View source for Arctic tern

{{Short description|Bird that breeds in the Arctic and sub-Arctic and migrates to the Antarctic}}
{{About||the aircraft|Arctic Aircraft Arctic Tern|the racehorse|Arctic Tern (horse)}}
{{pp-move|small=yes}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2020}}
{{Speciesbox
| status = LC
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref = <ref name="iucn status 12 November 2021">{{cite iucn |author=BirdLife International |date=2018 |title=''Sterna paradisaea'' |volume=2018 |page=e.T22694629A132065195 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2018-2.RLTS.T22694629A132065195.en |access-date=12 November 2021}}</ref>
| image = 2009 07 02 - Arctic tern on Farne Islands - The blue rope demarcates the visitors' path.JPG
| image_caption = [[Farne Islands]]
| genus = Sterna
| species = paradisaea
| authority = [[Erik Pontoppidan|Pontoppidan]], 1763<ref name="Birdlife International"/>
| range_map = Sterna paradisaea distribution and migration map.png
| range_map_caption = Range of ''S. paradisaea'' <div style="align:left;">{{leftlegend|#E10000|Breeding grounds|outline=gray}}{{leftlegend|#00FFFF|wintering grounds|outline=gray}}{{legend-line|#007E00 solid 3px|migration routes}}</div>
| synonyms = ''Sterna portlandica''<br />''Sterna pikei''
}}

The '''Arctic tern''' ('''''Sterna paradisaea''''') is a [[tern]] in the [[family (biology)|family]] [[Laridae]]. This [[bird]] has a [[:wiktionary:circumpolar|circumpolar]] breeding distribution covering the [[Arctic]] and sub-Arctic regions of Europe (as far south as [[Brittany (administrative region)|Brittany]]), Asia, and North America (as far south as [[Massachusetts]]). The [[species]] is strongly [[bird migration|migratory]], seeing two summers each year as it migrates along a convoluted route from its northern breeding grounds to the [[Antarctic]] coast for the southern summer and back again about six months later. Recent studies have shown average annual round-trip lengths of about {{convert|70900|km|abbr=on}} for birds nesting in [[Iceland]] and [[Greenland]] and about {{convert|48700|km|abbr=on}} for birds nesting in the [[Netherlands]]. These are by far the longest migrations known in the animal kingdom. The Arctic tern  nests once every one to three years (depending on its mating cycle).

Arctic terns are medium-sized birds. They have a length of {{convert|28|-|39|cm|abbr=on}} and a [[wingspan]] of {{convert|65|-|75|cm|abbr=on}}.<ref name=AAB/> They are mainly grey and white plumaged, with a red/orange beak and feet, white forehead, a black nape and crown (streaked white), and white cheeks. The grey mantle is {{convert|305|mm|abbr=on}}, and the scapulae are fringed brown, some tipped white. The upper wing is grey with a white leading edge, and the collar is completely white, as is the rump. The deeply forked tail is whitish, with grey outer webs.

Arctic terns are long-lived birds, with many reaching fifteen to thirty years of age. They eat mainly fish and small marine [[invertebrate]]s. The species is abundant, with an estimated two million individuals. While the trend in the number of individuals in the species as a whole is not known, exploitation in the past has reduced this bird's numbers in the southern reaches of its ranges.

==Etymology==
The genus name ''Sterna'' is derived from [[Old English]] "stearn", "tern".<ref name=OED>{{OED|Sterna}}</ref> The specific ''paradisaea'' is from [[Late Latin]] ''paradisus'', "paradise".<ref name=job>{{cite book | last= Jobling | first= James A | year= 2010| title= The Helm Dictionary of Scientific Bird Names | url= https://archive.org/details/Helm_Dictionary_of_Scientific_Bird_Names_by_James_A._Jobling | publisher= Christopher Helm | location = London | isbn = 978-1-4081-2501-4 | page = [https://archive.org/details/Helm_Dictionary_of_Scientific_Bird_Names_by_James_A._Jobling/page/n291 291]}}</ref>
The [[Scots language|Scots]] names ''pictarnie'',<ref>[http://www.dsl.ac.uk/getent4.php?query=pictarnie&sset=1&fset=20&printset=20&searchtype=full&dregion=form&dtext=all SND: Pictarnie] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130530115330/http://www.dsl.ac.uk/getent4.php?query=pictarnie&sset=1&fset=20&printset=20&searchtype=full&dregion=form&dtext=all |date=30 May 2013 }}</ref> ''tarrock''<ref>[http://www.dsl.ac.uk/getent4.php?query=tarrock&sset=1&fset=20&printset=20&searchtype=full&dregion=form&dtext=all SND: tarrock] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130530115326/http://www.dsl.ac.uk/getent4.php?query=tarrock&sset=1&fset=20&printset=20&searchtype=full&dregion=form&dtext=all |date=30 May 2013 }}</ref> and their many variants are also believed to be [[Onomatopoeia|onomatopoeic]], derived from the distinctive call.<ref name = hume12>Hume (1993) pp. 12–13.</ref> Due to the difficulty in distinguishing the two species, all the informal common names are shared with the [[common tern]].<ref name=cocker>{{cite book | last1 = Cocker | first1 = Mark | last2= Mabey |first2 = Richard |title = Birds Britannica | year = 2005 | location = London | publisher = Chatto & Windus | isbn = 0-7011-6907-9|pages =246–247 }}</ref>

== Distribution and migration ==
The Arctic tern has a continuous worldwide circumpolar breeding distribution; there are no recognized [[subspecies]]. It can be found in coastal regions in cooler temperate parts of [[North America]] and [[Palearctic|Eurasia]] during the [[northern hemisphere|northern]] summer. During the [[southern hemisphere|southern]] summer, it can be found at sea, reaching the northern edge of the Antarctic ice.<ref name="RSPB"/>

The Arctic tern is famous for its migration; it flies from its Arctic breeding grounds to the Antarctic and back again each year. The shortest distance between these areas is {{convert|19000|km|abbr=on}}. The long journey ensures that this bird sees two summers per year and more daylight than any other creature on the planet.<ref name="Cramp"/> One example of this bird's remarkable long-distance flying abilities involves an Arctic tern [[bird ringing|ringed]] as an unfledged chick on the [[Farne Islands]], [[Northumberland]], UK, in the northern summer of 1982 that reached [[Melbourne]], Australia in October, just three months after fledging – a journey of more than {{convert|22000|km|abbr=on}}.<ref name="Heavisides et al."/> Another example is that of a chick ringed in [[Labrador]], [[Canada]], on 23 July 1928. It was found in South Africa four months later.<ref name="Birds of Nova Scotia"/>

A 2010 study using tracking devices attached to the birds showed that the above examples are not unusual for the species. In fact, the study showed that previous research had seriously underestimated the annual distances travelled by the Arctic tern. Eleven birds that bred in Greenland or Iceland covered {{convert|70900|km|abbr=on}} on average in a year, with a maximum of {{convert|81600|km|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Egevang |first1=Carsten |last2=Stenhouse |first2=Iain J. |last3=Phillips |first3=Richard A. |last4=Petersen |first4=Aevar |last5=Fox |first5=James W. |last6=Silk |first6=Janet R. D. |year=2010 |title=Tracking of Arctic terns ''Sterna paradisaea'' reveals longest animal migration |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=107 |issue=5 |pages=2078–2081 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0909493107 |doi-access=free |pmid=20080662 |pmc=2836663 |bibcode=2010PNAS..107.2078E }}</ref> The difference from previous estimates is due to the birds taking meandering courses rather than following a straight route as was previously assumed. The birds follow a somewhat convoluted course in order to take advantage of prevailing winds.<ref name="Arctic terns' flying feat"/> The average Arctic tern lives about 30 years and will, based on the above research, travel some {{convert|2.4|e6km|abbr=unit}} during its lifetime, the equivalent of a roundtrip from Earth to the Moon more than three times.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Inman|first1=Mason|title=World's Longest Migration Found--2X Longer Than Thought|url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2010/01/100111-worlds-longest-migration-arctic-tern-bird/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100116190213/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2010/01/100111-worlds-longest-migration-arctic-tern-bird|url-status=dead|archive-date=16 January 2010|publisher=[[National Geographic Society]]|access-date=19 August 2016|date=12 January 2010}}</ref>

A 2013 tracking study of half a dozen Arctic terns breeding in the [[Netherlands]]<ref name="Dutch terns" /> shows average annual migrations of c. {{convert|48700|km|abbr=on}}. On their way south, these birds roughly followed the coastlines of [[Europe]] and [[Africa]].<ref name="BirdGuides"/>

Arctic terns usually migrate sufficiently far offshore that they are rarely seen from land outside the breeding season.<ref name="HBW"/>

== Description and taxonomy ==
[[File:Juvenile Arctic Tern.jpg|thumb|Juvenile]]
The Arctic tern is a medium-sized bird around {{convert|33|-|36|cm|abbr=on}} from the tip of its beak to the tip of its tail. The wingspan is {{convert|76|-|85|cm|in|abbr=on}}.<ref name="HBW"/> The weight is {{convert|86|-|127|g|abbr=on}}. The [[beak]] is dark red, as are the short legs and webbed feet. Like most terns, the Arctic tern has [[bird flight|high aspect ratio wings]] and a tail with a deep fork.<ref name="HBW"/>

The adult [[plumage]] is grey above, with a black nape and crown and white cheeks. The upperwings are pale grey, with the area near the wingtip being translucent. The tail is white, and the underparts pale grey. Both sexes are similar in appearance. The winter plumage is similar, but the crown is whiter and the bills are darker.<ref name="HBW"/>

Juveniles differ from adults in their black bill and legs, "scaly" appearing wings, and mantle with dark feather tips, dark carpal wing bar, and short tail streamers.<ref name="HBW"/> During their first summer, juveniles also have a whiter forecrown.<ref name="National Geographic"/>

The species has a variety of [[bird call|calls]]; the two most common being the ''alarm call'', made when possible predators (such as humans or other [[mammal]]s) enter the colonies, and the ''advertising call''.<ref name="Hatch et al."/>

While the Arctic tern is similar to the [[common tern|common]] and [[roseate tern]]s, its colouring, profile, and call are slightly different. Compared to the common tern, it has a longer tail and mono-coloured bill, while the main differences from the roseate are its slightly darker colour and longer wings. The Arctic tern's call is more nasal and rasping than that of the common, and is easily distinguishable from that of the roseate.<ref name="Olsen"/>

This bird's closest relatives are a group of South Polar species, the [[South American tern|South American]] (''Sterna hirundinacea''), [[Kerguelen tern|Kerguelen]] (''S. virgata''), and [[Antarctic tern|Antarctic]] (''S. vittata'') terns.<ref name="Bridge et al."/>

The immature plumages of Arctic tern were originally described as separate species, ''Sterna portlandica'' and ''Sterna pikei''.<ref name=Kaufman1990/>

== Reproduction ==
[[File:Eidersperrwerk 18.05.2013 13-19-06.jpg|thumb|Nesting with an egg in [[Schleswig-Holstein]], Germany|alt=One tern nesting with an egg in [[Schleswig-Holstein]], Germany]]
[[File:Arctic tern nesting on Iceland.jpg|thumb|Southern Iceland|alt=Terns in flight in southern Iceland]]
Breeding begins around the third or fourth year.<ref name="Hawksley"/> Arctic terns mate for life and, in most cases, return to the same colony each year.<ref name="Firefly p 267"/> [[Courtship in animals|Courtship]] is elaborate, especially in birds nesting for the first time.<ref name="Firefly p 268"/> Courtship begins with a so-called "high flight", where a female will chase the male to a high altitude and then slowly descend. This display is followed by "fish flights", where the male will offer fish to the female. Courtship on the ground involves strutting with a raised tail and lowered wings. After this, both birds will usually fly and circle each other.<ref name="Firefly p 268"/>

Both sexes agree on a site for a nest, and both will defend the site. During this time, the male continues to feed the female. Mating occurs shortly after this.<ref name="Firefly p 268"/> Breeding takes place in [[seabird colony|colonies]] on coasts, islands and occasionally inland on [[tundra]] near water. It often forms mixed flocks with the [[common tern]]. It lays from one to three [[egg (biology)|eggs]] per clutch, most often two.<ref name="HBW"/>

It is one of the most aggressive terns, fiercely defensive of its nest and young. It will attack humans and large predators, usually striking the top or back of the head. Although it is too small to cause serious injury to an animal of a human's size, it is still capable of drawing blood, and is capable of repelling many raptorial birds, polar bears<ref>{{cite web |url=http://channel.nationalgeographic.com/wild/videos/arctic-bird-attack/ |title=Arctic Bird Attack - Nat Geo WILD |access-date=2016-11-26 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161127023843/http://channel.nationalgeographic.com/wild/videos/arctic-bird-attack/ |archive-date=27 November 2016}}</ref> and smaller mammalian predators such as foxes and cats.<ref name="Cramp"/>

The nest is usually a depression in the ground, which may or may not be lined with bits of grass or similar materials. The eggs are mottled and camouflaged.<ref name="HBW"/> Both sexes share incubation duties. The young hatch after 22–27 days and [[fledge]] after 21–24 days.<ref name="HBW"/> If the parents are disturbed and flush from the nest frequently the incubation period could be extended to as long as 34 days.<ref name="Hatch et al."/>

When hatched, the chicks are [[Down feather|downy]]. Being [[precocial]], the chicks begin to move around and explore their surroundings within one to three days after hatching.<ref name="Kaufman"/> Usually they do not stray far from the nest. Chicks are brooded by the adults for the first ten days after hatching.<ref name=Klaassen/> Both parents care for hatchlings.<ref name="HBW"/> Chick diets always include fish, and parents selectively bring larger prey items to chicks than they eat themselves.<ref name="Hatch et al."/> Males bring more food than females. Feeding by the parents lasts for roughly a month before being weaned off slowly.<ref name="HBW"/> After fledging, the juveniles learn to feed themselves, including the difficult method of plunge-diving.<ref name="Firefly p 269"/> They will fly south to winter with the help of their parents.<ref name="Audubon"/>

Arctic terns are long-lived birds that spend considerable time raising only a few young, and are thus said to be [[R/K selection theory|K-selected]].<ref name="Burger"/>  A 1957 study in the [[Farne Islands]] estimated an annual survival rate of 82%.<ref name="Cullen"/>
{{clear}}

== Ecology and behaviour ==
[[File:Sterna paradisaea-pjt1.jpg|thumb|In flight near [[Arnarstapi]]|alt=One tern in flight near [[Arnarstapi]]]]
The diet of the Arctic tern varies depending on location and time, but is usually [[carnivore|carnivorous]]. In most cases, it eats small [[fish]] or marine [[crustacean]]s.<ref name="RSPB"/><ref name="HBW"/> Fish species comprise the most important part of the diet, and account for more of the [[biomass]] consumed than any other food. Prey species are immature (1–2-year-old) shoaling species such as [[herring]], [[cod]], [[sandlance]]s, and [[capelin]].<ref name="Cramp"/> Among the marine crustaceans eaten are [[amphipod]]s, [[crab]]s and [[krill]]. Sometimes, these birds also eat [[mollusc]]s, marine worms, or [[berry|berries]], and on their northern breeding grounds, [[insect]]s.<ref name="Kaufman"/>

Arctic terns sometimes dip down to the surface of the water to catch prey close to the surface. They may also chase insects in the air when breeding.<ref name="Kaufman"/> It is also thought that Arctic terns may, in spite of their small size, occasionally engage in [[kleptoparasitism]] by swooping at birds so as to startle them into releasing their catches.<ref name="Kaufman"/> Several species are targeted—conspecifics, other terns (like the common tern), and some [[auk]] and [[grebe]] species.<ref name="Hatch et al."/>

While nesting, Arctic terns are vulnerable to predation by cats and other animals.<ref name="RSPB"/> Besides being a competitor for nesting sites, the larger [[American herring gull|herring gull]] steals eggs and hatchlings. Camouflaged eggs help prevent this, as do isolated nesting sites.<ref name="Firefly p 269"/> Scientists have experimented with bamboo canes erected around tern nests. Although they found fewer predation attempts in the caned areas than in the control areas, canes did not reduce the probability of predation success per attempt.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Boothby|first1=Claire|last2=Redfern|first2=Chris|last3=Schroeder|first3=Julia|date=2019|title=An evaluation of canes as a management technique to reduce predation by gulls of ground-nesting seabirds|journal=Ibis|language=en|volume=161|issue=2|pages=453–458|doi=10.1111/ibi.12702|issn=1474-919X|hdl=10044/1/66825|s2cid=92479448|hdl-access=free}}</ref> While feeding, [[skua]]s, gulls, and other tern species will often harass the birds and steal their food.<ref name="Firefly p 271"/>
{{clear}}

== Conservation status ==

The total population for the arctic tern is estimated at more than two&nbsp;million individuals, with more than half of the population in Europe. The breeding range is very large, and although the population is considered to be decreasing, this species is evaluated as a [[species of least concern]] by the [[International Union for Conservation of Nature|IUCN]].<ref name="iucn status 12 November 2021" />
Arctic terns are among the species to which the [[AEWA|Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds]] applies.<ref name="AEWA"/>

The population in [[New England]] was reduced in the late nineteenth-century because of hunting for the millinery trade.<ref name="Hatch et al."/> Exploitation continues in western [[Greenland]], where the population of the species has been reduced greatly since 1950.<ref name="Hansen"/> In Iceland, the Arctic tern has been regionally uplisted to Vulnerable as of 2018, due to the crash of [[sandeel]] (''[[Ammodytes]]'' spp.) stocks.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ni.is/node/27118|title=Kría (Sterna paradisaea)|language=is|first=Kristinn Haukur|last=Skarphéðinsson|trans-title=Arctic Tern|publisher=Icelandic Institute of Natural History|date=October 2018|access-date=22 April 2019|archive-date=22 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190422193417/https://www.ni.is/node/27118|url-status=dead}}</ref>

At the southern part of their range, the Arctic tern has been reducing in numbers. Much of this is due to a lack of food.<ref name="National Geographic"/> However, most of these birds' range is extremely remote, with no apparent trend in the species as a whole.<ref name="Kaufman"/> The Arctic terns' dispersal pattern is affected by changing climatic conditions,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Møller |first1=A. P. |last2=Flensted-Jensen |first2=E. |last3=Mardal |first3=W. |title=Dispersal and climate change: a case study of the Arctic tern ''Sterna paradisaea'' |journal=Global Change Biology |date=2006 |volume=12 |issue=10 |pages=2005–2013 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2486.2006.01216.x |bibcode=2006GCBio..12.2005M |s2cid=73693946 |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/j.1365-2486.2006.01216.x |language=en |issn=1365-2486|url-access=subscription }}</ref> and its ability to feed in its Antarctic wintering is dependent on sea-ice cover, but unlike breeding species, it is able to move to a different area if necessary, and can be used as a control to investigate the effect of [[climate change]] on breeding species.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Use of sea ice by Arctic terns ''Sterna paradisaea'' in Antarctica and impacts of climate change |year=2020 |doi=10.1111/jav.02318 |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/jav.02318 |language=en|last1=Redfern |first1=Chris P. F. |last2=Bevan |first2=Richard M. |journal=Journal of Avian Biology |volume=51 |issue=2 |s2cid=209604345 |url-access=subscription }}</ref>

== Cultural depictions ==
The Arctic tern has appeared on the [[postage stamps]] of several countries and dependent territories. The territories include [[Åland]], [[Alderney]], and [[Faroe Islands]]. Countries include Canada, [[Finland]], [[Iceland]], and [[Cuba]].<ref name="Bird Stamps"/>

The Arctic tern was featured prominently in a sketch on the improv comedy television show ''[[Whose_Line_Is_It_Anyway%3F_(American_TV_series)|Whose Line Is It Anyway?]]'' involving [[Colin Mochrie]] and [[Ryan Stiles]].<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.buzzfeed.com/hopelasater/super-funny-whose-line-is-it-anyway-moments | title=29 "Whose Line Is It Anyway?" Moments That Are Funnier Than They Have Any Right To Be|last=Lasater |first=Hope| website=BuzzFeed | date=15 July 2021 | access-date=28 May 2024}}</ref> In the sketch, Colin alluded the call of the arctic tern to sounding like the band name [[Backstreet Boys]]. <!--A potentially more useful reference would be a link to an appropriate video clip, but this requires finding one that does not run afoul of copyright restrictions.-->

== References ==
{{Reflist|30em|refs=
<ref name=AAB>{{Cite AllAboutBirds|Arctic Tern}}</ref>

<ref name="AEWA">{{Cite web|url=http://www.unep-aewa.org/birds/index.cfm?species=20811 |title=African Eurasian Waterbird Agreement Annex II: Species list |author=AEWA |author-link=AEWA |access-date=17 August 2006 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060101162910/http://www.unep-aewa.org/birds/index.cfm?species=20811 |archive-date=1 January 2006 }}</ref>

<ref name="Arctic terns' flying feat">{{Cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSTRE60A4NV20100111 |title=Arctic terns' flying feat |access-date=20 January 2010 |work=Reuters |date=11 January 2010}}</ref>

<ref name="Audubon">{{Cite web |title=Arctic Tern (Sterna paradisaea) |url=http://www.audubon.org/bird/puffin/virtual/arte.html |author=National Audubon Society |author-link=National Audubon Society |access-date=1 September 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060615111837/http://www.audubon.org/bird/puffin/virtual/arte.html |archive-date=15 June 2006}}</ref>

<ref name="BirdGuides">{{cite web |url=http://www.birdguides.com/webzine/article.asp?a=3786 |title=Dutch Arctic Terns migrating to Antarctica via Australia |website = BirdGuides.com |date=30 May 2013 | publisher = BirdGuides}}</ref>

<ref name="Birdlife International">{{Cite web |url=http://www.birdlife.org/datazone/search/species_search.html?action=SpcHTMDetails.asp&sid=3271&m=0 |title=Arctic Tern — BirdLife Species Factsheet |access-date=17 August 2006 | website = birdlife.org | publisher = BirdLife International}}</ref>

<ref name="Birds of Nova Scotia">{{Cite web |url=http://museum.gov.ns.ca/mnh/nature/nsbirds/bns0188.htm |title=Birds of Nova Scotia: Arctic Tern |access-date=22 August 2006 |publisher=Nova Scotia Museum of Natural History |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060824102922/http://museum.gov.ns.ca/mnh/nature/nsbirds/bns0188.htm |archive-date=24 August 2006 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

<ref name="Bird Stamps">{{Cite web |url=http://www.bird-stamps.org/species/62056.htm |title=Arctic Tern stamps |first=Chris |last=Gibbons |access-date=24 August 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060928030815/http://www.bird-stamps.org/species/62056.htm |archive-date=28 September 2006 |url-status=usurped}}</ref>

<ref name="Bridge et al.">{{Cite journal |first1=E.S. |last1=Bridge |first2=A.W. |last2=Jones |first3=A.J. |last3=Baker |year=2005 |title=A phylogenetic framework for the terns (Sternini) inferred from mtDNA sequences: implications for taxonomy and plumage evolution |journal=Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution |volume=35  |issue=2 |pages=459–469 |url=http://www2.hawaii.edu/~khayes/Journal_Club/summer2006/Bridge_et_al_2005_MPE.pdf |access-date=7 September 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060720204025/http://www2.hawaii.edu/~khayes/Journal_Club/summer2006/Bridge_et_al_2005_MPE.pdf |archive-date=20 July 2006 |doi=10.1016/j.ympev.2004.12.010 |pmid=15804415|bibcode=2005MolPE..35..459B }}</ref>

<ref name="Burger">{{Cite book |editor-first1=Elizabeth A. |editor-last1=Schreiber |editor-first2=Joanne |editor-last2=Burger |year=2001 |title=Biology of Marine Birds |location=Boca Raton |publisher=[[CRC Press]] |isbn=0-8493-9882-7}}</ref>

<ref name="Cramp">{{Cite book |title=Birds of the Western Palearctic |editor-first=S. |editor-last=Cramp |year=1985 |pages=87–100 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=0-19-857507-6|title-link=Birds of the Western Palearctic }}</ref>

<ref name="Cullen">{{Cite journal |first=J.M. |last=Cullen |year=1957 |title=Plumage, age and mortality in the Arctic Tern |journal=Bird Study |volume=4 |issue=4 |pages=197–207 |doi=10.1080/00063655709475891|bibcode=1957BirdS...4..197C }}</ref>

<ref name="Dutch terns">{{cite journal |last1=Fijn |first1=R.C. |last2=Hiemstra |first2=D. |last3=Phillips |first3=R.A. |last4=van der Winden |first4=J. |year=2013 |title=Arctic Terns ''Sterna paradisaea'' from the Netherlands migrate record distances across three oceans to Wilkes Land, East Antarctica |journal=Ardea |volume=101 |pages=3–12 |doi=10.5253/078.101.0102 |s2cid=84699518 |url=http://nora.nerc.ac.uk/id/eprint/502154/1/Ardea1637edited.doc |doi-access=free }}</ref>

<ref name="Firefly p 267">[[#refPerrins|Perrins (2003)]], p. 267</ref>
<ref name="Firefly p 268">[[#refPerrins|Perrins (2003)]], p. 268</ref>
<ref name="Firefly p 269">[[#refPerrins|Perrins (2003)]], p. 269</ref>
<ref name="Firefly p 271">[[#refPerrins|Perrins (2003)]], p. 271</ref>

<ref name="Hansen">{{Cite journal |title=Threats to wildlife in Greenland |first=K. |last=Hansen |year=2001 |journal=Seabird Group Newsletter |volume=89 |pages=1–2}}</ref>

<ref name="Hatch et al.">{{Cite book |first=J.J. |last=Hatch |year=2002 |title=Arctic Tern (Sterna paradisaea) |page=707 |editor-first1=A. |editor-last1=Poole |editor-first2=F. |editor-last2=Gill |publisher=The Birds of North America |location=Philadelphia, PA.}}</ref>

<ref name="Hawksley">{{Cite journal |first=Oscar |last=Hawksley |year=1957 |title=Ecology of a breeding population of Arctic Terns |journal=Bird-Banding |volume=28 |issue=2 |pages=57–92 |url=http://sora.unm.edu/sites/default/files/journals/jfo/v028n02/p0057-p0092.pdf|doi=10.2307/4510623|jstor=4510623 }}</ref>

<ref name="HBW">{{Cite book |editor1-last=Del Hoyo |editor1-first=Josep |editor2-last=Elliott |editor2-first=Andrew |editor3-last=Sargatal |editor3-first=Jordi |title=Handbook of the Birds of the World |volume=3 |year=1996 |publisher=Lynx Edicions |location=Barcelona |page=[https://archive.org/details/handbookofbirdso0001unse/page/653 653] |isbn=84-87334-20-2 |title-link=Handbook of the Birds of the World }}</ref>

<ref name="Heavisides et al.">{{Cite book |title=Birds in Northumbria 1982 |year=1983 |first1=A. |last1=Heavisides |first2=M.S. |last2=Hodgson |first3=I. |last3=Kerr |publisher=Tyneside Bird Club}}</ref>

<ref name="Kaufman">{{Cite book |author-link=Kaufman, Kenn |last=Kaufman |first=Kenn |title=Lives of North American birds |publisher=Houghton Mifflin |isbn=0-395-77017-3 |year=1996 |page=[https://archive.org/details/livesofnorthamer00kauf/page/260 260] |url=https://archive.org/details/livesofnorthamer00kauf/page/260 }}</ref>

<ref name=Kaufman1990>{{cite book |author-link=Kaufman, Kenn |last=Kaufman |first=Kenn |year=1990 |title=Peterson Field Guides: Advanced Birding |isbn=0-395-53517-4 |chapter=chapter 18 |page=[https://archive.org/details/advancedbirdingp00kenn/page/135 135] |publisher=Houghton Mifflin |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/advancedbirdingp00kenn/page/135 }}</ref>

<ref name=Klaassen>{{Cite journal |last1=Klaassen |first1=M. |last2=Bech |first2=C. |last3=Masman |first3=D. |last4=Slagsvold |first4=G. |year=1989 |title=Growth and energetics of Arctic tern chicks (''Sterna paradisaea'') |journal=Auk |volume=106 |pages=240–248 |url=http://sora.unm.edu/sites/default/files/journals/auk/v106n02/p0240-p0248.pdf |access-date=1 September 2006}}</ref>

<ref name="National Geographic">{{Cite book |first1=Steve N.G. |last1=Howell |first2=Alvaro |last2=Jaramillo |editor-first=Jonathan |editor-last=Alderfer |title=National Geographic Complete Birds of North America |publisher=National Geographic Society |year=2006 |pages=272–273 |isbn=0-7922-4175-4}}</ref>

<ref name="Olsen">{{Cite book |title=Terns of Europe and North America |first1=Klaus Malling |last1=Olson |first2=Hans |last2=Larsson |year=1995 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=0-7136-4056-1}}</ref>
<ref name="RSPB">{{Cite web |url=http://www.rspb.org.uk/birds/guide/a/arctictern/index.asp |website=[[Royal Society for the Protection of Birds]] |title=Arctic tern |access-date=17 August 2006}}</ref>
}}

=== Bibliography ===
* {{Cite book |editor-link=Christopher Perrins |editor-last=Perrins |editor-first=Christopher |title=Firefly Encyclopedia of Birds |year=2003 |location=Buffalo, N.Y. |publisher=Firefly Books |isbn=978-1-55297-777-4 |oclc=51922852 |ref=refPerrins |url=https://archive.org/details/fireflyencyclope0000unse }}

== Further reading ==
* {{Cite book |first=Peter |last=Harrison |year=2003 |title=Seabirds of the World: A Photographic Guide |location=Princeton, N.J. |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |isbn=978-0-691-01551-4 |oclc=487925419 |url=https://archive.org/details/seabirdsofworldp00harr }}

== External links ==
{{Commons category|Sterna paradisaea}}
{{Wikispecies|Sterna paradisaea}}
{{Spoken Wikipedia|Arctic_Tern.ogg|date=2008-05-26}}
* [http://sabap2.adu.org.za/docs/sabap1/328.pdf Arctic tern – Species text in The Atlas of Southern African Birds]
* {{InternetBirdCollection|arctic-tern-sterna-paradisaea|Arctic tern}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20071213053844/http://www.arkive.org/species/ARK/birds/Sterna_paradisaea/ Arctic tern images] at [https://archive.today/20160426231847/http://www.arkive.org/ ARKive]
* {{VIREO|Arctic+tern}}
* {{Xeno-canto species|Sterna|paradisaea|Arctic tern}}

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[[Category:Sterna]]
[[Category:Birds of the Arctic]]
[[Category:Holarctic birds]]
[[Category:Birds described in 1763]]
[[Category:Taxa named by Erik Pontoppidan]]