View source for Arrack

{{Short description|South and Southeast Asian alcoholic drink}}
{{About||the Levantine unsweetened distilled spirit|Arak (drink)|the date-liquor distilled illegally in Sudan|Araqi (drink)}}
{{Use shortened footnotes|date=May 2023}}
{{Infobox beverage
|name = Arrack
|image = [[File:Bottlesofarrack.jpg|200px]]
|caption = Two kinds of arrack from [[Sri Lanka]]
|type = [[Alcoholic drink]]
|manufacturer = 
|origin = [[Indian subcontinent]] and [[Southeast Asia]]
|abv = 33–50% 
|proof = 66–100°
|introduced = 
|color = Golden brown
|flavor = 
|ingredients = [[Fermentation (food)|Fermented]] [[coconut sugar]] or [[sugarcane]]
|variants = 
|related = 
|website =
}}
'''Arrack''' is a [[Distillation|distilled]] [[alcoholic drink]] typically produced in [[India]], [[Sri Lanka]] and [[Southeast Asia]], made from the [[Fermentation (food)|fermented]] sap of coconut flowers or [[sugarcane]], and also with grain (e.g. red rice) or [[fruit]] depending upon the country of origin. It is sometimes spelled '''arak''',{{sfn|Dobbin|1996|p=54}} or simply referred to as 'rack or 'rak.<ref name="abbott1">{{cite book |last=Abbott |first=Edward |title=The English and Australian Cookery Book |url=https://archive.org/details/b21505524 |date=1864}}</ref> It is not to be confused with the [[anise]]-flavored [[Liquor|distilled spirit]] called [[Arak (drink)|arak]] or araq. In many parts of India arrack is colloquially known as "desi daru".

There are two primary styles of arrack that are very different from one another:<ref name="mixology1">{{cite web |title=Lost Ingredients: Arrack |url=https://mixology.eu/en/drinks-en/lost-ingredients-arrack/ |website=Mixology |access-date=19 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190120043320/https://mixology.eu/en/drinks-en/lost-ingredients-arrack/ |archive-date=20 January 2019}}</ref> ''Batavia arrack'' is often clear in color but has a flavor profile more similar to dark rum, with a distinctive "funk" or "hogo" imparted to it from fermented red rice. Sri Lankan (Ceylon) arrack, by contrast, is a more refined and subtle spirit. It has hints of cognac and rum character and a wealth of delicate floral notes. Both styles are also made "in house" by local citizenry and can be more akin to [[moonshine]] in their presentation.

==History==
[[Strabo]] reports Indians made a beverage from rice which is known as arak.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Reddy|first=Anjana|title=Archaeology of Indo-Gulf Relations in the Early Historic Period: The Ceramic Evidence, in H.P Ray (ed.) 'Bridging the Gulf: Maritime Cultural Heritage of the Western Indian Ocean', Manohar Publishers, New Delhi|url=https://www.academia.edu/20135170|language=en}}</ref> Arrack predates all "New World" spirits, as it is a parent to [[aguardiente]] (which was, in turn, the parent of [[rum]], rhum agricole, and ron).<ref name="mixology1"/> Genoese merchants made the spirit as a byproduct of their sugar cane production in the Canary Islands. Besides making sugar, they produced arrack instead of importing it for their growing list of customers. Other early arrack was distilled from molasses and water, using dried cakes of red rice and botanicals that contain yeast and other fungi to trigger the fermentation process (this technique can be traced back thousands of years to China and even predates the birth of distillation).<ref name="mixology1"/> It is also claimed to have been distilled in India in 800 BC, but while [[palm wine]] and fermented sugar-cane drinks were being made around this time period not all believe that formal distillation was taking place.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Broom |first1=Dave |title=Spirits |url=https://archive.org/details/spiritscocktails0000broo |url-access=registration |date=1998 |publisher=Carlton Books |isbn=1-85868-485-4 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/spiritscocktails0000broo/page/179 179]}}</ref>

Outside Asia, the spirit was a common ingredient in the proliferation of Indian alcoholic [[Punch (drink)|punch]], and was particularly popular in Holland and Sweden. It was the first distilled spirit consumed in the continental US, in the colonies of New Sweden and New Netherland,<ref>{{cite book |title=Midland Druggist & Pharmaceutical Review |date=Feb 1909 |publisher=Midland Publish Company |location=Columbus, OH |page=193}}</ref> but is now mostly confused with the more common and similar spelled anise-flavored spirit [[Arak (drink)|arak]].

{{anchor|polysemy}}Regardless of the exact origin, arrack has come to symbolize a multitude of largely unrelated, distilled alcohols produced throughout [[Asia]] and the eastern Mediterranean. This is largely due to the proliferation of distillation knowledge throughout the Middle East during the 14th century. Each country named its own alcohol by using various [[Latin alphabet]] forms of the same word which was synonymous with distillation at the time (''arak, araka, araki, ariki, arrack, arack, raki, raque, racque, rac, rak'').{{sfn|Lopez|1990|p=109}} 1864 [[The English and Australian Cookery Book|English and Australian Cookery Book]] described arrack as "a spirituous liquor from the East Indies. This term, or its corruption, rack, is applied to any spirituous liquor in the East. The true arrack is said to be distilled from ''toddy'', the fermented juice of the coconut flower. It is however, frequently distilled from rice and sugar, fermented with the cocoa-nut juice."<ref name="abbott1"/>

==Arrack in different countries==
===India===
Arrack was banned in the states of [[Kerala]] in 1996,<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20140222173037/http://ibnlive.in.com/news/arrack-ban-to-stay-in-kerala/35998-3.html Arrack ban to stay in Kerala<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> and [[Karnataka]] on 1 July 2007.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20150121085125/http://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/2007-06-30/news/28461641_1_arrack-karnataka-imfl Arrack ban in Karnataka from tomorrow – Economic Times<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref><ref>[http://www.deccanherald.com/content/332487/siddu-wants-cheap-safe-liquor.html Siddu wants cheap, safe liquor for poor<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>
[[File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM 'Arak (likeur)-stokerij Maatschappij 'Aparak' Batavia' TMnr 10014126.jpg|thumb|Batavian arrack factory "Aparak" in 1948]]

===Indonesia (Batavia) arrack===
Within Indonesia itself, the term ''arak'' is still widely used to describe arrack. Arak (or rice wine) was a popular alcoholic beverage during the colonial era.{{sfn|Merrillees|2015|p=82}} It is considered the "rum" of Indonesia because, like rum, it is distilled from sugarcane. It is a [[pot still]] distillation. To start the fermentation, local fermented [[red rice]] is combined with local [[yeast]] to give a unique [[Flavoring|flavor]] and [[Odor|smell]] of the distillate. It is distilled to approx. 70% ABV. Like rum, Batavia-arrack is often a blend of different original parcels.

One of the longest established arrack companies in Indonesia is the Batavia Arak Company (Dutch ''Batavia-Arak Maatschappij''), which was already in business by 1872, became a limited liability company in 1901, and was still operating in the early 1950s. The Batavia Arak Company also exported arack to the Netherlands and had an office in Amsterdam. Some of the arrack brand produced by Batavia Arak Company were KWT (produced in the Bandengan (Kampung Baru) area of [[Kota Tua Jakarta|old Jakarta]]) and OGL.{{sfn|Merrillees|2015|p=82}} Still commonly available in Northern Europe and Southern Asia, Batavia-arrack can be difficult to find in the United States. ''Batavia-Arrack van Oosten'' is a more recently available brand.<ref>{{cite web |title=Batavia-Arrack van Oosten |url=https://alpenz.com/product-batavia.html |website=alpenz.com |access-date=19 January 2019}}</ref>

Batavia-arrack is said to enhance flavor when used as a component in other products, such as [[pastry|pastries]] (like the [[Finland|Finnish]] [[Runeberg torte]] or the [[Stollen|Dresdner Stollen]]), or in the [[confectionery]] and flavor industries. It is used in herbal and bitter liqueurs, and as a component in alcoholic punches (such as [[punsch]], regent punch,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Grohusko |first1=Jacob |title=Jack's Manual |url=https://archive.org/details/jacksmanualonvin00groh |date=1910 |publisher=McClunn & Co. |location=NY |page=[https://archive.org/details/jacksmanualonvin00groh/page/66 66]}}</ref> royal punch,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Mahoney |first1=Charles |title=Hoffman House Bartenders Guide |date=1912 |publisher=Richard Fox Publishing |location=Franklin Square, NY |page=180}}</ref> and black tea-port milk punch<ref>{{cite web |title=Black Tea-Port Milk Punch |url=https://www.splendidtable.org/recipes/black-tea-port-milk-punch |website=splendidtable.org |access-date=24 January 2019}}</ref>).

Its use in punch was noted by early American bartender Jerry Thomas: "Most of the arrack imported into this country is distilled from rice, and comes from Batavia. It is but little used in America, except to flavor punch; the taste of it is very agreeable in this mixture. Arrack improves very much with age. It is much used in some parts of India, where it is distilled from toddy, the juice of the coconut tree".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Thomas |first1=Jerry |title=Bartender's Guide |date=1862 |publisher=Dic & Fitzgerald |location=New York |page=30}}</ref>

In Indonesia, arrack is often created as a form of [[Moonshine#Indonesia|moonshine]].

==== Methanol poisoning ====
Indonesian arak containing methanol has caused both local and tourist deaths from [[methanol toxicity]].<ref>{{Cite web|date=2016-09-06|title=Vodka and lime killed a 19-year-old Aussie. His death was so avoidable|url=https://www.news.com.au/travel/travel-updates/incidents/the-aussie-tourist-hot-spot-where-poisoning-deaths-are-a-very-real-risk/news-story/14bc53b9c3838d41317894ecdaf9c0a4|access-date=2021-02-18|website=NewsComAu|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Family blames local drink for teacher's holiday death|url=https://www.independent.ie/irish-news/family-blames-local-drink-for-teachers-holiday-death-28903864.html|access-date=2021-02-18|website=independent|date=21 November 2012 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Poisoned nurse back home in Newcastle - ABC (none) - Australian Broadcasting Corporation|url=http://www.abc.net.au/local/stories/2011/10/12/3337722.htm|access-date=2021-02-18|website=www.abc.net.au}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|date=2009-06-02|title=More alcohol deaths in Indonesia|language=en-GB|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8079531.stm|access-date=2021-02-18}}</ref> Arak plays a socially and culturally important role in Balinese society, where it is often diluted with water, shared with friends, or drunk in small quantities during religious ceremonies. However, with the growth of tourism, the need for cheap alcohol, and increases in alcohol import taxes and regulations, arak became the spirit of choice for many mixed drinks in bars. With the growth in arak production and popularity, more deaths from methanol poisoning were reported. Arak is usually sold on the black market, without regulation, where methanol is sometimes added for economic reasons, or out of the assumption that it will be more potent.<ref>{{Cite web|title=More than a fatal attraction|url=https://www.insideindonesia.org/more-than-a-fatal-attraction|access-date=2025-02-20|website=Inside Indonesia|language=en-gb}}</ref>

===Philippines===
{{Main|Tuba (wine)|Lambanog|Laksoy|Bahalina|Basi|Tapuy}}
{{multiple image
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A [[Filipino language|Filipino]] term for distilled and undistilled alcoholic drinks in general is ''alak'', derived from the [[Arabic language|Arabic]] word ''ʿaraq''.  The term ''arak'', though, is specifically used in [[Ilocano language|Ilocano]]. They can be derived from palm sap (notably [[coconut]], [[nipa palm]], or [[kaong palm]]), sugarcane, or rice. Native alcohol that are traditionally distilled include [[lambanóg]] and [[laksoy]], which are made from the sap of palm flowers. The sap is harvested into bamboo receptacles similar to [[rubber tapping]], then cooked or fermented to produce a mildly-alcoholic [[Palm wine|coconut toddy]] called ''[[Tuba (wine)|tubâ]]''. The ''tubà'', which by itself is also a popular beverage, is further distilled to produce [[lambanóg]] (or [[laksoy]], if made from nipa palm sap).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Scott |first1=William Henry |title=Sixteenth-Century Visayan Food and Farming |journal=Philippine Quarterly of Culture and Society |date=1990 |volume=18 |issue=4 |pages=291–311 |jstor=29792029 }}</ref><ref name="Fenix">{{cite news |last1=Fenix |first1=Micky |title=Filipinos are the world's biggest consumers of gin, but... |url=https://lifestyle.inquirer.net/111489/filipinos-are-the-worlds-biggest-consumers-of-gin-but/ |newspaper=Philippine Daily Inquirer |access-date=5 May 2019}}</ref><ref name="Demetrio">{{cite journal |last1=Demetrio |first1=Feorillo Petronilo A. III |title=Colonization and Alcoholic Beverages of Early Visayans from Samar and Leyte |journal=Malay |date=2012 |volume=25 |issue=1 |pages=1–18 |url=https://ejournals.ph/article.php?id=8021}}</ref>

The Italian explorer [[Antonio Pigafetta]] stated that the arrack that he drank in [[Palawan]] and nearby islands in 1521 was made from distilled rice wine.<ref>[http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42884/42884-h/42884-h.htm The Philippine Islands, 1493–1898 (Volume XXXIII, 1519–1522)]</ref> However, he was likely referring to ''[[pangasi]]'', a rice wine which is not distilled.<ref name="Demetrio"/>

===Sri Lanka (Ceylon) arrack===
[[File:RCA bottle shot.jpeg|thumb|upright=0.7|left|"Ceylon Arrack"]]
[[Sri Lanka]] is the largest producer of coconut arrack and up until 1992 the government played a significant role in its production.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.island.lk/2005/11/06/business13.html |title=Distilleries Company - 'One of the World's Greatest Privatisation Stories'|newspaper=[[The Island (Sri Lanka)|The Island]]|access-date=11 October 2015}}</ref><ref>[https://thinkworth.wordpress.com/2014/02/03/sls-sin-industry-and-sin-tax/ SL's Sin Industry and Sin Tax], W. A. Wijewardena Daily Ft ThinkWorth, Accessed 2015-10-11</ref>

Other than water, the entire manufacturing process revolves around the fermentation and distillation of a single ingredient, the sap of unopened flowers from a coconut palm [[coconut|(''Cocos nucifera'')]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Encyclopedia of Sri Lanka|first=Charles A.|last=Gunawardena|publisher=Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd|date=2005|pages=22–23|isbn=978-1-932705-48-5}}</ref> Each morning at dawn, men known as [[palm wine|toddy tappers]] move among the tops of coconut trees using connecting ropes not unlike tightropes. A single tree may contribute up to two litres per day.

Due to its concentrated sugar and [[yeast]] content, the captured liquid naturally and immediately ferments into a mildly alcoholic drink called "[[Palm toddy|toddy]]", ''tuak'', or occasionally "[[palm wine]]". Within a few hours after collection, the toddy is poured into large wooden vats, called "wash backs", made from the wood of [[teak]] or [[Berrya cordifolia]]. The natural fermentation process is allowed to continue in the washbacks until the alcohol content reaches 5-7% and deemed ready for distillation.

Distillation is generally a two-step process involving either [[pot still]]s, [[column still|continuous stills]], or a combination of both. The first step results in "low wine", a liquid with an alcohol content between 20 and 40%.<ref>{{cite web|title=Arrack for Dummy's|date=22 July 2010 |url=http://ceylontease.blogspot.com/2010/07/arrack-for-dummys.html|access-date=17 October 2010}}</ref> The second step results in the final distillate with an alcohol content of 60 to 90%. It is generally diluted to between 33% and 50% alcohol by volume (ABV) or 66 to 100 [[Alcoholic proof|proof]]. The entire distillation process is completed within 24 hours. Various blends of coconut arrack diverge in processing, yet the extracted spirit may also be sold raw, repeatedly distilled or filtered, or transferred back into halmilla vats for maturing up to fifteen years, depending on flavour, colour and fragrance requirements.

Premium blends of arrack add no other ingredients, while the inexpensive and common blends are mixed with [[Neutral grain spirit|neutral spirits]] before bottling. Most people describe the taste as resembling "...a blend between [[whiskey]] and [[rum]]", similar, but distinctively different at the same time.

Coconut arrack is traditionally consumed by itself or with [[ginger beer]], a popular soda in Sri Lanka. It also may be mixed in [[cocktails]] as a substitute for the required portions of either rum or whiskey. Arrack is often combined with popular mixers such as [[cola]], [[carbonated water|soda water]], and lime juice.

==== Production types ====
According to the Alcohol and Drug Information Centre's 2008 report on alcohol in Sri Lanka, the types of arrack are:<ref name="adicsrilanka.org">{{cite web |title=A Sip into Sri Lanka's Spirited Realm: Unveiling the Alcohol Industry's Evolution (2019-2021) |url=https://www.finespirits.my/a-sip-into-sri-lankas-spirited-realm-unveiling-the-alcohol-industrys-evolution-2019-2021/ }}</ref>

*Special arrack, which is produced in the highest volume, nearly doubling in production between 2002 and 2007. 
* Molasses arrack is the least-processed kind and considered the common kind.<ref name="adicsrilanka.org"/>  Nevertheless, as a whole, arrack is the most popular local alcoholic beverage consumed in Sri Lanka and produced as a wide variety of brands that fit into the following three categories:
*Premium aged, after distillation, is aged in halmilla vats for up to fifteen years to mature and mellow the raw spirit before blending.  Premium brands include Ceylon Arrack, VSOA, VX, Vat9, Old Reserve and Extra Special.
*Premium clear is generally not aged, but often distilled and/or filtered multiple times to soften its taste. Premium clear brands include Double Distilled and Blue Label.
*Common is blended with other alcohols produced from molasses or mixed with neutral spirits as filler.

====Producers====
Sri Lanka's largest manufacturers, listed in order based on their 2019 annual production of arrack,<ref name="adicsrilanka.org"/> are:

* DCSL ([[Distilleries Company of Sri Lanka]]), 16.44 million litres
* IDL (International Distilleries Ltd), 1.61 million litres
* Rockland Distilleries (Pvt) Ltd, 1.18 million litres
* Acme Lanka Ltd, 0.92 million litres

Ceylon Arrack, a brand of Sri Lankan coconut arrack, was recently launched in the UK in 2010. It is also available in France and Germany.<ref>[http://www.ceylonarrack.com/main.html Ceylon Arrack Bottled in UK] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100327073230/http://www.ceylonarrack.com/main.html |date=March 27, 2010 }} Retrieved 18 September 2009</ref> White Lion VSOA entered the American market soon after.<ref>{{cite web|title=Arrack coming soon to US|url=http://www.oldarrack.com/Buy-Old-Arrack-in-US.php|access-date=17 October 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110604124819/http://www.oldarrack.com/Buy-Old-Arrack-in-US.php|archive-date=4 June 2011}}</ref>
[[File:White Lion VSOA Coconut Arrack.png|thumb|upright=0.5|Coconut arrack for export]]

===St Helena===
Historically arrack has been a common beverage on the island of [[St Helena]], distilled from potatoes.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Endemic Flora of St Helena|author=Cronk, Quentin C. B.|publisher=A. Nelson|date=2000|isbn=978-0-904614-35-0|page=20}}</ref> This is likely due to influences of the [[East India Company]], which controlled St Helena and used it as a halfway point between India and England.<ref>{{cite book|title=A History of the Island of St. Helena: From its Discovery by the Portuguese to the Year 1806|url=https://archive.org/details/ahistoryislands00broogoog|author=Brooke, Thomas H.|publisher=Black, Parry and Kingsbury|date=1808|page=[https://archive.org/details/ahistoryislands00broogoog/page/n189 167]}}</ref>

=== Sweden and Finland ===
In Sweden and Finland, Batavia-arrack has historically been mixed with other ingredients in order to make Swedish [[punsch]] (now available in prepackaged bottles). The alcohol content is normally not over 25%, although it has a high sugar content of nearly 30%. The original recipe was a mixture of arrack with water, sugar, lemon, and tea and/or spices (chiefly nutmeg).<ref name="mixology1"/> Today punsch is drunk warm (in Sweden) or cold (in Finland) as an accompaniment to yellow split pea soup (in Sweden) or green split pea soup (in Finland), or chilled as an after dinner drink accompanied with coffee (especially during [[Gask|dinner parties]] at [[Nations in Swedish universities|student nations]]). It is used as a flavouring in several types of pastries and sweets as well. The name arrak is still retained for some pastries, for example ''[[arraksboll]]'', whereas punsch is used for things like ''[[Punsch-roll|punschrulle]]''. In Finland, arrack (or [[rum]]) usually serves as one of the ingredients in the making one of the Finnish traditional [[pastry|pastries]], [[Runeberg torte]]s.

==Etymology==
The word derived from the [[Arabic language|Arabic]] word ''[[Arak (drink)|arak]]'' ([[wikt:عرق|عرق]], ''ʿaraq''), meaning 'distillate'. In the [[Eastern Mediterranean]], the term ''arak'' is usually used for liquor distilled from [[grape]]s and flavored with [[anise]].

Unlike arak, the word arrack has been considered by some experts to be derived from ''[[areca nut]]'', a palm seed originating in [[India]] from the [[Areca|areca tree]] and used as the basis for many varieties of arrack.  In 1838, Samuel Morewood's work on the histories of liquors was published. On the topic of arrack, he said:

{{cquote|The word arrack is decided by philologers to be of [[India]]n origin; and should the conjecture be correct, that it is derived from the areca-nut, or the arrack-tree, as [[Engelbert Kaempfer|Kaempfer]] calls it, it is clear, that as a spirit was extracted from that fruit, the name was given to all liquors having similar intoxicating effects. The term arrack being common in eastern countries where the arts of civilized life have been so early cultivated, it is more reasonable to suppose that the Tartars received this word through their eastern connections with the Chinese, or other oriental nations, than to attribute it to a derivation foreign to their language, or as a generic term of their own. The great source of all Indian literature, and the parent of almost every oriental dialect, is the Sanskrit, a language of the most venerable and unfathomable antiquity, though now confined to the libraries of the Brahmins, and solely appropriated to religious laws and records. Mr. Halhed, in the preface to his Grammar of the Bengal language, says, that he was astonished to find a strong similitude between the Persian, Arabian, and even the Latin and Greek languages, not merely in technical and metaphorical terms, which the mutation of refined arts or improved manners might have incidentally introduced, but in the very groundwork of language in monosyllables in the names of numbers, and the appellations which would be first employed on the immediate dawn of civilisation. Telinga is a dialect of the [[Sanskrit]], in which the word ''areca'' is found, it is used by the [[Brahmins]] in writing Sanskrit, and since to the latter all the other tongues of India are more or less indebted, the term areca, or arrack, may be fairly traced through the different languages of the East, so that the general use and application of this word in Asiatic countries cannot appear strange.  To these considerations may be added, that in Malabar the tree which yields the material from which this oriental beverage is produced is termed [[areca]], and, among the [[Tungusic peoples|Tungusians]], [[Kalmyks|Calmucks]], [[Kyrgyz people|Kirghizes]], and other hordes, koumiss, in its ardent state, is known by the general term, "Arrack or Rak." Klaproth says that the [[Ossetians]], (anciently Alans,) a Caucasian people, applied the word " Arak" to denote all distilled liquors, a decided confirmation of the foregoing observations and opinions.<ref>Morewood, Samuel. [https://archive.org/details/inventionscustom00morerich A philosophical and statistical history of the inventions and customs of ancient and modern nations in the manufacture and use of inebriating liquors], W. Curry, jun. and company, and W. Carson, 1834, p140.</ref>}}

==See also==
* [[Arak (drink)|Arak]]
* [[Feni (liquor)|Feni]] ([[Urrak]])
* [[List of Indonesian beverages]]
* [[Palm wine]]

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==External links==
* {{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Arrack|volume=2|page=642}} This describes different forms of arrack as understood at the time, and cites H. H. Mann, ''The Analyst'' (1904).

==Cited works==
*{{cite book|last=Dobbin|first=Christine E.|title=Asian entrepreneurial minorities: conjoint communities in the making of the world-economy 1570-1940|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kFS0Y54oi_gC&pg=PA54|year=1996|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-0-7007-0404-0}}
*{{Cite book|title=Medieval Trade in the Mediterranean World|first=Robert S.|last=Lopez|isbn=978-0-231-12357-0|year=1990|publisher=Columbia University Press|location=United States}}
*{{cite book |last=Merrillees |first=Scott |date=2015 |title=Jakarta: Portraits of a Capital 1950-1980 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=akLWjgEACAAJ&q=JAKARTA:+Portraits+of+a+Capital+1950-1980 |location=Jakarta |publisher=Equinox Publishing |isbn=978-602-8397-30-8  }}

{{Alcohol in India}}
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{{Alcoholic beverages}}
{{Indian beverages}}
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[[Category:Distilled drinks]]
[[Category:Sri Lankan distilled drinks]]
[[Category:Indonesian distilled drinks]]
[[Category:Filipino distilled drinks]]
[[Category:Saint Helenian distilled drinks]]
[[Category:Swedish distilled drinks]]
[[Category:Indian distilled drinks]]
[[Category:Sugar industry of Sri Lanka]]