View source for Art of Europe

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[[File:Mona Lisa, by Leonardo da Vinci, from C2RMF retouched.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Leonardo da Vinci]]'s ''[[Mona Lisa]]'' is an Italian art masterpiece famous worldwide. Considered an archetypal [[masterpiece]] of the [[Italian Renaissance]],<ref>{{cite episode |url=https://www.npr.org/2011/07/30/138800110/the-theft-that-made-the-mona-lisa-a-masterpiece |title=The Theft That Made Mona Lisa a Masterpiece |date=30 July 2011 |access-date=15 February 2019 |series=All Things Considered |network=NPR}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.timeshighereducation.com/news/why-i-think-mona-lisa-became-an-icon/164983.article |last=Sassoon |first=Donald |title=Why I think Mona Lisa became an icon |url-access=subscription |website=Times Higher Education |date=21 September 2001}}</ref> it has normally been on display at the [[Louvre]] in [[Paris]] since 1797.<ref name=carrier>{{cite book |last=Carrier |first=David |date=2006 |title=Museum Skepticism: A History of the Display of Art in Public Galleries |publisher=Duke University Press |page=35 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VIBoW6dDZgIC&q=Museum+Skepticism:+A+History+of+the+Display+of+Art+in+Public+Galleries |isbn=978-0-8223-3694-5}}</ref>]]
[[File:Kosovo Maiden, Uroš Predić, 1919.jpg|thumb|250px|''[[Kosovo Maiden]]''; by [[Uroš Predić]]; 1919; oil on canvas; 1.95 x 2.64m; [[National Museum of Serbia]] ([[Belgrade]], [[Serbia]])]]
[[File:Jan Vermeer - The Art of Painting - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|250px|''[[The Art of Painting]]''; by [[Johannes Vermeer]]; 1666–1668; oil on canvas; 1.3 x 1.1 m; [[Kunsthistorisches Museum]] ([[Vienna]], [[Austria]])]]
{{History of art sidebar |width=14.7em}}
{{Western art history}}

The '''art of Europe''', also known as '''Western art''', encompasses the [[history of art|history]] of [[visual art]] in [[Europe]]. European [[prehistoric art]] started as mobile [[Upper Paleolithic]] [[rock art|rock]] and [[cave painting]] and [[petroglyph]] art and was characteristic of the period between the [[Paleolithic]] and the [[Iron Age]].<ref name="Europeart">{{cite web|last=Oosterbeek|first=Luíz|title=European Prehistoric Art|url=http://www.europreart.net/|work=Europeart|access-date=4 December 2012}}</ref>  Written histories of European art often begin with the [[Aegean civilization]]s, dating from the 3rd millennium BC. However a consistent pattern of artistic development within Europe becomes clear only with [[Ancient Greek art]], which was adopted and transformed by [[Roman art|Rome]] and, with the [[Roman Empire]], was carried across much of Europe, [[North Africa]] and [[Western Asia]].<ref>[[John Boardman (art historian)|Boardman, John]] ed., ''The Oxford History of Classical Art'', pp. 349-369, [[Oxford University Press]], 1993, {{ISBN|0198143869}}</ref>

The influence of the art of the [[Classical antiquity|Classical period]] waxed and waned throughout the next two thousand years, seeming to slip into a distant memory in parts of the [[Medieval art|Medieval]] period, to re-emerge in the [[Renaissance art|Renaissance]], suffer a period of what some early art historians viewed as "decay" during the [[Baroque]] period,<ref>[[Banister Fletcher]] excluded nearly all Baroque buildings from his mammoth tome ''A History of Architecture on the Comparative Method''. The publishers eventually rectified this.</ref> to reappear in a refined form in [[Neo-Classicism]]<ref name=mur>Murray, P. and Murray, L. (1963) ''The Art of the Renaissance''. London: [[Thames & Hudson]] (World of Art), p. 9. {{ISBN|978-0-500-20008-7}}.  "...in 1855 we find, for the first time, the word 'Renaissance' used — by the French historian Michelet — as an adjective to describe a whole period of history and not confined to the rebirth of Latin letters or a classically inspired style in the arts."</ref> and to be reborn in [[Post-Modernism]].<ref>Hause, S. & Maltby, W. (2001). ''A History of European Society. Essentials of Western Civilization'' (Vol. 2, pp. 245–246). Belmont, CA: Thomson Learning, Inc.</ref>

Before the 1800s, the Christian church was a major influence on European art, and commissions from the Church provided the major source of work for artists. In the same period there was also a renewed interest in classical mythology, great wars, heroes and heroines, and themes not connected to religion.<ref name="autogenerated2">{{cite web|title=Art of Europe|url=http://www.slam.org/european/intro.html|work=Saint Louis Art Museum|publisher=Slam|access-date=4 December 2012}}</ref> Most art of the last 200 years has been produced without reference to religion and often with no particular [[ideology]] at all, but art has often been influenced by political issues, whether reflecting the concerns of patrons or the artist.

European art is arranged into a number of stylistic periods, which, historically, overlap each other as different styles flourished in different areas. Broadly the periods are: [[classical antiquity|Classical]], [[Byzantine]], [[Medieval]], [[Gothic art|Gothic]], [[Renaissance]], [[Baroque]], [[Rococo]], [[Neoclassicism|Neoclassical]], [[Modernism|Modern]], [[Postmodern]] and [[New European Painting]].<ref name="autogenerated2"/>

==Prehistoric art==
{{main article|Prehistoric art#Europe}}

European prehistoric art is an important part of the European cultural heritage.<ref>{{cite web|last=Oosterbeek|first=Luíz|title=European Prehistoric Art|url=http://www.europreart.net/prese.htm|work=Europeart|access-date=4 December 2012}}</ref>  Prehistoric art history is usually divided into four main periods: [[Stone Age]], [[Neolithic]], [[Bronze Age]], and [[Iron Age]]. Most of the remaining artifacts of this period are small sculptures and cave paintings.

[[File:Venus of Willendorf frontview retouched 2.jpg|thumb|left|''[[Venus of Willendorf]]''; c. 26,000 BC (the Gravettian period); limestone with ocre coloring; [[Naturhistorisches Museum]] ([[Vienna]], Austria)]]
Much surviving [[prehistoric art]] is small portable sculptures, with a small group of female [[Venus figurines]] such as the [[Venus of Willendorf]] (24,000–22,000 BC) found across central Europe;<ref>Sandars, 8-16, 29-31</ref> the 30&nbsp;cm tall [[Löwenmensch figurine]] of about 30,000 BCE has hardly any pieces that can be related to it.  The [[Swimming Reindeer]] of about 11,000 BCE is one of the finest of a number of [[Magdalenian]] carvings in bone or antler of animals in the [[art of the Upper Paleolithic]], though they are outnumbered by engraved pieces, which are sometimes classified as sculpture.<ref>Hahn, Joachim, "Prehistoric Europe, §II: Palaeolithic 3. Portable art" in [[Oxford Art Online]], accessed 24 August 2012; Sandars, 37-40</ref> With the beginning of the [[Mesolithic]] in Europe figurative sculpture greatly reduced,<ref>Sandars, 75-80</ref> and remained a less common element in art than relief decoration of practical objects until the Roman period, despite some works such as the [[Gundestrup cauldron]] from the [[European Iron Age]] and the Bronze Age [[Trundholm sun chariot]].<ref>Sandars, 253-257, 183-185</ref>

The oldest European cave art dates to 40,800 years ago and can be found in the [[El Castillo Cave]] in Spain.<ref>{{cite news|last=Kwong|first=Matt|title=Oldest cave-man art in Europe dates back 40,800 years|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/science/oldest-cave-man-art-in-europe-dates-back-40-800-years-1.1285131|publisher=CBC News|access-date=4 December 2012}}</ref>  Other cave painting sites include [[Lascaux]], [[Cave of Altamira]], [[Grotte de Cussac]], [[Pech Merle]], [[Cave of Niaux]], [[Chauvet Cave]], [[Font-de-Gaume]], Creswell Crags, Nottinghamshire, England, (Cave etchings and bas-reliefs discovered in 2003), [[Coliboaia cave]] from [[Romania]] (considered the oldest cave painting in central [[Europe]])<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.sciencemag.org/sciencenow/2010/06/romanian-cave-may-boast-central.html |title=Romanian Cave May Boast Central Europe's Oldest Cave Art &#124; Science/AAAS &#124; News |publisher=News.sciencemag.org |date=21 June 2010 |access-date=2013-08-25}}</ref> and Magura,<ref name="Europeart" /> Belogradchik, Bulgaria.<ref>{{cite web|title=Art of Prehistoric Europe|last=Gunther|first=Michael|url=http://www.art-and-archaeology.com/timelines/europe/prehistoric.html|access-date=4 December 2012}}</ref>  Rock painting was also performed on cliff faces, but fewer of those have survived because of erosion.  One well-known example is the rock paintings of Astuvansalmi in the Saimaa area of Finland. When Marcelino Sanz de Sautuola first encountered the Magdalenian paintings of the Altamira cave, Cantabria, Spain in 1879, the academics of the time considered them hoaxes.  Recent reappraisals and numerous additional discoveries have since demonstrated their authenticity, while at the same time stimulating interest in the artistry of Upper Palaeolithic peoples.  Cave paintings, undertaken with only the most rudimentary tools, can also furnish valuable insight into the culture and beliefs of that era.

The [[Rock art of the Iberian Mediterranean Basin]] represents a very different style, with the human figure the main focus, often seen in large groups, with battles, dancing and hunting all represented, as well as other activities and details such as clothing.  The figures are generally rather sketchily depicted in thin paint, with the relationships between the groups of humans and animals more carefully depicted than individual figures. Other less numerous groups of rock art, many engraved rather than painted, show similar characteristics. The Iberian examples are believed to date from a long period perhaps covering the Upper Paleolithic, Mesolithic and early Neolithic.

Prehistoric [[Celtic art]] comes from much of [[Iron Age Europe]] and survives mainly in the form of high-status metalwork skillfully decorated with complex, elegant and mostly abstract designs, often using curving and spiral forms. There are human heads and some fully represented animals, but full-length human figures at any size are so rare that their absence may represent a religious taboo.  As the Romans conquered Celtic territories, it almost entirely vanishes, but the style continued in limited use in the [[British Isles]], and with the coming of Christianity revived there in the [[Insular style]] of the Early Middle Ages.

<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px">
File:Lascaux painting.jpg|[[Cave paintings]] from [[Lascaux]] caves ([[Montignac, Dordogne]], France)
F07 0054.Ma.JPG|''[[Bison Licking Insect Bite]]''; 15,000–13,000 BC; [[antler]]; National Museum of Prehistory ([[Les Eyzies-de-Tayac-Sireuil]], France)
Bucharest - The Thinker of Cernavoda - no bg.png|''The'' [[Thinker of Cernavoda;|''Thinker of Cernavoda'';]] by [[Hamangia culture]] from Romania; c. 5000 BC; terracotta; height: 11.5&nbsp;cm (4{{1/2}} in.); [[National Museum of Romanian History]] ([[Bucharest]])
Serbia, Vinça culture, Neolithic Era - Vinca Idol - 2000.201 - Cleveland Museum of Art.tif|Female figure; by [[Vinča culture]] from [[Serbia]]; 4500-3500 BC; fired clay with paint; overall: 16.1&nbsp;cm; [[Cleveland Museum of Art]] ([[Ohio]], US)
</gallery>

==Ancient==
===Minoan===
{{Main article|Minoan art}}

The [[Minoan civilization]] of [[Crete]] is regarded as the oldest civilization in Europe.<ref>{{cite web|last=Chaniotis|first=Angelos|title=Ancient Crete|url=http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780195389661/obo-9780195389661-0071.xml;jsessionid=B732A8D81DF46C77A25A3DA2625360A9|work=Oxford Bibliographies|publisher=Oxford University Press|access-date=2 January 2013}}</ref> Minoan art is marked by imaginative images and exceptional workmanship.  [[Sinclair Hood]] described an "essential quality of the finest Minoan art, the ability to create an atmosphere of movement and life although following a set of highly formal conventions".<ref>Hood, 56</ref>  It forms part of the wider grouping of [[Aegean art]], and in later periods came for a time to have a dominant influence over [[Cycladic art]].  Wood and textiles have decomposed, so most surviving examples of Minoan art are [[Minoan pottery|pottery]], intricately carved [[Minoan seals]], .palace [[fresco]]s which include landscapes), small sculptures in various materials, jewellery, and metalwork. 

The relationship of Minoan art to that of other contemporary cultures and later [[Ancient Greek art]] has been much discussed. It clearly dominated [[Mycenaean art]] and [[Cycladic art]] of the same periods,<ref>Hood, 17-18, 23-23</ref> even after Crete was occupied by the Mycenaeans, but only some aspects of the tradition survived the [[Greek Dark Ages]] after the collapse of  [[Mycenaean Greece]].<ref>Hood, 240-241</ref>

Minoan art has a variety of subject-matter, much of it appearing across different media, although only some styles of pottery include figurative scenes.  [[Bull-leaping#Minoan_Crete|Bull-leaping]] appears in painting and several types of sculpture, and is thought to have had a religious significance; bull's heads are also a popular subject in terracotta and other sculptural materials.  There are no figures that appear to be portraits of individuals, or are clearly royal, and the identities of religious figures is often tentative,<ref>Gates (2004), 33-34, 41</ref> with scholars uncertain whether they are deities, clergy or devotees.<ref>eg Hood, 53, 55, 58, 110</ref>  Equally, whether painted rooms were "shrines" or secular is far from clear; one room in Akrotiri has been argued to be a bedroom, with remains of a bed, or a shrine.<ref>Chapin, 49-51</ref>

Animals, including an unusual variety of marine fauna, are often depicted; the "[[Marine Style]]" is a type of painted palace pottery from MM III and LM IA that paints sea creatures including [[octopus]] spreading all over the vessel, and probably originated from similar frescoed scenes;<ref>Hood, 37-38</ref> sometimes these appear in other media.  Scenes of hunting and warfare, and horses and riders, are mostly found in later periods, in works perhaps made by Cretans for a Mycenaean market, or Mycenaean overlords of Crete.

While Minoan figures, whether human or animal, have a great sense of life and movement, they are often not very accurate, and the species is sometimes impossible to identify; by comparison with [[Ancient Egyptian art]] they are often more vivid, but less naturalistic.<ref>Hood, 56, 233-235</ref>  In comparison with the art of other ancient cultures there is a high proportion of female figures, though the idea that Minoans had only goddesses and no gods is now discounted.  Most human figures are in profile or in a version of the Egyptian convention with the head and legs in profile, and the torso seen frontally; but the Minoan figures exaggerate features such as slim male waists and large female breasts.<ref>Hood, 235-236</ref> 

<gallery widths="170px" heights="180px">
AMI - Kamaresvase 1.jpg|''[[Kamares ware]]'' beaked jug; 1850-1675 BC; ceramic; height: 27 cm; from [[Phaistos]] ([[Crete]], Greece); [[Heraklion Archaeological Museum]] (Greece)
Archaeological Museum of Heraklion – Bee pendant (cropped).jpg|The ''[[Malia Pendant]]''; 1800-1700 BC; gold; height: 4.6 cm, width: 4.9 cm; Heraklion Archaeological Museum

Knossos bull leaping fresco.jpg|The fresco named the ''[[Bull-Leaping Fresco]]''; 1675-1460 BC; lime plaster; height: 0.8 m, width: 1 m; from the palace at [[Knossos]] (Crete); Heraklion Archaeological Museum

The Snake Goddess, Knossos, 1650-1550 BC, AMH, 145150.jpg|[[Minoan snake goddess figurines|"Snake Goddess" figurine]]; 1460-1410 BC (from the Minoan Neo-palatial Period); [[faience]]; height: 29.5&nbsp;cm; from the Temple Repository at Knossos; Heraklion Archaeological Museum
</gallery>

=== Classical Greek and Hellenistic ===
{{Main article|Ancient Greek art}}

[[Art of Ancient Greece|Ancient Greece]] had great painters, great sculptors, and great architects. The [[Parthenon]] is an example of their architecture that has lasted to modern days. Greek [[marble sculpture]] is often described as the highest form of [[classicism|Classical]] art.  Painting on the [[pottery of Ancient Greece]] and [[Ceramic art|ceramics]] gives a particularly informative glimpse into the way society in Ancient Greece functioned. [[Black-figure vase painting]] and [[Red-figure vase painting]] gives many surviving examples of what Greek painting was. Some famous Greek painters on wooden panels who are mentioned in texts are [[Apelles]], [[Zeuxis and Parrhasius]], however no examples of Ancient Greek panel painting survive, only written descriptions by their contemporaries or by later Romans.  Zeuxis lived in 5–6 BC and was said to be the first to use [[sfumato]]. According to [[Pliny the Elder]], the realism of his paintings was such that birds tried to eat the painted grapes.  Apelles is described as the greatest painter of [[classical antiquity|Antiquity]] for perfect technique in drawing, brilliant color and modeling.

<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px">
Terracotta Panathenaic prize amphora MET DP245711.jpg|The ''[[Euphiletos Painter Panathenaic prize amphora]]''; 530 BC; painted terracotta; height: 62.2&nbsp;cm; [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]] (New York City)

God of Cape Artemision 01.JPG|The ''[[Artemision Bronze]]''; 460-450 BC; bronze; height: 2.1 m; [[National Archaeological Museum, Athens|National Archaeological Museum]] ([[Athens]])

The Parthenon from the northeast., Acropolis of Athens (13896193092).jpg|The ''[[Parthenon]]'' on the [[Athenian Acropolis]], the most iconic [[Doric order|Doric]] Greek temple built of marble and limestone between circa 460-406 BC, dedicated to the goddess Athena<ref>{{cite book|last1=Mattinson|first1=Lindsay|title=Understanding Architecture A Guide To Architectural Styles|date=2019|publisher=Amber Books|isbn=978-1-78274-748-2|page=21|language=en}}</ref>

Bronze mirror with a support in the form of a draped woman MET DT276.jpg|Mirror with a support in the form of a draped woman; mid-5th century BC; bronze; height: 40.41 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art

Calyx-krater Louvre CA929.jpg|Calyx-[[krater]]; 400-375 BC; ceramic; height: 27.9 cm, diameter: 28.6 cm; from [[Thebes, Greece|Thebes]] (Greece); [[Louvre]]

Funerary stele of Thrasea and Euandria 02.jpg|''The [[Grave relief of Thraseas and Euandria]]''; 375-350 BC; [[Mount Pentelicus#Pentelic marble|Pentelic marble]]; height: 160 cm, width: 91 cm; [[Pergamon Museum]] ([[Berlin]])

Baltimore Painter - Volute Krater - Walters 4886 - Side A.jpg|Volute krater; 320-310 BC; ceramic; height: 1.1 m; [[Walters Art Museum]] ([[Baltimore]], US)

File:Terracotta statuette of a draped woman MET DP117152.jpg|Statuette of a draped woman; 2nd century BC; terracotta; height: 29.2 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art

Front views of the Venus de Milo.jpg|''[[Venus de Milo]]''; 130–100 BC; marble; height: 203&nbsp;cm (80&nbsp;in); Louvre

Laocoon Pio-Clementino Inv1059-1064-1067.jpg|''[[Laocoön and His Sons]]''; early first century BC; marble; height: 2.4 m; [[Vatican Museums]] ([[Vatican City]])

MosaicEpiphany-of-Dionysus.jpg|Mosaic which represents the Epiphany of [[Dionysus]]; 2nd century AD; from the Villa of Dionysus ([[Dion, Greece]]); [[Archeological Museum of Dion]]

Examples of Historical Ornament, Greek by Boston Public Library.jpg|Illustrations of examples of ancient Greek ornaments and patterns, drawn in 1874
</gallery>

=== Roman ===
{{Main article|Roman art}}

[[Roman art]] was influenced by Greece and can in part be taken as a descendant of ancient Greek painting and sculpture, but was also strongly influenced by the more local [[Etruscan art]] of Italy. [[Roman sculpture]], is primarily portraiture derived from the upper classes of society as well as depictions of the gods. However, Roman painting does have important unique characteristics.  Among surviving Roman paintings are wall paintings, many from villas in [[Campania]], in Southern Italy, especially at [[Pompeii]] and [[Herculaneum]]. Such painting can be grouped into four main "styles" or periods<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.art-and-archaeology.com/roman/painting.html |title=Roman Painting |publisher=Art-and-archaeology.com |access-date=2013-08-25}}</ref> and may contain the first examples of [[trompe-l'œil]], pseudo-perspective, and pure landscape.<ref>{{cite web|title=Roman Painting|url=http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/ropt/hd_ropt.htm|work=Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History|date=October 2004 |publisher=The Metropolitan Museum of Art|access-date=19 October 2013}}</ref>

Almost all of the surviving painted portraits from the Ancient world are a large number of [[Fayum mummy portraits|coffin-portrait]]s of bust form found in the [[Late Antique]] cemetery of [[Al-Fayum]].  They give an idea of the quality that the finest ancient work must have had.  A very small number of [[Miniature (illuminated manuscript)|miniatures]] from Late Antique illustrated books also survive, and a rather larger number of copies of them from the early medieval period. [[Early Christian art]] grew out of Roman popular, and later Imperial, art and adapted its [[iconography]] from these sources.

<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px">
Bronze statuette of a philosopher on a lamp stand MET DT2527.jpg|Bronze statuette of a philosopher on a lamp stand; late 1st century BC; bronze; overall: 27.3&nbsp;cm; weight: 2.9&nbsp;kg; [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]] (New York City)

Statue-Augustus.jpg|''[[Augustus of Prima Porta]]''; circa 20 BC; white [[marble]]; height: 2.06 m; [[Vatican Museums]] ([[Vatican City]])

Cubiculum (bedroom) from the Villa of P. Fannius Synistor at Boscoreale MET DP170950.jpg|Restoration of a fresco from an Ancient villa bedroom; 50-40 BC; dimensions of the room: 265.4 x 334 x 583.9 cm; [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]] (New York City)

Autel funéraire d'Amemptus Louvre Ma 488 n1.jpg|Altar with [[festoon|festoons]]; circa 50 AD; marble; height: 99.5 cm, width: 61.5 cm, depth: 47 cm; [[Louvre]]

Marble calyx-krater with reliefs of maidens and dancing maenads MET DT4541.jpg|[[Calyx krater|Calyx]]-[[krater]] with reliefs of maidens and dancing maenads; 1st century AD; [[Mount Pentelicus#Pentelic marble|Pentelic marble]]; height: 80.7 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art

Einblick Panorama Pantheon Rom.jpg|Panoramic view of the [[Pantheon, Rome|Pantheon]] (Rome), built between 113 and 125

Marble head of a goddess wearing a diadem MET DP271743.jpg|Head of a goddess wearing a diadem; 1st–2nd century; marble; height: 23 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art

Couch and footstool with bone carvings and glass inlays MET DP138722.jpg|Couch and footstool; 1st–2nd century AD; wood, bone and glass; couch: 105.4 × 76.2 × 214.6&nbsp;cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art

Sarcofago con apollo, minerva e le muse, dalla via appia, 200 dc ca. 01.JPG|Sarcophagus with [[Apollo]], [[Minerva]] and the [[Muses]]; circa 200 AD; from [[Appian Way|Via Appia]]; [[Antikensammlung Berlin]] (Berlin)

Marble sarcophagus with garlands MET DP140135.jpg|Sarcophagus with [[festoon]]s; 200–225; marble; 134.6 x 223.5&nbsp;cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art

Sousse neptune.jpg|Triumph of Neptune standing on a chariot pulled by two sea horses; mid-3rd century; [[Sousse Archaeological Museum]] (Tunisia)

Theseus Mosaic - Google Art Project.jpg|The ''Theseus Mosaic''; 300-400 AD; marble and limestone pebbles; 4.1 x 4.2 m; [[Kunsthistorisches Museum]] ([[Vienna]], Austria)
</gallery>

==Medieval==
{{main article|Medieval art}}

Most surviving art from the [[medieval]] period was religious in focus, often funded by the [[Roman Catholic Church|Church]], powerful ecclesiastical individuals such as [[bishop]]s, communal groups such as [[abbey]]s, or wealthy secular [[patron]]s. Many had specific liturgical functions—processional [[Christian cross|crosses]] and [[altarpiece]]s, for example.

One of the central questions about medieval art concerns its lack of realism. A great deal of knowledge of [[Perspective (graphical)|perspective]] in art and understanding of the human figure was lost with the fall of [[Roman Empire|Rome]]. But realism was not the primary concern of medieval artists. They were simply trying to send a religious message, a task which demands clear iconic images instead of precisely rendered ones.

'''Time Period''': 6th century to 15th century

===Early medieval art===
[[Migration period art]] is a general term for the art of the "barbarian" peoples who moved into formerly Roman territories. In the British Isles, [[Celtic art]] in the 7th and 8th centuries saw a fusion with [[Germanic peoples | Germanic]] traditions through contact with the [[Anglo-Saxons]], forming what is called the Hiberno-Saxon style or [[Insular art]], which became highly influential on the rest of the Middle Ages. The [[Franks]] developed [[Merovingian art]] until about 800, when [[Carolingian art]] combined insular influences with a self-conscious classical revival, developing into [[Ottonian art]]. [[Anglo-Saxon art]] is the art of England after the Insular period. [[Illuminated manuscript]]s contain nearly all the surviving painting of the period, but architecture, metalwork and small carved work in wood or ivory were also important media.
{{Clear}}

<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px">
Sutton.Hoo.Belt.Buckle.RobRoy.jpg|Buckle of [[Sutton Hoo]]; 580–620; gold and niello; length: 13.1&nbsp;cm; [[British Museum]] (London)
Sutton Hoo Ship Burial - British Museum - Joy of Museums.jpg|The ''[[Sutton Hoo helmet|helmet of Sutton Hoo]]''; early 7th century AD; coppery alloy, iron, gold and [[garnet]]; height: 31.8&nbsp;cm; British Museum
Sutton.Hoo.ShoulderClasp2.RobRoy.jpg|Shoulder-clasps from [[Sutton Hoo]]; early 7th century; gold, glass & [[garnet]]; length: 12.7&nbsp;cm; British Museum
LindisfarneFol27rIncipitMatt.jpg|The [[Incipit]] to the Gospel of Matthew from the [[Book of Lindisfarne]]; late 7th century; ink and pigments on vellum; 34 x 25&nbsp;cm; [[British Library]] (London)
</gallery>

===Byzantine===
{{main article|Byzantine art}}

Byzantine art overlaps with or merges with what we call Early Christian art until the [[iconoclasm]] period of 730-843 when the vast majority of artwork with figures was destroyed; so little remains that today any discovery sheds new understanding. After 843 until 1453 there is a clear Byzantine art tradition. It is often the finest art of the Middle Ages in terms of quality of material and workmanship, with production centered on Constantinople. Byzantine art's crowning achievement were the monumental frescos and mosaics inside domed churches, most of which have not survived due to natural disasters and the appropriation of churches to mosques.

<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px">
Marble slap with relief representation of the Nativity. Later 4th-early 5th c. (8383338579).jpg|Slab with a relief representing the [[Nativity of Jesus]]; 4th-early 5th century; marble; [[Byzantine and Christian Museum]] ([[Athens]])

Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore abside a Roma.jpg|Apse of the ''[[Santa Maria Maggiore]]'' church in [[Rome]], decorated in the 5th century with this glamorous mosaic

Basilica of San Vitale - Lamb of God mosaic.jpg|Mosaics on a ceiling and some walls of the [[Basilica of San Vitale]] in [[Ravenna]] (Italy), circa 547 AD

Church Theotokos Gorgoepikoos and Agios Eleytherios Athens, Greece.jpg|The ''[[Little Metropolis]]'' in [[Athens]], built on unknown dates, between the 9th century to the 13th century

Cameo Pantocrator from jasper, almandines, emerald, chrysoprase (Constantinople, 10-11 c, mount - Byzantine - 12-13 c; Kremlin museum) 01 by shakko.JPG|Cameo; 10th-11th centuries; [[jasper]], [[almandine]], [[emerald]] and [[chrysoprase]]; from [[Constantinople]]; [[Moscow Kremlin Museums]] (Russia)

Jaharis Byzantine Lectionary MET DP160638.jpg|Gospel lectionary; circa 1100; tempera, gold, and ink on parchment, and leather binding; overall: 36.8 x 29.6 x 12.4 cm, folio: 35 x 26.2 cm; [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]] (New York City)

Byzantium, Constantinople - Icon of the New Testament Trinity - 2016.32 - Cleveland Museum of Art.tif|Icon of the New Testament Trinity; circa 1450; tempera and gold on wood panel (poplar); [[Cleveland Museum of Art]] ([[Cleveland]], [[Ohio]], US)

Malnazar - Decorated Incipit Page - Google Art Project.jpg|Page of an Armenian [[illuminated manuscript]]; 1637–1638; tempera colors, gold paint, and [[gold leaf]] on parchment; height: 25.2&nbsp;cm; [[Getty Center]] (Los Angeles)
</gallery>

===Romanesque===
{{main article|Romanesque art}}

Romanesque art refers to the period from about 1000 to the rise of Gothic art in the 12th century.  This was a period of increasing prosperity, and the first to see a coherent style used across Europe, from Scandinavia to Sicily.  Romanesque art is vigorous and direct, was originally brightly coloured, and is often very sophisticated. [[Stained glass]] and [[Vitreous enamel|enamel]] on metalwork became important media, and larger sculptures in the round developed, although [[high relief]] was the principal technique.  Its architecture is dominated by thick walls, and round-headed windows and arches, with much carved decoration.
{{Clear}}

<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px">
Maria Lach 02.jpg|''[[Maria Laach Abbey]]'' (near [[Andernach]], Germany), one of the most iconic Romanesque churches
Vezelay WLM2016 La basilique Sainte-Marie-Madeleine (3).jpg|Stone bas-relief of [[Jesus]], from the [[Vézelay Abbey]] ([[Burgundy]], France)
Évangiles de Liessies - saint Jean - Avesnes-sur-Helpe.jpg|Miniature of [[Saint John the Evangelist]]; before 1147; illumination on parchment; 35.5&nbsp;cm; [[Avesnes-sur-Helpe]] (France)
Klosterkirche Müstair Freske Steinigung Stephanus.jpg|The stoning of Saint Stephen; 1160s; fresco; height: 1.3 m; [[Saint John Abbey, Müstair|Saint John Abbey]] ([[Val Müstair]], [[Canton of Grisons]], Switzerland)
</gallery>

===Gothic===
{{main article|Gothic art}}

Gothic art is a variable term depending on the craft, place and time. The term originated with Gothic architecture in 1140, but Gothic painting did not appear until around 1200 (this date has many qualifications), when it diverged from Romanesque style. Gothic sculpture was born in France in 1144 with the renovation of the Abbey Church of S. Denis and spread throughout Europe, by the 13th century it had become the international style, replacing Romanesque. International Gothic describes Gothic art from about 1360 to 1430, after which Gothic art merges into Renaissance art at different times in different places. During this period forms such as painting, in fresco and on panel, become newly important, and the end of the period includes new media such as prints. {{Clear}}

<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px">
Chartres Cathedral Royal portal Central Bay Tympanum 2007 08 31.jpg|Part of the Royal Portal; 1145–1155; limestone; [[Chartres Cathedral]] ([[Chartres]], France)

Chartres RosetteNord 121 DSC08241.jpg|North transept windows; circa 1230–1235; stained glass; diameter (rose window): 10.2 m; Chartres Cathedral

Scenes from the Legend of Saint Vincent of Saragossa and the History of His Relics - Google Art Project.jpg|Scenes from the Legend of Saint Vincent of Saragossa; 1245–1247; pot-metal glass, vitreous paint, and lead; overall: 373.4 x 110.5 cm; [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]] (New York City)

Diptych with the Coronation of the Virgin and the Last Judgment MET DP102832.jpg|French diptych with the coronation of the Virgin and the Last Judgment; 1260–1270; elephant ivory with metal mounts; overall: 12.7 x 13 x 1.9 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art

Enthroned Virgin and Child MET DP102857.jpg|Enthroned Virgin and child; 1260–1280; elephant ivory with traces of paint and gilding; overall: 18.4 x 7.6 x 7.3 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art

Bifolium with the Decretals of Gratian MET LC 1990 217s5.jpg|Bifolium with the decretals of [[gratian]]; circa 1290; tempera and gold on parchment, brown ink, and modern leather binding; overall: 48.3 x 29.2 x 1.3 cm, opened: 47.2 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art

Diptych with Scenes of the Annunciation, Nativity, Crucifixion, and Resurrection MET DT231706.jpg|German diptych with religious scenes; 1300–1325; silver gilt with translucent and opaque enamels; overall (opened): 6.1 x 8.6 x 0.8 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art

Folio 86v - The Funeral of Raymond Diocrès (cropped).jpg|Page of [[Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry]] depictic the funeral of Raymond Diocrès; 1411-1416 and 1485–1486; [[tempera]] on [[vellum]]; height: 29 cm, width: 21 cm; [[Condé Museum]] ([[Chantilly, France]])

(Toulouse) Mon seul désir (La Dame à la licorne) - Musée de Cluny Paris.jpg|''[[The Lady and the Unicorn]]'', the title given to a series of six [[tapestry|tapestries]] woven in [[Flanders]], this one being called ''À Mon Seul Désir''; late 15th century; wool and silk; 377 x 473 cm; [[Musée de Cluny]] (Paris)

Enthroned Virgin MET DP366930.jpg|Austrian statue of Enthroned Virgin; 1490–1500; limestone with [[gesso]], painted and gilded; 80.3 x 59.1 x 23.5 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art

Entrance in Jerusalem-Master of monogram AH-MBA Lyon H648b-IMG 0241.jpg|''Entrance in [[Jerusalem]]''; circa 1500; painting; [[Museum of Fine Arts of Lyon]] ([[Lyon]], France)

Hotel-de-Sens-DSC 8085.jpg|[[Flamboyant]] Gothic cross-windows of the [[Hôtel de Sens]] (Paris)
</gallery>

==Renaissance==
[[File:Uomo Vitruviano.jpg|thumb|upright=0.80|right|[[Leonardo da Vinci]]'s ''[[Vitruvian Man]]'' (''Uomo Vitruviano'') (c. 1490), a seminal work from the Renaissance. The drawing is inspired and subsequently named after the 1st century BC [[Ancient Rome|Roman architect]]-author [[Vitruvius]] and his notions on the "ideal" [[Body proportions|human body proportions]], found in his ''[[De architectura]]''.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://leonardodavinci.stanford.edu/submissions/clabaugh/history/leonardo.html|title=The Vitruvian Man|website=leonardodavinci.stanford.edu|access-date=25 March 2018}}</ref><ref name="bbc.co.uk">{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/science/leonardo/gallery/vitruvian.shtml|title=BBC - Science & Nature - Leonardo - Vitruvian man|website=www.bbc.co.uk|access-date=25 March 2018}}</ref> The drawing highlights the movement's fascination with [[Graeco-Roman|Graeco-Roman civilisations]] and appropriation of [[classical art]], as well as his pursuit for the correlation between body structure and nature.<ref name="bbc.co.uk"/>]]
{{main article|Renaissance art}}

The [[Renaissance]] is characterized by a focus on the arts of [[Ancient Greece]] and [[Roman Empire|Rome]], which led to many changes in both the technical aspects of painting and sculpture, as well as to their subject matter. It began in [[Italian Renaissance|Italy]], a country rich in Roman heritage as well as material prosperity to fund artists. During the Renaissance, painters began to enhance the realism of their work by using new techniques in [[Perspective (graphical)|perspective]], thus representing three [[dimension]]s more authentically. Artists also began to use new techniques in the manipulation of light and darkness, such as the tone contrast evident in many of [[Titian]]'s portraits and the development of [[sfumato]] and [[chiaroscuro]] by [[Leonardo da Vinci]]. [[Sculpture|Sculptors]], too, began to rediscover many ancient techniques such as [[contrapposto]]. Following with the [[Renaissance humanism|humanist]] spirit of the age, art became more secular in subject matter, depicting ancient [[mythology]] in addition to Christian themes. This genre of art is often referred to as [[Renaissance Classicism]]. In the North, the most important Renaissance innovation was the widespread use of [[oil paint]]s, which allowed for greater colour and intensity.

===From Gothic to the Renaissance===
During the late 13th century and early 14th century, much of the painting in Italy was [[Byzantine art|Byzantine]] in character, notably that of [[Duccio]] of Siena and [[Cimabue]] of Florence, while [[Pietro Cavallini]] in [[Rome]] was more [[Gothic art|Gothic]] in style. During the [[13th century]], Italian sculptors began to draw inspiration not only from medieval prototypes, but also from ancient works.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Fortenberry|first1=Diane|title=THE ART MUSEUM|date=2017|publisher=Phaidon|isbn=978-0-7148-7502-6|page=156|language=en}}</ref>

In 1290, [[Giotto di Bondone|Giotto]] began painting in a manner that was less traditional and more based upon observation of nature. His famous cycle at the [[Scrovegni Chapel]], [[Padua]], is seen as the beginnings of a [[Renaissance art|Renaissance style]].

Other painters of the 14th century were carried the Gothic style to great elaboration and detail. Notable among these painters are [[Simone Martini]] and [[Gentile da Fabriano]].

In the [[Netherlands]], the technique of painting in [[oil paint|oil]]s rather than [[tempera]], led itself to a form of elaboration that was not dependent upon the application of gold leaf and embossing, but upon the minute depiction of the natural world. The art of painting textures with great realism evolved at this time. Dutch painters such as [[Jan van Eyck]] and [[Hugo van der Goes]] were to have great influence on Late Gothic and Early Renaissance painting.

===Early Renaissance===
The ideas of the Renaissance first emerged in the city-state of [[Florence]], [[Italy]]. The sculptor [[Donatello]] returned to classical techniques such as [[contrapposto]] and classical subjects like the unsupported nude—his second sculpture of ''[[David (Donatello, bronze)|David]]'' was the first free-standing bronze nude created in Europe since the Roman Empire. The sculptor and architect [[Filippo Brunelleschi|Brunelleschi]] studied the architectural ideas of ancient Roman buildings for inspiration. [[Tommaso Masaccio|Masaccio]] perfected elements like composition, individual expression, and human form to paint frescoes, especially those in the [[Brancacci Chapel]], of surprising elegance, drama, and emotion.

A remarkable number of these major artists worked on different portions of the [[Florence Cathedral]]. Brunelleschi's dome for the cathedral was one of the first truly revolutionary architectural innovations since the Gothic flying buttress. Donatello created many of its sculptures. Giotto and [[Lorenzo Ghiberti]] also contributed to the cathedral.

<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px">
Pisa, battistero di San Giovanni (45).jpg|[[Pulpit in the Pisa Baptistery]] by [[Nicola Pisano]]; 1260; marble; height: 4.6 m.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Fortenberry|first1=Diane|title=THE ART MUSEUM|date=2017|publisher=Phaidon|isbn=978-0-7148-7502-6|page=156|language=en}}</ref>

CrocifissoCimabue-Arezzo-Photo taken by Senet. April 20, 2010-Perspective correction, crop and blackframe with GIMP by Paolo Villa 2019.jpg|[[Crucifix (Cimabue, Arezzo)|Crucifix]]; by [[Cimabue]]; circa 1285; tempera on panel; 4.29 x 3.83 m; [[San Domenico, Arezzo|San Domenico]] ([[Arezzo]], Italy)<ref>{{cite book|last1=Fortenberry|first1=Diane|title=THE ART MUSEUM|date=2017|publisher=Phaidon|isbn=978-0-7148-7502-6|page=157|language=en}}</ref>

Giotto. the-crucifix-1290-1300 Florence, Santa Maria Novella.jpg|Crucifix; [[Giotto]]; circa 1300; tempera on panel; 5.78 x 4.06 m; [[Santa Maria Novella]] ([[Florence]], Italy)<ref>{{cite book|last1=Fortenberry|first1=Diane|title=THE ART MUSEUM|date=2017|publisher=Phaidon|isbn=978-0-7148-7502-6|page=157|language=en}}</ref>

Maest 0 duccio 1308-11 siena duomo.jpg|The ''[[Maestà (Duccio)|Maestà Altarpiece]]''; by [[Duccio]]; 1308–1311; tempera on panel; 2.46 x 4.67 m; [[Museo dell'Opera del Duomo (Siena)|Museo dell'Opera del Duomo]] ([[Siena]], Italy)
</gallery>

===High Renaissance===
[[High Renaissance]] artists include such figures as [[Leonardo da Vinci]], [[Michelangelo Buonarroti]], and [[Raffaello Sanzio]].

The 15th-century artistic developments in Italy (for example, the interest in perspectival systems, in depicting anatomy, and in classical cultures) matured during the 16th century, accounting for the designations "Early Renaissance" for the 15th century and "High Renaissance" for the 16th century. Although no singular style characterizes the High Renaissance, the art of those most closely associated with this period—Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, Michelangelo, and Titian—exhibits an astounding mastery, both technical and aesthetic. High Renaissance artists created works of such authority that generations of later artists relied on these artworks for instruction.
These exemplary artistic creations further elevated the prestige of artists. Artists could claim divine inspiration, thereby raising visual art to a status formerly given only to poetry. Thus, painters, sculptors, and architects came into their own, successfully claiming for their work a high position among the fine arts. In a sense, 16th- century masters created a new profession with its own rights of expression and its own venerable character.

<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px">
Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) - The Last Supper (1495-1498).jpg|''[[The Last Supper (Leonardo da Vinci)|The Last Supper]]'' (1494–1499), [[Leonardo da Vinci]], [[Santa Maria delle Grazie, Milan|Church of Santa Maria delle Grazie]], Milan

Tempietto di San Pietro in Montorio.jpg|The ''Tempietto'' (towards 1502–1510) in a narrow courtyard of the [[San Pietro in Montorio]] from [[Rome]]

Sandro Botticelli - La nascita di Venere - Google Art Project - edited.jpg|''[[The Birth of Venus]]'' (1484–1486), [[Sandro Botticelli]], [[Uffizi|Uffizi Gallery]], Florence

'David' by Michelangelo Fir JBU002.jpg|''[[David (Michelangelo)|David]]''; by [[Michelangelo]]; 1501–1504; marble; 517&nbsp;cm × 199&nbsp;cm; [[Galleria dell'Accademia]] (Florence)

"The School of Athens" by Raffaello Sanzio da Urbino.jpg|''[[The School of Athens]]''; by [[Raphael]]; 1509–1510; fresco; 5.8 x 8.2 m; [[Apostolic Palace]] ([[Vatican City]])
</gallery>

===Northern art up to the Renaissance===
[[Early Netherlandish painting]] developed (but did not strictly invent) the technique of [[oil painting]] to allow greater control in painting minute detail with realism—[[Jan van Eyck]]&nbsp;(1366–1441) was a figure in the movement from [[illuminated manuscript]]s to [[panel painting]]s.

[[Hieronymus Bosch]] (1450?–1516), a [[Netherlands|Dutch]] painter, is another important figure in the [[Northern Renaissance]]. He used religious themes, but combined them with grotesque fantasies, colorful imagery, and peasant folk legends. His paintings often reflect the confusion and anguish associated with the end of the Middle Ages.

[[Albrecht Dürer]] introduced Italian Renaissance style to Germany at the end of the 15th century, and dominated [[German Renaissance]] art.

'''Time Period''':
* Italian Renaissance: Late 14th century to Early 16th century
* Northern Renaissance: 16th century

<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px">
Lamgods open.jpg|The ''[[Ghent Altarpiece]]''; by [[Jan van Eyck|Jan]] and [[Hubert van Eyck]]; 1432; oil on oak wood; 3.4 m × 4.6 m (opened like in this image); [[St Bavo's Cathedral, Ghent|St Bavo's Cathedral]] ([[Ghent]], [[Belgium]])

Van Eyck - Arnolfini Portrait.jpg|''[[Arnolfini Portrait|The Arnolfini Portrait]]''; by [[Jan van Eyck]]; 1434; oil on panel; 82.2 x 60&nbsp;cm; [[National Gallery]] (London)

El Descendimiento, by Rogier van der Weyden, from Prado in Google Earth.jpg|''[[The Descent from the Cross (van der Weyden)|The Descent from the Cross]]''; by [[Rogier van der Weyden]]; circa 1442; oil on oak panel; 220 × 262 cm; [[Museo del Prado]] ([[Madrid]], Spain)

The Garden of Earthly Delights by Bosch High Resolution.jpg|''[[The Garden of Earthly Delights]]''; by [[Hieronymus Bosch]]; c. 1504; oil on panel; 2.2 × 1.95 m – the central panel; Museo del Prado

The Rhinoceros (NGA 1964.8.697) enhanced.png|''[[Dürer's Rhinoceros|The Rhinoceros]]''; by [[Albrecht Dürer]]; 1515; woodcut; 23.5 cm × 29.8 cm; [[National Gallery of Art]] ([[Washington, D.C.]])

Hans Holbein the Younger - The Ambassadors - Google Art Project.jpg|''[[The Ambassadors (Holbein)|The Ambassadors]]''; by [[Hans Holbein the Younger]]; 1533; oil on panel; 2.07 × 2.09; [[National Gallery]] (London)

Armor of Henry II, King of France (reigned 1547–59) MET DP256960.jpg|The ''[[Parade Armour of Henry II of France]]''; by [[Étienne Delaune]]; circa 1555; [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]] (New York City)

Pieter Bruegel the Elder - The Tower of Babel (Vienna) - Google Art Project.jpg|''[[The Tower of Babel (Bruegel)|The Tower of Babel]]''; by [[Pieter Bruegel the Elder]]; 1563; oil on panel: 1.14 × 1.55 cm; [[Kunsthistorisches Museum]] ([[Vienna]], Austria)
</gallery>

==Mannerism, Baroque, and Rococo==
{{Main article|Mannerism|Baroque|Rococo}}

{{multiple image
|direction = horizontal
|header    = {{center|Differences between Baroque and Rococo art}}
|image1    = Caravaggio 001.jpg
|alt1      = 
|caption1  = Baroque art was characterised by strongly religious and political themes; common characteristics included rich colours with a strong light and dark contrast. Paintings were elaborate, emotional and dramatic in nature. In the image [[Caravaggio]]'s ''Christ at the Column'' (''Cristo alla colonna'')
|width1    = {{#expr: (250 * 800 / 1160) round 0}}
|image2    = The Progress of Love - Love Letters - Fragonard 1771-72.jpg
|alt2      = 
|caption2  = Rococo art was characterised by lighter, often jocular themes; common characteristics included pale, creamy colours, florid decorations and a penchant for bucolic landscapes. Paintings were more ornate than their Baroque counterpart, and usually graceful, playful and light-hearted in nature.
|width2    = {{#expr: (250 * 800 / 1200) round 0}}
}}
In European art, Renaissance Classicism spawned two different movements—[[Mannerism]] and the [[Baroque]]. Mannerism, a reaction against the idealist perfection of Classicism, employed distortion of light and spatial frameworks in order to emphasize the emotional content of a painting and the emotions of the painter. The work of [[El Greco]] is a particularly clear example of [[Mannerism]] in painting during the late 16th, early 17th centuries. [[Northern Mannerism]] took longer to develop, and was largely a movement of the last half of the 16th century. Baroque art took the representationalism of the Renaissance to new heights, emphasizing detail, movement, lighting, and drama in their search for beauty. Perhaps the best known Baroque painters are [[Michelangelo Merisi|Caravaggio]], [[Rembrandt Harmenszoon van Rijn|Rembrandt]], [[Peter Paul Rubens]], and [[Diego Velázquez]].

A rather different art developed out of northern realist traditions in 17th-century [[Dutch Golden Age painting]], which had very little religious art, and little [[history painting]], instead playing a crucial part in developing secular genres such as [[still life]], [[genre painting]]s of everyday scenes, and [[landscape painting]].  While the Baroque nature of Rembrandt's art is clear, the label is less use for [[Vermeer]] and many other Dutch artists. [[Flemish Baroque painting]] shared a part in this trend, while also continuing to produce the traditional categories.

Baroque art is often seen as part of the [[Counter-Reformation]]—the artistic element of the revival of spiritual life in the [[Roman Catholic Church]]. Additionally, the emphasis that Baroque art placed on grandeur is seen as [[Absolutism (European history)|Absolutist]] in nature. Religious and political themes were widely explored within the Baroque artistic context, and both paintings and sculptures were characterised by a strong element of drama, emotion and theatricality. Famous Baroque artists include [[Caravaggio]] or [[Rubens]].<ref name="arthistory-famousartists-paintings.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.arthistory-famousartists-paintings.com/BaroqueArt.html |title=Baroque Art |publisher=Arthistory-famousartists-paintings.com |date=24 July 2013 |access-date=2013-08-25}}</ref> [[Artemisia Gentileschi]] was another noteworthy artist, who was inspired by Caravaggio's style. Baroque art was particularly ornate and elaborate in nature, often using rich, warm colours with dark undertones. Pomp and grandeur were important elements of the Baroque artistic movement in general, as can be seen when [[Louis XIV of France|Louis XIV]] said, "I am grandeur incarnate"; many Baroque artists served kings who tried to realize this goal. Baroque art in many ways was similar to Renaissance art; as a matter of fact, the term was initially used in a derogative manner to describe post-Renaissance art and architecture which was over-elaborate.<ref name="arthistory-famousartists-paintings.com"/> Baroque art can be seen as a more elaborate and dramatic re-adaptation of late Renaissance art.

By the 18th century, however, Baroque art was falling out of fashion as many deemed it too melodramatic and also gloomy, and it developed into the [[Rococo]], which emerged in France. Rococo art was even more elaborate than the Baroque, but it was less serious and more playful.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bc.edu/bc_org/avp/cas/his/CoreArt/art/ancien.html |title=Ancien Regime Rococo |publisher=Bc.edu |access-date=2013-08-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180411162829/http://www.bc.edu/bc_org/avp/cas/his/CoreArt/art/ancien.html |archive-date=11 April 2018 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Whilst the Baroque used rich, strong colours, Rococo used pale, creamier shades. The artistic movement no longer placed an emphasis on politics and religion, focusing instead on lighter themes such as romance, celebration, and appreciation of nature. Rococo art also contrasted the Baroque as it often refused symmetry in favor of asymmetrical designs. Furthermore, it sought inspiration from the artistic forms and ornamentation of [[Far East|Far Eastern Asia]], resulting in the rise in favour of [[porcelain]] figurines and [[chinoiserie]] in general.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/chinoiserie.aspx#3-1E1:chinoise-full|title=chinoiserie facts, information, pictures - Encyclopedia.com articles about chinoiserie|website=www.encyclopedia.com|access-date=25 March 2018}}</ref> The 18th-century style flourished for a short while; nevertheless, the Rococo style soon fell out of favor, being seen by many as a gaudy and superficial movement emphasizing aesthetics over meaning. [[Neoclassicism]] in many ways developed as a counter movement of the Rococo, the impetus being a sense of disgust directed towards the latter's florid qualities.

===Mannerism (16th century)===
{{main|Mannerism}}

<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px">
Jacopo Pontormo - Kreuzabnahme Christi.jpg|''Entombment''; by [[Pontormo|Jacopo da Pontormo]]; 1525–1528; oil on panel; 3.12 x 1.9 m; [[Santa Felicita, Florence|Santa Felicita]] ([[Florence]], Italy)

Parmigianino - Madonna dal collo lungo - Google Art Project.jpg|''[[Madonna with the Long Neck]]''; by [[Parmigianino]]; 1534–1540; oil on panel; 2.19 x 1.32 m; [[Uffizi|Uffizi Gallery]] (Florence)

Angelo Bronzino - Venus, Cupid, Folly and Time - National Gallery, London.jpg|''[[Venus, Cupid, Folly and Time]]''; by [[Agnolo Bronzino|Bronzino]]; mid-1540s; oil on panel; 1.46 x 1.16 m; [[National Gallery]] (London)

Giuseppe Arcimboldo - Summer - Google Art Project.jpg|''[[The Four Seasons (Arcimboldo)|Summer]]''; by [[Giuseppe Arcimboldo]]; 1563; oil on panel; 67 x 50.8&nbsp;cm; [[Kunsthistorisches Museum]] ([[Vienna]], Austria)
</gallery>

===Baroque (early 17th century to mid-early 18th century)===
{{main|Baroque}}

<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px">
Peter Paul Rubens - The Four Continents.jpg|''[[The Four Continents]]''; by [[Peter Paul Rubens]]; circa 1615; oil on canvas; 209 x 284 cm; [[Kunsthistorisches Museum]] ([[Vienna]], Austria)

Olanda, guardaroba (kast), 1625-50 ca.jpg|Dutch wardrobe; 1625–1650; oak with ebony and rosewood veneers; overall: 244.5 x 224.3 x 85.2 cm; [[Cleveland Museum of Art]] ([[Cleveland]], [[Ohio]], US)

La ronda de noche, por Rembrandt van Rijn.jpg|''[[The Night Watch]]''; by [[Rembrandt]]; 1642; oil on canvas; 363 × 437 cm; [[Rijksmuseum]] ([[Amsterdam]], the [[Netherlands]])

Ecstasy of Saint Teresa September 2015-2a.jpg|The ''[[Ecstasy of Saint Teresa]]''; by [[Gian Lorenzo Bernini]]; 1647–1652; marble; height: 3.5 m; [[Santa Maria della Vittoria, Rome|Santa Maria della Vittoria]] (Rome)

Las Meninas, by Diego Velázquez, from Prado in Google Earth.jpg|''[[Las Meninas]]''; by [[Diego Velázquez]]; 1656–1657; oil on canvas; 318 cm × 276 cm; [[Museo del Prado]] ([[Madrid]], Spain)

Cour de Marbre du Château de Versailles October 5, 2011.jpg|The entrance of the ''[[Palace of Versailles]]'' ([[Versailles]], France), the most iconic [[Baroque architecture|Baroque]] building

LouisXIV-Bernini.jpg|The ''[[Bust of Louis XIV (Bernini)|Bust of Louis XIV]]''; by Gian Lorenzo Bernini; 1665; marble; 105 × 99 × 46 cm; Palace of Versailles

Jan Vermeer - The Art of Painting - Google Art Project.jpg|''[[The Art of Painting]]''; by [[Johannes Vermeer]]; 1666–1668; oil on canvas; 1.3 x 1.1 m; Kunsthistorisches Museum

Carpet with Fame and Fortitude MET DP212204.jpg|Carpet with fame and fortitude; 1668–1685; knotted and cut wool pile, woven with about 90 knots per square inch; 909.3 x 459.7 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art

Dome of Church of the Gesù (Rome).jpg|Dome of the [[Church of the Gesù]] (Rome), made in 1674 by [[Giovanni Battista Gaulli]]

Louis XIV of France.jpg|The ''[[Portrait of Louis XIV]]''; by [[Hyacinthe Rigaud]]; 1701; oil on canvas; 277 × 194 cm; [[Louvre]]

Karlskirche Vienna June 2006 475.jpg|The ''[[Karlskirche]]'' in [[Vienna]] (Austria), built between 1716 and 1737
</gallery>

===Rococo (early to mid-18th century)===
{{main|Rococo}}

<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px">
Chinesisches Teehaus Potsdam IMG 3489.jpg|The [[Chinese House (Potsdam)|Chinese House]], a chinoiserie garden pavilion in [[Sanssouci Park]], from [[Potsdam]] (Germany)

Stift Wilhering Kirche Orgel 01.jpg|The amazing interior of the [[Wilhering Abbey]] ([[Wilhering]], [[Austria]]). This interior has a ''[[trompe-l'œil]]'' on its ceiling, surrounded of highly decorated [[stucco]]s

Boiserie from the Hôtel de Varengeville MET DP159273.jpg|Boiserie from the Hôtel de Varengeville; circa 1736–1752; various materials, including carved, painted, and gilded oak; height: 5.58 m, width: 7.07 m, length: 12.36 m; in the [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]] (New York City)

Titelprent voor een oeuvrecatalogus van ontwerpen door Juste Aurèle Meissonnier Oeuvre de Juste Aurele Meissonnier (titel op object) Oeuvre de Juste Aurele Meissonnier (serietitel), RP-P-1998-242.jpg|Title print; by [[Juste Meissonnier]]; 1738–1749; etching on paper; 51.6 x 34.9 cm; Rijksmuseum

Candelabrum (one of a pair) MET DP-12374-040.jpg|Pair of candelabrums; 18th century; soft-paste porcelain; heights (the left one): 26.8 cm, (the right one): 26.4 cm; by the [[Chelsea porcelain factory]]; Metropolitan Museum of Art

Thomas Gainsborough - Mr and Mrs Andrews.jpg|''[[Mr and Mrs Andrews]]''; by [[Thomas Gainsborough]]; circa 1750; oil on canvas; 69.8 x 119.4 cm; [[National Gallery]] (London)

Madame de Pompadour.jpg|''[[Madame de Pompadour]]''; by [[François Boucher]]; 1756; oil on canvas; 2.01 x 1.57 m; [[Alte Pinakothek]] ([[Munich]], Germany)

Fragonard - swing.jpg|''[[The Swing (Fragonard)|The Swing]]''; by [[Jean-Honoré Fragonard]]; 1767–1768; oil on canvas; height: 81 cm, width: 64 cm; [[Wallace Collection]] (London)
</gallery>

==Neoclassicism, Romanticism, Academism, and Realism==
{{Main article|Neoclassicism|Romantic art|Academic art|Realism (arts)}}

[[File:Amor-Psyche-Canova-JBU01.JPG|thumb|right|Neoclassical art, inspired by different classical themes, was characterised by an emphasis on simplicity, order and idealism. In the image [[Antonio Canova]]'s ''[[Psyche Revived by Cupid's Kiss]]'' (1787-1793)]]

Throughout the 18th century, a counter movement opposing the Rococo sprang up in different parts of Europe, commonly known as [[Neoclassicism]]. It despised the perceived superficiality and frivolity of Rococo art, and desired for a return to the simplicity, order and 'purism' of classical antiquity, especially ancient Greece and Rome. The movement was in part also influenced by the Renaissance, which itself was strongly influenced by classical art. Neoclassicism was the artistic component of the intellectual movement known as [[the Enlightenment]]; the Enlightenment was idealistic, and put its emphasis on objectivity, reason and empirical truth. Neoclassicism had become widespread in Europe throughout the 18th century, especially in the [[United Kingdom]], which saw great works of Neoclassical architecture spring up during this period; Neoclassicism's fascination with classical antiquity can be seen in the popularity of the [[Grand Tour]] during this decade, where wealthy aristocrats travelled to the ancient ruins of Italy and Greece. Nevertheless, a defining moment for Neoclassicism came during the [[French Revolution]] in the late 18th century; in France, Rococo art was replaced with the preferred Neoclassical art, which was seen as more serious than the former movement. In many ways, Neoclassicism can be seen as a political movement as well as an artistic and cultural one.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.artsz.org/neoclassicism-art/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080321051447/http://www.artsz.org/neoclassicism-art/ |url-status=usurped |archive-date=21 March 2008 |title=Art in Neoclassicism |publisher=Artsz.org |date=26 February 2008 |access-date=2013-08-25}}</ref> Neoclassical art places an emphasis on order, symmetry and classical simplicity; common themes in Neoclassical art include courage and war, as were commonly explored in ancient Greek and Roman art. [[Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres|Ingres]], [[Antonio Canova|Canova]], and [[Jacques-Louis David]] are among the best-known neoclassicists.<ref name="autogenerated1">James J. Sheehan, "Art and Its Publics, c. 1800," United and Diversity in European Culture c. 1800, ed. [[Tim Blanning]] and [[Hagen Schulze]] (New York: Oxford University Press, 2006), 5-18.</ref>
[[File:La Liberté guidant le peuple - Eugène Delacroix - Musée du Louvre Peintures RF 129 - après restauration 2024.jpg|thumb|[[Eugène Delacroix]], ''[[Liberty Leading the People]]'' 1830, [[Romanticism|Romantic art]].]] 

Just as Mannerism rejected Classicism, so did [[Romanticism]] reject the ideas of the Enlightenment and the aesthetic of the Neoclassicists. Romanticism rejected the highly objective and ordered nature of Neoclassicism, and opted for a more individual and emotional approach to the arts.<ref name="cla.purdue.edu">{{cite web|url=http://www.cla.purdue.edu/english/theory/postmodernism/modules/introduction.html |title=General Introduction to Postmodernism |publisher=Cla.purdue.edu |access-date=2013-08-25}}</ref> Romanticism placed an emphasis on nature, especially when aiming to portray the power and beauty of the natural world, and emotions, and sought a highly personal approach to art. Romantic art was about individual feelings, not common themes, such as in Neoclassicism; in such a way, Romantic art often used colours in order to express feelings and emotion.<ref name="cla.purdue.edu"/> Similarly to Neoclassicism, Romantic art took much of its inspiration from ancient Greek and Roman art and mythology, yet, unlike Neoclassical, this inspiration was primarily used as a way to create symbolism and imagery. Romantic art also takes much of its aesthetic qualities from [[medieval]]ism and [[Gothic art|Gothic]]ism, as well as mythology and [[folklore]]. Among the greatest Romantic artists were [[Eugène Delacroix]], [[Francisco Goya]], [[J. M. W. Turner]], [[John Constable]], [[Caspar David Friedrich]], [[Thomas Cole]], and [[William Blake]].<ref name="autogenerated1" />

Most artists attempted to take a centrist approach which adopted different features of Neoclassicist and Romanticist styles, in order to synthesize them. The different attempts took place within the French Academy, and collectively are called [[Academic art]]. [[Adolphe William Bouguereau]] is considered a chief example of this stream of art.

In the early 19th century the face of Europe, however, became radically altered by [[industrialization]]. Poverty, squalor, and desperation were to be the fate of the new [[working class]] created by the "revolution". In response to these changes going on in society, the movement of [[realism (arts)|Realism]] emerged. Realism sought to accurately portray the conditions and hardships of the poor in the hopes of changing society. In contrast with Romanticism, which was essentially optimistic about mankind, Realism offered a stark vision of poverty and despair. Similarly, while Romanticism glorified nature, Realism portrayed life in the depths of an urban wasteland. Like Romanticism, [[Realism (arts)|Realism]] was a literary as well as an artistic movement. The great [[Realism (visual arts)|Realist]] painters include [[Jean-Baptiste-Siméon Chardin]], [[Gustave Courbet]], [[Jean-François Millet]], [[Jean-Baptiste-Camille Corot|Camille Corot]], [[Honoré Daumier]], [[Édouard Manet]], [[Edgar Degas]] (both considered as [[Impressionism|Impressionist]]s), and [[Thomas Eakins]], among others.

The response of architecture to industrialisation, in stark contrast to the other arts, was to veer towards historicism. Although the railway stations built during this period are often considered the truest reflections of its spirit – they are sometimes called "the cathedrals of the age" – the main movements in architecture during the Industrial Age were revivals of styles from the distant past, such as the [[Gothic Revival architecture|Gothic Revival]]. Related movements were the [[Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood]], who attempted to return art to its state of "purity" prior to [[Raphael]], and the [[Arts and Crafts Movement]], which reacted against the impersonality of mass-produced goods and advocated a return to medieval craftsmanship.

'''Time Period''':
*[[Neoclassicism]]: mid-early 18th century to early 19th century
*[[Romanticism]]: late 18th century to mid-19th century
*[[Realism (arts)|Realism]]: 19th century

==Modern art==
{{main article|Impressionism|Post Impressionism|Fauvism|Cubism|Modern art|Modernism|Late modernism}}

[[File:Monet Houses of Parliament, Sunset.jpg|thumb|upright=0.9|right|Impressionism was known for its usage of light and movement in its paintings, as in [[Claude Monet]]'s 1902 ''[[Houses of Parliament (Monet series)|Houses of Parliament, sunset]]'']]
[[File:Art-LanguageV3No1-1974.jpg|thumb|right|[[Art & Language]] are known for their major input on conceptual art.|299x299px]]
Out of the naturalist ethic of Realism grew a major artistic movement, [[Impressionism]]. The Impressionists pioneered the use of light in painting as they attempted to capture light as seen from the human eye. [[Edgar Degas]],
[[Édouard Manet]], [[Claude Monet]], [[Camille Pissarro]], and [[Pierre-Auguste Renoir]], were all involved in the Impressionist movement. As a direct outgrowth of Impressionism came the development of [[Post-Impressionism]]. [[Paul Cézanne]], [[Vincent van Gogh]], [[Paul Gauguin]], [[Georges Seurat]] are the best known Post-Impressionists.

Following the Impressionists and the [[Post-Impressionists]] came [[Fauvism]], often considered the first "modern" genre of art. Just as the Impressionists revolutionized light, so did the fauvists rethink [[color]], painting their canvases in bright, wild hues. After the Fauvists, [[modern art]] began to develop in all its forms, ranging from [[Expressionism]], concerned with evoking emotion through objective works of art, to [[Cubism]], the art of transposing a [[Fourth dimension in art|four-dimensional]] reality onto a flat canvas, to [[Abstract art]]. These new art forms pushed the limits of traditional notions of "art" and corresponded to the similar rapid changes that were taking place in human society, technology, and thought.

[[Surrealism]] is often classified as a form of Modern Art. However, the Surrealists themselves have objected to the study of surrealism as an era in art history, claiming that it oversimplifies the complexity of the movement (which they say is not an artistic movement), misrepresents the relationship of surrealism to [[aesthetics]], and falsely characterizes ongoing surrealism as a finished, historically encapsulated era. Other forms of Modern art (some of which border on [[Contemporary art]]) include:

{{div col|colwidth=22em}}
* [[Abstract expressionism]]
* [[Art Deco]]
* [[Art Nouveau]]
* [[Bauhaus]]
* [[Color Field painting]]
* [[Conceptual Art]]
* [[Constructivism (art)|Constructivism]]
* [[Cubism]]
* [[Dada]]
* [[Der Blaue Reiter]]
* [[De Stijl]]
* [[Die Brücke]]
* [[Body art]]
* [[Expressionism]]
* [[Fauvism]]
* [[Fluxus]]
* [[Futurism]]
* [[Happening]]
* [[Surrealism]]
* [[Lettrisme]]
* [[Lyrical Abstraction]]
* [[Land art]]
* [[Minimalism]]
* [[Naive art]]
* [[Op art]]
* [[Performance art]]
* [[Photorealism]]
* [[Pop art]]
* [[Suprematism]]
* [[Video art]]
* [[Vorticism]]
{{div col end}}

'''Time Period''': 
* Impressionism: late 19th Century
* Others: First half of the 20th century

==Contemporary art and Postmodern art==
[[Image:Charles Thomson. Sir Nicholas Serota Makes an Acquisitions Decision.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Charles Thomson (artist)|Charles Thomson]]. ''[[Sir Nicholas Serota Makes an Acquisitions Decision]]'', 2000, [[Stuckism]].]]
{{Main article|Contemporary art|Postmodern art}}

Modern art foreshadowed several characteristics of what would later be defined as postmodern art; as a matter of fact, several modern art movements can often be classified as both modern and postmodern, such as [[pop art]]. Postmodern art, for instance, places a strong emphasis on irony, parody and humour in general; modern art started to develop a more ironic approach to art which would later advance in a postmodern context. Postmodern art sees the blurring between the high and fine arts with low-end and commercial art; modern art started to experiment with this blurring.<ref name="cla.purdue.edu"/>
Recent developments in art have been characterised by a significant expansion of what can now deemed to be art, in terms of materials, media, activity and concept. [[Conceptual art]] in particular has had a wide influence. This started literally as the replacement of concept for a made object, one of the intentions of which was to refute the commodification of art. However, it now usually refers to an artwork where there is an object, but the main claim for the work is made for the thought process that has informed it. The aspect of commercialism has returned to the work.

There has also been an increase in art referring to previous movements and artists, and gaining validity from that reference.

[[Postmodernism]] in art, which has grown since the 1960s, differs from [[Modernism]] in as much as Modern art movements were primarily focused on their own activities and values, while Postmodernism uses the whole range of previous movements as a reference point. This has by definition generated a relativistic outlook, accompanied by irony and a certain disbelief in values, as each can be seen to be replaced by another. Another result of this has been the growth of commercialism and celebrity. Postmodern art has questioned common rules and guidelines of what is regarded as '[[fine art]]', merging [[low culture|low art]] with the fine arts until none is fully distinguishable.<ref>''Ideas About Art'', Desmond, Kathleen K. [https://books.google.com/books?id=iP4sA3kwcFsC&q=ideas+about+art] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221029174415/https://books.google.com/books?id=iP4sA3kwcFsC&dq=ideas+about+art&source=gbs_navlinks_s|date=29 October 2022}} John Wiley & Sons, 2011, p.148</ref><ref>''International postmodernism: theory and literary practice'', Bertens, Hans [https://books.google.com/books?id=n_Eqx2Gr1vUC&q=international+postmodernism:+theory+and+literary+practice] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221029174416/https://books.google.com/books?id=n_Eqx2Gr1vUC&dq=international+postmodernism:+theory+and+literary+practice&source=gbs_navlinks_s|date=29 October 2022}}, Routledge, 1997, p.236</ref> Before the advent of postmodernism, the fine arts were characterised by a form of aesthetic quality, elegance, craftsmanship, finesse and intellectual stimulation which was intended to appeal to the [[upper class|upper]] or educated classes; this distinguished high art from low art, which, in turn, was seen as tacky, [[kitsch]], easily made and lacking in much or any intellectual stimulation, art which was intended to appeal to the masses. Postmodern art blurred these distinctions, bringing a strong element of kitsch, commercialism and [[camp (style)|campness]] into contemporary fine art;<ref name="cla.purdue.edu"/> what is nowadays seen as fine art may have been seen as low art before postmodernism revolutionised the concept of what high or fine art truly is.<ref name="cla.purdue.edu"/> In addition, the postmodern nature of contemporary art leaves a lot of space for individualism within the art scene; for instance, postmodern art often takes inspiration from past artistic movements, such as Gothic or Baroque art, and both juxtaposes and recycles styles from these past periods in a different context.<ref name="cla.purdue.edu"/>

Some [[Surrealism|surrealist]]s in particular [[Joan Miró]], who called for the "murder of painting" (In numerous interviews dating from the 1930s onwards, Miró expressed contempt for conventional painting methods and his desire to "kill", "murder", or "rape" them in favor of more contemporary means of expression)<ref>M. Rowell, ''Joan Mirό: Selected Writings and Interviews'' (London: [[Thames & Hudson]], 1987) pp. 114–116.</ref> have denounced or attempted to "supersede" painting, and there have also been other anti-painting trends among artistic movements, such as that of [[Dada]] and [[conceptual art]]. The trend away from painting in the late 20th century has been countered by various movements, for example the continuation of [[Minimal Art]], [[Lyrical Abstraction]], [[Pop Art]], [[Op Art]], [[New Realism]], [[Photorealism]], [[Neo-minimalism|Neo Geo]], [[Neo-expressionism]], [[New European Painting]], [[Stuckism]], [[Excessivism]] and various other important and influential painterly directions.

==See also==
*[[History of art]]
*[[History of painting]]
* ''[[Lives of the Most Excellent Painters, Sculptors, and Architects]]'' (16th century book)
* [[Modernism]]
* [[Painting in the Americas before European colonization]]
*[[List of time periods]]

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

==Bibliography==
*Chapin, Anne P., "Power, Privilege and Landscape in Minoan Art", in ''Charis: Essays in Honor of Sara A. Immerwahr'', ''Hesperia'' (Princeton, N.J.) 33, 2004, ASCSA, {{ISBN|0876615337}}, 9780876615331, [https://books.google.com/books?id=zQOQey4OkAsC&pg=PA181 google books]
*Gates, Charles, "Pictorial Imagery in Minoan Wall Painting", in ''Charis: Essays in Honor of Sara A. Immerwahr'', ''Hesperia'' (Princeton, N.J.) 33, 2004, ASCSA, {{ISBN|0876615337}}, 9780876615331, [https://books.google.com/books?id=zQOQey4OkAsC&pg=PA181 google books]
*[[Sinclair Hood|Hood, Sinclair]], ''The Arts in Prehistoric Greece'', 1978, Penguin (Penguin/Yale History of Art), {{ISBN|0140561420}}
* Sandars, Nancy K., ''Prehistoric Art in Europe'', Penguin (Pelican, now Yale, History of Art), 1968 (nb 1st edn.; early datings now superseded)

==External links==
{{commons category|Art of Europe}}
* [http://www.wga.hu Web Gallery of Art]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20100310045105/http://www.colorado.edu/English/courses/ENGL2012Klages/pomo.html Postmodernism]
* [http://www.euartist.com/portal European artists community ]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070607140521/http://www.aiwaz.net/panopticon Panopticon Virtual Art Gallery]

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