View source for Architecture of Yemen

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[[File:Sana'a (2286054587).jpg|thumb|Historic cityscape of the [[Old City of Sanaa]], a [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Site]]<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last= |first= |title=Old City of Sana'a |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/385/ |access-date=2022-06-10 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |language=en}}</ref>]]
{{Culture of Yemen}}

The architecture of [[Yemen]] dates back to ancient times, when it was part of a tradition of [[South Arabia]]n architecture. Developments continued during the [[Islamic history of Yemen|Islamic period]], displaying both local characteristics and external influences. The historic cities and towns of Yemen are known for their traditional tower-houses.

== Ancient Yemen ==
{{See also|Ancient history of Yemen}}
In [[Ancient history|Antiquity]], Yemen was home to several wealthy city-states and an indigenous tradition of [[South Arabia]]n architecture.<ref name=":05222">{{Cite book |last=Finster |first=Barbara |title=Encyclopaedia of Islam, Three |publisher=Brill |year=2009 |isbn=9789004161658 |editor-last=Fleet |editor-first=Kate |location= |pages= |chapter=Arabian Peninsula, art and architecture |editor-last2=Krämer |editor-first2=Gudrun |editor-last3=Matringe |editor-first3=Denis |editor-last4=Nawas |editor-first4=John |editor-last5=Rowson |editor-first5=Everett}}</ref><ref name=":24426">{{harvnb|Bloom|Blair|2009|loc=''Yemen, Republic of''}}</ref> Historical texts and archeological evidence indicate that large and richly decorated palaces existed in several cities, such as the [[Ghumdan Palace]] in [[Sanaa]]. Most of these structures have not been preserved, although the remains of [[Shabwa]], the former capital of [[Hadhramaut|Ḥaḍramawt]], provide some evidence of their structure.<ref name=":05222" /><ref name=":24427">{{harvnb|Bloom|Blair|2009|loc=''San῾a''}}</ref>

[[File:Jemen1988-022 hg.jpg|thumb|left|Remains of the ancient [[Marib Dam]] in 1988]]
In the first millennium [[Common Era|BCE]], the first large South Arabian kingdom, Saba', was created by the [[Sabaeans]] with its center at [[Marib]], alongside other kingdoms in the region. Its influence reached as far as [[Ethiopia]].<ref name=":1" /> The [[Oasis|oases]] of this region grew their agriculture with the help of [[floodwater]]s. Marib city and some constructions in the Wadi Dhana valley were likely established as early as the 2nd millennium BCE<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Finster |first=Barbara |title=A Companion to Islamic Art and Architecture |publisher=Wiley Blackwell |year=2017 |isbn=9781119068662 |editor-last=Flood |editor-first=Finbarr Barry |volume= |pages=61–88 |chapter=The Material Culture of Pre- and Early Islamic Arabia |editor-last2=Necipoğlu |editor-first2=Gülru |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fR02EQAAQBAJ&pg=PA61}}</ref> and artificial [[irrigation]] may date as far back as the third millennium BCE.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last1=Langmead |first1=Donald |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T5J6GKvGbmMC&dq=ancient+marib+dam&pg=PA190 |title=Encyclopedia of Architectural and Engineering Feats |last2=Garnaut |first2=Christine |publisher=ABC-CLIO |year=2001 |isbn=978-1-57607-112-0 |pages=190–191 |language=en |chapter=Marib Dam}}</ref> The ancient [[Marib Dam]] was first built in the 6th century BCE and repaired up until the 5th or 6th century CE.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /> It was a major feat of engineering in the ancient world and was used to harness the water of biannual floods, allowing for more systematic irrigation.<ref name=":2" /> The first dam was a basic earth-built structure around {{convert|580|m|ft|abbr=off|sp=us}} long and probably about {{convert|4|m|ft|abbr=off|sp=us}} high, situated between two rock formations. A second dam was built towards 500 BC as a sloping rampart with a triangular [[Cross section (geometry)|cross section]]. It stood about {{convert|7|m|ft|abbr=off|sp=us}} high and was faced with stone and mortar.<ref name=":2" /> The next major reconstruction was undertaken by the [[Himyarites]] in or after the late 2nd century CE, who rebuilt it as another earthen structure faced with stone, this time {{convert|720|m|ft|abbr=off|sp=us}} long, {{convert|14|m|ft|abbr=off|sp=us}} high, and complete with more sophisticated hydraulic systems.<ref name=":2" />

[[File:Louvre AO 4564 mp3h8867.jpg|thumb|Decorative frieze of stylized [[ibex]] heads from the Sabaean period in Yemen, on display at the [[Louvre]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=plaque; niche |url=https://collections.louvre.fr/en/ark:/53355/cl010165548 |access-date=8 November 2022 |website=Louvre; collections}}</ref>|left]]
Classical Sabaean temples were structures with an inner courtyard in [[peristyle]] form (surrounded by [[portico]]es).<ref name=":1" /> An example of this is the [[Temple of Awwam|Awwam Temple]] or Mahram Bilqis, which was erected at the edge of a large, roughly oval, walled enclosure.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Jarzombek |first1=Mark M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HL2I_t_ZyQoC&dq=sabaean+temple+architecture&pg=PA107 |title=A Global History of Architecture |last2=Prakash |first2=Vikramaditya |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-470-90248-6 |pages=107 |language=en}}</ref> Some temples in the [[Al Jawf Governorate|Jawf]] region had a [[hypostyle]] form. In both the Jawf and [[Hadhramaut|Hadramawt]] regions, there were also temples consisting of an interior space divided by two rows of three or four pillars, which in Hadramawt often had [[bent entrance]]s.<ref name=":1" /> The art of these temples is characterized by their abstractness, as exemplified by their distinctive [[ibex]] [[frieze]]s.<ref name=":1" /> Aside from temple architecture, it also appears that the traditional Yemeni [[Tower house|tower-house]] emerged around this period, built with stone foundations and upper sections in wood and clay.<ref name=":1" />

In the first century BCE, the [[Ancient Rome|Romans]] arrived in the [[Red Sea]] region, resulting in a shift in power and trade networks. A new Himyarite kingdom took control of Yemen. In the same century, the Palace of Shaqir (the "Towering One") was built in Shabwa. It was destroyed circa 230 CE but subsequently rebuilt and restored.<ref name=":1" /> The building, made of [[mudbrick]] and wood on stone foundations, consisted of a towering multi-story structure attached to a courtyard surrounded by two-story galleries. The galleries had octagonal pillars covered with carved vine motifs and [[Capital (architecture)|capitals]] carved with images of [[griffin]]s. Wall [[fresco]]es depicted scenes with women and other decorative motifs. The ornamental repertoire displays links with late [[Hellenistic art]] of the time.<ref name=":1" />

As the Himyarite kingdom grew stronger, it cultivated a period of peace and cultural exchanges. The capital was at [[Zafar, Yemen|Zafar]] (near [[Yarim]]), which was enclosed by double walls and nine gates. It had a citadel, the Raidan fortress or Raydan Palace, which was the seat of the Himyarite kings. Other stone castles were built in various locations. By the 5th century AD, there is evidence that the indigenous styles were being influenced by [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] and [[Late antiquity|Late Antique]] Mediterranean art.<ref name=":05222" /> In the 5th and 6th centuries, [[Christianity]] spread in the region and churches were built. [[Abraha]], a local [[Kingdom of Aksum|Aksumite]] ruler who made Sanaa his capital, built a cathedral there circa 567, allegedly with the help of two architects provided by Byzantine emperor [[Justinian I]].<ref name=":24427" /><ref name=":05222" /> The Ghumdan Palace, which was probably first built around 200 CE, was preserved in collective memory and probably influenced the architecture of future palaces. It apparently had many stories, a transparent roof of alabaster, coloured stone inlay decorating its façades, and animal statues.<ref name=":1" />

== Islamic period ==
{{See also|Islamic architecture|Islamic history of Yemen}}
{{Islamic culture}}

=== 7th to 13th centuries ===
Yemen was [[Islamization|Islamized]] in the 7th century, but few buildings from the early Islamic period have been preserved intact today. It is only from the 10th century onward that distinctive [[Islamic architecture|Islamic architectural]] styles can be documented.<ref name=":24425">{{harvnb|Bloom|Blair|2009|loc=''Architecture; V. c. 900–c. 1250; B. Central Islamic lands; 4. Yemen''}}</ref> Yemeni architecture can be characterized as "conservative", as the Yemeni people combine their pre-Islamic and Islamic past.<ref name=":24425" /><ref name=":11">{{Cite journal |last1=Finster |first1=Barbara |year=1992 |title=An Outline of the History of Islamic Religious Architecture in Yemen |url=https://www.archnet.org/publications/3047 |journal=Muqarnas |volume=9 |pages=124–147 |doi=10.2307/1523140 |jstor=1523140|url-access=subscription }}</ref> This philosophy is demonstrated in the construction of the Mosque of Sulayman ibn Dawud in Marib, which was built directly on top of an old temple.<ref name=":11" />

[[File:Jennad Mosque (13382607764) (2).jpg|thumb|left|The [[Al-Janad Mosque|Great Mosque of Janad]] was founded in 627–8 but rebuilt in later centuries (2014 photo)]]
The oldest mosque in Yemen is believed to be either the [[Al-Janad Mosque|Great Mosque of Janad]] (located in Janad, northeast of [[Ta'izz]]<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Sadek |first=Noha |date=2003 |title=Taʿizz, capital of the Rasulid dynasty in Yemen |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41223771 |journal=Proceedings of the Seminar for Arabian Studies |volume=33 |pages=309–313 |jstor=41223771 |issn=0308-8421}}</ref>) or the [[Great Mosque of Sanaa]].<ref name=":11" /> The mosque in Janad was reportedly founded in 627–8 (6 [[Hijri year|AH]]) by [[Mu'adh ibn Jabal]].<ref name=":11" /> Traditional Muslim sources claim the Great Mosque of Sanaa was originally built on the orders of [[Muhammad]], carried out by one of his [[Companions of the Prophet|companions]].{{Sfn|Serjeant|Lewcock|1983|p=323}}<ref name=":11" /> A study by 'Abd al-Muhsin al-Mad'aj suggests that it was most likely built in 633.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Al-Madaj |first=Abd Al-Muhsin |date=1993 |title=The Founding of the Great Mosque (al-Jami al-Kabir) in Sana |url=https://archive.org/details/newarabianstudie0000unse_b5t4/page/184/mode/2up |journal=New Arabian Studies |volume=1}}</ref>

After the early [[Caliphate|caliphal]] period, the region was ruled by various dynasties including the [[Sulayhid dynasty|Sulayhids]] (11th–12th centuries).<ref name=":24425" /> One type of mosque attested around this time consists of a large cubic chamber with one entrance, which had antecedents in the pre-Islamic temple architecture of the region. Examples include the al-Abbas Mosque in Asnaf (1126, near Sanaa) and the Mosque of Sarha (13th century, near [[Ibb]]), which both have richly decorated ceilings carved and painted with interlacing star-like patterns.<ref name=":24425" /><ref name=":05222" /> Another type consisted of a rectangular chamber, with a transverse orientation, with multiple entrances and supporting columns inside, sometimes preceded by a courtyard. Examples of this include the Mosque of Sulayman ibn Dawud (1089, reusing ancient remains) at Marib and the congregational mosque of [[Dhamar, Yemen|Damar]] (12th–13th century). This type also had pre-Islamic antecedents.<ref name=":24425" />

[[File:Sanaa PICT0013 (14569535198).jpg|left|thumb|The [[Great Mosque of Sanaa]] (left) is an early example of the hypostyle courtyard mosque in Yemen. Founded in the 7th century, it was rebuilt and expanded into its current form in later centuries.]]
The [[hypostyle]] mosque with courtyard, which was more common throughout much of the Islamic world at the time, was comparatively rare in early Islamic Yemen.<ref name=":24425" /> The Great Mosque of Sanaa was one of the few mosques of this type in the region.<ref name=":24425" /> After its foundation, it was rebuilt in larger form on the orders of the [[Umayyad Caliphate|Umayyad]] caliph [[Al-Walid I|al-Walid]] ({{Reign|705|715}}).{{Sfn|Serjeant|Lewcock|1983|p=323}}<ref name=":24425" /><ref name=":05222" /> It was reconstructed again in 753–4 and after 875. On the latter occasion it was rebuilt with stone and [[gypsum]] walls and a [[teak]] roof, though these too have been repaired and restored over the centuries.<ref name=":24427" /> The mosque's decoration reflects the multiple restorations but also exemplifies the best artistic techniques in Yemen over the centuries, including carved and painted wood, carved stone, and [[Islamic stucco|carved stucco]].<ref name=":24427" /> The earliest known example of a monumental entrance portal in Yemen was also added to the Great Mosque of Sanaa at an entrance along the ''[[qibla]]'' wall in 1158.<ref name=":24425" />

[[File:Jibla.jpg|thumb|Courtyard inside the [[Queen Arwa Mosque|Mosque of Arwa bint Ahmad]] in [[Jibla, Yemen|Jibla]] (11th century)]]
Other examples of early hypostyle courtyard mosques in the region are the Great Mosque of [[Shibam Kawkaban]] (9th–10th century) and the [[Queen Arwa Mosque|Mosque of Arwa bint Ahmad]] (1087–9) in [[Jibla, Yemen|Jibla]].<ref name=":24425" /><ref name=":05222" /> The Great Mosque of Janad also has a courtyard form, but it was rebuilt in its present form circa 1200 and it's unclear what its original layout would have been.<ref name=":11" /> The Great Mosque of Shibam, like the Great Mosque of Sanaa, has a richly painted ceiling, though its columns and their capitals resemble pre-Islamic forms.<ref name=":24425" /> The Mosque of Arwa bint Ahmad was reportedly part of a Sulayhid palace before being converted to a mosque. Unlike other local hypostyle mosques at the time, it features a dome over the space in front of its ''[[mihrab]]'', which is likely due to [[Fatimid architecture|Fatimid architectural]] influence via the Sulayhids (who acknowledged the [[Fatimid Caliphate|Fatimids]] as caliphs).<ref name=":24425" /> Its ''mihrab'' is the oldest surviving well-decorated ''mihrab'' in Yemen, covered in carved arabesques and featuring a rectangular frame with a Kufic inscription. This design was imitated in later ''mihrab''s in the region.<ref name=":24425" />

For many centuries, one of the most important cites in the regions was [[Zabid]], which was the capital under several successive dynasties, starting with the [[Ziyadids]] (9th to 11th centuries).<ref name=":02">{{Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition|volume=11|title=Zabīd|last=Sadek|first=Noha|page=370–371}}</ref> It has the highest concentration of historic religious buildings of any city in Yemen aside from Sanaa.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last=Sadek |first=Noha |date=1998 |title=The mosques of Zabīd, Yemen: a preliminary report |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41223630 |journal=Proceedings of the Seminar for Arabian Studies |volume=28 |pages=239–245 |jstor=41223630 |issn=0308-8421}}</ref> Two of the most important mosques are the [[Great Mosque of Zabid]] and the [[al-Asha'ir Mosque]], both hypostyle courtyard mosques built by the Ziyadid ruler al-Husayn ibn Salamah ({{Reign|983|1012}}).<ref name=":3" /> The brick minaret of the Great Mosque of Zabid is one of the oldest surviving [[minaret]]s in Yemen, though it was added later under the Ayyubids ({{circa|1200}}).<ref name=":24425" /><ref name=":11" />

=== 13th century and after ===

==== Mosques and madrasas ====
The [[Ayyubids]] introduced domed mosque types as well as [[Sunni Islam|Sunni]]-syle [[madrasa]]s to the region, but none of their buildings in Yemen have survived. However, the [[Rasulids]] after them (13th–15th centuries) were prolific patrons of architecture and perpetuated these new building types, influenced by their political links with Egypt.<ref name=":24425" /><ref name=":244252">{{harvnb|Bloom|Blair|2009|loc=''Architecture; VI. c. 1250–c. 1500; C. Central Islamic lands; 2. Yemen''}}</ref> The Rasulids were based in Ta'izz and several of their buildings survive there, including the [[Mudhaffar Mosque|Muẓaffariyya Mosque]] (built by Sultan [[Al-Muzaffar Yusuf I|al-Malik al-Muẓaffar Yusuf]] sometime between 1249 and 1295) and several madrasas that also incorporate mosques.<ref name=":244252" /><ref name=":05222" />

The domed mosque type was a significant innovation in the history of religious architecture in Yemen and demonstrates a greater integration of architectural ideas from the surrounding Islamic world.<ref name=":11" /> One of its earliest examples was the Mosque of al-Mahjam. Its minaret, which is very similar to that of the Great Mosque of Zabid, is all that remains of the mosque, but records indicate that its prayer hall had many domes.<ref name=":11" /> While Ayyubid structures in Yemen have not survived, it's possible that some of them served as prototypes for later domed mosques in the region.<ref name=":244252" /> Art historian Barbara Finster also suggests that the Asadiyya Madrasa in [[Ibb]], built in the first half of the 13th century, may have been the model for later domed mosques, as it has a prayer hall consisting of a central dome flanked by pairs of domes on either side.<ref name=":11" />

[[File:The Mussaffar Mosque in Taiz.jpg|thumb|Northern (''qibla'') façade of the [[Mudhaffar Mosque|Muẓaffariyya Mosque]] in Ta'izz (second half of 13th century)]]
Most of the Rasulid religious buildings were characterized by a domed prayer hall that is wider than it is deep. This layout was also continued in the architecture of the [[Tahirid Sultanate|Tahirids]] who succeeded the Rasulids in the 15th century. Aside from the major dynastic constructions, similar but smaller domed mosques appeared throughout the areas occupied by a Sunni population. This transversal domed layout thus distinguished Sunni sanctuaries from those built in areas controlled by the contemporary [[Imams of Yemen|Zaydi imams]], who were [[Shia Islam|Shi'a]].<ref name=":11" /> This floor plan is exemplified by the Muẓaffariyya Mosque, which has a large central dome flanked by two consecutive pairs of smaller domes to the west and three to the east, each of these leading to another large domed chamber at the western and eastern ends of the hall. The design of this mosque was innovative in its inclusion of large windows in the ''qibla'' wall, thus introducing much more light to the interior than in more traditional mosque designs. The exterior façade of the ''qibla'' wall is also decorated with friezes of interlacing motifs.<ref name=":11" />

The oldest madrasas in Yemen also date from the Rasulid period, including the aforementioned [[Asadiyya Madrasa]] (before 1258), the [[Mu'tabiyya Madrasa]] in Ta'izz (1392), and the [[Ashrafiya Mosque|Ashrafiyya Madrasa]] (built by Sultan [[Al-Ashraf Isma'il I|al-Malik al-Ashraf]] in 1397–1401) also in Ta'izz.<ref name=":244252" /> Unlike contemporary madrasas in Egypt, the Rasulid madrasas do not follow the four-iwan layout. The Mu'tabiyya and Ashrafiyya madrasas both have rectangular floor plans with a domed prayer hall to the north and a courtyard to the south flanked by smaller domed and vaulted chambers on either side which were used for teaching.<ref name=":244252" />

[[File:Mousq_in_taiz.jpg|thumb|Central dome of the [[Ashrafiya Mosque|Ashrafiyya Mosque]] in [[Taiz|Ta'izz]], {{circa|1397}}]]
Barbara Finster considers the Mu'tabiyya to be a high point of Yemeni architecture thanks to its meticulous and deliberate planning.<ref name=":11" /> It has a prayer hall of six equal domed bays which is surrounded by a U-shaped passage to the west, south, and east. The west and east wings of this passage are open to the outside via an [[Arcade (architecture)|arcade]] and terminate with small domed chambers at their north ends. On the south side of it is a rectangular courtyard flanked by teaching rooms to the east and west, with the projecting entrance gate and its vestibule are located south of the courtyard.<ref name=":11" /> The slightly later Ashrafiyya represents essentially a larger-scale version of the same design, further distinguished by imposing twin minarets near its southern corners. It also has an entrance portal built with stones of different colour carved with [[scallop]]ped motifs and a [[multifoil arch]], a style most likely borrowed from [[Upper Mesopotamia|Upper Mesopotomia]].<ref name=":11" /> Most of the many small madrasas across Yemen simply imitated the traditional design of local mosques while adding an additional lecture hall across the courtyard from the prayer hall.<ref name=":11" /> An example that features exceptionally rich stucco decoration on the courtyard façades is the Farhaniyya Madrasa in Zabid (before 1432).<ref name=":11" />

The mosques built under the early Zaydi imams include the [[Mosque of Zafar Dhibin]] ({{Circa|1200}}) and the [[Mosque of al-Hadi]] (1339–40) in [[Sa'da]].<ref name=":2442522" /><ref name=":11" /> The Mosque of Zafar Dhibin, which was part of a palace complex, looks superficially like a courtyard mosque but its courtyard lacks a covered gallery (''[[Riwaq (arcade)|riwaq]]'') on the south side and it is dominated by two attached tombs.<ref name=":11" /> The tomb of [[Al-Mansur Abdallah|Imam al-Mansur Billah]] sits opposite the prayer hall on the same axis as the mosque's ''mihrab''. The prayer hall's courtyard façade is decorated with carved stucco highlighted with gray-green [[faience]] tiles and an arcade of mixtilinear or [[Trefoil arch|trefoil]]-like arches that could reflect a distant [[Moorish architecture|Maghebi]] influence via Egypt. Inside, the prayer hall has richly decorated [[coffer]]ed ceilings and its three central naves leading towards the mihrab are taller than the others. This rich and particular decorative is program is not known in other courtyard-type mosques in Yemen.<ref name=":11" /> The al-Hadi Mosque has two parts, one of which has a wide but shallow courtyard with a prayer hall to the north and a series of tombs around the other sides, similar in conception to the Zafar Dhibin Mosque.<ref name=":11" /> The second part is a larger extension to the north, which includes a rectangular courtyard with a freestanding minaret inside it. The prayer hall has both longitudinal and transversal rows of arches (i.e. running perpendicular and parallel to the ''qibla'' wall. Unlike the Zafar Dhibin Mosque, decoration is absent in most of the hall except for the domed bay in front of the ''mihrab''.<ref name=":11" />

Minarets in the later Rasulid period were strongly influenced by Egyptian [[Mamluk architecture|Mamluk]] minarets, with shafts divided into multiple levels with differing designs.<ref name=":244252" /> The minarets built under the early Zaydi imams were generally simpler, with a mostly smooth circular shaft set on a square base.<ref name=":244252" />

[[File:Jemen1988-153 hg.jpg|thumb|The [[Al-Bakiriyya Mosque|Bakiriyya Mosque]] in Sanaa (1597) demonstrates the influence of the domed [[Ottoman architecture|Ottoman style]]]]
With the advent of [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] rule in Yemen [[Yemen Eyalet|from 1538 to 1636]], Rasulid-style architecture continued to be the local norm in Sunni-controlled areas, but elements of [[Ottoman architecture]] began to be introduced in the late 16th century.<ref name=":05222" /> The clearest monument of Ottoman inspiration is the [[Al-Bakiriyya Mosque|Bakiriyya Mosque]] in Sanaa from 1597, which has a large dome and four corner turrets, but this design does not seem to have inspired later buildings.<ref name=":11" />

==== Tombs ====
In this same period, Zaydi imams in northern Yemen were buried in richly decorated domed tombs which were among the only significant examples of this type of building in Yemen at the time.<ref name=":244252" /> The tombs at Zafar Dhibin are one of the earliest examples of prominent Zaydi tombs, dating to the early 13th century.<ref name=":24425" /><ref name=":11" /> Another major complex of Zaydi domed tombs, dating generally from the 14th and 15th centuries, is the one attached to the Mosque of al-Hadi in Sa'da. The domed structures have been built up next to each other and are now interconnected. They were usually open on three sides, with a mihrab on the ''qibla'' side, and covered by either simple domes or more ornate [[gadrooned]] domes. The interiors are very richly decorated with inscription bands and carved stucco, in contrast with the mostly plain mosque.<ref name=":244252" /><ref name=":2442522">{{harvnb|Bloom|Blair|2009|loc=''Zaydi''}}</ref><ref name=":11" /> A more expansive but exceptional layout is found in the tomb of [[Al-Nasir Muhammad Salah al-Din|Imam Salah ad-Din]] (d. 1391) in Sanaa, where the domed chamber is also flanked to the north by an [[iwan]] with a ''mihrab'', to the south by an [[apse]], and to the west by another rectangular chamber.<ref name=":244252" /><ref name=":11" /> Richly carved and painted wooden cenotaphs were added over the graves of some 18th-century imams.<ref name=":2442522" />

Unlike the Zaydi imams, the Rasulid rulers were normally buried in more modest tombs attached to their madrasas. The graves inside the mausoleum of Sultan al-Ashraf and his family (attached to the Ashrafiyya Mosque) are nonetheless marked by lavish cenotaphs built as domed baldaquin-style elements with carved and gilded stucco decoration.<ref name=":11" /><ref name=":244252" />

[[File:Yemen (2285851285).jpg|thumb|[[Hadhramaut|Hadrami]]-style domed mausoleums in [[Tarim, Yemen|Tarim]]]]
Domed mausoleums are also a tradition in the [[Hadhramaut|Hadramawt]] valley, where they usually covered the graves of local Muslim saints (''[[Wali|awliya]]''), such as the local [[Saiyids]].<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last=Knysh |first=Alexander |date=1993 |title=The Cult of Saints in Hadramawt: An Overview |url=https://archive.org/details/newarabianstudie0000unse_b5t4/page/140/mode/2up |journal=New Arabian Studies |volume=1 |pages=139–141}}</ref>{{Sfn|Lewcock|1986|pp=51–55}} These are often built as open kiosks consisting of domes resting on four pillars, with the space between the pillars later closed with walls or screens.{{Sfn|Lewcock|1986|pp=51–55}} The graves themselves were often covered by a wooden or bronze sarcophagus, which could be embellished with carved decoration and inscriptions.{{Sfn|Lewcock|1986|pp=51–55}}<ref name=":4" /> The most important tombs, which also acted as religious sanctuaries that received pilgrims,<ref name=":4" /> were typically rebuilt and expanded over time to become some of the most important monuments in the area.{{Sfn|Lewcock|1986|pp=51–55}} Among the most notable sanctuaries is [[Qabr Hud]].{{Sfn|Lewcock|1986|pp=51–55}} In nearby [[Tarim, Yemen|Tarim]], the oldest domed tomb is that of Mas'ud ibn Yamani (circa 1250).{{Sfn|Lewcock|1986|pp=51–55}}<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ho |first=Engseng |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=R6cwDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA35 |title=The Graves of Tarim: Genealogy and Mobility Across the Indian Ocean |publisher=University of California Press |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-520-24454-2 |pages=35–36 |language=en}}</ref><!-- Note: Lewcock converts 648 AH to 1270 CE, but this seems to be incorrect, per online year converters and the other cited source (Ho 2006). --> The town of [[Al-Mashhad|Mashhad]] also hosts several large domed mausoleums of high quality construction. The oldest of the Mashhad tombs may be dated to 1591, though all the mausoleums were probably rebuilt in the 19th century.{{Sfn|Lewcock|1986|p=125}}

== Domestic architecture ==

=== Overview ===
[[File:Façades in the Old City of Sana'a (2286046989).jpg|thumb|Example of traditional houses in the old city of Sanaa]]
Yemen is notable for its historic tower-houses, built on two or more floors. These houses vary in form and materials from region to region. They are typically built of mud (either [[rammed earth]] or sun-dried [[mud-brick]]), stone, or a combination of both, with timber used for roofs and floors.<ref name=":24426" /><ref name=":24429">{{harvnb|Bloom|Blair|2009|loc=''Vernacular architecture; VII. Yemen''}}</ref> In some cases, as at [[Sanaa]], the lower floors are built in heavier stone and the upper floors are built in lighter brick.<ref name=":24429" /><ref name=":24427" /> Mud is sometimes mixed with straw and the walls are sometimes finished with [[Lime (material)|lime]].<ref name=":24429" /> Coral stone is also used in coastal towns.<ref name=":162">{{Cite book |last=Petersen |first=Andrew |url=https://www.archnet.org/collections/126 |title=Dictionary of Islamic Architecture |publisher=Routledge |year=1996 |isbn=9781134613663 |location= |pages=310–313 |language=en |chapter=Yemen}}</ref> Traditionally, the ground floor could be used for practical functions such as agriculture, the middle floors consisted of various multi-functional rooms, and the top floor often had a large reception room (''mafraj'') which enjoyed the best views.<ref name=":24426" /><ref name=":24429" />

[[File:The place where Imam Yahya Hamid al-Din was sitting.jpg|thumb|Room inside the [[Dar al-Hajar]] near Sanaa, with carved [[gypsum]] and coloured glass [[fanlight]]|left]]
Decoration of houses is often executed with [[gypsum]], lime or some other [[plaster]]. At Sanaa, typical designs consist of bands of geometric motifs on the exterior created with protruding bricks that are whitewashed.<ref name=":24426" /> Plasterwork is also found around the windows,<ref name=":16">{{Cite book |last=Petersen |first=Andrew |url=https://www.archnet.org/collections/126 |title=Dictionary of Islamic Architecture |publisher=Routledge |year=1996 |isbn=9781134613663 |location= |pages=251 |language=en |chapter=San'a}}</ref> and geometric or floral motifs can be used in [[coloured glass]] within the semicircular [[fanlight]]s. This style can be seen also be seen at [[Dar al-Hajar]], a palace built on a rocky outcrop in [[Wadi Zahr|Wadi Dahr]] (15 kilometres north of Sanaa), dating to the 1930s, which features rich gypsum decoration and coloured glass fanlights.<ref name=":24426" />
[[File:Shibam Wadi Hadhramaut Yemen.jpg|thumb|[[Shibam]] (in [[Hadhramaut|Hadramawt]]), an example of a historic fortified village with particularly tall [[Tower house|tower-houses]]]]
Some villages and towns, such as [[Radda District|Rada'a]], were built around a fortified citadel (e.g. the [[Citadel of Rada'a]]), others were encircled by a high mud-brick wall (e.g. [[Shibam]]), and some were built so that the houses themselves formed an outer wall along an elevated position (e.g. Khawlan).<ref name=":24429" />

While these structures are repaired and restored over time, this architectural style has remained generally unchanged for hundreds of years.<ref name=":24426" /> The old city of Sanaa is a prominent example which preserves many of these houses.<ref name=":24427" /><ref name=":0" /> Since 1986 it is a [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Site]], although its conservation is threatened by the ongoing [[Yemeni Civil War (2014–present)|Yemeni Civil War]].<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=UNESCO sites in Yemen under threat |url=http://www.middleeasteye.net/fr/news/unesco-sites-yemen-under-threat-516205880 |access-date=2022-06-10 |website=Middle East Eye édition française |language=fr}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Yemen's UNESCO-listed Old Sanaa houses collapse in heavy rains |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2020/8/10/yemens-unesco-listed-old-sanaa-houses-collapse-in-heavy-rains |access-date=2022-06-10 |website=www.aljazeera.com |language=en}}</ref> The oldest house in the city is believed to one of stone and earth located in the Harat al-'Alami area, as its existence is documented as early as the 14th century.<ref name=":24427" />

=== Regional variations ===
[[File:Yafa.jpg|thumb|Tall buildings in [[Yafa'a]] (in [[Lahij Governorate|Lahij]]), one of the Yemeni regions with a distinctive local architectural style|left]]
Various different styles of houses are found across different regions of Yemen. The mud-brick houses in the [[Hadhramaut|Hadramawt]] valley are especially tall,<ref name=":162" /> with Shibam being among the most famous.<ref name=":244262">{{harvnb|Bloom|Blair|2009|loc=''Housing''}}</ref> Locals were likely motivated to build their houses tall both as protection from the frequent tribal warfare in the region as well as to maximize the amount of land that could be preserved for agriculture in the dry valley.{{Sfn|Lewcock|1986|p=56}} Generally, houses were entered via a single external door leading to a central passage and staircase. In tall houses, the first two floors had very few windows, if any, and were occupied by storage rooms for goods and animals, while the habitable rooms occupied the third level and above. The first habitable level included reception rooms for visitors while the private family areas were located on the floors above. Some of the largest rooms on the upper floors had external terraces.{{Sfn|Lewcock|1986|p=|pp=56–65}}

Shibam has a unique concentration of very tall houses, which are built in mud-brick with stone foundations. Their walls taper from nearly {{Convert|1|m|ft}} thick at the bottom to less than {{Convert|30|cm|in}} at the top. Their exterior was usually covered with a plaster made of mud mixed with straw, giving them a warm brown colour, except for the highest stories, which were covered with a white lime plaster.{{Sfn|Lewcock|1986|p=|pp=68, 74}}

[[File:Sultan Al Kathiri Palace, Seiyun (2285897797).jpg|thumb|[[Seiyun Palace|Say'un Palace]], the [[Kathiri]] royal residence in [[Say'un]] (Hadramawt region)]]
At [[Say'un]] (or Seiyun), the [[Seiyun Palace|Say'un Palace]] is the largest single building in the Hadramawt valley{{Sfn|Lewcock|1986|p=68}} and one of the largest mud-brick structures in the world.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2020-10-20 |title=Yemen war: Mud-brick Seiyun Palace 'at risk of collapse' |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-54599906 |access-date=2024-10-07 |work=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> It was the royal residence of the [[Kathiri]]s, who ruled an autonomous sultanate in the region up to 1967.{{Sfn|Darles|2018|p=|pp=146–147}} In both Say'un and nearby [[Tarim, Yemen|Tarim]], the houses incorporate Southeast Asian, Indian, or [[Colonial architecture|colonial European]] influences due to the history of local notables working in Indonesia and other parts of the world from the 19th century onward, returning with knowledge of foreign styles and new amenities.<ref name=":24426" />{{Sfn|Lewcock|1986|p=67}}{{Sfn|Darles|2018|p=147}} Some of the mansions and villas they built had outer walled enclosures.{{Sfn|Lewcock|1986|p=67}} Tarim includes a number of large square-plan palaces from the Kathiri period. The most impressive is that built for Sayyid Umar ibn Shaykh al-Kaf, which has tall windows, an overall South Asian or Indonesian appearance, and whose exterior was once painted in deep blue.{{Sfn|Darles|2018|pp=164–165}}

At [[Sa'da]] and nearby villages, traditional houses are built with a mud and straw mixture and have a tapered shape, with the top of the house marked by pointed protrusions of gypsum. Some houses have window panes made of [[alabaster]].<ref name=":24426" />

In the [[Tihamah|Tihama]] plain along the coast, including towns like [[Zabid]], the buildings are instead built low, with one or two stories. They tend to be built of [[Reed (plant)|reeds]] and [[palm wood]] in the north or of [[rubble stone]] and brick in the south. Houses in Zabid tend to also omit exterior decoration and focus on interior decoration instead.<ref name=":24426" />

== References ==

=== Citations ===
{{Reflist}}

=== Bibliography ===

* {{cite book |last1=Bloom |first1=Jonathan M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=un4WcfEASZwC&pg=PA79 |title=The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art & Architecture |last2=Blair |first2=Sheila |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-19-530991-1 |access-date=2013-03-15}}
* {{Cite book |last=Darles |first=Christian |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YpJyDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA164 |title=Earthen Architecture in Muslim Cultures: Historical and Anthropological Perspectives |publisher=Brill |year=2018 |isbn=978-90-04-35633-7 |editor-last=Pradines |editor-first=Stéphane |language=en |chapter=Mud Brick Architecture in Ḥaḍramawt-Yemen under the Qu'aiti and Kathiri Sultanates}}
* {{Cite book |last=Lewcock |first=Ronald |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000071939 |title=Wadi Hadramawt and the walled city of Shibam |publisher=UNESCO |year=1986 |isbn=92-3-102338-1 |language=en}}
* {{Cite book |url=http://archive.org/details/sanaarabianislam0000unse |title=Ṣanʻāʼ: an Arabian Islamic city |publisher=World of Islam Festival Trust |year=1983 |isbn=978-0-905035-04-8 |editor-last=Serjeant |editor-first=R.B. |language=en |editor-last2=Lewcock |editor-first2=Ronald}}

== Further reading ==
{{commons category}}
* {{Cite book |last=Damluji |first=Salma Samar |url= |title=The Architecture of Yemen and Its Reconstruction |publisher=Laurence King Publishing |year=2020 |isbn=978-1-78627-572-1 |language=en}}
* {{Cite book |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt201mpg0 |title=Architectural Heritage of Yemen: Buildings that Fill My Eye |date=2017 |publisher=Gingko |doi=10.2307/j.ctt201mpg0 |jstor=j.ctt201mpg0 |isbn=978-1-909942-07-3 |editor-last=Marchand |editor-first=Trevor H.J.}}

{{Tourist attractions in Yemen|state=Expanded}}
{{Asia in topic|Architecture of}}
{{Islamic architecture}}

[[Category:Architecture in Yemen| ]]
[[Category:Architectural history]]