-شد |access-date=2023-08-22 |website=fa |language=fa}}</ref><ref name="mehrnews.com">{{Cite web |date=2011-12-16 |title=محصولاتی که بوی سرطان می دهد!/ ممنوعیت کامل آزبست تا شهریور 91 |url=https://www.mehrnews.com/news/1484792/محصولاتی-که-بوی-سرطان-می-دهد-ممنوعیت-کامل-آزبست-تا-شهریور-91 |access-date=2023-08-22 |website=خبرگزاری مهر {{!}} اخبار ایران و جهان {{!}} Mehr News Agency |language=fa}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2011-10-24 |title=ممنوعیت آزبست، انتظار شهروندان از مجلس |url=https://www.hamshahrionline.ir/news/149272/ممنوعیت-آزبست-انتظار-شهروندان-از-مجلس |access-date=2023-08-22 |website=همشهری آنلاین |language=fa}}</ref>

On 22 November 2011, Iran's Environmental Protection Organization banned the use of asbestos completely. It also banned all imports and exports of asbestos. On 9 October 2011, the Supreme Council of Environmental Protection of Iran confirmed the new law and publicly announced it, updating and replacing the previous law.<ref name="ایران"/><ref name="mehrnews.com"/>

====Japan====
Revelations that hundreds of workers had died in Japan over the previous few decades from diseases related to asbestos sparked a scandal in mid-2005.<ref name=Iceberg>[http://www.amrc.org.hk/alu_article/occupational_safety_and_health_in_asia/japanese_asbestos_scandal Japanese Asbestos Scandal] {{Webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20121218102822/http://www.amrc.org.hk/alu_article/occupational_safety_and_health_in_asia/japanese_asbestos_scandal |date=18 December 2012 }}. Asia Monitor Resource Center. 28 September 2007</ref> Tokyo had, in 1971, ordered companies handling asbestos to install ventilators and check health regularly; however, the Japanese government did not ban crocidolite and amosite until 1995, and a near-complete ban with a few exceptions on asbestos was implemented in 2006, with the remaining exceptions being removed in March 2012 for a full-fledged ban.<ref>[http://www.etoday.co.kr/news/section/newsview.php?idxno=1103908 Asbestos use banned on all products from this month]. Etoday.co.kr. Retrieved on 17 October 2015.</ref>

====New Zealand====
In 1984, the import of raw amphibole (blue and brown) asbestos into [[New Zealand]] was banned. In 2002 the import of chrysotile (white) asbestos was also banned.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Smartt, Pamela|pmid=15570336|title=Mortality, morbidity, and asbestosis in New Zealand: the hidden legacy of asbestos exposure|journal=The New Zealand Medical Journal|year=2004|volume=117|issue=1205|url=http://journal.nzma.org.nz/journal/117-1205/1153/|pages=U1153|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140605025456/http://journal.nzma.org.nz/journal/117-1205/1153/|archive-date=5 June 2014}}</ref> In 2015, the government announced that the importation of asbestos would be completely banned with very limited exceptions (expected to be applied to replacement parts for older machines) that would be reviewed on a case-by-case basis.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.beehive.govt.nz/release/govt-moves-asbestos-containing-products|title=Govt moves on asbestos-containing products|website=The Beehive|access-date=2016-06-16}}</ref>

North-west of Nelson, in the Upper Takaka Valley, is New Zealand's only commercially harvested asbestos mine.  A low-grade Chrysotile was mined here from 1908 to 1917 but only 100 tons were washed and taken out by packhorse. A new power scheme enabled work to renew and between 1940 and 1949, 40 tons a month was mined by the Hume Company. This continued to 1964, when, due to the short length of its fibre, the limited commercial viability forced mining to cease.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://paperspast.natlib.govt.nz/cgi-bin/paperspast?a=d&d=GRA18980108.2.14|title=National Library of New Zealand|work=Grey River Argus, Volume LVII, Issue 9871, 8 January 1898, Page 4}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=The Cobb: the history of the Cobb River hydro-electric power scheme|last=Blair|first=AK|publisher=Cadsonbury Publications, Christchurch, 1998|year=1994|isbn=0-477-01699-5|location=Christchurch, New Zealand|pages= 67–69, 71–72, 100–101}}</ref>

====South Korea====
In May 1997, the manufacture and use of [[crocidolite]] and [[amosite]], commonly known as blue and brown asbestos, were fully banned in [[South Korea]].<ref>[http://www.fnn.co.kr/content.asp?aid=504579c1e94a43f8ad80a83ee2aa0433 "학원 밀집 건물 석면노출 심각"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402105233/http://www.fnn.co.kr/content.asp?aid=504579c1e94a43f8ad80a83ee2aa0433 |date=2 April 2015 }}. fnn.co.kr. 6 May 2013</ref> In January 2009, a full-fledged ban on all types of asbestos occurred when the government banned the manufacture, import, sale, storage, transport or use of asbestos or any substance containing more than 0.1% of asbestos.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Kim|first=Hyoung Ryoul|title=Overview of Asbestos Issues in Korea|journal=J Korean Med Sci|date=12 June 2009|volume=24|series=3|pages=363–367|doi=10.3346/jkms.2009.24.3.363|pmid=19543418|pmc=2698178|issue=3}}</ref> In 2011, South Korea became the world's sixth country to enact an asbestos harm aid act, which entitles any Korean citizen to free lifetime medical care as well as monthly income from the government if they are diagnosed with an asbestos-related disease.<ref>[http://health.joseilbo.com/html/news/?f=read&code=1327972365&seq=2992 1970~80년대 석면 다룬 산업 근로자, 폐암 정기검사 필수] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402192750/http://health.joseilbo.com/html/news/?f=read&code=1327972365&seq=2992 |date=2 April 2015 }}. health.joseilbo.com. 25 February 2013</ref>

====United Kingdom====
In the United Kingdom, blue and brown asbestos materials were banned outright in 1985 while the import, sale, and secondhand reuse of white asbestos was outlawed in 1999. The 2012 Control of Asbestos Regulations, updating and replacing the previous 2006 law, state that owners of non-domestic buildings (e.g., factories and offices) have a "duty to manage" asbestos on the premises by making themselves aware of its presence and ensuring the material does not deteriorate, removing it if necessary. Employers, e.g. construction companies, whose operatives may come into contact with asbestos must also provide annual asbestos training to their workers.<ref>{{cite book |title=Managing and working with asbestos – Control of Asbestos Regulations 2012 |date=2013 |publisher=Health and Safety Executive |location=London |isbn=978-0-7176-6618-8 |url=https://www.hse.gov.uk/pubns/priced/l143.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231216144646/https://www.hse.gov.uk/pubns/priced/l143.pdf |archive-date= Dec 16, 2023 }}</ref>

====United States====
{{See also|Asbestos and the law (United States)}}
[[File:Researching Asbestos-Related Disease.jpg|thumb|Researcher using a fiber length classifier to produce length-selected fibers of asbestos for toxicological studies]]

Prior to 2024, the United States remained one of the few [[developed countries]] to not completely ban asbestos.<ref>Leer, Ben (17 September 2012), "[http://www.asbestos.com/blog/2012/09/17/why-isnt-asbestos-banned-in-the-united-states/ Why Isn't Asbestos Banned in the United States?]". asbestos.com.</ref> Some American workers at chlorine plants frequently came in contact with the substance,<ref>{{Cite news |first1=Kathleen |last1=McGrory |first2=Neil |last2=Bedi |title=Workers Across America Break Their Silence on Decades of Asbestos Exposure |url=https://www.propublica.org/article/asbestos-poisoning-plant-mcintosh-alabama-olin |access-date=2022-12-09 |website=ProPublica |language=en |date=2022-12-07}}</ref> and [[Occupational Safety and Health Administration|OSHA]] exempted these plants from random inspections through the [[Voluntary Protection Program]].<ref>{{Cite news |first1=Kathleen |last1=McGrory |first2=Neil |last2=Bedi |title=The U.S. Never Banned Asbestos. These Workers Are Paying the Price. |url=https://www.propublica.org/article/asbestos-poisoning-chemical-plant-niagara-falls |access-date=2022-12-09 |website=ProPublica |language=en}}</ref>

In 1989, the [[United States Environmental Protection Agency]] (EPA) issued the Asbestos Ban and Phase-Out Rule, but in 1991, asbestos industry supporters challenged and overturned the ban in a landmark lawsuit: ''Corrosion Proof Fittings v. Environmental Protection Agency''.<ref>{{cite court |url=https://law.justia.com/cases/federal/appellate-courts/F2/947/1201/153685/ |litigants=Corrosion Proof Fittings v. EPA |vol=1201 |reporter=947 F.2d |court=[[5th Cir.]] |date=1991}}</ref> Although the case resulted in several small victories for asbestos regulation, the EPA ultimately did not put an end to asbestos use. The ruling left many consumer products that can still legally contain trace amounts of asbestos. Six categories of asbestos-containing products are however banned: [[corrugated paper]], [[rollboard]], [[Paper|commercial paper]], [[specialty paper]], [[flooring felt]] and any new uses of asbestos. The [[Clean Air Act of 1963|Clean Air Act]] also bans asbestos pipe insulation and asbestos block insulation on components such as boilers and hot water tanks, and spray-applied surfacing asbestos-containing materials. The [[Consumer Product Safety Act]] bans asbestos in artificial fireplace embers and wall patching compounds. The [[Food and Drug Administration]] bans asbestos-containing filters in pharmaceutical manufacturing, processing, and packing.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.epa.gov/asbestos/pubs/asbbans2.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121022215630/http://www.epa.gov/asbestos/pubs/asbbans2.pdf |archive-date=22 October 2012 |title=EPA Asbestos Materials Bans: Clarification |publisher=Environmental Protection Agency |date=18 May 1999}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=EPA Actions to Protect the Public from Exposure to Asbestos |date=12 March 2013 |url=https://www.epa.gov/asbestos/epa-actions-protect-public-exposure-asbestos#banneduses |publisher=United States Environmental Protection Agency |access-date=28 April 2020}}</ref>

In 2014, [[Washington (state)|the state of Washington]] banned asbestos in automotive brakes.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ecy.wa.gov/programs/hwtr/betterbrakes.html |title=Better Brakes Law |publisher=State of Washington Department of Ecology |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120117214035/http://www.ecy.wa.gov/programs/hwtr/betterbrakes.html|archive-date=17 January 2012 |access-date=7 February 2025}}</ref>

In 2022, {{convert|224|MT|sp=us}} of chrysotile asbestos were imported into the United States from Brazil and Russia, for use in diaphragms used to produce chlorine by the [[chloralkali process]]. As of 2020, imported goods containing asbestos included gaskets for some utility vehicles, rubber sheets used in gasket manufacturing, brake blocks for the oil industry, and vehicle friction materials such as aftermarket automotive brakes and linings.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2024/mcs2024-asbestos.pdf |title=Asbestos |publisher=U.S. Geological Survey |series=Mineral Commodity Summaries |date=January 2024}}</ref>

In 2024, the EPA announced a new rule to ban all ongoing uses of asbestos by 2037. The rule was the first to be implemented under 2016 amendments to the Toxic Substances Control Act.<ref>{{Unbulleted list citebundle|{{Cite web |date=2024-03-18 |title=EPA bans asbestos, a deadly carcinogen still in use decades after a partial ban was enacted |url=https://apnews.com/article/epa-asbestos-cancer-brakes-biden-72b0fa8b36adedaff6000034d35c2acd |access-date=2024-04-05 |website=AP News}}|{{Cite web |title=After 30 years, EPA finally bans last form of asbestos used in the US |url=https://cen.acs.org/policy/chemical-regulation/30-years-EPA-finally-bans/102/web/2024/03 |access-date=2024-04-05 |website=Chemical & Engineering News}}|{{Cite web |last=Christensen |first=Jen |date=2024-03-18 |title=EPA bans last form of asbestos used in United States |url=https://www.cnn.com/2024/03/18/health/epa-bans-last-form-of-asbestos-used-in-united-states/index.html |access-date=2024-04-05 |website=CNN}}}}</ref>

===Countries where asbestos is legal===
{|class="wikitable sortable"
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|{{flag|India}}
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|{{flag|Pakistan}}
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|{{flag|Cuba}}
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|{{flag|Mexico}}
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|{{flag|Vietnam}}
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====Mexico====
Since 1970, as a result of increased regulation of asbestos in Europe and in the United States, there was a massive transfer of asbestos-processing enterprises to [[Mexico]]. Asbestos is used in many products – roofing, boilers, pipes, brakes, and wires, produced by over 2,000 Mexican companies, many of them subsidiaries or subcontractors of US companies, and sold throughout the Americas.  In 2000, 58% of Mexican asbestos-containing exports went to the United States, and 40% to Central American countries and Cuba.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Algranti |first1=Eduardo |last2=Ramos-Bonilla |first2=Juan Pablo |last3=Terracini |first3=Benedetto |last4=Santana |first4=Vilma S. Santana |title=Prevention of Asbestos Exposure in Latin America within a Global Public Health Perspective |journal=Annals of Global Health |date=29 March 2019 |volume=85 |issue=1 |page=49 |doi=10.5334/aogh.2341 |publisher=Ubiqiuity |location=London |pmid=30924615 |pmc=6634328 |issn=2214-9996 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=Asbestos in the world |journal=HESA Newsletter |date=June 2005 |volume=27 |page=12 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/323166797 |publisher=European Trade Union Institute |location=Brussels}}</ref>

====Vietnam====
[[File:Wellasbestdach-233-3354 IMG.JPG|thumb|Corrugated asbestos roof (with [[Fibre cement]])]]
In Vietnam, chrysotile asbestos is not banned and is still widely used. Amphibole asbestos is banned from trade and use. Vietnam is one of the top 10 asbestos users in the world, with an annual import volume of about 65,000–70,000 tons of chrysotile.<ref name="plo1">[https://plo.vn/suc-khoe/tam-lop-amiang-ke-giet-nguoi-732227.html Tấm lợp amiăng, kẻ giết người?], báo Pháp Luật, 10 July 2017, language=vietnamese</ref> About 90% of the imported asbestos is used to produce about 100 million m<sup>2</sup> of cement roofing sheets ([[asbestos-cement]]). According to one study, among 300 families in [[Yen Bai]], [[Thanh Hoa]], 85% of households use asbestos roofing sheets, but only 5% know about the negative health effects.<ref name="plo2" />

The master plan (for construction materials development to 2020 with orientation to 2030 submitted by the [[Ministry of Construction (Vietnam)|Ministry of Construction]] to the Government in January 2014) still suggests continued use of chrysotile for a long time.<ref name="plo2">[https://plo.vn/thoi-su/xay-dung-mang-luoi-cam-su-dung-amiang-trang-o-viet-nam-512026.html Xây dựng mạng lưới cấm sử dụng amiăng trắng ở Việt Nam], báo Pháp Luật, 27 November 2014, language=vietnamese</ref>

==Substitutes for asbestos in construction==
[[Glass wool|Fiberglass]] insulation was invented in 1938 and is now the most commonly used type of [[building insulation materials|insulation material]]. The safety of this material has also been called into question due to similarities in material structure.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.rachel.org/?q=en%2Fnode%2F3999|title=Fiber Glass: A Carcinogen That's Everywhere|date=31 May 1995|work=Rachel's News|publisher=Environmental Research Foundation|access-date=4 February 2011|archive-date=22 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210122123601/http://www.rachel.org/?q=en%2Fnode%2F3999}}</ref> However, the [[International Agency for Research on Cancer]] removed fiberglass from its list of possible human carcinogens in 2001.<ref>[http://monographs.iarc.fr/ENG/Classification/ClassificationsGroupOrder.pdf Agents Classified by the IARC Monographs, Volumes 1–111] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111025122327/http://monographs.iarc.fr/ENG/Classification/ClassificationsGroupOrder.pdf |date=25 October 2011 }}. iarc.fr</ref> A scientific review article from 2011 claimed epidemiology data was inconsistent and concluded that the IARC's decision to downgrade the carcinogenic potential of fiberglass was valid, although this study was funded by a sponsored research contract from the North American Insulation Manufacturer's Association.<ref>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1016/j.yrtph.2011.02.009| pmid = 21345360| title = Fiber glass exposure and human respiratory system cancer risk: Lack of evidence persists since 2001 IARC re-evaluation| journal = [[Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology]]| volume = 60| issue = 1| pages = 84–92| year = 2011| last1 = Marsh | first1 = G. M. | last2 = Buchanich | first2 = J. M. | last3 = Youk | first3 = A. O. }}</ref>

In 1978, a highly texturized fiberglass fabric was invented by [[Bal Dixit]], called [[Zetex (fabric)|Zetex]]. This fabric is lighter than asbestos but offers the same bulk, thickness, hand, feel, and abrasion resistance as asbestos. The fiberglass was texturized to eliminate some of the problems that arise with fiberglass, such as poor abrasion resistance and poor seam strength.<ref>Dixit, B., [https://books.google.com/books?id=JkaAypWOi0AC&pg=PA446 "Performance of Protective Clothing: Development and Testing of Asbestos Substitutes"], Performance of Protective Clothing, ASTM STP 900, R. L. Barker and G. C. Coletta, Eds., American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, 1986, pp. 446–460 {{ISBN|0-8031-0461-8}}.</ref>

In Europe, [[mineral wool]] and [[glass wool]] are the main insulators in houses.

Many companies that produced asbestos-cement products that were reinforced with asbestos fibers have developed products incorporating organic fibers. One such product was known as "[[Eternit]]" and another "Everite" now use "[[Nutec]]" fibers which consist of organic fibers, [[portland cement]] and [[silica]]. [[Cement-bonded wood fiber]] is another substitute. Stone fibers are used in gaskets and friction materials.

Another potential fiber is [[polybenzimidazole]] or PBI fiber. [[Polybenzimidazole fiber]] is a [[synthetic fiber]] with a high [[melting point]] of {{convert|760|C}} that also does not ignite. Because of its exceptional thermal and chemical stability, it is often used by [[fire departments]] and [[space agencies]].

==Recycling and disposal==
[[File:AsbestosContainment.JPG|right|thumb|[[Wailuku]], [[Hawaii]] [[post office]] sealed off for [[asbestos removal]]]]
In most developed countries, asbestos is typically disposed of as [[hazardous waste]] in designated [[landfill site]]s.

The [[demolition]] of buildings containing large amounts of asbestos-based materials pose particular problems for builders and property developers – such buildings often have to be deconstructed piece by piece, or the asbestos has to be painstakingly removed before the structure can be razed by mechanical or explosive means. One such example is the [[Red Road Flats]] in [[Glasgow]], Scotland which used huge amounts of asbestos cement board for wall panelling – British health and safety regulations stipulate that asbestos material has to be removed in specially adapted vehicles and taken to a landfill site with an appropriate permit to accept asbestos, via an approved route, at certain times of the day.{{citation needed|date=October 2023}}

In the United States, the EPA governs the removal and disposal of asbestos strictly. Companies that remove asbestos must comply with EPA licensing. These companies are called EPA licensed asbestos contractors. Anytime one of these asbestos contractors performs work a test consultant has to conduct strict testing to ensure the asbestos is completely removed.{{citation needed|date=October 2023}}

Asbestos can be destroyed by ultra-high-temperature [[incineration]] and [[plasma (physics)|plasma]] melting process. A process of [[thermal decomposition]] at {{cvt|1000|-|1250|°C|-2}} produces a mixture of non-hazardous silicon-based wastes, and at temperatures above {{cvt|1250|°C|-2}} it produces [[silicate glass]].<ref name="gualtieri">{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1016/S0955-2219(99)00290-3| title = Thermal decomposition of asbestos and recycling in traditional ceramics| journal = Journal of the European Ceramic Society| volume = 20| issue = 9| pages = 1409–1418| year = 2000| last1 = Gualtieri | first1 = A. F. | last2 = Tartaglia | first2 = A. | hdl = 11380/7153| hdl-access = free}}</ref> Microwave thermal treatment can be used in an industrial manufacturing process to transform asbestos and asbestos-containing waste into porcelain stoneware tiles, porous single-fired wall tiles, and ceramic bricks.<ref name="leonelli">{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2005.11.035| pmid = 16406335| title = Microwave thermal inertisation of asbestos containing waste and its recycling in traditional ceramics| journal = Journal of Hazardous Materials| volume = 135| issue = 1–3| pages = 149–55| year = 2006| last1 = Leonelli | first1 = C.| last2 = Veronesi | first2 = P.| last3 = Boccaccini | first3 = D.| last4 = Rivasi | first4 = M.| last5 = Barbieri | first5 = L.| last6 = Andreola | first6 = F.| last7 = Lancellotti | first7 = I.| last8 = Rabitti | first8 = D.| last9 = Pellacani | first9 = G.| bibcode = 2006JHzM..135..149L}}</ref>

The combination of [[oxalic acid]] with [[ultrasound]] fully degrades chrysotile asbestos fibers.<ref>{{cite journal|title=The combination of oxalic acid with power ultrasound fully degrades chrysotile asbestos fibres|journal=Journal of Environmental Monitoring|author1=Francesco Turci|author2=Maura Tomatis|author3=Stefano Mantegna|author4=Giancarlo Cravotto|author5=Bice Fubini|date=2007|volume=9|pages=1064–1066|issue=10|doi=10.1039/B709571F|pmid=17909639}}</ref>

==Abbreviations associated with asbestos==
* ACM: Asbestos-containing material (technically, material containing more than 1% asbestos)<ref>[https://www.safeopedia.com/definition/1761/asbestos-containing-material-acm Asbestos-Containing Material (ACM)], accessed 16 June 2020</ref>
* AIB: [[Asbestos insulating board]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.hse.gov.uk/asbestos/essentials/aib.htm|title=Where can you find asbestos? Asbestos Insulating Board (AIB)|website=www.hse.gov.uk|access-date=7 September 2022|archive-date=5 July 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220705224012/https://www.hse.gov.uk/Asbestos/essentials/aib.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Asbestine]]
* [[Asbestos abatement]]
* [[Asbestos Disease Awareness Organization]]
* [[Medical geology]]
* [[Mesothelioma Applied Research Foundation]]
* [[Red List building materials]]
*[[List of anti-asbestos organizations]]

== References ==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite book|ref=Castleman |author=Castleman, Barry I. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dmBWIkIu_IwC |title=Asbestos: Medical and Legal Aspects|publisher=Aspen Publishers|place= Englewood Cliffs, NJ|year= 1996|isbn= 978-0-7355-5260-9}}
* George B. Guthrie and [[Brooke T. Mossman]], editors, ''Health Effects of Mineral Dusts'', [[Mineralogical Society of America]] ''Reviews in Mineralogy'' v. 28, 584 pages (1993) {{ISBN|0-939950-33-2}}.
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20111118024344/http://www.iom-world.org/asbestos/index.php Asbestos: an introduction] by JW Cherrie
* {{cite book|last=Tweedale|first=Geoffrey|title=Magic Mineral to Killer Dust Turner & Newall and the Asbestos Hazard|year=2000|publisher=Oxford Univ. Press|isbn=978-0-19-829690-4|page=336|url=http://www.oup.com/us/catalog/general/subject/Business/History/?view=usa&ci=9780198296904}}

==External links==
{{Sister project links|wikt=asbestos|commons=Category:Asbestos|n=Category:Asbestos|q=no|s=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|species=no|d=Q104085}}
* [https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/asbestos-elimination-of-asbestos-related-diseases WHO fact sheet on asbestos]
* [http://www.asbestosdiseaseawareness.org/ Asbestos Disease Awareness Organization]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20020603130951/http://www.aic.org.uk/ The Asbestos Information Centre] Independent site with information about asbestos and its use in buildings
* [http://www.epa.gov/asbestos/index.html U.S. EPA Asbestos Home Page]
* [http://www.hse.gov.uk/asbestos/ British Government Health and Safety Executive (HSE)]
* [https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/asbestos/ National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health: Asbestos]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110609215622/http://www.who.int/ipcs/assessment/public_health/asbestos/en/ World Health Organization&nbsp;– Asbestos page]
* [http://www.mccord-museum.qc.ca/en/keys/webtours/VQ_P3_11_EN.html White Gold Pioneers: Asbestos Mining] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100103071446/http://www.mccord-museum.qc.ca/en/keys/webtours/VQ_P3_11_EN.html |date=3 January 2010 }} – The origins of asbestos mining, illustrated with many early photographs
* [http://amiantus.co.uk/identifying-asbestos/ How to Identify Asbestos] – Independent site citing how to identify the early signs of Asbestos and actions to take

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[[Category:Asbestos| ]]
[[Category:Carcinogens]]
[[Category:IARC Group 1 carcinogens]]
[[Category:Industrial minerals]]
[[Category:Occupational hazards]]