View source for Architecture of India

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{{Use Indian English|date=July 2018}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2020}}
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| caption2 = Tamil architecture of [[Meenakshi Temple]]
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| caption3 = Patwon ki Haveli, Jaisalmer. Rows of sandstone haveli in Rajasthan.
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| caption1 = [[Kailasa Temple, Ellora|Kailash Temple]], [[Ellora Caves]] is an example of Indian rock-cut architecture.
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| caption4 = The [[Taj Mahal]], Agra is the epitome of Mughal architecture.
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| caption5 = [[B. B. D. Bagh|Dalhousie Square]], built during British Raj period, is an example of the fusion of Indian and [[Renaissance architecture]].
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|caption6 = Padmanabhaswamy Temple in [[Thiruvananthapuram]], [[Kerala]]
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'''Indian architecture''' is rooted in the [[History of India|history]], [[Culture of India|culture]], and [[Indian religions|religion]]  of [[India]]. Among several architectural styles and traditions, the best-known include the many varieties of [[Hindu temple architecture]] and [[Indo-Islamic architecture]], especially [[Rajput architecture]], [[Mughal architecture]], [[Dravidian architecture|South Indian architecture]], and [[Indo-Saracenic architecture]]. Early Indian architecture was made from wood, which did not survive due to rotting and instability in the structures. Instead, the earliest surviving examples of Indian architecture are [[Indian rock-cut architecture]], including many [[Buddhist temple|Buddhist]], [[Hindu temple|Hindu]], and [[Jain temple|Jain]] temples.

The Hindu temple architecture is divided into the [[Dravidian architecture|Dravidian style]] of [[South India|southern India]] and the [[Nagara architecture|Nagara]] style of [[North India|northern India]], with other regional styles. Housing styles also vary between regions, depending on climate.

The first major [[Islam]]ic kingdom in India was the [[Delhi Sultanate]], which led to the development of [[Indo-Islamic architecture]], combining Indian and Islamic features. The rule of the [[Mughal Empire]], when [[Mughal architecture]] evolved, is regarded as the zenith of Indo-Islamic architecture, with the [[Taj Mahal]] being the high point of their contribution. Indo-Islamic architecture influenced the [[Architecture of Rajasthan|Rajput]] and [[Sikh architecture|Sikh]] styles as well.

During the [[British Raj|British colonial period]], European styles including [[Neoclassical architecture|Neoclassical]], [[Gothic Revival architecture|Gothic Revival]], and [[Baroque]] became prevalent across India. The amalgamation of Indo-Islamic and European styles led to a new style, known as the [[Indo-Saracenic architecture|Indo-Saracenic]] style. After [[Indian independence movement|India's independence]], [[Modern architecture|modernist]] ideas spread among Indian architects as a way of progressing from the colonial culture. [[Le Corbusier]] - who designed the city of [[Chandigarh]] - influenced a generation of architects towards modernism in the 20th century. The [[Economic liberalisation in India|economic reforms of 1991]] further bolstered the urban architecture of India as the country became more integrated with the world's economy. Traditional ''[[Vastu Shastra]]'' remains influential in India's architecture in the contemporary era.<ref name=rjadhav>See Raj Jadhav, pp. 7–13 in ''Modern Traditions: Contemporary Architecture in India''.</ref>

==Neolithic period==
In South India, the [[Neolithic]] began in 6500 BCE and lasted till around 1400 BCE when the [[Megalithic]] transition period began. The South Indian neolithic period is characterized by ash mounds from 2500 BCE in the region of [[Karnataka]], which later expanded into [[Tamil Nadu]]. {{Citation needed|date=November 2022}}

Neolithic settlements have been found in the northwest ([[Kashmir]]), east ([[Bihar]] and [[Odisha]]), south ([[Karnataka]], [[Tamil Nadu]], and [[Andhra Pradesh]]), and the northeastern frontier ([[Meghalaya]]) of India.

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The earliest clear evidence of the megalithic urn burials, discovered at various places in Tamil Nadu, date back to 1000 BCE. The most notable megalithic urn was discovered in [[Adichanallur]], {{convert|24|km}} from [[Tirunelveli]], where archaeologists from the [[Archaeological Survey of India]] unearthed 12 urns containing human skulls, skeletons and bones, husks, grains of charred rice and Neolithic celts, confirming the presence of the Neolithic period 2800 years ago.

The unearthed local and foreign antiquities (of art, architecture, customs, and rituals) depicted by the engravings on pottery and other artifacts, indicate that the prehistoric people of the [[Burzahom archaeological site|Burzahom]] established contact with [[Central Asia]] and South [[West Asia]], and had links to the [[Gangetic plains]] and [[peninsular India]].

Megalithic burial sites have been found scattered all over the subcontinent. The Neolithic period lasted up until 3300 BCE, overlapping with the following [[Early Harappan]] (Chalcolithic to Early Bronze Age) period. One of the earliest Neolithic sites in India is Lahuradewa in the Middle Ganga region and Jhusi near the confluence of the [[Ganga]] and [[Yamuna]] rivers, both dating to around the 7th millennium BCE.

==Indus Valley Civilization (2600 BCE – 1900 BCE)==
{{Main|Ancient Indian architecture|Harappan architecture}}
The [[Indus Valley civilization]] covered a large area around and beyond the [[Indus River]] basin in the late [[Bronze Age India|Bronze Age of India]]. In its mature phase, from about 2600 to 1900 BCE, the civilization developed several cities marked by great uniformity within and between sites, including [[Harappa]], [[Lothal]], and the [[UNESCO World Heritage Site]] [[Mohenjo-daro]].
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The civic and [[town planning]] and the engineering of these cities are deemed remarkable, but the building designs are "of a startling utilitarian character". There are [[granary|granaries]], drains, water-courses and tanks, but neither palaces nor temples have been identified, though cities have a central raised and fortified "citadel".<ref>Rowland, 31–34, 32 quoted; Harle, 15–18</ref> Mohenjo-daro has wells which may be the predecessors of the [[stepwell]].<ref name=L&B2/> As many as 700 wells have been discovered in just one section of the city, leading scholars to believe that 'cylindrical brick lined wells' were invented by the Indus Valley Civilization.<ref name=L&B2>Livingstone & Beach, 19</ref>

Architectural decoration is extremely minimal, though there are "narrow pointed niches" inside some buildings. Most of the art found is in miniature forms like seals, and mainly in [[terracotta]], but there are very few larger sculptures of figures. In most sites, fired mud-brick (not sun-baked as in [[Mesopotamia]]) is used exclusively as the building material, but a few sites, such as [[Dholavira]], are in stone. Most houses have two storeys, and uniform sizes and plans. The large cities declined relatively quickly, for unknown reasons, so a less sophisticated village culture was left behind.<ref>Rowland, 31–34, 33 quoted; Harle, 15–18</ref>

After the collapse of the Mature Harappan Period, some cities still remained urban and inhabited. Sites like [[Bet Dwarka]] in Gujarat, Kudwala (38.1 ha) in Cholistan, and [[Daimabad]] (20 Ha) in Maharashtra are considered urban. [[Daimabad]] (2000–1000 BC), developed a fortification wall with bastions in its [[Jorwe culture]] period (1400–1000 BC), and had public buildings, such as an elliptical temple and an apsidal temple. It also shows evidence of planning in the layout of rectangular houses, and streets or lanes, and planned streets. The area had risen to 50 hectares in with a population of 10,000 people. A {{convert|580|m|adj=on}} long protection wall dated 1500 BCE was found at Bet Dwarka which was believed to be damaged and submerged following a sea storm.<ref>U. Singh (2008), pp. 181, 223</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KOJ8aT3xYPoC&q=daimabad+elliptical+temple&pg=PA94|title=The City and the Country in Early India: A Study of Malwa|last=Basant|first=P. K.|date=2012|publisher=Primus Books|isbn=9789380607153|language=en}}</ref>

==600 BCE—250 CE==
{{Further|Ancient Indian architecture|Buddhist architecture|Indian rock-cut architecture}}
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Indian architecture after the Indus Valley Civilization around the [[Maurya Empire]], from 322 to 185 BCE, most likely used wood or recycled brick. Much of the remains discovered from this period onwards are of [[Indian rock-cut architecture]], predominantly Buddhist.

The construction of Buddhist monastic buildings began before the death of the [[Buddha]], around 400 BCE.<ref>Though a variety of dates are proposed, some 80 of so years earlier.</ref> This first generation of monasteries only survive in floor-plans, notably the [[Jivakarama vihara]] in [[Bihar]].

Important features of the period's architecture include, walled and moated cities with large gates and multi-storied buildings, wooden [[chaitya]] arches for roofs, and further structures above solid storeys. The reliefs of [[Sanchi]], dated to the 1st centuries BCE-CE, denote places such as [[Kushinagar]] or [[Rajagriha]] as splendid walled cities, as in the [[:File:Royal cortege leaving Rajagriha.jpg|''Royal cortege leaving Rajagriha'']] or [[:File:War over the Buddha's Relics, South Gate, Stupa no. 1, Sanchi.jpg|''War over the Buddha's relics'']]. These views of ancient Indian cities are relied on for the understanding of ancient Indian urban architecture.<ref>Rowland, 60</ref>

In the case of the Mauryan capital [[Pataliputra]] (near [[Patna]]), we have Greek accounts, and that of [[Faxian]]; [[Megasthenes]] (a visitor around 300 BCE) mentions 564 towers and 64 gates in the city walls. Modern excavations have uncovered a "massive palisade of teak beams held together with iron [[dowel]]s".<ref>Rowland, 60–63 60 quoted</ref> A huge ''[[apadana]]''-like hall with eighty sandstone columns shows clear influence from contemporary [[Achaemenid]] Persia.<ref>Rowland, 63–65</ref> The single massive sandstone [[Pataliputra capital]] shows clear [[Hellenistic]] features, reaching India via Persia.<ref>Rowland, 72; Harle 22–24</ref> The famous [[Ashoka column]]s show great sophistication, and a variety of influences in their details. In both these cases a now-vanished Indian predecessor tradition in wood is likely.<ref>Rowland, 65–72; Harle 24</ref>

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| caption2 = The [[Mahabodhi Temple]] built by Asoka at [[Bodh Gaya]]. Relief from [[Sanchi]], 1st century CE
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Such a tradition is extremely clear in the case of the earliest-known examples of [[Indian rock-cut architecture|rock-cut architecture]], the state-sponsored [[Barabar caves]] in [[Bihar]], personally dedicated by [[Ashoka]] circa 250 BCE. The entrance of the [[Lomas Rishi Cave]] there has a sculpted doorway that clearly copies a wooden style in stone, which is a recurrent feature of rock-cut caves for some time. These artificial caves exhibit an amazing level of technical proficiency, the extremely hard [[granite]] rock being cut in geometrical fashion and given the [[Mauryan polish]], also found on sculpture.<ref>Harle, 24; Rowland, 64–65</ref><ref name="BA97">Buddhist Architecture, Le Huu Phuoc, Grafikol 2009, pp. 97–99</ref> Later rock-cut [[vihara]]s, occupied by monastic communities, survive, mostly in Western India, and in [[Bengal]] the floor-plans of brick-built equivalents survive. The elaborately decorated facades and "chaitya halls" of many rock-cut sites are believed to reflect vanished free-standing buildings elsewhere.

The Buddhist [[stupa]], a dome shaped monument, was used in India as a commemorative monument associated with storing sacred relics.<ref name=Ency>Encyclopædia Britannica (2008), ''Pagoda''.</ref> The stupa architecture was adopted in [[Southeast Asia|Southeast]] and [[East Asia]], where it became prominent as a [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] monument used for enshrining sacred relics.<ref name=Ency/> [[Guard rail]]s—consisting of posts, crossbars, and a coping—became a feature of safety surrounding a stupa.<ref name=Chandra>Chandra (2008)</ref> Temples—build on elliptical, circular, quadrilateral, or apsidal plans—were constructed using brick and timber.<ref name=Chandra/> The Indian gateway arches, the ''[[torana]]'', reached East Asia with the spread of Buddhism.<ref>Encyclopædia Britannica (2008), ''torii''</ref> Some scholars hold that ''[[torii]]'' derives from the torana gates at the Buddhist historic site of [[Sanchi]] (3rd century BCE – 11th century CE).<ref name=Jaanus>{{Cite web|url=http://www.aisf.or.jp/~jaanus/|title=:: JAANUS :: Terminology of Japanese Architecture & Art History|website=Aisf.or.jp|access-date=3 December 2021|archive-date=5 September 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190905033355/http://www.aisf.or.jp/~jaanus/|url-status=live}}</ref>

Rock-cut [[stepwell]]s in India date from 200 to 400 CE.<ref name=L&B/> Subsequently, the construction of wells at Dhank (550–625 CE) and stepped ponds at [[Bhinmal]] (850–950 CE) took place.<ref name=L&B>Livingston & Beach, xxiii</ref> Cave temples became prominent throughout western India, incorporating various unique features to give rise to cave architecture in places such as the caves at [[Ajanta caves|Ajanta]] and [[Ellora Caves|Ellora]].<ref name=Chandra/>

A very important development, the emergence of the [[shikara]] or temple tower, is today best evidenced by the Buddhist [[Mahabodhi Temple]]. This was already several centuries old when the first very vertical structure replaced an Ashokan original, apparently around 150–200 CE. The current brick-built tower, probably a good deal larger, dates to the [[Gupta]] period, in the 5th or 6th centuries.<ref>Huu, 242</ref>

==Gupta architecture==
[[File:Deogarh01.jpg|thumb|[[Dashavatara Temple, Deogarh]] is a Vishnu Hindu temple built during the early 6th century, near the end of the Gupta period.]]
The Gupta period chiefly represented a hiatus in [[Indian rock-cut architecture]]; the first wave of construction was completed before the empire was assembled, and the second wave began in the late 5th century, after its end. For example, an early group of the [[Ajanta Caves]]  was crafted by 220 CE and a later group was made around 460 CE.<ref>Ajanta chronology is still under discussion, but this is the view of Spink, accepted by many.</ref> Nonetheless, most of the first surviving free-standing structures in India are accredited to the Gupta period, in particular, the beginnings of [[Hindu temple architecture]]. As [[Milo Beach]] writes, "Under the Guptas, India was quick to join the rest of the medieval world in a passion for housing precious objects in stylized architectural frameworks",<ref>[[Milo Beach|Beach, Milo]], ''Steps to Water: The Ancient Stepwells of India'', (Photographs by Morna Livingston), p. 25, 2002, Princeton Architectural Press, {{ISBN|1568983247}}, 9781568983240, [https://books.google.com/books?id=KoVCliqcmIIC&pg=PA25 google books] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230603192521/https://books.google.com/books?id=KoVCliqcmIIC&pg=PA25 |date=3 June 2023 }}</ref> the "precious objects" primarily suggesting the icons of gods.

The caves at [[Ajanta Caves|Ajanta]], including [[Elephanta Caves|Elephanta]] and [[Ellora Caves|Ellora]] (respectively Buddhist, Hindu, mixed, and Jain) were produced under other <!-- "other" - which exactly? --> dynasties in Central India. Ellora was made after the Gupta period, yet they primarily reflect the monumentality and balance of Guptan style. The Ajanta Caves contain the most significant and mature survivals of painting and the periods, mainly in palace paintings.{{sfn|Harle|1994|pp=118–22, 123–26, 129–35}} The Hindu [[Udayagiri Caves]] record connections with the dynasty and its ministers,{{sfn|Harle|1994|pp=92–97}} and the [[Vishnu Temple, Deogarh|Dashavatara Temple]] at [[Deogarh, Uttar Pradesh|Deogarh]], one of the earliest to survive, showcases important sculpture.<ref>Harle, 113–114; see also site entries in Michell (1990)</ref>

North Indian Hindu temples that have survived after the 5th century [[Udayagiri Caves]] in [[Madhya Pradesh]] include those at [[Tigawa]] (early 5th century),<ref>Michell (1990), 192</ref> [[Sanchi]] Temple 17 (similar, but respectively Hindu and Buddhist), Deogarh, [[Nachna Hindu temples|Parvati Temple, Nachna]] (465),<ref name=meister370>Michael Meister (1987), Hindu Temple, in ''The Encyclopedia of Religion'', editor: Mircea Eliade, Volume 14, Macmillan, {{ISBN|0-02-909850-5}}, page 370</ref> [[Bhitargaon]], the largest Gupta brick temple to survive,<ref>Michell (1990), 157; Michell (1988), 96</ref> <!-- [[Lalitpur District, India|Lalitpur District]] (c. 525), where exactly???  --> and [[Sirpur Group of Monuments#Hindu monuments|Lakshman Brick Temple, Sirpur]] (600–625). [[Gop Temple]] in [[Gujarat]] (c. 550 or later) is an oddity, with no surviving close comparator.<ref>Harle, 111–113, 136–138; Michell (1988), 90, 96–98; see also site entries in Michell (1990)</ref>

There are a number of broad models of Guptan-style temples, however, the most common plan exemplifies small but massively built stone [[prostyle]] buildings with a sanctuary and a columned porch, apparent at Tigawa and Sanchi Temple 17 and continued today. Both temples have flat roofs over the sanctuary, which would become uncommon by about the 8th century, as seen in the design of the [[Mahabodhi Temple]], Bhitargaon, Deogarh and Gop, with high superstructures of different shapes.<ref>Harle, 111–113; Michell (1988), 94–98</ref> The [[Chejerla, Guntur district|Chejarla Kapoteswara temple]] further demonstrates the continuance of free-standing [[chaitya]]-hall temples with barrel roofs, with many smaller wooden examples.<ref>Harle, 175</ref>

<gallery widths="180" heights="180">
File:Sanchi temple 17.jpg|A [[tetrastyle]] [[prostyle]] [[Gupta period]] temple at [[Sanchi]] beside the Apsidal hall with [[Maurya]] foundation. An example of [[Buddhist architecture]] from the 5th century.
File:Tigowa 1999 Kankali-Devi-Tempel.jpg|The Hindu [[Tigawa]] Temple from the early 5th century.
File:Mahabodhitemple.jpg|The current structure of the [[Mahabodhi Temple]] dates to the Gupta era in the 5th century. It marks the location where the Buddha is said to have attained enlightenment.
File:Vishnu temple mandapa at Eran, Madhya Pradesh.jpg|Vishnu temple in [[Eran]] from the 5th-6th century.
File:KITLV 87946 - Unknown - Pataini temple in British India - 1897.tif|alt=Pataini temple is a Jain temple built during the Gupta period, 5th century.|[[Pataini temple]] is a Jain temple built during the Gupta period in the 5th century.<ref>{{cite book | last=Cunningham | first=Alexander | author-link=Alexander Cunningham | title=Report of a Tour in the Central Provinces in 1873-74 and 1874-75 | volume=9 | series=Archaeological Survey of India | publisher=Office of the Superintendent of Government Printing | year=1879 | url={{Google books|X88OAAAAQAAJ|page=31|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}} | page=31}}</ref>
File:Kakandi.jpg|Relief of [[Jain]] [[tirthankara]] [[Parshvanatha]] on the [[Kahaum pillar]], erected by a person named Madra during the reign of [[Skandagupta]] in 461.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Sharma |first1=Tej Ram |title=Personal and Geographic Names in Gupta Inscriptions |date=1978 |page=93 |url=https://www.rarebooksocietyofindia.org/book_archive/196174216674_10151812362491675.pdf |access-date=7 September 2023 |archive-date=23 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231223224759/https://www.rarebooksocietyofindia.org/book_archive/196174216674_10151812362491675.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>
File:Eran Budhagupta pillar built circa 476–495 CE.jpg|The [[Buddhagupta]] pillar at Eran (c.476–495)
</gallery>

==Temple architecture==
{{Main|Hindu temple architecture}}
[[File:Shore Temple 01.jpg|thumb|The rock-cut [[Shore Temple]] of the [[Group of Monuments at Mahabalipuram|temples in Mahabalipuram]], Tamil Nadu, 700–728 showing the typical [[Dravidian architecture|''dravida'']] form of tower.|left]]

Whereas the visible stylistic forms of the temple vary greatly and have a complicated development,<ref name="Rowland, 275-276">Rowland, 275–276</ref> the basic elements of a [[Hindu temple]] remain the same across all periods and styles. The most essential feature is the inner sanctuary, the ''[[garbhagriha]]'' or "womb-chamber", where the primary ''[[murti]]'' of a deity is housed in. Around this chamber are other structures and buildings, at times covering several acres. On the exterior, the garbhagriha is crowned by a tower-like ''[[shikhara]]'', also called the ''[[Vimana (architectural feature)|vimana]]'' in the south.<ref>Michell, Chapter 4; confusingly, in South India ''shikhara'' means only the top section of the ''vimana''.</ref> The temple may include an [[ambulatory]] for ''parikrama'' ([[circumambulation]]), one or more [[mandapa]]s or congregation halls, and sometimes an [[antarala]] antechamber and porch between the garbhagriha and mandapa.

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| caption3 = [[Lingaraja Temple]], Kalinga Style
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| caption2 = [[Brihadisvara Temple, Thanjavur|Brihadisvara Temple]], Dravida Style
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| caption1 = [[Kandariya Mahadeva Temple]], Nagara Style
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Larger temples may include more shrines or buildings, either connected together or detached, with smaller temples in the compound.<ref>These are the usual terms, but there are many variants or different ones in the many Indian languages, ancient and modern.</ref> The entire temple compound is usually enclosed by a wall, and at times, raised on a [[plinth]] (''[[adhiṣṭhāna]]''). Large areas of the structure are often decorated with carving, including figurative images of deities and other religious figures.

By the 7th century CE, most key features of the Hindu temple were established in theoretical texts on temple architecture and building methods.<ref name=michellharle335/> Three styles of temple were identified: ''[[Nagara architecture|nagara]]'', ''[[Dravidian architecture|dravida]]'' and ''[[vesara]].'' The styles were sometimes mixed, and not yet associated with specific regions in India.<ref name="Rowland, 275-276"/> For example, in [[Karnataka]], the group of 7th and 8th-century temples at [[Pattadakal]] famously mixes forms later associated with both north and south,<ref>Rowland, 277–280</ref> as does that at [[Aihole]], which still includes [[apse|apsidal]] [[chaitya hall]]-type plans.<ref>Rowland, 220–223</ref>
[[File:Hindu Temple Basic Floor Design.jpg|left|thumb|Hindu Temple basic floor design]]
''Nagara'' commonly refers to North Indian temple styles, most easily recognised by a high and curving ''shikhara'' over the sanctuary. ''Dravida'' or Dravidian architecture is the broad South Indian style, possessing a lower superstructure over the sanctuary. Instead, the structure has a straight profile, rising in a series of terraces to form a decorated pyramid. Today, this is often dwarfed in larger temples by the far larger [[gopuram]] outer gateways, a much later development.<ref>Rowland, 276</ref> The ancient term vesara is also used to describe a temple style with characteristics of both the northern and southern traditions. These attributes come from the [[Deccan]] and other fairly central parts of India. Although disagreement stands on the exact period and styles that vesara represents, the term is mainly assigned to the northern tradition, but are regarded as a kind of northern ''dravida'' by others.<ref>[[Adam Hardy (architectural historian)|Adam Hardy]] for example uses "Karṇāṭa Drāviḍa" for styles others call "vesara". See his ''Indian Temple Architecture: Form and Transformation: the Karṇāṭa Drāviḍa Tradition, 7th to 13th Centuries'', 1995, Abhinav Publications, New Delhi, {{ISBN|8170173124}}, 9788170173120, [https://books.google.com/books?id=aU0hCAS2-08C&pg=PA183 google books]</ref>

===Nagara architecture===
====Early====
Excluding earlier structures in timber-based architecture, hardly any remains of Nagara Hindu temples exist from before the [[Gupta dynasty]] in the 4th century CE. The [[Indian rock-cut architecture|rock-cut]] [[Udayagiri Caves]] are among the most important early sites.<ref>Harle (1994), 87–100; Michell (1988), 18</ref> The earliest preserved Hindu temples are simple cell-like stone temples, some rock-cut and others structural, as at [[Sanchi]].<ref name=meister254>{{cite journal |last=Meister |first=Michael W. |date=1988–1989 |title=Prāsāda as Palace: Kūṭina Origins of the Nāgara Temple |journal=Artibus Asiae |volume=49 |issue=3–4 |pages=254–256 |doi=10.2307/3250039 |jstor=3250039}}</ref> By the 6th or 7th century, these evolved into high [[shikhara]] stone superstructures. However, there is inscriptional evidence, such as the ancient Gangadhara inscription from around 424, that towering temples predated the 6th or 7th century, and they were made from more perishable material. These temples have not survived.<ref name=meister254/><ref name=meister370/>

[[File:KITLV 88210 - Unknown - Temples at Barakhar in British India - 1897.tif|thumb|The ninth century temple in [[Barakar]] shows a tall curving shikhara crowned by a large amalaka and is an example of the early Pala style. It is similar to contemporaneous temples of Odisha.]]
Early North Indian temples that have survived after the 5th century [[Udayagiri Caves]] in [[Madhya Pradesh]] include, [[Vishnu Temple, Deogarh|Deogarh]], [[Nachna Hindu temples|Parvati Temple, Nachna]] (465 CE),<ref name=meister370/> [[Lalitpur District, India|Lalitpur District]] (c. 525), [[Sirpur Group of Monuments#Hindu monuments|Lakshman Brick Temple, Sirpur]] (600–625 CE); [[Rajim#Rajiv Lochan Vishnu Mandir|Rajiv Lochan temple]], and [[Rajim]] (7th-century CE).<ref name=meister280>{{cite journal |last=Meister |first=Michael W. |date=1988–1989 |title=Prāsāda as Palace: Kūṭina Origins of the Nāgara Temple |journal=Artibus Asiae |volume=49 |issue=3–4 |pages=254–280 |doi=10.2307/3250039 |jstor=3250039}}</ref>

Pre-7th century CE South Indian style stone temples have not survived. However, early South Indian temples that have survived, though in ruins, include the diverse styles [[Group of Monuments at Mahabalipuram|at Mahabalipuram]], from the 7th and 8th centuries. According to Meister, the Mahabalipuram temples are "monolithic models of a variety of formal structures all of which already can be said to typify a developed "Tamil Architecture" (South Indian) order". They suggest a tradition and a knowledge base existing in South India by the time of the early Chalukya and Pallava era when these were built. Other examples are found in [[Aihole]] and [[Pattadakal]].<ref name=meister280/><ref>Michael W. Meister and M.A. Dhaky (1983), ''South India: Encyclopaedia of Indian Temple Architecture'', Vol. I, Part I, Princeton University Press, {{ISBN|978-0691784021}}, pages 30–53</ref>

From between about the 7th and 13th centuries a large number of temples and their ruins have survived (though far fewer than once existed). Many regional styles developed, very often following political divisions, as large temples were typically built with royal patronage. In the north, [[Muslim conquests of the Indian subcontinent|Muslim invasions]] from the 11th century onwards reduced the building of temples, and saw the loss of many existing ones.<ref name=michellharle335/> The south also witnessed Hindu-Muslim conflict that affected the temples, but the region was relatively less affected than the north.<ref>{{harvnb|Michell|1995|pp=9–10}}: "The era under consideration opens with an unprecedented calamity for Southern India: the invasion of the region at the turn of the fourteenth century by Malik Kafur, general of Alauddin, Sultan of Delhi. Malik Kafur's forces brought to an abrupt end all of the indigenous ruling houses of Southern India, not one of which was able to withstand the assault or outlive the conquest. Virtually every city of importance in the Kannada, Telugu and Tamil zones succumbed to the raids of Malik Kafur; forts were destroyed, palaces dismantled and temple sanctuaries wrecked in the search for treasure. In order to consolidate the rapidly won gains of this pillage, Malik Kafur established himself in 1323 at Madurai (Madura) in the southernmost part of the Tamil zone, former capital of the Pandyas who were dislodged by the Delhi forces. Madurai thereupon became the capital of the Ma'bar (Malabar) province of the [[Delhi Sultanate|Delhi empire]]."</ref> In the late 14th century, the Hindu [[Vijayanagara Empire]] came to power and controlled much of South India. During this period, the distinctive very tall [[gopuram]] gatehouse actually a late development, from the 12th century or later, typically added to older large temples.<ref name=michellharle335>Michell (1988), 18, 50–54, 89, 149–155; Harle (1994), 335</ref>

The recently constructed Ram Mandir in Ayodhya is constructed as per the Nagara style.

====Later====
[[North Indian]] temples showed increased elevation of the wall and elaborate spire by the 10th century.<ref name="eb-niarch">Encyclopædia Britannica (2008), ''North Indian temple architecture''.</ref> On the shikara, the oldest form, called [[Latina (architecture)|''latina'']], with wide shallow projections running up the sides, developed alternative forms with many smaller "spirelets" (''[[urushringa]]''). Two varieties of these are called [[Sekhari (architecture)|''sekhari'']], where the sub-spires extend vertically, and ''[[bhumija]]'', where individual sub-spires are arrayed in rows and columns.
[[File:Plan of subsidiary shrines of Brahmeswara Temple.jpg|thumb|Drawing of a ''[[pancharatha]]'' (5 ''ratha'') plan of subsidiary shrines of Brahmeswara Temple]]
Richly decorated temples—including the [[Khajuraho Group of Monuments|complex at Khajuraho]]—were constructed in [[Central India]].<ref name=eb-niarch/> Examples include the [[Lingaraja Temple]] at [[Bhubaneshwar]] in [[Odisha]], [[Sun Temple]] at [[Konark]] in Odisha, [[Brihadeeswarar Temple]] at [[Thanjavur]] in [[Tamil Nadu]]. Indian traders brought Indian architecture to [[South East Asia]] through various [[trade routes]].<ref>Michell (1977), Chapter 8</ref>

Styles called ''[[vesara]]'' include the early [[Badami Chalukya Architecture]], [[Western Chalukya architecture]], and finally [[Hoysala architecture]]. Other regional styles include those of [[Bengal]], [[Kashmir]] and other Himalayan areas, [[Architecture of Karnataka|Karnataka]], [[Kalinga architecture]], and [[Māru-Gurjara architecture]].

[[Hoysala architecture]] is the distinctive building style developed under the rule of the [[Hoysala Empire]] in the region historically known as ''Karnata'', today's [[Karnataka]], India, between the 11th and the 14th centuries.<ref>[[MSN Encarta]] (2008), [http://au.encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761588346/Hoysala_Dynasty.html ''Hoysala_Dynasty'']. [https://archive.today/20240524174329/https://www.webcitation.org/5kwKcQ2xF?url=http://au.encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761588346/Hoysala_Dynasty.html Archived] 2009-10-31.</ref> Large and small temples built during this era remain as examples of the Hoysala architectural style, including the [[Chennakeshava Temple, Belur|Chennakesava Temple]] at [[Belur, Karnataka|Belur]], the [[Hoysaleswara temple]] at [[Halebidu]], and the [[Chennakesava Temple at Somanathapura|Kesava Temple]] at [[Somanathapura]]. Other examples of fine Hoysala craftmanship are the temples at [[Belavadi]], [[Amrithapura]], and [[Nuggehalli]]. Study of the Hoysala architectural style has revealed a negligible Indo-Aryan influence while the impact of Southern Indian style is more distinct.<ref name="distinct">See Percy Brown in Sūryanātha Kāmat's ''A concise history of Karnataka: from pre-historic times to the present'', p. 134.</ref> A feature of Hoysala temple architecture is its attention to detail and skilled craftsmanship. The temples of Belur and Halebidu are proposed [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Sites]].<ref name="heritage">{{Cite web|url=http://www.hindu.com/2004/07/25/stories/2004072501490300.htm|title=The Hindu : Karnataka / Hassan News : Belur to be proposed as World Heritage site|date=22 October 2004|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041022053319/http://www.hindu.com/2004/07/25/stories/2004072501490300.htm |accessdate=4 April 2023|archive-date=22 October 2004 }}</ref> Approximately 100 Hoysala temples survive today.<ref>Foekema, 16</ref>

==== Temples of Khajuraho  ====
{{Main|Khajuraho Group of Monuments#Arts and sculpture}}
[[File:India-5749 - Visvanatha Temple - Flickr - archer10 (Dennis).jpg|thumb|[[Vishvanatha Temple, Khajuraho|Vishvanatha Temple]], part of the [[Khajuraho Group of Monuments|Khajuraho group of monuments]]]]

The Khajuraho Temples are a group of Hindu and Jain temples located in the town of Khajuraho, in the [[Chhatarpur District]] of Madhya Pradesh, India. The temples were built between 950 and 1050 by the [[Chandela dynasty]].<ref name=":2b" />

Khajuraho is home to 25 sandstone temples in total, although only 20 remain mostly intact. The beautiful carvings on these temples, which show themes from Hindu mythology as well as other facets of everyday life in ancient India, are well-known.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bajpai |first=K.D |title=Khajuraho temples: History and significance |publisher=Aryan Books International. |year=2012}}</ref>  Both Hindu and Jain architectural influences may be seen in their design. The temples are split into three groups: the Western group, the Eastern group, and the Southern group. The Western group has the greatest popularity and draws the most tourists.<ref name=":2b">{{Cite book |last=Desai |first=Devangana |title=Khajuraho: The Art of Love |publisher=Mapin Publishing Pvt. Ltd |year=2005 |isbn=978-1890206628}}</ref>

The Khajuraho Temples were declared a [[UNESCO World Heritage Site]] in 1986, and they continue to be a popular tourist attraction in India. According to UNESCO, the Khajuraho Temples "are a masterpiece of Indian art, with their unique architecture and stunning sculptures.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=Khajuraho Group of Monuments |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/240/ |access-date=2023-02-26 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |language=en |archive-date=29 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231029205311/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/240 |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Dravidian style===
{{Main|Dravidian architecture}}
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Dravidian style ''or'' the '''South Indian temple style''' is an architectural idiom in [[Hindu temple architecture]] that emerged in the southern part of the Indian subcontinent or [[South India]] and in Sri Lanka, reaching its final form by the sixteenth century. It is seen in [[Hindu temple]]s, and the most distinctive difference from north Indian styles is the use of a shorter and more pyramidal tower over the [[garbhagriha]] or sanctuary called a [[Vimana (architectural feature)|vimana]], where the north has taller towers, usually bending inwards as they rise, called [[shikhara]]s. However, for modern visitors to larger temples the dominating feature is the high [[gopura]] or gatehouse at the edge of the compound; large temples have several, dwarfing the vimana; these are a much more recent development. There are numerous other distinct features such as the ''dwarapalakas'' – twin guardians at the main entrance and the inner sanctum of the temple and ''goshtams'' – deities carved in niches on the outer side walls of the [[garbhagriha]].

''Mayamata'' and ''Manasara shilpa'' texts estimated to be in circulation by 5th to 7th century, is a guidebook on Dravidian style of [[Vastu Shastra]] design, construction, sculpture and joinery technique.<ref name=stellakramrisch76>Stella Kramrisch (1976), The Hindu Temple Volume 1 & 2, {{ISBN|81-208-0223-3}}</ref><ref>Tillotson, G. H. R. (1997). Svastika Mansion: A Silpa-Sastra in the 1930s. South Asian Studies, 13(1), pp 87–97</ref> ''Isanasivagurudeva paddhati'' is another text from the 9th century describing the art of building in India in south and central India.<ref name=stellakramrisch76/><ref>Ganapati Sastri (1920), Īśānaśivagurudeva paddhati, Trivandrum Sanskrit Series, {{OCLC|71801033}}</ref>

From 300 BCE – 300 CE, the greatest accomplishments of the kingdoms of the [[early Chola]], [[Chera Dynasty|Chera]] and the [[Early Pandyan Kingdom|Pandyan kingdoms]] included brick shrines to deities [[Kartikeya]], [[Shiva]], [[Mariamman|Amman]] and [[Vishnu]]. Several of these have been unearthed near [[Adichanallur]], [[Poombuhar|Poompuhar]] also known as, Kaveripoompuharpattinam and [[Mahabalipuram]], and the construction plans of these sites of worship were shared to some detail in various poems of [[Sangam literature]].

The [[Indian rock-cut architecture|architecture of the rock-cut temples]], particularly the ''rathas'', became a model for south Indian temples.<ref name=Brit>{{Cite web|url= http://www.bl.uk/onlinegallery/onlineex/apac/photocoll/t/019pho0000472s1u00027000.html|title= The Rathas, monolithic [Mamallapuram]|access-date= 23 October 2012|publisher= Online Gallery of British Library|archive-date= 4 March 2016|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160304220049/http://www.bl.uk/onlinegallery/onlineex/apac/photocoll/t/019pho0000472s1u00027000.html|url-status= live}}</ref> Architectural features, particularly the sculptures, were widely adopted in [[Dravidian architecture|South India]].<ref name=Unesco>{{Cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/249/|title=Group of Monuments at Mahabalipuram|access-date=23 October 2012|publisher=UNESCO.org|archive-date=15 April 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200415074333/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/249/|url-status=live}}</ref> Descendants of the sculptors of the shrines are artisans in contemporary Mahabalipuram.<ref name="BruynBain2010">{{cite book|first1=Pippa de |last1=Bruyn|first2=Keith |last2=Bain|first3=David |last3=Allardice|author4=Shonar Joshi|title=Frommer's India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qG-9cwHOcCIC&pg=PA333|access-date=7 February 2013|date=18 February 2010|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-0-470-64580-2|pages=333–}}</ref>

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The Badami [[Chalukyas]] also called the Early Chalukyas, ruled from [[Badami]], Karnataka in the period 543–753 and spawned the [[Vesara]] style called [[Badami Chalukya Architecture]]. The finest examples of their art are seen in [[Pattadakal]], [[Aihole]] and [[Badami]] in northern Karnataka. Over 150 temples remain in the [[Malaprabha]] basin.

The Rashtrakuta contributions to art and architecture are reflected in the splendid rock-cut shrines at Ellora and Elephanta, situated in present-day [[Maharashtra]]. It is said that they altogether constructed 34 rock-cut shrines, but most extensive and sumptuous of them all is the Kailasanatha temple at [[Ellora]]. The temple is a splendid achievement of Dravidian art. The walls of the temple have marvellous sculptures from [[Hindu mythology]] including [[Ravana]], [[Shiva]] and [[Parvathi]] while the ceilings have paintings. These projects spread into South India from the [[Deccan Plateau|Deccan]]. The architectural style used was partly Dravidian. They do not contain any of the ''[[shikhara]]s'' common to the ''Nagara'' style and were built on the same lines as the Virupaksha temple at [[Pattadakal]] in Karnataka.<ref name="Dravidian">{{cite web|title=Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent, 20 September 1996|url=http://www.indoarch.org/|author=Takeo Kamiya|publisher=Gerard da Cunha-Architecture Autonomous, Bardez, Goa, India|access-date=2006-11-10|archive-date=2 May 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150502190211/http://www.indoarch.org/|url-status=usurped}}</ref>

[[Vijayanagara architecture]] of the period (1336–1565) was a notable building style evolved by the [[Vijayanagar empire]] that ruled most of [[South India]] from their capital at [[Vijayanagara]] on the banks of the [[Tungabhadra River]] in present-day [[Karnataka]].<ref>See [[Percy Brown (scholar)|Percy Brown]] in Sūryanātha Kāmat's ''A concise history of Karnataka: from pre-historic times to the present'', p. 132.</ref> The architecture of the temples built during the reign of the Vijayanagara empire had elements of political authority.<ref>See Carla Sinopoli, ''Echoes of Empire: Vijayanagara and Historical Memory, Vijayanagara as Historical Memory'', p. 26.</ref> This resulted in the creation of a distinctive imperial style of architecture which featured prominently not only in temples but also in administrative structures across the [[Deccan Plateau|deccan]].<ref>See Carla Sinopoli, ''The Political Economy of Craft Production: Crafting Empire in South India, C. 1350–1650'', p. 209.</ref> The Vijayanagara style is a combination of the [[Chalukya]], [[Hoysala]], [[Pandya]] and [[Chola]] styles which evolved earlier in the centuries when these empires ruled and is characterised by a return to the simplistic and serene art of the past.<ref name="blossom">See Percy Brown in Sūryanātha Kāmat's ''A concise history of Karnataka: from pre-historic times to the present'', p. 182.</ref> The South Indian temple consists essentially of a square-chambered sanctuary topped by a superstructure, tower, or spire and an attached pillared porch or hall (maṇḍapa or maṇṭapam), enclosed by a peristyle of cells within a rectangular court. The external walls of the temple are segmented by pilasters and carry niches housing sculpture. The superstructure or tower above the sanctuary is of the kūṭina type and consists of an arrangement of gradually receding stories in a pyramidal shape. Each story is delineated by a parapet of miniature shrines, square at the corners and rectangular with barrel-vault roofs at the centre.

The [[Warangal Fort]], [[Thousand Pillar Temple]], and [[Ramappa Temple]] are examples of Kakatiya architecture.{{Sfn|Haig|1907|p=65-87}}

===Vesara Architecture===
The style adopted in the region that today lies in the modern states of Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh (Deccan) which served in its geographical position as buffer between north and south, that architectural style has mix of both the Nagara and Dravidian temple styles.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Khamesra|first=Manish|date=2021-01-19|title=Ghumakkar Insights: A Gavaksh to the Ancient Indian Temple Architecture|url=https://www.ghumakkar.com/a-gavaksh-to-the-ancient-north-indian-temple-architecture/|access-date=2021-07-15|website=Ghumakkar – Inspiring travel experiences.|language=en-US|archive-date=15 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210715110258/https://www.ghumakkar.com/a-gavaksh-to-the-ancient-north-indian-temple-architecture/|url-status=live}}</ref> While some scholars consider the buildings in this region as being distinctly either nagara or dravida, a hybridised style that seems to have become popular after the mid-seventh century, is known in some ancient texts as vesara. In the southern part of the Deccan, i.e., in the region of Karnataka is where some of the most experimental hybrid styles of vesara architecture are to be found.

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An important temple is Papnath temple, dedicated to Lord Shiva. The temple is one of the best early examples of the South Indian tradition. By contrast other eastern Chalukyan Temples, like the [[Mahakuta group of temples|Mahakuta]], five kilometres from [[Badami]], and the Swarga Brahma temple at Alampur show a greater assimilation of northern styles from Odisha and Rajasthan. At the same time the [[Durga temple, Aihole|Durga temple at Aihole]] is unique having an even earlier style of an apsidal shrine which is reminiscent of [[Chaitya|Buddhist chaitya halls]] and is surrounded by a veranda of a later kind, with a shikhara that is stylistically like a nagara one. The [[Chalukya Shiva Temple|Lad Khan temple]] at [[Aihole]] in Karnataka seems to be inspired by the wooden-roofed temples of the hills, except that it is constructed out of stone.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://ncert.nic.in/textbook/pdf/kefa106.pdf|title=TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE AND SCULPTURE|website=ncert.nic.in|access-date=3 December 2021|archive-date=24 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220124094749/https://ncert.nic.in/textbook/pdf/kefa106.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>

Historians agree that the ''vesara'' style originated in what is today Karnataka. According to some, the style was started by the [[Chalukya dynasty|Chalukyas]] of Badami (500-753AD) whose Early Chalukya or [[Badami Chalukya architecture]] built temples in a style that mixed some features of the ''nagara'' and the ''dravida'' styles, for example using both the northern [[shikhara]] and southern [[Vimana (architectural feature)|vimana]] type of superstructure over the sanctum in different temples of similar date, as at [[Pattadakal]]. However, Adam Hardy and others regard this style as essentially a form of Dravida. This style was further refined by the [[Rashtrakutas]] of [[Manyakheta]] (750-983AD) in sites such as [[Ellora]].

Though there is clearly a good deal of continuity with the Badami or Early Chalukya style,<ref>Michell, 149</ref> other writers only date the start of Vesara to the later [[Western Chalukya Empire|Western Chalukyas]] of [[Basavakalyan|Kalyani]] (983–1195 AD),<ref>Harle, 254</ref> in sites such as [[Lakkundi]], [[Doddabasappa Temple|Dambal]], [[Mahadeva Temple, Itagi|Itagi]], and [[Gadag]],<ref>Harle, 256–261</ref> and continued by the [[Hoysala empire]] (1000–1330 AD).

The Hoysala temples at [[Belur, Karnataka|Belur]], [[Halebid]]u and [[Somanathapura]] are leading examples of the Vesara style.<ref>Harle, 261–263</ref>  These temples are now proposed as a UNESCO world heritage site.

==Jain architecture==
[[File:Palitana.jpg|thumb|[[Palitana Jain Temples]]]]
[[File:Deogarh, UP. Jain temple complex.jpg|thumb|[[Jain temples at Deogarh|Jain Temple complex, Deogarh]], [[Uttar Pradesh]], before 862]]
{{Main|Jain temple}}
{{Further|Māru-Gurjara architecture}}
Jain temple architecture is generally close to Hindu temple architecture, and in ancient times Buddhist religious architecture. Normally the same builders and carvers worked for all religions, and regional and period styles are generally similar. The basic layout of a Hindu and most Jain temples has consisted of a small [[garbhagriha]] or sanctuary for the main [[murti]] or [[cult image]]s, over which the high superstructure rises, then one or more larger [[mandapa]] halls.

The earliest survivals of Jain architecture are part of the [[Indian rock-cut architecture]] tradition, initially shared with Buddhism, and by the end of the classical period with Hinduism. Very often numbers of rock-cut Jain temples and monasteries share a site with those of the other religions, as at [[Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves|Udayagiri]], [[Bava Pyara Caves|Bava Pyara]], Ellora, [[Aihole]], [[Badami cave temples|Badami]], and [[Kalugumalai Jain Beds|Kalugumalai]]. The [[Ellora Caves]] are a late site, which contains temples of all three religions, as the earlier Buddhist ones give way to later Hindu excavations.

There is considerable similarity between the styles of the different religions, but often the Jains placed large figures of one or more of the 24 [[tirthankara]]s in the open air rather than inside the shrine. These statues later began to be very large, normally standing nude figures in the ''[[kayotsarga]]'' meditation position (which is similar to standing [[at attention]]). Examples include the [[Gopachal rock cut Jain monuments]] and the [[Siddhachal Caves]], with groups of statues, and a number of single figures including the 12th-century [[Gommateshwara statue]], and the modern [[Statue of Vasupujya]] and, largest of all at {{convert|108|ft|m|abbr=off|sp=us}} tall, the [[Statue of Ahimsa]].

The main buildings of the largest Dilwara temples are surrounded by "cloister" screens of ''devakulikā'' shrines, and are fairly plain on the outer walls of these; in the case of the Vimal Vasahi this screen was a later addition, around the time of the second temple.<ref>Michell (1990), 274–276; Harle, 226–227</ref> Surrounding the main temple with a curtain of shrines was to become a distinctive feature of the Jain temples of West India, still employed in some modern temples.<ref>Harle, 228</ref>

Mostly funded by private individuals or groups, and catering to a smaller population, Jain temples tend to be at the small or middle end of the range of sizes, but at pilgrimage sites they may cluster in large groups – there are altogether several hundred at Palitana, tightly packed within several high-walled compounds called "tuks" or "tonks".<ref>"Temple-cities"; see also Mitchell (1990) by sites</ref> Temple charitable trusts, such as the very large [[Anandji Kalyanji Trust]], founded in the 17th century and now maintaining 1,200 temples, play a very important role in funding temple building and maintenance.

===Māru-Gurjara architecture===
{{Main|Māru-Gurjara architecture}}
[[File:Ranakpur Jain Temple Ceiling detail.jpg|thumb|Temple ceiling of Ranakpur Jain Temple, [[Rajasthan]]]]
Regional differences in Hindu temples are largely reflected in Jain ones, except that Māru-Gurjara architecture or the "Solanki style" has become to some extent a pan-Indian, indeed pan-global Jain style. This is a particular temple style from [[Gujarat]] and [[Rajasthan]] (both regions with a strong Jain presence) that originated in both Hindu and Jain temples around 1000, but became enduringly popular with Jain patrons, spreading to other parts of India and the global Jain [[diaspora]] of the last century. It has remained in use, in somewhat modified form, to the present day, indeed also becoming popular again for some Hindu temples in the last century. The style is seen in the groups of pilgrimage temples at [[Dilwara Temples|Dilwara]] on [[Mount Abu]], [[Taranga Jain temple|Taranga]], [[Girnar Jain temples|Girnar]] and [[Palitana temples|Palitana]].<ref>Hegewald</ref>

Interiors are more lavishly decorated, with elaborate carving on most surfaces. In particular, Jain temples often have small low domes carved on the inside with a highly intricate rosette design. Another distinctive feature is "flying" arch-like elements between pillars, touching the horizontal beam above in the centre, and elaborately carved. These have no structural function, and are purely decorative. The style developed large pillared halls, many open at the sides, with Jain temples often having one closed and two pillared halls in sequence on the main axis leading to the shrine.

The Māru-Gurjara style did not represent a radical break with earlier styles. The previous styles in north-west India, and the group of Jain temples of Khajuraho, forming part of the famous Khajuraho Group of Monuments are very largely in the same style as their Hindu companions, which were mostly built between 950 and 1050. They share many features with the Māru-Gurjara style: high plinths with many decorated bands on the walls, lavish figurative and decorative carving, balconies looking out on multiple sides, ceiling rosettes, and others, but at Khajuraho the great height of the shikharas is given more emphasis. There are similarities with the contemporary Hoysala architecture from much further south. In both of these styles architecture is treated sculpturally.
<gallery widths="180" heights="200">
File:Ranakpur (2155232277).jpg|Detailed carving of elephant, [[Ranakpur Jain temple|Ranakpur Jain Temple]]
File:RaniKiVav-Patan-Gujarat JM21.jpg|[[Rani ki vav|Rani Ki Vav, Gujarat]]
File:Somanath mandir (cropped).jpg|[[Somnath temple|Somanath Temple]]
File:Adalaj stepwell01.JPG|[[Adalaj Stepwell|Adalaj stepwell]]
File:Taranga Temple 2017.jpg|[[Taranga Jain temple|Taranga Jain Temple, Gujarat]]
</gallery>

==Indo-Islamic architecture==
[[File:Charminar-Pride of Hyderabad.jpg|alt=|thumb|The [[Charminar]], built in the 16th century by the [[Qutb Shahi dynasty|Golconda Sultanate]]]]
{{Main|Indo-Islamic architecture}}The Indo-Islamic architecture began under [[Islam in India|influence of Islam]] in Indian subcontinent around the 7th century AD. Many of these styles are also influence by regional Indian architecture. It also Replace Indian Trabeate style with Arcuate style. Turks and Persians, who inherited wealth of various design from [[Sasanian architecture|Sassanian]] and [[Byzantine architecture|Byzantine empire]], shaped and influenced the architecture.

Islamic buildings initially adapted the skills of a workforce trained in earlier Indian traditions to their own designs. Unlike most of the [[Islamic world]], where [[brick]] tended to predominate, India had highly skilled builders well used to producing stone [[masonry]] of extremely high quality. Alongside the architecture developed in Delhi and prominent centres of Mughal culture such as [[Agra]], [[Lahore]] and [[Prayagraj|Allahabad]], a variety of regional styles developed in regional kingdoms like the [[Bengal Sultanate|Bengal]], [[Gujarat Sultanate|Gujarat]], [[Deccan sultanates|Deccan]], [[Jaunpur Sultanate|Jaunpur]] and [[Shah Mir dynasty|Kashmir Sultanates]]. Following the collapse of the Mughal Empire, regional nawabs such as in [[Lucknow]], [[Hyderabad]] and [[Mysore]] continued to commission and patronize the construction of Mughal-commissioned architecture in the [[princely state]]s.

=== Sultanate ===
[[Indo-Islamic architecture#Pre-Mughal Regional Architecture|Significant regional styles]] developed in the independent sultanates formed when the Tughlaq empire weakened in the mid-14th century, and lasted until most were absorbed into the Mughal Empire in the 16th century. Apart from the sultanates of the Deccan Plateau, Gujarat, Bengal, and Kashmir, the architecture of the [[Malwa Sultanate#Malwa architecture|Malwa]] and [[Jaunpur Sultanate#Art and architecture|Jaunpur sultanates]] also left some significant buildings.<ref>Harle, 428–432</ref>

==== Delhi Sultanate ====
[[File:Under The Shade - Tomb of Muhammad Shah - Delhi - DSC 0001 02.jpg|thumb|Tomb of Muhammad Shah, [[Lodi Gardens]]]]
The start of the [[Delhi Sultanate]] in 1206 under [[Qutb al-Din Aibak]] introduced a large Islamic state to India, using Central Asian styles.<ref>Harle, 423–424</ref>  The important [[Qutb Complex]] in Delhi was begun under [[Muhammad of Ghor]], by 1199, and continued under Qutb al-Din Aibak and later sultans. The [[Qutb complex#Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque|Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque]], now a ruin, was the first structure. Like other early Islamic buildings it re-used elements such as columns from destroyed Hindu and [[Jain]] temples, including one on the same site whose platform was reused. The arches were [[Corbel arch|corbelled]] in the traditional Indian way.<ref>Yale, 164–165; Harle, 423–424; Blair & Bloom, 149</ref> [[Qutb Minar complex#Alai Minar of Khalji|Alai Minar]], a minaret twice the size of [[Qutb Minar]] was commissioned by [[Alauddin Khalji|Alauddin Khilji]] but never completed. Other examples include the [[Tughlaqabad Fort]] and [[Hauz Khas Complex]].
[[File:Qutb complex (Q1074330)- Mehrauli- Delhi -N-DL-93 2.jpg|left|thumb|[[Qutb Minar complex|Qutb complex]]]]
Another very early mosque, begun in the 1190s, is the [[Adhai Din Ka Jhonpra]] in [[Ajmer]], [[Rajasthan]], built for the same Delhi rulers, again with corbelled arches and domes. Here Hindu temple columns (and possibly some new ones) are piled up in threes to achieve extra height. Both mosques had large detached screens with pointed corbelled arches added in front of them, probably under Iltutmish a couple of decades later.

At Ajmer the smaller screen arches are tentatively cusped, for the first time in India.<ref>Blair & Bloom, 149–150; Harle, 425</ref> By around 1300 true domes and arches with [[voussoir]]s were being built; the ruined [[Tomb of Balban]] (d. 1287) in Delhi may be the earliest survival.<ref>Harle, 425</ref>  The [[Alai Darwaza]] gatehouse at the Qutb complex, from 1311, still shows a cautious approach to the new technology, with very thick walls and a shallow dome, only visible from a certain distance or height. Bold contrasting colours of masonry, with red [[sandstone]] and white [[marble]], introduce what was to become a common feature of Indo-Islamic architecture, substituting for the polychrome tiles used in Persia and Central Asia. The pointed arches come together slightly at their base, giving a mild [[horseshoe arch]] effect, and their internal edges are not cusped but lined with conventionalized "spearhead" projections, possibly representing [[lotus flower|lotus]] buds. [[Jali]], stone [[openwork]] screens, are introduced here; they already had been long used in temples.<ref>Blair & Bloom, 151</ref>

By the time of Tughlaqs Islamic architecture in India had adopted some features of earlier Indian architecture, such as the use of a high [[plinth]],<ref>Blair & Bloom, 149</ref> and often [[Molding (decorative)|mouldings]] around its edges, as well as columns and brackets and [[hypostyle]] halls.<ref>Blair & Bloom, 156</ref>  After the death of Firoz the Tughlaqs declined, and the following Delhi dynasties were weak. Most of the monumental buildings constructed were tombs, although the impressive [[Lodi Gardens|Lodi Gardens in Delhi]] (adorned with fountains, ''[[charbagh]]'' gardens, ponds, tombs and mosques) were constructed by the late Lodi dynasty. The architecture of other regional Muslim states was often more impressive.<ref>Harle, 426; Blair & Bloom, 156</ref>

==== Deccan Sultanates ====
Dawood Shah of Bahamani Sultanate ruled for very short amount of time in 1378 but invented a new style of tomb, comprising two similar, domed structures on a single basement, a style not seen anywhere outside [[Gulbarga|Kalaburagi]]. [[Taj ud-Din Firuz Shah|Firuz Shah]] who died in 1422 copied the double-chambered style but made his tomb much simpler. The black basalt door jambs reminiscent of temple pillars, the recessed arches bearing stucco floral work, arches bearing stucco floral work, and the [[Chhajja|chajjas]] borne on brackets that resemble those found in temples all become common features in later Bahmani architecture. Rangin Mahal in [[Bidar Fort]], built by [[Ali Barid Shah I|Ali Barid Shah]] in the 1500s. While the beautiful tile mosaics on some of its walls and the luminescent mother-of-pearl inlays on black basalt are Persian in style, its carved wooden pillars and brackets are clearly derived from local residential architecture.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-07-27|title=Alluring Bahmani architecture|url=https://www.deccanherald.com/spectrum/spectrum-top-stories/alluring-bahmani-architecture-749973.html|access-date=2021-07-16|website=Deccan Herald|language=en|archive-date=9 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709190630/https://www.deccanherald.com/spectrum/spectrum-top-stories/alluring-bahmani-architecture-749973.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
[[File:IBRAHIMROZA FULL.jpg|left|thumb|Burial place of [[Ibrahim Adil Shah II]]]]
The main architectural activities for the [[Barid Shahi dynasty|Barid Shahi]] rulers were building garden tombs. The tomb of Ali Barid Shah (1577) is the most notable monument in [[Bidar]].{{sfn|Yazdani|1947|p=152}} The tomb consists of a lofty domed chamber, open on four sides, located in the middle of a Persian four-square garden. The ''Rangin Mahal'' in Bidar, built during the reign of Ali Barid Shah, is a complete and exquisitely decorated courtly structure. Other important monuments in Bidar from this period are the tomb of Qasim II and the Kali Masjid.<ref name="michell_77">Michell, George & Mark Zebrowski. Architecture and Art of the Deccan Sultanates (The New Cambridge History of India Vol. I:7), Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1999, {{ISBN|0-521-56321-6}}, p. 14 & pp. 77–80.</ref>
[[File:Tombs beside Tomb of Fatima Khanam 2.jpg|thumb|Tombs beside Tomb of Fatima Khanam]]
Amongst the major architectural works in the [[Bijapur Sultanate]], one of the earliest is the unfinished [[Jama Mosque, Bijapur|Jami Masjid]], which was begun by Ali Adil Shah I in 1576. It has an arcaded prayer hall, with fine aisles, and has an impressive dome supported by massive piers. One of the most impressive monuments built during the reign of [[Ibrahim Adil Shah II|Ibrahim II]] was the [[Ibrahim Rauza|Ibrahim Rouza]] which was originally planned as a tomb for queen Taj Sultana, but was later converted into the tomb for Ibrahim Adil Shah II and his family. This complex, completed in 1626, consists of a paired tomb and mosque.

Notable buildings of the [[Bahmani Sultanate|Bahmani]] and [[Deccan sultanates]] in the Deccan include the [[Charminar]], [[Makkah Masjid, Hyderabad|Mecca Masjid]], [[Qutb Shahi tombs]], [[Mahmud Gawan Madrasa|Madrasa Mahmud Gawan]] and [[Gol Gumbaz]].<ref name="michell_77" />{{Sfn|Haig|1907|p=209-216}}The greatest monument in Bijapur is the [[Gol Gumbaz]], the mausoleum of Muhammad Adil Shah, which was completed in 1656, and whose hemispherical dome measures {{convert|44|m}} across.

One of the earliest architectural achievements of the Qutb Shahi dynasty is the [[Golconda|fortified city of Golconda]], which is now in ruins. In the 16th century, [[Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah]] decided to shift the capital to [[Hyderabad]], {{convert|8|km}} east of Golconda. Here, he constructed the most original monument in the Deccan, the [[Charminar]], in the heart of the new city.<ref name=":0" /> This monument, completed in 1591, has four minarets, each {{convert|56|m}}.

==== Bengal Sultanate ====
The style of the [[Bengal Sultanate]] mostly used brick, with characteristic features being indigenous Bengali elements, such as curved roofs, corner towers and complex [[terracotta]] ornamentation.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Architecture |title=Architecture |website=Banglapedia |access-date=30 December 2017 |archive-date=16 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201116231638/http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Architecture |url-status=live }}</ref> which were with blended. One feature in the sultanate was the relative absence of minarets.<ref name="Hasan, Perween 2007 p. 23-27">Hasan, Perween (2007). Sultans and Mosques: The Early Muslim Architecture of Bangladesh. United Kingdom: I.B. Tauris. p. 23–27. {{ISBN|1-84511-381-0}}.</ref> Many small and medium-sized medieval mosques, with multiple domes and artistic [[Niche (architecture)|niche]] [[mihrab]]s, were constructed throughout the region.<ref name="Hasan, Perween 2007 p. 23-27" />[[File:Firoze Minar at Gaur in Malda district 10.jpg|left|thumb|[[Firoz Minar|Firoze Minar]] at [[Gauḍa (city)|Gaur]]]]These features are also seen in the [[Choto Sona Mosque]] (around 1500), which is in stone, unusually for Bengal, but shares the style and mixes domes and a curving "paddy" roof based on village house roofs made of vegetable thatch. Such roofs feature even more strongly in later [[Bengal temple architecture|Bengal Hindu temple architecture]], with types of style such as the [[do-chala]], [[Jor-bangla Style]], and [[char-chala]].<ref>Hasan, 23–25</ref>  For larger mosques, Bengali architects multiplied the numbers of domes, with a nine-domed formula (three rows of three) being one option, surviving in four examples, all 15th or 16th century and now in Bangladesh,<ref>Hasan, 41–44</ref> although there were others with larger numbers of domes.<ref>Hasan, 44–49</ref>
[[File:Adina Mosque at Malda district of West Bengal 13.jpg|thumb|Interior of the [[hypostyle]] hall of the [[Adina Mosque]]]]
The largest mosque in the Indian subcontinent was the 14th century [[Adina Mosque]]. Built of stone demolished from temples, it featured a monumental ribbed barrel vault over the central nave, the first such giant vault used anywhere in the subcontinent. The mosque was modelled on the imperial [[Sasanian|Sassanian]] style of Persia.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/bengal|title=BENGAL – Encyclopaedia Iranica|website=Iranicaonline.org|access-date=30 December 2017|archive-date=3 January 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180103102347/http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/bengal|url-status=live}}</ref> The Sultanate style flourished between the 14th and 16th centuries. A provincial style influenced by North India evolved in Mughal Bengal during the 17th and 18th centuries. The Mughals also copied the Bengali [[do-chala]] roof tradition for mausoleums{{which|date=June 2020}} in North India.<ref>Petersen, Andrew (2002). Dictionary of Islamic Architecture. Routledge. pp. 33–35. {{ISBN|1-134-61366-0}}.</ref>

Although the description in [[Pandua, Hooghly|Pandua]], the ancient capital, shows mainly Persian culture in courts, we find one of the first attempts at fusing together the Islamic and Bengali style of architecture under [[Ilyas Shahi dynasty]] who ruled then. Under [[Jalaluddin Muhammad Shah|Jalaludin]] emerged the 'Bengal' style of mosques. With Jalaludin's reign we see the beginnings of a trend of Muslim ruling dynasty that grounded itself in local culture rather than seeking legitimacy from Delhi or Mecca. Upon his return to Delhi from his first Bengal expedition, Firoz Shah Tughlaq built Kotla Mosque, which bear a striking resemblance to the Bengal style.

==== Kashmir ====
[[File:Jama Masjid, Srinagar (14363005587).jpg|thumb|[[Jamia Masjid, Srinagar]] ]]
By 1339, Shams-ud-din Shah Mir of the [[Shah Mir dynasty]] established a sultanate encompassing the [[Kashmir|region of Kashmir]] (consisting of modern-day [[Gilgit-Baltistan]], [[Azad Kashmir]], [[Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)|Jammu and Kashmir]], [[Ladakh]], and [[Aksai Chin]]), allowing for the gradual Islamization of the region and the hybridization of Persianate culture and architecture with the indigenous Buddhist styles of Kashmir. In the capital at [[Srinagar]] in modern Indian-administered Kashmir, [[Sikandar Shah Miri|Sikandar Shah Mir]] constructed the [[Jamia Masjid, Srinagar|Jamia Masjid]], a large wooden congregational mosque that incorporates elements two cultures, that is, it has been erected in Persian style but its minar is topped with umbrella-shaped finial, which is in similitude with Buddhist pagoda structure, as well as the wooden [[Khanqah-e-Moula]]h mosque. Also in Srinagar are the [[Aali Mosque|Aali Masjid]] and the Tomb of Zain-ul-Abidin. Two 14th-century wooden mosques in [[Gilgit-Baltistan]] are the [[Chaqchan Mosque]] in [[Khaplu]] (1370) and the [[Amburiq Mosque]] in [[Shigar]]. Both have stone-built cores with elaborately carved wooden exterior galleries, at Amburiq on two levels, in an adaptation of traditional local styles.

==== Gujarat sultanate ====
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Under the [[Gujarat Sultanate]], independent between 1407 and 1543, Gujarat was a prosperous regional sultanate under the rule of the [[Muzaffarids (Gujarat)|Muzaffarid dynasty]], who built lavishly, particularly in the capital, [[Ahmedabad]], in its distinctive style of Indo-Islamic architecture. The sultanate commissioned mosques such as the [[Jama Mosque, Ahmedabad|Jami Masjid of Ahmedabad]], [[Jama Mosque, Champaner|Jama Masjid at Champaner]], [[Jami Mosque, Khambhat|Jami Masjid at Khambhat]], [[Qutbuddin Mosque]], [[Rani Rupamati's Mosque|Rani Rupamati Mosque]], [[Sarkhej Roza]], [[Sidi Bashir Mosque]], [[Kevada Mosque]], [[Sidi Saiyyed Mosque|Sidi Sayyed Mosque]], [[Nagina Mosque]] and Pattharwali Masjid, as well as structures such as [[Teen Darwaza]], [[Bhadra Fort]] and the [[Dada Harir Stepwell]] in Ahmedabad.

The distinctive Indo-Islamic architecture style of Gujarat drew micro-architectural elements from earlier [[Māru-Gurjara architecture|Maru-Gurjara architecture]] and employed them in [[mihrab]], roofs, doors, minarets and facades. In the 15th century, the Indo-Islamic style of Gujarat is especially notable for its inventive and elegant use of [[minaret]]s. They are often in pairs flanking the main entrance, mostly rather thin and with elaborate carving at least at the lower levels. Some designs push out balconies at intervals up the shaft; the most extreme version of this was in the lost upper parts of the so-called "shaking minarets" at the [[Jama Mosque, Ahmedabad]], which fell down in [[1819 Rann of Kutch earthquake|an earthquake in 1819]]. This carving draws on the traditional skills of local stone-carvers, previously exercised on Hindu temples in the Māru-Gurjara and other local styles.

Indo-Islamic architecture style of Gujarat presages many of the architectural elements later found in [[Mughal architecture]], including ornate ''[[mihrab]]s'' and minarets, ''[[jali]]'' (perforated screens carved in stone), and ''[[chattri]]s'' (pavilions topped with [[cupola]]s).

The [[Champaner-Pavagadh Archaeological Park]], the 16th century capital of Gujarat Sultanate, documents the early Islamic and pre-[[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] city that has remained without any change.

=== Mughal Empire ===
{{Main|Mughal architecture}}
The most famous Indo-Islamic style is [[Mughal architecture]]. Mughal art and architecture, a characteristic Indo-Islamic-Persian style flourished on the Indian subcontinent during the Mughal empire (1526–1857). This new style combined elements of Islamic art and architecture, which had been introduced to India during the Delhi Sultanate (1192–1398) and had produced great monuments such as the Qutb Minar, with features of Persian art and architecture. Its most prominent examples are the series of imperial [[Mausoleum|mausolea]], which started with the pivotal [[Tomb of Humayun]], but is best known for the [[Taj Mahal]].

{{multiple image
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| image4 = Tomb of Nisar Begum at Khusro Bagh Allahabad.jpg
| caption4 = Bulbous domes on Tomb of Nisar Begum at Khusro Bagh
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| caption3 = Pachin Kari or Pietra Dura on Tomb of I'timād-ud-Daulah
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| image2 = Darwaza-I-Rauza, Taj Mahal Complex, Agra, Uttar Pradesh.jpg
| caption2 = Darwaza-I-Rauza, Taj Mahal Complex, showing large vaulted gateways with delicate ornamentation and minarets with cupolas
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| image1 = Salim Chisti's Tomb, Fatehpur Sikri, Uttar Pradesh, India.JPG
| caption1 = The [[Tomb of Salim Chishti]] and jali latticed screens is famed as one of the finest examples of Mughal architecture in India.
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It is known for features including monumental buildings with large, bulbous onion domes, surrounded by [[Charbagh|gardens on all four sides]], and delicate ornamentation work, including [[Pietra dura|''pachin kari'']] decorative work and ''[[jali]]''-latticed screens. Pietra dura or ‘Parchinkari’ rose to prominence under patronage of Emperors specially under Shah Jahan. Originating from Italy, it found its way to Mughal courts via trade route. It adapted to its present distinct feature of floral art by the hands of local artisans and Persian influence.

Mughals brought in Persian style into Indian Architecture. The character and structure of Mughal buildings displayed a uniform character and structure. Some of the main features of the Mughal architecture are mentioned below.

# Large halls
# Very large vaulted gateways
# Delicate ornamentation
# Bulbous domes
# Slender Minarets with cupolas at the 4 corners

The [[Agra Fort|Red Fort]] at [[Agra]] (1565–74) and the walled city of [[Fatehpur Sikri]] (1569–74)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/255/|title=Fatehpur Sikri|website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|language=en|access-date=2019-03-12|archive-date=15 February 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220215162920/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/255/|url-status=live}}</ref> are among the architectural achievements of this time—as is the [[Taj Mahal]], built as a tomb for Queen [[Mumtaz Mahal]] by [[Shah Jahan]] (1628–58).<ref name="eb-mughalarch">Encyclopædia Britannica (2008), ''Mughal architecture''.</ref> Employing the double dome, the recessed archway, the depiction of any animal or human—an essential part of the Indian tradition—was [[Aniconism in Islam|forbidden in places of worship under Islam]].

Mughal architecture reached its zenith during the reign of the emperor Shah Jahan (1628–58), its crowning achievement being the magnificent Taj Mahal. This period is marked by a fresh emergence in India of Persian features that had been seen earlier in the tomb of Humayun. The use of the double dome, a recessed archway inside a rectangular fronton, and parklike surroundings are all typical of this period. Symmetry and balance between the parts of a building were always stressed, while the delicacy of detail in Shah Jahan decorative work has seldom been surpassed.

The Taj Mahal does contain tilework of plant ornaments.<ref name="rjadhav" /> The [[architecture]] during the Mughal Period, with its rulers being of Turco-Mongol origin, has shown a notable blend of Indian style combined with the [[Islamic architecture|Islamic]]. Taj Mahal in Agra, India is one of the wonders of the world.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/252/|title=Taj Mahal|website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|language=en|access-date=2019-02-28|archive-date=12 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210112161441/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/252|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[Mughal gardens]] are gardens built by the Mughals in the [[Islamic garden|Islamic style]]. This style was influenced by [[Persian gardens]]. They are built in the [[Charbagh|''char bagh'']] structure, which is a quadrilateral garden layout based on the [[Jannah|four gardens of Paradise]] mentioned in the [[Qur'an]]. This style is intended to create a representation of an earthly utopia in which humans co-exist in perfect harmony with all elements of nature.

The quadrilateral garden is divided by walkways or flowing water into four smaller parts. Significant use of rectilinear layouts are made within the walled enclosures. Some of the typical features include pools, fountains and canals inside the gardens.<gallery widths="180" heights="120" class="center">
File:Safdarjung Tomb Delhi, India.jpg|[[Tomb of Safdar Jang|Safdarjung's Tomb]] is built in the late [[Mughal architecture|Mughal style]] for Nawab [[Safdarjung]]. The tomb is described as the "last flicker in the lamp of Mughal architecture".
File:I'timād-ud-Daulah, Agra.jpg|[[Tomb of I'timād-ud-Daulah]] is a [[Mughal era|Mughal]] mausoleum in [[Agra]]. It is noticeable for the first use of pietra dura technique. The tomb is often regarded as a draft of the [[Taj Mahal]].
File:Shalimar Bagh 1.jpg|[[Shalimar Bagh, Srinagar|Shalimar Bagh]] is a [[Mughal garden]] in [[Srinagar]], linked through a channel to the northeast of [[Dal Lake]]. The Bagh is considered the high point of Mughal [[horticulture]].
File:Akbar's Tomb -Agra -Uttar Pradesh -IMG 2116.jpg|[[Akbar's tomb|Akbar's Tomb, Agra]] was built with red sandstone by his [[Jahangir|son]] and [[Shah Jahan|grandson]] in 1605 to 1618.
File:Humayun's tomb by Shagil Kannur 4.jpg|[[Humayun's Tomb]], [[Delhi]], the first fully developed Mughal imperial tomb, 1569–70 CE<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/232/|title=Humayun's Tomb, Delhi|website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190228192141/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/232/|archive-date=2019-02-28|url-status=live|access-date=2019-02-28}}</ref>
</gallery>

== Regional styles ==
=== Rajput Architecture ===
{{Main|Rajput architecture}}
{{See also|Architecture of Rajasthan}}{{multiple image
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| image4 = Chandra Mahal, City Palace, Jaipur, 20191218 0953 9046.jpg
| caption4 = Chandra Mahal showcasing fusion of Rajput and Mughal styles
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| image3 = Amer Fort Entrance.jpg
| caption3 = Pietra Dura and Jaali works on Amer Fort Entrance
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| caption2 = Profusely painted interiors [[Jal Mahal]]
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| image5 = Salim Singh ki Haveli 06.jpg
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| caption5 = Salim Singh ki Haveli
| caption6 = Chhatris in Udaipur
}}

Rajput Architecture represents different types of buildings, which may broadly be classed either as secular or religious. The secular buildings are of various scales. These include temples, forts, stepwells, gardens, and palaces. The forts were specially built for defense and military purposes due to the [[Muslim conquests of the Indian subcontinent|Islamic invasions]].

[[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] architecture and painting is claimed to have influenced indigenous Rajput styles of art and architecture.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Kossak|first1=Steven|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=orBAYzCRJhIC&q=Rajput+architecture+was+influenced+by+Islamic+architecture&pg=PA7|title=The Art of South and Southeast Asia: A Resource for Educators|last2=Watts|first2=Edith Whitney|date=2001|publisher=Metropolitan Museum of Art|isbn=9780870999925|language=en|access-date=5 November 2020|archive-date=14 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230314135449/https://books.google.com/books?id=orBAYzCRJhIC&q=Rajput+architecture+was+influenced+by+Islamic+architecture&pg=PA7|url-status=live}}</ref>

The [[Hill Forts of Rajasthan]] ([[Amer Fort|Amer]], [[Chittor Fort|Chittor]], [[Gagron Fort|Gagron]], [[Jaisalmer Fort|Jaisalmer]], [[Kumbhalgarh]], [[Ranthambore Fort|Ranthambore]]), a group of six forts built by various Rajput kingdoms and principalities during the medieval period are among the best examples of Rajput Architecture. The ensemble is also a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Other forts include the [[Mehrangarh Fort]] and [[Jaigarh Fort]].

Most of the population of Rajasthan is [[Hindu]], and there has historically been a [[Jainism in Rajasthan|considerable Jain minority]]; this mixture is reflected in the many temples of the region. [[Māru-Gurjara architecture]], or "Solaṅkī style" is a distinctive style that began in Rajasthan and neighbouring [[Gujarat]] around the 11th century, and has been revived and taken to other parts of India and the world by both Hindus and Jains. This represents the main contribution of the region to [[Hindu temple architecture]]. The [[Dilwara Temples|Dilwara Jain Temples]] of [[Mount Abu]] built between the 11th and 13th centuries CE are the best-known examples of the style. The [[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] architecture greatly influenced indigenous Rajput styles of art and architecture.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Steven|first1=Kossak|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=orBAYzCRJhIC&q=Rajput+architecture+was+influenced+by+Islamic+architecture&pg=PA7|title=The Art of South and Southeast Asia: A Resource for Educators|last2=Watts|first2=Edith Whitney|publisher=Metropolitan Museum of Art|year=2001|isbn=9780870999925|access-date=5 November 2020|archive-date=14 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230314135449/https://books.google.com/books?id=orBAYzCRJhIC&q=Rajput+architecture+was+influenced+by+Islamic+architecture&pg=PA7|url-status=live}}</ref>

Some architectural style innovated and influenced by Rajasthani architectural styles are:-
# Ornated buildings or Havelis
# [[Chhatri]]s
# Delicate ornamentation
# [[Jharokha]]
# Stepwell or [[Bawdi]]
{{multiple image
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| image3 = Amber Palace 013.jpg
| caption3 = [[Amer Fort]]
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| image2 = Neemrana-Fort-Palace-Hills-Alwar-Rajasthan.jpg
| caption2 = Neemrana Fort
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In Hindi, the "Chhatri" refers to a canopy or umbrella. Chhatris are the elevated pavilions with dome shaped porches. The Chhatris are used as a symbol to portray the fundamentals of admiration and pride in its style of architecture.

A Jharokha is a kind of suspended enclosed gallery. A significant purposes it served was to allow women to witness the events and society outside the palace life without being noticed. This eventually lead to [[Jharokha Darshan]], adapted by Mughals, which allowed essential and direct communication between the emperors or kings and the general public.

The [[City wall of Jaipur|walled]] city of [[Jaipur]] was formed in 1727 by Kacchwaha Rajput ruler [[Jai Singh II]], and is "a unique example of traditional Hindu [[town planning]]",<ref name="Michell1990">Michell, George (1990), ''The Penguin Guide to the Monuments of India, Volume 1: Buddhist, Jain, Hindu'', 1990, Penguin Books, pg −288-301 {{ISBN|0140081445}}</ref> following the precepts set out in much Hindu texts. Subsequently, the [[City Palace, Jaipur|City Palace]], [[Hawa Mahal]], [[Rambagh Palace]], [[Jal Mahal]] and [[Albert Hall Museum]] were also built. [[Udaipur]] also has several palaces, including the [[Bagore-ki-Haveli]], now a museum, built in the 18th century.

Rajput architecture continued well into the 20th and 21st centuries, as the rulers of the [[princely state]]s of [[Presidencies and provinces of British India|British India]] commissioned vast palaces and other buildings, such as the [[Albert Hall Museum]], [[Lalgarh Palace]], and [[Umaid Bhawan Palace]]. These usually incorporated European styles as well, a practice which eventually led to the [[Indo-Saracenic architecture|Indo-Saracenic style]]

=== Sikh Architecture ===
{{Main|Sikh architecture}}
[[File:Hamandir Sahib (Golden Temple).jpg|thumb|The [[Golden Temple]] in Amritsar]]
[[Sikh architecture]] is heavily influenced by [[Mughal architecture|Mughal]] and [[Islamic architecture|Islamic]] styles. The [[onion dome]], [[fresco]]es, in-lay work, and multi-foil arches, are Mughal influences, more specially from [[Shah Jahan]]'s period, whereas ''[[Chhatri|chattris]]'', oriel windows, bracket supported eaves at the string-course, and ornamented friezes are derived from elements of [[Architecture of Rajasthan|Rajput architecture]]. Apart from religious buildings, Sikh architecture includes secular [[forts]], ''bungas'' (residential places), palaces, and colleges.

====Gurudwara====
The religious structure is called ''[[gurdwara]]'' (a place where the Guru dwells). The word ''gurdwara'' is a compound of ''guru'' (guide or master) and ''dwara'' (gateway or seat). The [[Golden Temple]] in Amritsar and [[Hazur Sahib]] are examples.

[[File:Baba atal 1.jpg|thumb|[[Gurdwara Baba Atal]] is a 17th-century nine-storeyed Gurudwara in Amritsar.]]

Gurdwara buildings do not have to conform to any set architectural design. The only established requirements are: the installation of the Granth Sahib under a canopy or in a canopied seat, usually on a platform higher than the specific floor on which the devotees sit, and a tall Sikh pennant flag atop the building.

In the 21st century, more and more gurdwaras (especially within India) have been following the Harimandir Sahib pattern, a synthesis of Indo-Islamic and Sikh architecture. Most of them have square halls, stand on a higher plinth, have entrances on all four sides, and have square or octagonal domed sanctums usually in the middle. During recent decades, to meet the requirements of larger gatherings, bigger and better ventilated assembly halls, with the sanctum at one end, have become accepted style. The location of the sanctum, more often than not, is such as to allow space for circumambulation. Sometimes, to augment the space, verandahs are built to skirt the hall. A popular model for the dome is the ribbed lotus, topped by an ornamental pinnacle. Arched copings, kiosks and solid domelets are used for exterior decorations.

=== Maratha Architecture ===
[[File:Shaniwarwada gate.JPG|thumb|[[Shaniwarwada]] palace fort in [[Pune]]]]
The [[Maratha Confederacy|Maratha Rule]] from 17th to 19th Centuries, emerged after the Maratha's victory over the [[Mughal Empire]] in the [[Mughal–Maratha Wars|Maratha-Mughal Wars]], Prominent buildings such as the [[Shaniwar Wada]] and [[Lal Mahal]] in [[Pune]] are examples. The decorative features of the mansions were “pointed arches, heavy carved stone brackets, narrow balconies projecting on rows of such brackets, domical shallow ceilings resting on a variety of squinches, the chief being the interwoven type”.

Many [[Jyotirlinga|jyotirlinga temples]] were rebuilt by the Marathas after being destroyed by invading Islamic forces. Some examples are the [[Kashi Vishwanath Temple|Kashi Vishwanath]], [[Mahakaleshwar Jyotirlinga|Mahakaleshwar]], [[Trimbakeshwar Shiva Temple|Trimbakeshwar]], [[Grishneshwar Temple|Grishneshwar]] temples. The [[Ghats in Varanasi|ghats of Varanasi]] were also rebuilt under Maratha patronage, including the [[Dashashwamedh Ghat]] and [[Scindia Ghat]].

The Maratha structures used both the local architectural style and the Maratha's own distinct corinthian columns style. Because of the constant turmoil and protracted wars with Mughals, [[Nawab]]s, [[Afghans in India|Afghans]], and other forces, very little documentation of these efforts remain. Nevertheless, studies of these structures show that the main architectural elements were made from brick, wood, mortar and stone. Wood was most used element as it is easily and cheaply available in [[Maharashtra]] and [[Karnataka]]. The Historian [[Khafi Khan]] wrote about enchanting beauty of [[16th Century]] wooden [[Palaces]], [[temples]] and [[Forts]] However very few of these survived due to wars with [[Mughals|Mughal Empire]] and comparatively short life of wooden structures than stone and marble structures. Forts were the main focus of Maratha architecture, decorated with [[Deccan]]-style pointed arches and elaborate woodwork.

Herman Goetz writes about their architectural style in his work ‘Five Thousand Years of Indian Art’: “The [[Maratha]] temples generally provided with a huge lampstand (deepmala), The wood work they used to decorate their palaces and other civil buildings was intricate and minute. Maratha art could have developed and attained a distinctive character but it was not possible because of the turbulent times of [[Medieval India]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.preservearticles.com/notes/short-notes-on-architecture-of-marathas/14139|title=Short notes on Architecture of Marathas|date=29 October 2011|accessdate=4 April 2023}}</ref>

=== Dzong Architecture ===
{{Main|Dzong architecture}}
Dzongs are a type of fortified monastery with a distinctive architecture that are found mainly in Tibet, Bhutan and North and Northeastern part of India. The architecture is massive in style with towering exterior walls surrounding a complex of courtyards, temples, administrative offices, and monks' accommodation.[[File:Kee monastery.jpg|thumb|[[Key Monastery|Kee monastery]], [[Spiti Valley|Spiti]]|left]]'''Distinctive features include:'''
* High inward sloping walls of brick and stone painted white with few or no windows in the lower sections of the wall
* Use of a surrounding red ochre stripe near the top of the walls, sometimes punctuated by large gold circles
* Use of unique style flared roofs atop interior temples
* Massive entry doors made of wood and iron
* Interior courtyards and temples brightly colored in Buddhist-themed art [[Motif (visual arts)|motifs]] such as the [[ashtamangala]] or [[swastika]]
By tradition, dzongs are constructed without the use of architectural plans. Instead construction proceeds under the direction of a high lama who establishes each dimension by means of spiritual inspiration. Dzongs comprise heavy masonry walls surrounding one or more courtyards. The main functional spaces are usually arranged in two separate areas: the administrative offices; and the religious functions – including temples and monks' accommodation. This division between administrative and religious functions reflects the idealized [[Dual system of government|duality of power]] between the religious and administrative branches of government.

This accommodation is arranged along the inside of the outer walls and often as a separate stone tower located centrally within the courtyard, housing the main temple, that can be used as an inner defensible citadel. The roofs are massively constructed in hardwood and bamboo, highly decorated at the eaves, and are constructed traditionally without the use of nails. They are open at the eaves to provide a ventilated storage area. They were traditionally finished with timber shingles weighted down with stones
<gallery widths="180" heights="140" class="center">
File:The 9 Stupas.jpg|Stupas in Thikse Monastery
File:Ralong Monastry (36).jpg|[[Ralang Monastery]], Sikkim
File:Tawang Monastery3.JPG|[[Tawang Monastery]], [[Arunachal Pradesh]]
File:Tawang Monastery assembly hall.jpg|Tawang Monastery assembly hall
File:Devoting oneself to the path of god.jpg|Prayer hall at the [[Bylakuppe|Golden Temple in Bylakuppe]], a Tibetan settlement in Karnataka 
</gallery>

=== Bengal Architecture ===
{{Main|Architecture of Bengal}}
[[File:Bishnupur Cluster of Temples.jpg|left|thumb|Cluster of temples in Bishnupur]]
The '''architecture of Bengal''', which comprises the modern country of [[Bangladesh]] and the [[States and union territories of India|Indian states]] of [[West Bengal]], [[Tripura]], and [[Barak Valley]] in [[Assam]], has a long and rich history, blending indigenous elements from the [[Indian subcontinent]], with influences from different parts of the world. Bengali architecture includes ancient urban architecture, religious architecture, rural [[vernacular architecture]], colonial [[townhouse]]s and [[country house]]s, and modern urban styles.<ref name="Amit">{{citation |url=http://www.aishee.org/essays/classification.php |title=Classification of Terracotta Temples |author=Amit Guha |access-date=30 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160131235044/http://www.aishee.org/essays/classification.php |archive-date=31 January 2016 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

Ancient Bengali architecture reached its pinnacle during the [[Pala Empire]] (750–1120); this was Bengali-based and the last Buddhist imperial power in the Indian subcontinent. Most patronage was of Buddhist [[vihara]]s, temples and [[stupa]]s. Pala architecture influenced Tibetan and Southeast Asian architecture.{{Citation needed|date=October 2021}} The most famous monument built by the Pala emperors was the [[Somapura Mahavihara|Grand Vihara of Somapura]], now a [[UNESCO World Heritage Site]]. Historians believe [[Somapura Mahavihara|Somapura]] was a model for the architects of [[Angkor Wat]] in Cambodia.

'''Distinctive architectural elements are:-'''
* '''Deul Temple''' -  Originally influenced by Kalinga style, they were main temple style during 6th-10th century. It was the style of [[Jain]] and [[Hindu temple architecture]] of Bengal, where the temple lacks the usual [[mandapa]] beside the main shrine, and the main unit consists only of the shrine and a ''[[deul]]'' (shikhara) above it. It was revived in the 16th to 19th century. The later representatives of this style were generally smaller and included features influenced by Islamic architecture.
* '''Chala Temple''' - [[Chala Style|Chala style]] or Hut style temples were influenced by the vernacular architecture or rural Bengal. Thatched rooftops of the houses were either in form of ''do-chala'' type which has only two hanging roof tips on each side of a roof divided in the middle by a ridge or ''[[Chala Style#char-chala|char-chala]]'' type, the two roof halves are fused into one unit and have a dome-like shape. The ''char-chala'' temples started coming up around the 17th century and profoundly adopted by Mughal and later the Rajput in their architectural styles.
* '''Ratna Temple''' - The curved roof of the temple is surmounted by one or more towers or pinnacles called ''ratna'' (jewel). The ''[[Ratna Style|ratna]]'' style came up in the 15th-16th century. It was basically a mix of chala and deul architecture where small deul, or in some case domes, were used on the centre or corners of the chala (char chala) roof.
* '''Dalan Temple''' - With the comings of European colonists, a new form of temple style took place. Generally used by [[Zamindars of Bengal|Zamindars]] or elite Bengalis, Dalan style became prominent in the 19th century. The flat-roofed (dalan) temples was easier to build and had incorporated many European elements, specially the arches. In the long run, this style lost its special identity as religious architecture and got mixed up with domestic architecture.
{{multiple image
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| image1 = Rasmancha Bishnupur (38294403222).jpg
| caption1 = Pyramidal shaped structure over [[Rasmancha, Bishnupur|Rasmancha]]
| image2 = Jor Bangla Temple Arches Bishnupur.JPG
| caption2 = Terracota work at a temple of Jor Bangla
| image4 = Jorbangla Bishnupur WB From left Side.jpg
| caption4 = Jorbangla (Douchala style) Temple
| image6 = Hangseswari Temple, Bansberia.jpg
| caption6 = [[Hangseshwari Temple]], Ratna Temple
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| image3 = Pakbirra Jain Shrine of Purulia 03 (cropped).jpg
| image5 = Madan Mohan Temple of Cooch Behar Town at Cooch Behar district in West Bengal 03.jpg
| caption5 = Flat roofed dalan with dome, Madan Mohan Temple
| caption3 = Pakbirra Jain Shrine, Deul Temple
| header = Distinct Bengali Temple Style
}}

Deuls are located in the numerous rivers crisscrossed by stone-free alluvial and bush landscape of the southern [[Sundarbans settlements]] in the [[India]]n state of [[West Bengal]].
[[File:Thakur Dalan of Itachuna Rajbari at Khanyan.jpg|thumb|Thakur Dalan of Itachuna Rajbari at Khanyan|left]]
Most temples surviving in reasonable condition date from about the 17th century onwards, after temple building revived; it had stopped after the Muslim conquest in the 13th century. The roofing style of Bengali [[Hindu temple architecture]] is unique and closely related to the paddy roofed traditional building style of rural Bengal. The "extensive improvisation within a local architectural idiom" which the temples exhibit is often ascribed to a local shortage of expert [[Brahmin]] priests to provide the rather rigid guidance as to correct forms that governed temple architecture elsewhere. In the same way the terracotta reliefs often depict secular subjects in a very lively fashion.

In larger, and later, temples, small towers rise up from the centre or corners of the curving roof. These are straight-sided, often with conical roofs. They have little resemblance to a typical north Indian [[shikara]] temple tower. The [[Pancharatna (architecture)|pancharatna]] ("five towers") and [[Navaratna (architecture)|navaratna]] ("nine towers") styles are varieties of this type.

The [[bungalow]] style is a notable architectural export of Bengal. The corner towers of Bengali religious buildings were replicated in medieval Southeast Asia. [[Bengal roofs|Bengali curved roofs]], suitable for the very heavy rains, were adopted into a distinct local style of [[Indo-Islamic architecture]], and used decoratively elsewhere in north India in [[Mughal architecture]].<ref name="Petersen2002">{{cite book |author=Andrew Petersen |year=2002 |title=Dictionary of Islamic Architecture |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9A-EAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA34 |publisher=Routledge |page=34 |isbn=978-1-134-61365-6}}</ref>

Structures like [[Rasmancha, Bishnupur|Rasmancha]], built by King Bir Hambir, has an unusual elongated pyramidical tower, surrounded by hut-shaped turrets, which were very typical of Bengali roof structures of the time. Madan Mohan Temple was built in the ''ekaratna'' style, surmounted by a pinnacle along with carvings on the walls depicting scenes from the [[Ramayana]], [[Mahabharata]] and the [[Puranas]]. Temples like [[Dakshineswar Kali Temple]], features the Navratna style of roof.

Bengal is not rich in good stone for building, and traditional Bengali architecture mostly uses brick and wood, often reflecting the styles of the wood, bamboo and thatch styles of local [[vernacular architecture]] for houses. Decorative carved or [[Molding (process)|moulded]] plaques of [[terracotta]] (the same material as the brick) are a special feature. The brick is extremely durable and disused ancient buildings were often used as a convenient source of materials by local people, often being stripped to their foundations over the centuries.

== European colonial architecture ==
As with the Mughals, under European colonial rule, architecture became an emblem of power, designed to endorse the occupying power. Numerous European countries invaded India and created architectural styles reflective of their ancestral and adopted homes. The European colonizers created architecture that symbolized their mission of conquest, dedicated to the state or religion.{{sfn|Thapar|2004|p=122}}

The British, French, Dutch and the Portuguese were the main European powers that established [[Colonial India|colonies in India]].{{sfn|Nilsson|1968|p=9}}<ref name="Asian Trade">{{cite web|title=(Brief) History of European – Asian trade|url=http://www.iro.umontreal.ca/~vaucher/Genealogy/Documents/Asia/EuropeanExploration.html#england|work=European Exploration|access-date=14 October 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111017155402/http://www.iro.umontreal.ca/~vaucher/Genealogy/Documents/Asia/EuropeanExploration.html#england|archive-date=17 October 2011|url-status=dead}}</ref>

=== British Colonial Era: 1757–1947 ===
==== Indo-Saracenic ====
{{Further|Indo-Saracenic Revival architecture}}
{{multiple image
| header = [[Lutyens' Delhi]]
| image1 = Rashtrapati Bhavan flank perspective1.jpg
| caption1 = The Viceroy's House (now [[Rashtrapati Bhavan]]) was built for the [[Viceroy of India]]. It now serves as the official residence of the [[President of India]].
| image2 = India Gate in New Delhi 03-2016.jpg
| caption2 = The War Memorial Arch (now [[India Gate]]) is a memorial to 70,000 soldiers of the [[British Indian Army]] who died in the First World War.
| image3 = Indian Ministry of Defence-1.jpg
| caption3 = The [[Secretariat Building, New Delhi|Secretariat Building]] is located in the North Block.
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| footer = [[Lutyens' Delhi]], designed by [[Edwin Lutyens]], houses all key government buildings of India.
| image4 = New Delhi government block 03-2016 img3.jpg
| caption4 = The Council House, built for the [[Imperial Legislative Council]], is now [[Sansad Bhawan]], and houses the [[Parliament of India]].
}}

Britain's legacy and heritage in the [[Indian subcontinent]] remains among others in buildings and infrastructure. The major cities during the period of British rule were [[Madras (Chennai)]], [[Calcutta]], [[Bombay (Mumbai)]], [[New Delhi]], Agra, [[Bangalore]], Bankipore, Karachi, Nagpur, Bhopal& [[Hyderabad]],{{sfn|Tadgell|1990|p=14}}<ref name="Asian Trade" /> which saw the rise of [[Indo-Saracenic Revival architecture]].

{{multiple image
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| alt4 =
| image4 = Victoria Memorial Kolkata at night.jpg
| caption4 = The [[Victoria Memorial, Kolkata|Victoria Memorial]] in Calcutta is the most effective symbolism of British Empire.
| alt3 =
| image3 = Chhatrapati_Shivaji_Terminus_%28Victoria_Terminus%29.jpg
| caption3 = The [[Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Terminus]] (previously Victoria Terminus) in Mumbai, 1878–88, is a mixture of [[Romanesque architecture|Romanesque]], Gothic and Indian elements.
| alt2 =
| image2 = Rashtrapati Niwas, Shimla.jpg
| caption2 = The Viceregal Lodge, now [[Rashtrapati Niwas]], in [[Shimla]] designed by [[Henry Irwin]] in the [[Jacobethan]] style and built in the late 19th century.
| alt1 =
| image1 = Chennai_High_Court.jpg
| caption1 = [[Madras High Court]] buildings are a prime example of [[Indo-Saracenic architecture]], designed by JW Brassington under guidance of British architect [[Henry Irwin]].
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Black Town described in 1855 as "the minor streets, occupied by the natives are numerous, irregular and of various dimensions. Many of them are extremely narrow and ill-ventilated&nbsp;... a hallow square, the rooms opening into a courtyard in the centre."{{sfn|Evenson|1989|p=2}} Garden houses were originally used as weekend houses for recreational use by the upper class British. Nonetheless, the garden house became ideal a full-time dwelling, deserting the fort in the 19th Century.{{sfn|Evenson|1989|p=6}}

[[Mumbai (Bombay)]] has some of the most prominent examples of British colonial architecture. This included the [[Gothic Revival architecture|gothic revival]] ([[Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus railway station|Victoria terminus]], [[University of Bombay]], [[Rajabai Clock Tower]], [[Bombay High Court]], [[Municipal Corporation Building, Mumbai|BMC Building]]), [[Indo-Saracenic architecture|Indo-Saracenic]] ([[Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Vastu Sangrahalaya|Prince of Wales Museum]], [[Gateway of India]], [[The Taj Mahal Palace Hotel|Taj Mahal Palace Hotel]]) and [[Art Deco]] ([[Eros Cinema]], [[New India Assurance Building]]).<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1480/|title=Victorian Gothic and Art Deco Ensembles of Mumbai|website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180828023451/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1480/|archive-date=2018-08-28|url-status=live|access-date=2019-01-02}}</ref>

Madras and Calcutta were similarly bordered by water and division of Indian in the north and British in the south. An Englishwoman noted in 1750 "the banks of the river are as one may say absolutely studded with elegant mansions called here as at Madras, garden houses." Esplanade-row is fronts the fort with lined palaces.{{sfn|Evenson|1989|p=20}}<ref name="Dutta">{{cite journal|last=Dutta|first=Arindam|title=Representing Calcutta: Modernity, Nationalism and the Colonial Uncanny|journal=Journal of Architectural Education|date=29 March 2010|volume=63|issue=2|pages=167–169|doi=10.1111/j.1531-314X.2010.01082.x|s2cid=143881493}}</ref> Indian villages in these areas consisted of clay and straw houses which later transformed into the metropolis of brick and stone.{{sfn|Nilsson|1968|pp=66–67}}The [[Chepauk Palace]] in the city, designed by [[Paul Benfield]], is said to be the first Indo-Saracenic building in India. Since then, many of the colonial-era buildings in the city were designed in this style of architecture, which is most apparent around the [[Fort St. George, India|Fort St George]] built in 1640. Most of these were designed by English architects Robert Fellowes Chisholm and Henry Irwin. The best examples of this style include the Madras High Court (built in 1892), Southern Railway headquarters, Ripon Building, Government Museum, Senate House of the University of Madras, Amir Mahal, Bharat Insurance Building, Victoria Public Hall and the College of Engineering. The Triumph of Labour, also known as the Labour statue, at the Marina Beach is an important landmark of Madras.[[File:Gaine Castle at Dhanyakuria.jpg|thumb|Gaine Castle at Dhanyakuria, West Bengal|220x220px]] [[Indo-Saracenic architecture]] evolved by combining Indian architectural features with European styles. [[Vincent Esch]] and [[George Wittet]] were pioneers in this style. The [[Victoria Memorial, Kolkata|Victoria Memorial]] in Calcutta is the most effective symbolism of British Empire, built as a monument in tribute to Queen Victoria's reign. The plan of the building consists of one large central part covered with a larger dome. Colonnades separate the two chambers. Each corner holds a smaller dome and is floored with marble plinth. The memorial stands on 26 hectares of garden surrounded by reflective pools.{{sfn|Thapar|2004|p=129}}

The period of British rule saw wealthy Bengali families (especially [[Zamindars of Bengal|zamindar estates]]) employing European firms to design houses and palaces. The Indo-Saracenic movement was strongly prevalent in the region. While most rural estates featured an elegant country house, the cities of Calcutta had widespread 19th and early 20th century urban architecture, comparable to London, Sydney or Auckland. Art deco influences began in Calcutta in the 1930s.

==== Romanesque-Italianate ====
The Italianate architectural style was popularised in early Victorian Britain and subsequently became an attractive form [[:Category:Italianate architecture in India|adopted in India]] in the later parts of the 19th century. The main characteristics of this style include imposing cornice structures, prominent cornice and corbels, Roman arches, arch headed or pedimented windows, flat or ‘hip’ roof, and windows with distinctive moulded caps. The one outstanding building in this class was the East Indian Railway Head Offices at Calcutta built in 1884.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Monuments of Modern India: The first half century of railways architecture – Heritage Directorate, Indian Railways|url=https://artsandculture.google.com/exhibit/monuments-of-modern-india-the-first-half-century-of-railways-architecture/QgLCjuErJgqXLw|access-date=2021-03-31|website=Google Arts & Culture|language=en|archive-date=22 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220122124303/https://artsandculture.google.com/exhibit/monuments-of-modern-india-the-first-half-century-of-railways-architecture/QgLCjuErJgqXLw|url-status=live}}</ref>

==== Neoclassical ====
Neoclassical buildings are characterized by their magnificence of scale, the prominent use of columns, the use of geometric forms and symmetry, predominantly blank walls and the triangular pediment. Some large private houses were built in and around [[Kolkata]] by wealthy merchants. Examples of [[Neoclassical architecture]] in Indian public buildings include the [[British Residency, Hyderabad]] (1798) and [[Falaknuma Palace]] (1893) in Hyderabad, [[St Andrew's Church, Chennai|St Andrews Church]] in Madras (1821),{{sfn|Thapar|2004|p=125}} [[Raj Bhavan, Kolkata|Raj Bhawan]] (1803) and [[Metcalfe Hall]] (1844) in Kolkata, and [[Bangalore Town Hall]] (1935) in Bangalore.

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=== Art Deco ===
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The [[Art Deco]] movement of the early 20th century quickly spread to large parts of the world. The [[Indian Institute of Architects]], founded in Bombay in 1929, played a prominent role in propagating the movement. Guided by their desire to emulate the west, the Indian architects were fascinated by the industrial modernity that Art Deco offered. The western elites were the first to experiment with the technologically advanced facets of Art Deco, and architects began the process of transformation by the early 1930s.

Mumbai has the world's second-largest collection of Art Deco structures, after Miami.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Chandrashekhar|first=Vaishnavi|date=2019-10-21|title=Discovering Mumbai's Art Deco Treasures|language=en-US|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/10/21/travel/mumbai-art-deco.html|access-date=2021-03-31|issn=0362-4331|archive-date=24 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210124024408/https://www.nytimes.com/2019/10/21/travel/mumbai-art-deco.html|url-status=live}}</ref> The [[New India Assurance Building]], [[Eros Cinema]] and buildings along the [[Marine Drive, Mumbai|Marine Drive]] in Mumbai are prime examples.<ref name=":0" />

In Kolkata, the sole example of the [[Art Nouveau|Art Nouveau style]], which preceded Art Deco, is the Esplanade Mansions opposite the Raj Bhavan, built in 1910.

=== Assam-type ===

Assam-type architecture is found in [[Assam]] and [[Sylhet region]]. The houses constructed using this style are generally termed as ''Assam-type'' houses, consisting usually one or more [[storey]]s. The houses are built to be [[Earthquake-resistant structures|earthquake proof]], and are made from materials ranging from [[wood]] and bamboo to steel and concrete.

Assam Type houses are a type of designs developed by the colonial British administration in Assam after the massive [[1897 Assam earthquake|earthquake of 1897]]. British engineers modified the traditional Assamese houses made from mud-plastered [[bamboo]] walls and thatched roofs to make Assam Type houses with wood, reed, mud plaster and hay after studying the climate and topography of the entire region.

Buildings are constructed on both flat and sloped [[terrain]]s. On flat grounds, the buildings are typically rectangular or ''L or C'' layout. On other surfaces, such as [[highland]]s, they are usually rectangular in shape, accessed via the hillside. The roof is typically erected by high [[gable]]s to overcome heavy rainfall in the region, where [[wall]]s are usually [[Timber framing|timber-framed]], [[plaster]]ed with [[cement]]. With high [[ceiling]]s and [[Ventilation (architecture)|well-ventilated]] [[room]]s, the floorings are either wooden or concrete with [[Ceramic tiles|tiled]], [[mosaic]] or [[Marble|stone]] surfacing with [[Stilt house|stilts]].

=== Other Colonial Powers ===
Among the other European colonies were [[Portuguese Goa and Damaon]] and [[Portuguese Bombay and Bassein]]. The [[Madh Island|Madh Fort]], [[St. John the Baptist Church, Mumbai|St. John the Baptist Church]] & [[Castella de Aguada]] in Bombay are remnants of Portuguese colonial rule. The [[Churches and convents of Goa]], an ensemble of seven churches built by the Portuguese in Goa are a [[World Heritage Site|UNESCO World Heritage Site]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/234/|title=Churches and Convents of Goa|website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190104191222/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/234|archive-date=2019-01-04|url-status=live|access-date=2019-01-02}}</ref>

The Portuguese were among the first European traders to discover the sea route to India as early as 1498. The first Portuguese encounter with the subcontinent was on 20 May 1498 AD, when [[Vasco da Gama]] reached [[Calicut]] on the coast of the [[Malabar region]].

The settlements along the [[Hooghly River|Hooghly river]] — a branch of the Ganges — attracted maritime traders from as many European nations, turning that part of Bengal into a little Europe. The Portuguese set up post at [[Bandel]], the Danish at [[Serampore]], the Dutch at [[Hugli-Chuchura|Chinsurah]] and the French at [[Chandannagar|Chandernagore]]. A British military base came up in Barrackpore. Thus influencing neighbouring regions' architecture to create a distinct indo-colonial architecture.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Fort Feringhee|url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/west-bengal/fort-feringhee/cid/1723256|access-date=2021-03-31|work=The Telegraph|archive-date=7 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210307220408/https://www.telegraphindia.com/west-bengal/fort-feringhee/cid/1723256|url-status=live}}</ref>

The history of Pondicherry is recorded only after the arrival of Dutch, Portuguese, British and French traders. In 1674 the [[Louis XIV's East India Company|French East India Company]] set up a trading centre at Pondicherry and this outpost eventually became the administrative centre of [[French India|French settlements in India]]. The city has many colonial buildings, churches, temples and statues which, combined with the town planning and French style avenues in the old part of town, still preserve much of the colonial ambiance.

<gallery widths="180" heights="160">
File:The Chandannagar Strand Ghat.jpg|The Chandannagar Strand Ghat, reminiscences of a [[French India|French colony]], [[Chandannagar|Chandannagar, West Bengal]]
File:Fort Dansborg.JPG|[[Fort Dansborg]], built by the 17th century Danish admiral [[Ove Gjedde]], reminiscences of [[Danish India]], [[Tharangambadi]], Tamil Nadu
File:Tomb of susanna anna maria2.jpg|Tomb of Susanna Anna Maria, reminiscences of [[Dutch India]], [[Hugli-Chuchura|Chinsurah]], West Bengal
File:St. Francis Church at Velha Goa.jpg|Church Of St Francis Of Assisi, reminiscent of [[Portuguese India]], [[Goa]]
File:French Quarter, Pondicherry (16) (37466068276).jpg|French Quarter, Pondicherry. The city became the chief [[French India|French settlement in India]].
</gallery>

==India after independence (1947 onwards)==
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In recent times there has been a movement of population from rural areas to urban centres of industry, leading to price rise in property in various cities of India.<ref name=rjadhav1>See Raj Jadhav, p. 11 in ''Modern Traditions: Contemporary Architecture in India''.</ref> Urban housing in India balances space constrictions and is aimed to serve the working class.<ref name=Gast77>Gast, 77</ref> Growing awareness of ecology has influenced architecture in India during modern times.<ref name=Gast119>Gast, 119</ref>
Climate responsive architecture has long been a feature of India's architecture but has been losing its significance as of late.<ref name="rjadhav2" /> Indian architecture reflects its various socio-cultural sensibilities which vary from region to region.<ref name="rjadhav2">See Raj Jadhav, 13 in ''Modern Traditions: Contemporary Architecture in India''.</ref> Certain areas are traditionally held to be belonging to women.<ref name="rjadhav2" /> Villages in India have features such as courtyards, loggias, terraces and balconies.<ref name="Gast77" /> [[Calico (textile)|Calico]], [[chintz]], and [[palampore]]—of Indian origin—highlight the assimilation of Indian textiles in global interior design.<ref name="eb-savage">Savage 2008</ref> [[Roshandan]]s, which are skylights-cum-ventilators, are a common feature in Indian homes, especially in [[North India]].<ref name="ref10zayiq">{{Citation | title=India remembered | author=Thomas George Percival Spear|author-link = Percival Spear|author2 =  Margaret Spear | publisher=Orient Longman, 1981 | isbn=978-0-86131-265-8 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6vEtAAAAMAAJ | quote=''...&nbsp;The bungalow was a typical north Indian one, with a large central room lit only by skylights (roshandans) and a number of others opening out from them ...''| year=1981}}</ref><ref name="ref25xegoc">{{Citation | title=Mansions at dusk: the havelis of old Delhi | author=Pavan K. Varma, Sondeep Shankar | publisher=Spantech Publishers, 1992 | isbn=978-81-85215-14-3 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jCBuAAAAMAAJ | quote=''...&nbsp;Thirdly, while obviating direct sunlight, it had to allow some light and air to enter through overhead roshandans ...''| year=1992 }}</ref>[[File:Lotus temple01.jpg|thumb|[[Lotus Temple|Lotus Temple, Delhi]] [[Fariborz Sahba]]]]At the time of independence in 1947, India had only about 300 trained architects in a population of what was then 330 million, and only one training institution, the [[Indian Institute of Architects]]. Thus the first generation of Indian architects were educated abroad.

Some early architects were traditionalists, such as [[Ganesh Bhikaji Deolalikar|Ganesh Deolalikar]], whose design for the [[Supreme Court of India|Supreme Court]] imitated the [[Edwin Lutyens|Lutyens]]-[[Herbert Baker|Baker]] buildings down to the last detail, and B.R. Manickam, who designed the [[Vidhana Soudha]] in Bangalore revived the [[Dravidian architecture]].

In 1950, French architect [[Le Corbusier]], a pioneer of [[Modern architecture|modernist architecture]], was commissioned by [[Jawaharlal Nehru]] to design the city of [[Chandigarh]]. His plan called for residential, commercial and industrial areas, along with parks and transportation infrastructure. In the middle was the [[Chandigarh Capitol Complex|capitol]], a complex of three government buildings – the [[Palace of Assembly (Chandigarh)|Palace of Assembly]], the [[Punjab and Haryana High Court|High Court]], and [[Secretariat Building (Chandigarh)|the Secretariat]].<ref name="whc.unesco.org">{{Cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1321/|title=The Architectural Work of Le Corbusier, an Outstanding Contribution to the Modern Movement|website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190301021805/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1321/|archive-date=2019-03-01|url-status=live|access-date=2019-02-28}}</ref> He also designed the [[Sanskar Kendra]] at [[Ahmedabad]]. Corbusier inspired the next generation of architects in India to work with modern, rather than revivalist styles.<ref name=":1" />

Economic liberalisation and consequent prosperity enabled more radical new styles to be tried along with a sense to compete with modern and western architectural standards.

Other prominent examples of modernist architecture in India include [[Indian Institute of Management Ahmedabad|IIM Ahmedabad]] by [[Louis Kahn]] (1961), [[Indian Institute of Technology Delhi|IIT Delhi]] by [[Jugal Kishore Choudhury|Jugal Kishore Chodhury]] (1961), [[Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur|IIT Kanpur]] by [[Achyut Kanvinde]] (1963), [[Indian Institute of Management Bangalore|IIM Bangalore]] by [[B. V. Doshi]] (1973), [[Lotus Temple]] by [[Fariborz Sahba]] (1986), and [[Jawahar Kala Kendra]] (1992) and [[Madhya Pradesh Legislative Assembly|Vidhan Bhawan Bhopal]] (1996) by [[Charles Correa]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last1=Mukerji|first1=Arjun|last2=Sanghamitra|first2=Basu|title=A Search for Post-Modernism in Indian Architecture|url=https://www.academia.edu/8859069|journal=Abacus|date=January 2011|language=en}}</ref>

Skyscrapers built in the [[International Style (architecture)|international style]] are becoming increasingly common in cities. This includes [[The 42 (Kolkata)|The 42]] (2019) and [[The Imperial (Mumbai)|The Imperial]] (2010) by [[Hafeez Contractor]]. Other projects of the 21st century include [[Indian Institute of Technology Hyderabad|IIT Hyderabad]] by [[Christopher Charles Benninger|Christopher Benninger]] (2015).

==Landscape architecture==
{{Further|Mughal gardens}}
[[File:GreatMughalsTM (complete).svg|thumb|Taj Mahal Gardens plan|307x307px]]
[[File:Bamboo garden (Venuvana) at Rajagriha, the visit of Bimbisara.jpg|left|thumb|[[Bimbisara]] visiting a bamboo garden in [[Rajgir|Rajagriha]]]]

There is less archaeological evidence of early gardens elsewhere in India but the ancient Hindu sacred books give a remarkably detailed account of gardens in Ancient India.

During Mauryan Era, palaces took a central role and with it came the gardens. The Hindu scriptures (shastras) set down a code for the orientation and organization of buildings in relation to compass points, hills, water and plants. No physical form survived but rock carvings like in Ajanta Caves or in Stupas shows an existence of airy structures with timber columns. Those illustrations show vegetation alongside the platform and columns. Emperor Ashoka's inscriptions mention the establishment of botanical gardens for planting medicinal herbs, plants, and trees. They contained pools of water, were laid in grid patterns, and normally had ''[[Chhatri|chattri]]'' pavilions with them.

Hindu and Buddhist temple sites, from ancient times, have emphasized on 'Sacred Grooves' or medical gardens. Hindu and Buddhist Temples like in [[Mahabodhi Temple|Mahabodhi]] and Chinese Buddhist pilgrim [[Xuanzang]] mentions accounts of [[Nalanda]] where "azure pool winds around the monasteries, adorned with the full-blown cups of the blue lotus; the dazzling red flowers of the lovely kanaka hang here and there, and outside groves of mango trees offer the inhabitants their dense and protective shade."

[[Manasollasa]], a twelfth century text giving details on garden design, asserts that it should include rocks and raised mounds of summits, manicured with plants and trees of diverse varieties, artificial ponds, and flowing brooks. It describes the arrangement, the soils, the seeds, the distance between types of plants and trees, the methods of preparing manure, proper fertilizing and maintaining the garden, which plants and trees are best planted first, when to plant others, watering, signs of overwatering and underwatering, weeds, means of protecting the garden, and other details.

[[File:WLM@J&K-Pari Mahal.jpg|thumb|[[Pari Mahal]]]]
Early Islamic dynasties, like of Delhi Sultanates, never showed interests on gardens with an exception of [[Lodi dynasty|Lodhi Dynasty]]. Mughals along with the Hindu Rajputs ushered a new era of Garden architecture. Concepts like ''Charbagh'' (four gardens) came from Persia. In the Charbagh at the Taj Mahal, each of the four parts contains sixteen flower beds.

Fountain and running water was a key feature of Mughal garden design. Water-lifting devices like geared [[Sakia|Persian wheels]] (''saqiya)'' were used for irrigation and to feed the water-courses at [[Humayun's Tomb]] in Delhi, [[Akbar's tomb|Akbar's Gardens]] in Sikandra and Fatehpur Sikhri, the Lotus Garden of Babur at Dholpur and the [[Shalimar Bagh, Srinagar|Shalimar Bagh]] in Srinagar.

Royal canals were built from rivers to channel water to Delhi and Fatehpur Sikhri. The fountains and water-chutes of Mughal gardens represented the resurrection and regrowth of life, as well as to represent the cool, mountainous streams of Central Asia and Afghanistan that Babur was famously fond of.
<gallery widths="140" heights="180" class="center">
File:Nishat Bagh (14362717638).jpg|[[Nishat Bagh|Nishat Bagh, Srinagar]]
File:Glasshouse and fountain at lalbagh.jpg|[[Lal Bagh]], Bengaluru
File:View of the Mughal Garden of Rashtrapati Bhavan in March 1962.jpg|View of the Mughal Garden [Now Amrit udhyaan] of Rashtrapati Bhavan
File:Waterfall at Rock Garden, Chandigarh.jpg|Waterfall at [[Rock Garden, Chandigarh]]
File:Char Bagh Garden.jpg|Char Bagh Garden, Rajasthan
File:Athpula aka Khairpur ka Pul, Lodi Gardens, New Delhi.jpg|The ''Athpula'' (eight piers) bridge in [[Lodi Gardens|Lodi gardens]]
</gallery>

== Arches ==
Indian architecture has utilized both false and [[true arch]]es in its architecture, but structural arches have been essentially absent from Hindu temple architecture at all periods.

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=== Corbel arches ===
Corbel arches in India date from [[Indus Valley civilisation]] which used corbel arch to construct drains and have been evidenced at Mohenjo daro, Harappa, and Dholavira.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hdeSBQAAQBAJ&q=corbel+arch+mohenjo+daro&pg=PA28|title=Across the Pacific: From Ancient Asia to Precolombian America|last=Lemoy|first=Christian|date=2011|publisher=Christian Lemoy|isbn=9781599425825|language=en}}</ref>

The oldest arches surviving in Indian architecture are the [[gavaksha]] or "[[chaitya]] arches" found in ancient rock-cut architecture, and agreed to be copied from versions in wood which have all perished. These often terminate a whole ceiling with a semi-circular top; wooden roofs made in this way can be seen in carved depictions of cities and palaces. A number of small early constructed temples have such roofs, using [[corbel]]led construction, as well as an [[apse|apsidal]] plan; the [[Trivikrama Temple]] at [[Ter, Maharashtra]] is an example. The arch shape survived into constructed Indian architecture, not as an opening in a wall but as a [[blind niche]] projection from a wall, that bears only its own weight. In this form it became a very common and important decorative motif on Hindu temples.<ref>Rowland, 44–45, 64–65, 113, 218–219; Harle, 48, 175</ref>

The "fundamental architectural principle of the constructed Hindu temple is always formulated in the trabeate order", that is to say using [[post and lintel]] systems with vertical and horizontal members.<ref>Michell, 82</ref>  According to George Michell: "Never was the principle of the arch with radiating components, such as voussoirs and keystones, employed in Hindu structures, either in India or in other parts of Asia. It was not so much that Hindu architects were ignorant of these techniques, but rather that conformance to tradition and adherence to precedents were firm cultural attitudes".<ref>Michell, 84</ref> Harle describes the true arch as "not unknown, but almost never employed by Hindu builders",<ref>Harle, 530, note 3 to chapter 30. See also 489, note 10</ref> and its use as "rare, but widely dispersed".<ref>Harle, 493, note 5</ref>
[[File:KITLV 88083 - Unknown - Mahabodhi stupa in the temple complex at the Buddhagaya Lilajan River in British India - 1897.tif|left|thumb|Pointed arch, Mahabodhi temple, 6th–7th century CE, Late-Gupta period. Photo 1897.]]

=== True Arch ===
The 19th century archaeologist [[Alexander Cunningham]], head of the [[Archaeological Survey of India]], at first believed that due to the total absence of arches in Hindu temples, they were alien to Indian architecture, but several pre-Islamic examples bear testimony to their existence, as explained by him in the following manner:<ref>{{Cite book|title=Mahâbodhi, or the great Buddhist temple under the Bodhi tree at Buddha-Gaya|last=Cunningham|first=Alexander|publisher=W. H. Allen|year=1892|location=London|pages=85}}</ref>
{{Blockquote|text=Formerly it was the settled belief of all European enquirers that the ancient Hindus were ignorant of the Arch. This belief no doubt arose from the total absence of arches in any of the Hindu Temples. Thirty years ago I shared this belief with Mr. Fergusson, when I argued that the presence of arches in the great Buddhist Temple at Buddha Gaya proved that the building could not have been erected before the Muhammadan conquest. But during my late employment in the Archeological Survey of India several buildings of undoubted antiquity were discovered in which both vaults and arches formed part of the original construction.|sign=[[Alexander Cunningham]]|source=Mahâbodhi, or the great Buddhist temple under the Bodhi tree at Buddha-Gaya, 1892}} Archaeological evidences indicate that wedge shaped bricks and construction of wells in the Indus valley civilization and although no true arches have been discovered as of yet, these bricks would have been suitable in the construction of true arches.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SzS6CwAAQBAJ&q=indus+valley+civilization+wells+true+arch&pg=PA58|title=The Indus: Lost Civilizations|last=Robinson|first=Andrew|date=2015-11-15|publisher=Reaktion Books|isbn=9781780235417|language=en}}</ref> True arch in India dates from [[Nanda Empire|pre Mauryan Nanda]] period from the 5th century BC. Arch fragment discovered by archaeologist [[K. P. Jayaswal]] from an arch with [[Brahmi script|Brahmi]] inscribed on it,<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.20579/page/n109|title=Proceedinds And Transactions Of The Second Oriental Conference (1923)|date=1923|pages=86|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=The Calcutta Review Vol.10, No.1-3(april-june)1924|year=1924|pages=140}}</ref> or 1st - 2nd century CE when it first appeared in [[Kosambi|Kausambi]] palace architecture from [[Kushan Empire|Kushana]] period.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dubey|first=Lal Mani|title=Some Observations on the Vesara School of Hindu Architecture|date=1978|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/44139449|journal=Proceedings of the Indian History Congress|volume=39|pages=1000–1006|jstor=44139449|issn=2249-1937|access-date=12 June 2021|archive-date=12 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210612072821/https://www.jstor.org/stable/44139449|url-status=live}}</ref> Arches present at [[Vishnu]] temples at [[Deo Barunark|Deo Baranark]], [[Amb Temples|Amb]] and [[Kafir Kot]] temples from [[Hindu Shahi]] period and Hindu temple of [[Bhitargaon]] bear testimony to the use arches in the Hindu temple architecture.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1N95DwAAQBAJ&q=amb+temple+true+arch&pg=PA4|title=Temples of the Indus: Studies in the Hindu Architecture of Ancient Pakistan|last=Meister|first=Michael W.|date=2010-07-26|publisher=BRILL|isbn=9789004190115|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.bl.uk/onlinegallery/onlineex/apac/photocoll/f/019pho000001003u00466000.html|title=Front view of a ruined temple, with sculptured slabs in foreground, Deo Baranark|last=Wright|first=Colin|website=Bl.uk|access-date=2019-04-23|archive-date=25 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210225010021/http://www.bl.uk/onlinegallery/onlineex/apac/photocoll/f/019pho000001003u00466000.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.europeana.eu/portal/record/92037/_http___www_bl_uk_onlinegallery_onlineex_apac_photocoll_g_zoomify58580_html.html|title=General view of ruined temple at Deo Baranark|website=Europeana Collections|language=en|access-date=2019-04-23}}</ref>
[[File:20191203 Diwan-i-Khas, Red Fort, Delhi 0507 6368 DxO.jpg|thumb|Arches of Diwan-i-Khas, Red Fort, Delhi]]
Although Alexander Cunningham has persisted in the notion that the Buddhist [[Mahabodhi Temple]]'s pointed arch was added later during a Burmese restoration, given its predominant use in Islamic architecture, scholars such as Huu Phuoc Le have contested this assumption based on analysis that relieving arches could not have been added without destroying the entire temple structure, which is dated to 6th–7th century CE. Hence the pointed and relieving arches much have formed part of the original building dating from the pre-Islamic periods in proper.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Buddhist Architecture|last=Le|first=Huu Phuoc|publisher=Grafikol|year=2010|isbn=978-0984404308|location=USA|pages=246–247}}</ref><ref>Rowland, 163-164</ref>  Moreover, pointed arches vaulted entrances have been noted in Bhitargaon temple and Kausambi Palace architecture as well.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/241/|title=Group of Monuments at Hampi|website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|language=en|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190214052910/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/241/|archive-date=2019-02-14|access-date=2019-10-27}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=District Gazetteers Of The United Provinces Of Agra And Oudh Cawnpore Vol Xix|pages=190}}</ref>

=== Trabeate style ===
Trabeate style is one of the main style of architecture of that time
* Lintel use in this style.
* shikar also prevail in this.
* No use of minar.
* Material sand stone.

=== Arcuate style ===
Arcuate style is also one of the main style for architecture.
* In this lintel is replaced by arch.
* There is also use of dome.
* Concept of minar is also there.
* Material, brick, lime and mortar used for making of dome (Wood was primarily not used because of the geography).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.focuscivil.online/introduction-of-medieval-period-architecture/|title=Introduction of Medieval Period Architecture|website=focuscivil.online|access-date=9 April 2021|archive-date=4 December 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211204074534/https://www.focuscivil.online/introduction-of-medieval-period-architecture/|url-status=dead}}</ref>

=== Torana ===
[[File:Nova Toran Temple , Khor ,Neemuch Nimach near vikram Cement Campus (20).jpg|thumb|[[Nav Toran Temple]], [[Neemuch]], Madhya Pradesh]]
'''Torana''', also referred to as '''vandanamalikas''',<ref name=tor10>Parul Pandya Dhar (2010): ''The Torana in Indian and Southeast Asian Architecture''. New Delhi: D K Printworld. {{ISBN|978-8124605349}}.</ref> is a free-standing ornamental or arched gateway for ceremonial purposes seen in the [[Hindu architecture|Hindu]], [[Buddhist]] and [[Jain]] architecture of the [[Indian subcontinent]], [[Southeast Asia]] and parts of [[East Asia]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.oxfordartonline.com/view/10.1093/gao/9781884446054.001.0001/oao-9781884446054-e-7000085631|title=Toraṇa {{!}} Grove Art|year=2003|language=en|doi=10.1093/gao/9781884446054.article.T085631|access-date=2018-08-08|last1=Hardy|first1=Adam|isbn=978-1-884446-05-4|archive-date=13 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220113014230/https://www.oxfordartonline.com/view/10.1093/gao/9781884446054.001.0001/oao-9781884446054-e-7000085631|url-status=live}}</ref> Chinese [[paifang]] gateways, Japanese [[torii]] gateways,<ref name=tor4>{{cite book |author=Albert Henry Longhurst |title=The Story of the Stūpa |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gs1sFlMGy2AC&pg=PA17 |year=1992 |publisher=Asian Educational Services |isbn=978-81-206-0160-4 |page=17 |access-date=12 June 2021 |archive-date=22 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231022223518/https://books.google.com/books?id=gs1sFlMGy2AC&pg=PA17#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=tor5>{{cite book|title=China's old dwellings|author=Ronald G. Knapp|publisher=[[University of Hawaii Press]]|year=2000|page=85|isbn=0-8248-2214-5}}</ref><ref name=tor6>{{cite book|title=Frommer's China|author1=Simon Foster |author2=Jen Lin-Liu |author3=Sharon Owyang |author4=Sherisse Pham |author5=Beth Reiber |author6=Lee Wing-sze |publisher=[[Frommers]]|year=2010|page=435|isbn=978-0-470-52658-3}}</ref> Korean [[Hongsalmun]] gateways, and Thai [[Giant Swing|Sao Ching Cha]]<ref name="scheid">{{cite web|url=http://www.univie.ac.at/rel_jap/bauten/anm_torii.htm#aussershinto|title=Religion in Japan|last=Scheid|first=Bernhard|work=Torii|publisher=University of Vienna|language=German|access-date=12 February 2010|archive-date=28 August 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100828213102/http://www.univie.ac.at/rel_jap/bauten/anm_torii.htm#aussershinto|url-status=live}}</ref>  were derived from the Indian ''torana''.

Torana is considered sacred and honorific gateway in [[Hindu architecture|Hindu]] and [[Buddhist architecture|Buddhist]] religious sites.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/torana|title=torana &#124; Indian temple gateway|website=Britannica.com|access-date=3 December 2021|archive-date=13 October 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231013142840/https://www.britannica.com/topic/torana|url-status=live}}</ref> It is built with a projecting cross-piece resting on two uprights or posts. Mostly made of [[wood]] or [[Rock (geology)|stone]], and the cross-piece is generally of three bars placed one on the top of the other; both cross-piece and posts are usually sculpted.

Toranas are associated with Buddhist [[stupa]]s like the ''[[Great Stupa of Sanchi|Great Stupa]]'' in [[Sanchi]], as well as with Jain and Hindu structures, and also with several secular structures. Symbolic toranas can also be made of flowers and even leaves and hung over the doors and at entrances, particularly in Western and Southern India. They are believed to bring good fortune and signify auspicious and festive occasions. They can also serve didactic and narrative purposes or be erected to mark the victory of a king.<ref>Parul Pandya Dhar, (2010). ''The Torana in Indian and Southeast Asian Architecture,'' (New Delhi: D K Printworld,).</ref>

During [[Vesak|Vesak festival]] of [[Sri Lanka]] it is a tradition to erect electrically illuminated colorful Vesak toranas in public places. These decorations are temporary installations which remain in public display for couple of weeks starting from the day of [[Vesak]].

{{gallery
|title=Hindu, Buddhist and Jain toranas
|width=180
|height=120
|File:North_Gateway_-_Rear_Side_-_Stupa_1_-_Sanchi_Hill_2013-02-21_4480-4481.JPG|Rear side of North Torana of Stupa-1 at [[Sanchi]] Hill, 3rd century BCE to 1st century BCE, India
|5=File:Dola Mandap.jpg|6=A photo of Torana taken in 1890 of 10th century [[Jagannath Temple, Puri]], India|7=File:Muktesvara deula.jpg|8=Torana of the 10th century [[Muktesvara deula]], India.|9=File:Warangal_fort.jpg|10=Torana from the 12th century [[Kakatiya dynasty]], at [[Warangal Fort]], India|11=File:Door to ancient time.jpg|12=Torana in Sas-Bahu Temple, Udaipur|13=File:Temples at Jaisalmer Fort -Jaisalmer -Rajasthan -Seal Sum 04.jpg|14=12th century Torana at [[Parshvanatha temple, Jaisalmer Fort]]}}

=== Gavaksha ===
A Gavaksha or chandrashala are often used to describe the motif centred on an ogee, circular or horseshoe arch that decorates many examples of Indian rock-cut architecture and later Indian structural temples and other buildings. It is called a chaitya arch when used on the facade of a chaitya hall, around the single large window. In later forms it develops well beyond this type, and becomes a very flexible unit.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Glossary of Asian Art|url=http://www.art-and-archaeology.com/asianartglossary.html#chandrashala|access-date=2021-07-15|website=Art-and-archaeology.com|archive-date=16 November 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161116051840/http://www.art-and-archaeology.com/asianartglossary.html#chandrashala|url-status=live}}</ref> Gavāksha is a Sanskrit word which means "bulls or cows eye". In Hindu temples, their role is envisioned as symbolically radiating the light and splendour of the central icon in its sanctum.<ref>Elgood (2000), 103</ref> Alternatively, they are described as providing a window for the deity to gaze out into the world. Like the whole of the classic chaitya, the form originated in the shape of the wooden thatched roofs of buildings, none of which have survived; the earliest version replicating such roofs in stone is at the entrance to the non-Buddhist Lomas Rishi Cave, one of the man-made Barabar Caves in Bihar.

== Influence on neighbouring Asian countries ==
{{multiple image
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| caption2 = Prasat Bayon (Jayagiri Brahma Palace), Cambodia
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| caption4 = Trimurti Prambanan temple, Yogyakarta, Indonesia
| image4 = Prambanan Complex 1.jpg
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| caption3 = "The serenity of the stone faces" occupying many towers, Bayon, Cambodia
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| caption1 = Hòa Lai Towers in Ninh Thuận province, Vietnam
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}}{{Blockquote|To know Indian art in India alone is to know but half its story. To apprehend it to the full, we must follow it in the wake of Buddhism, to central Asia, China, and Japan; we much watch it assuming new forms and breaking new forms and breaking into new beauties as it spreads over Tibet and Burma, and Siam; we must gaze in awe at the unexampled grandeur of its creations in Cambodia and Java. In each of these countries, Indian art encounters a different racial genius, a different local environment, and under their modifying influence it takes on a different garb.|text=To know Indian art in India alone is to know but half its story. To apprehend it to the full, we must follow it in the wake of Buddhism, to central Asia, China, and Japan; we much watch it assuming new forms and breaking new forms and breaking into new beauties as it spreads over Tibet and Burma, and Siam; we must gaze in awe at the unexampled grandeur of its creations in Cambodia and Java. In each of these countries, Indian art encounters a different racial genius, a different local environment, and under their modifying influence it takes on a different garb.|sign=[[Sir John Marshall|Sir John Marshall, Director-General of the Archaeological Survey of India]]}}

=== Influence on Southeast Asia ===
{{See also | History of Indian influence on Southeast Asia }}

Southeast Asia was under Indian sphere of cultural influence starting around 290 BC until around the 15th century, when Hindu-Buddhist influence was absorbed by local politics. Kingdoms in the southeast coast of the Indian Subcontinent had established trade, cultural and political relations with Southeast Asian kingdoms in Burma, Thailand, Indonesia, Malay Peninsula, Philippines, Cambodia and [[Champa]]. This led to Indianisation and Sanskritisation of Southeast Asia within Indosphere, Southeast Asian polities were the Indianised Hindu-Buddhist Mandala.

==== Vietnam ====
{{See also | Art of Champa }}
[[File:Tháp Po Klaung Garai, Phan Rang, Ninh Thuận.JPG|left|thumb|[[Po Klong Garai Temple]] near [[Phan Rang]]]]
The profile of the 13th-century [[Po Klong Garai Temple]] near [[Phan Rang]] includes all the buildings typical of a Cham temple. From left to right one can see the ''gopura'', the saddle-shaped ''kosagrha'', and ''mandapa'' attached to the ''kalan'' tower.

Between the 6th and the 16th century, the Kingdom of [[Champa]] flourished in present-day central and southern [[Vietnam]]. Unlike the Javanese that mostly used volcanic [[andesite]] stone for their temples, and [[Khmer people|Khmer]] of [[Angkor]] which mostly employed grey [[sandstone]]s to construct their religious buildings, the [[Cham people|Cham]] built their temples from reddish [[brick]]s. The most important remaining sites of Cham bricks temple architecture include [[Mỹ Sơn]] near [[Da Nang]], [[Po Nagar]] near [[Nha Trang]], and [[Po Klong Garai]] near Phan Rang.{{Citation needed|date=October 2021}}

Typically, a Cham temple complex consisted of several different kinds of buildings. They are ''kalan'', a brick sanctuary, typically in the form of a tower with ''garbahgriha'' used to host the murti of deity. A ''mandapa'' is an entry hallway connected with a sanctuary. A ''kosagrha'' or "fire-house" is a temple construction typically with a saddle-shaped roof, used to house the valuables belonging to the deity or to cook for the deity. The ''gopura'' was a gate-tower leading into a walled temple complex. These building types are typical for Hindu temples in general; the classification is valid not only for the architecture of Champa, but also for other architectural traditions of Greater India.

==== Indonesia ====
{{Further|Candi of Indonesia|Indonesian architecture|Balinese temple}}
{{multiple image
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| header = Prambanan, an example of Indonesian temple architecture
| image1 = Candi Shiva, Prambanan 1068.jpg
| image2 = Prambanan Cross Section Shiva.svg
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| footer = [[Prambanan]] temple (Shivagrha) of Central Java, an example of the 9th century Indonesian Javanese Hindu temple architecture with mandala layout and prasad tower crowned with stylized ratna-vajra.
}}
Temples are called ''[[Candi of Indonesia|candi]]'' ({{IPA|id|tʃandi|pron}}) in [[Indonesia]], whether it is Buddhist or Hindu. A candi refers to a structure based on the Indian type of single-celled shrine, with a pyramidal tower above it ([[Meru tower]] in [[Bali]]), and a portico for entrance,<ref name="ReferenceA">Philip Rawson: The Art of Southeast Asia</ref> mostly built between the 7th to 15th centuries.<ref name="ReferenceA"/><ref>{{harvp|Soekmono|1995|p=1}}</ref> In Hindu [[Balinese architecture]], a ''candi'' shrine can be found within a ''[[Balinese temple|pura]]'' compound. The best example of Indonesian Javanese Hindu temple architecture is the 9th century [[Prambanan]] (Shivagrha) temple compound, located in Central Java, near [[Yogyakarta]]. This largest Hindu temple in Indonesia has three main prasad towers, dedicated to [[Trimurti]] gods. Shiva temple, the largest main temple is towering to 47 metre-high (154&nbsp;ft).
The term "candi" itself is believed was derived from ''[[Chandi|Candika]]'', one of the manifestations of the goddess [[Durga]] as the goddess of death.<ref>{{cite book | last =Soekmono | first =Dr R.| title =Pengantar Sejarah Kebudayaan Indonesia 2 | publisher =Penerbit Kanisius | year =1973 | location =Yogyakarta, Indonesia| pages =81 | url = | doi = | isbn = 978-979-413-290-6}}</ref>

==== Cambodia ====
{{Further|Khmer architecture}}
[[File:Siem Reap Reflections (CAMBODIA-REFLECTION-ANGKOR WAT) VI (1070423631).jpg|thumb|[[Angkor Wat]]]]
Khmer empire's (present day Cambodia) great capital, [[Angkor]] ({{langx|km|អង្គរ}}, "Capital City", derived from Sanskrit "nagara"), contains some of the most important and the most magnificent example of Khmer temple architecture. The classic style of Angkorian temple is demonstrated by the 12th century [[Angkor Wat]].The main superstructure of typical Khmer temple is a towering ''prasat'' called ''[[Prang (architecture)|prang]]'' which houses the ''garbhagriha'' inner chamber, where the ''murti'' of Vishnu or Shiva, or a ''lingam'' resides. Khmer temples were typically enclosed by a concentric series of walls, with the central sanctuary in the middle; this arrangement represented the mountain ranges surrounding [[Mount Meru]], the mythical home of the gods. Enclosures are the spaces between these walls, and between the innermost wall and the temple itself. The walls defining the enclosures of Khmer temples are frequently lined by galleries, while passage through the walls is by way of gopuras located at the cardinal points. The main entrance usually adorned with elevated causeway with cruciform terrace.<ref>Glaize, ''Monuments of the Angkor Group'', p.27.</ref>

==== Thailand ====
Thailand was heavily influenced by the culture and religions of India, starting with the Kingdom of [[Funan]] around the first century until the [[Khmer Empire]]. [[Indianised kingdom]]s such as the [[Mon kingdoms|Mon]], the [[Khmer Empire]] and Malay states of the Malay Peninsula and [[Sumatra]] ruled the region.
[[File:Sunset at Wat Chaiwatthanaram, Ayutthaya, Thailand.jpg|thumb|[[Wat Chaiwatthanaram]], an example of Thai style prang]]
Thailand under Khmer rule saw inclusion of Indian Hindu temple influenced Khmer architectural style. The Khmer prangs resembled north Indian temples' [[shikhara]] and rekha (temple towers) elements. The early 10th century and the late 12th century prangs in Thailand were influenced by the Khmer architects of the great temple complexes of [[Angkor Wat]] and [[Angkor Thom]].
After the [[Khmer Empire]] collapsed, the Thai building masters of the [[Sukhothai Kingdom]] adapted the Prang form. The Thai temple falls into one of two broad categories: the ''[[stupa]]''-style solid temple and the ''[[Prang (architecture)|prang]]''-style. The prangs can also be found in various forms in Sukhothai, Lopburi, Bangkok ([[Wat Arun]]). Sizes may vary, but usually the prangs measure between {{convert|15|and|40|m}} in height, and resemble a towering corn-cob like structure. They extended and developed it. The building material was no more separate small sandstone blocks, instead the Thais built the Prang in brick or laterite covered with [[stucco]]. And the cella could be reached only by stairs. An example for this is the Prang of the [[Wat Phra Si Rattana Mahathat|Wat Mahathat]] in [[Phitsanulok]]. Later developments of the Prang suggested the cella only. The entrance door became a niche, in which was placed the [[Buddharupa|''Buddharupa'' (Buddha statue)]], which had originally taken the central position inside. For reasons of symmetry the niche was repeated on all four sides. On its pinnacle was a [[Trishul (weapon)|Trishul]], the "weapon of [[Indra]]".

==== Malaysia ====

Indo-Saracenic architecture was a [[Revivalism (architecture)|revivalist architectural]] style mostly used by British architects in India in the later 19th century, especially in public and government buildings in the [[British Raj]], and the palaces of rulers of the [[princely state]]s. It drew stylistic and decorative elements from native [[Indo-Islamic architecture]], especially [[Mughal architecture]]. The basic layout and structure of the buildings tended to be close to that used in contemporary buildings in other revivalist styles, such as [[Gothic revival architecture|Gothic revival]] and [[Neoclassical architecture|Neo-Classical]], with specific Indian features and decoration added.
[[File:Masjid Ubudiah, Kuala Kangsar.JPG|thumb|[[Ubudiah Mosque|Masjid Ubudiah]], showcasing elements of Indo-Saracenic style]]
According to [[Thomas R. Metcalf]], a leading scholar of the style, "the Indo-Saracenic, with its imagined past turned to the purposes of British colonialism, took shape outside India [ie the subcontinent] most fully only in Malaya".

In Malaysia, due to British colonial influence and the migration of Muslims from India, many Mughal architectural elements in the design of mosques were incorporated. [[British Malaya]] was a predominantly Muslim society, where there was hardly any recent tradition of building in brick or stone, with even mosques and the palaces of the local rulers built in the abundant local [[hardwood]]s. [[Kuala Lumpur]] was a 19th-century foundation, only a small settlement when the British decided to make it the capital of their new [[Federated Malay States]] in 1895, and needed a number of large public buildings. The British decided to use the Islamic style they were used to from India, despite it having little relationship to existing local architectural styles.

==== Myanmar ====
Much of Myanmar's architecture is tied to ancient Indian culture, and can be traced to the country's earliest known inhabitants.<ref name="worldbook">{{Cite book|title=Myanmar|publisher=World Book Inc.|year=2016|location=Chicago|chapter=Art}}</ref> The [[Mon people|Mon]] and Pyu people were the first two influential groups to migrate to Myanmar, and the first [[Indochina|Indo-Chinese]] adherents of [[Theravada|Theravada Buddhism]].<ref name="worldbook"/> [[Beikthano]], one of the first Pyu centres, contains urbanesque foundations which include a monastery and [[stupa]]-like structures. These Pyu stupas, the first Indian foundations in Myanmar, were built from 200&nbsp;BC to 100 CE and were sometimes used for burial.
[[File:Balloon over Bagan.jpg|left|thumb|Temples in Bagan]]
During [[Pagan Kingdom|Pagan period]], the Pyu-style stupas were transformed into monuments reminiscent of alms bowls or gourd-shaped [[dome]]s, unbaked [[brick]], tapered and rising roofs, Buddha niches, polylobed [[arch]]es and ornamental doorways influenced by Bengali [[Pala Empire]] and its monuments. The [[Ananda Temple]] (finished in 1090), one of the first temples erected in [[Bagan]], was influenced by Indian architecture.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Ananda Pahto Temple, Bagan, Myanmar|url=http://www.orientalarchitecture.com/sid/513/myanmar/bagan/ananda-pahto-temple|website=Orientalarchitecture.com|access-date=1 August 2021|archive-date=20 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201020112758/https://www.orientalarchitecture.com/sid/513/myanmar/bagan/ananda-pahto-temple|url-status=live}}</ref> Architectural features of the temple include brick vaulted halls, Buddha statues, tapered roofs and the absence of [[Terrace (building)|terraces]].
[[File:Ananda-Bagan-Myanmar-18-gje.jpg|thumb|Ananda Temple terracotta plaque glazed in green]]
Pala influence and spread of Buddhism in Myanmar also brought in terracotta tiles from Bengal. The terracotta plaques at Pagan are made with well kneaded and fired clay but all the plaques are glazed with green colour.

Another example of these cultural influences include the Ananda Temple in Bagan built in the 11th century AD under the ruling of [[Kyansittha|King Kyansittha]]. At these times, Buddhist and [[Vaishnavism|Vaisnava]] monks travelled to Burma from Bengal and discussed commonalities about the beauty of the temples of their region. Therefore, the king heard the monks and decided to build a temple with these western inspirations. Although, the Ananda Temple display its eastern origins, the western features remain obvious and demonstrate its uniqueness.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Cultural Selection: Bengali Artistic Influences in Southeast Asia {{!}} Silk Roads Programme|url=https://en.unesco.org/silkroad/content/cultural-selection-bengali-artistic-influences-southeast-asia|access-date=2021-08-01|website=en.unesco.org|archive-date=1 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210801095319/https://en.unesco.org/silkroad/content/cultural-selection-bengali-artistic-influences-southeast-asia|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Influence in East Asia===

==== Torii, Paifang, Hongsalmun, Sao Ching Cha ====
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| image1 = Kyoto Schrein Fushimi-Inari-taisha Torii 35.jpg
| caption1 = [[Torii]] path leading to [[Fushimi Inari-taisha]]
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| image2 = Paifang - Chengdu, China - DSC05275.jpg
| caption2 = [[Paifang]] in [[Chengdu]], China
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| image3 = Hongsalmun (홍살문) of Heolleung Royal Tomb (헌능).jpg
| caption3 = [[Hongsalmun]] of [[Heonilleung|Heolleung Royal Tomb]]
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| caption4 = [[Giant Swing]] and [[Wat Suthat]]
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Ancient Indian ''torana'' sacred gateway architecture has influenced gateway architecture across Asia, specially where [[Silk Road transmission of Buddhism|Buddhism was transmitted from India]]; Chinese [[paifang]] gateways,<ref>Joseph Needham, Science and Civilization in China, Vol 4 part 3, p137-138</ref> Japanese torii gateways,<ref name="tor42">{{cite book|author=Albert Henry Longhurst|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gs1sFlMGy2AC&pg=PA17|title=The Story of the Stūpa|publisher=Asian Educational Services|year=1992|isbn=978-81-206-0160-4|page=17|access-date=12 June 2021|archive-date=22 October 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231022223518/https://books.google.com/books?id=gs1sFlMGy2AC&pg=PA17#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref> Korean [[Hongsalmun]] gateways,<ref name="tor7">{{cite book|author=A.H. Longhurst|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gs1sFlMGy2AC&pg=PA17|title=Story Of The Stupa|publisher=Asian Educational Services|year=1995|isbn=978-81-206-0160-4|pages=17–|access-date=12 June 2021|archive-date=22 October 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231022223518/https://books.google.com/books?id=gs1sFlMGy2AC&pg=PA17#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref> and [[Giant Swing|Sao Ching Cha]] in Thailand<ref name="scheid2">{{cite web|last=Scheid|first=Bernhard|title=Religion in Japan|url=http://www.univie.ac.at/rel_jap/bauten/anm_torii.htm#aussershinto|access-date=12 February 2010|work=Torii|publisher=University of Vienna|language=de|archive-date=28 August 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100828213102/http://www.univie.ac.at/rel_jap/bauten/anm_torii.htm#aussershinto|url-status=live}}</ref> have been derived from the Indian ''torana''. The functions of all are similar, but they generally differ based on their respective architectural styles.<ref name="tor62">{{cite book|author1=Simon Foster|title=Frommer's China|author2=Jen Lin-Liu|author3=Sharon Owyang|author4=Sherisse Pham|author5=Beth Reiber|author6=Lee Wing-sze|publisher=[[Frommers]]|year=2010|isbn=978-0-470-52658-3|page=435}}</ref>

The ''torii'', a gateway erected on the approach to every Shinto shrine, may be derived from [[Indianization of Southeast Asia|the Indian word]] ''[[torana]]''. While the Indian term denotes a gateway, the Japanese characters can be translated as "bird perch".<ref>Shôzô Yamaguchi, Frederic De Garis and Atsuharu Sakai, 1964, We Japanese: Miyanushita, Hakone, Fujiya Hotel, Page 200.</ref> The function of a ''torii'' is to mark the entrance to a sacred space. For this reason, the road leading to a Shinto shrine (''[[sandō]]'') is almost always straddled by one or more ''torii'', which are therefore the easiest way to distinguish a shrine from a Buddhist temple.

''Hongsalmun'' literally means ‘gate with red arrows’, referring to the set of pointed spikes on its top. In the past, spikes in between columns did not exist. The color is said to be red because of the belief that the color repels ghosts.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Koehler|first=Ben Jackson and Robert|title=Korean Architecture: Breathing with Nature|publisher=Seoul Selection|year=2015|isbn=978-1-62412-047-3|language=en}}</ref> The gate is composed of 2 round poles set vertically and 2 transverse bars.<ref name="hongsal">{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/illustratedguide0000unse_j0p0/page/186|title=An Illustrated Guide to Korean Culture - 233 traditional key words|publisher=Hakgojae Publishing Co|year=2002|isbn=9788985846981|location=Seoul|pages=186–87|url-access=registration}}</ref> These pillars are usually over {{convert|9|m}} in height.<ref name=":02">{{Cite book|last=Choi|first=Wan Gee|title=The Traditional Education of Korea|publisher=Ewha Womans University Press|year=2006|isbn=978-89-7300-675-5|language=en}}</ref> There is no roof and door-gate. In the middle top gate, the symbol of the [[trisula]] and the [[taegeuk]] image are placed.<ref name="hongsal" />

A ''paifang'', also known as a ''pailou'', is a traditional style of [[Chinese architecture|Chinese architectural]] [[arch]] or gateway structure derived from the [[torana]] temple-gate in [[ancient India]], has taken on traditional Chinese architectural characteristics such as multi-tiered roofs, various supporting posts, and archway-shapes of traditional gates and towers.

== Foreign Influence on Indian Architecture ==

=== Hellenistic influence ===
{{See also | Hellenistic influence on Indian art }}

The [[Greek conquests in India]] under [[Alexander the Great]] were limited in time (327–326 BCE) and in extent, but they had extensive long term effects as Greeks settled for centuries at the doorstep of India. After these events, the Greeks (described as [[Yona]] or [[Yavana]] in Indian sources from the Greek "[[Ionians|Ionian]]") were able to maintain a structured presence at the door of India for about three centuries, through the [[Seleucid Empire]] and the [[Greco-Bactrian kingdom]], down to the time of the [[Indo-Greek kingdoms]], which ended sometimes in the 1st century CE.

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| image3 = Drawing of Allahabad pillar capital abacus frieze.jpg
| caption3 = Drawing of Allahabad pillar capital flame palmette
| header = Hellenistic influence
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}}

During that time, the city of [[Ai-Khanoum]], capital of the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom and the cities of [[Sirkap]], were founded in what is now Pakistan on the Greek [[Hippodamian]] grid plan, and [[Sagala]], now located in Pakistan 10&nbsp;km from the border with India, interacted heavily with the Indian subcontinent. It is considered that Ai-Khanoum and Sirkap may have been primary actors in transmitting Western artistic influence to India, for example in the creation of the quasi-Ionic [[Pataliputra capital]] or the floral friezes of the [[Pillars of Ashoka]]. Numerous Greek ambassadors, such as [[Megasthenes]], [[Deimachus]] and [[Dionysius (ambassador)|Dionysius]], stayed at the Mauryan court in Pataliputra.

During the Maurya period (c. 321–185 BCE), and especially during the time of Emperor [[Ashoka]] (c.268–232 BCE), Hellenistic influence seems to have played a role in the establishment of Indian monumental stone architecture. Excavations in the ancient palace of [[Pataliputra]] have brought to light Hellenistic sculptural works, and Hellenistic influence appear in the [[Pillars of Ashoka]] at about the same period.

During that period, several instance of artistic influence are known, particular in the area of monumental stone sculpture and statuary, an area with no known precedents in India. The main period of stone architectural creation seems to correspond to the period of Ashoka's reign. Before that, Indians had a tradition of wooden architecture, remains of wooden palisades were discovered at archaeological sites in [[Pataliputra]], confirmed the Classical accounts.

The first examples of stone architecture were also found in the palace compound of Pataliputra, with the distinctly Hellenistic [[Pataliputra capital]] and a pillared hall using polished-stone columns. The other remarkable example of monumental stone architecture is that of the [[Pillars of Ashoka]], themselves displaying Hellenistic influence. There is also very early stone architecture in the palace at [[Kosambi]], including true arches used in the underground chambers, from the last phase of the palace in the 1st or 2nd century CE.<ref>Gosh, A. (1964). ''Indian Archaeology: A review 1961-62'', New Delhi, Archaeological survey of India, pp. 50–52, [https://nmma.nic.in/nmma/nmma_doc/Indian%20Archaeology%20Review/Indian%20Archaeology%201961-62%20A%20Review.pdf PDF] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210417031955/http://nmma.nic.in/nmma/nmma_doc/Indian%20Archaeology%20Review/Indian%20Archaeology%201961-62%20A%20Review.pdf |date=17 April 2021 }}; Harle, 43</ref>

==== Pataliputra capital ====
The [[Pataliputra capital]] is a monumental rectangular [[Capital (architecture)|capital]] with [[volute]]s and [[Classical Greece|Classical]] designs, that was discovered in the palace ruins of the ancient [[Mauryan Empire]] capital city of [[Pataliputra]] (modern [[Patna]], northeastern India). It is dated to the 3rd century BCE. It is, together with the [[Pillars of Ashoka]] one of the first known examples of Indian stone architecture, as no Indian stone monuments or sculptures are known from before that period. It is also one of the first archaeological clues suggesting Hellenistic influence on the arts of India, in this case sculptural palatial art.

==== Pillars of Ashoka ====
{{multiple image
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| image1 = N-BR-39 Ashokan Pillar Vaishali (8).jpg
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| caption1 = [[Pillars of Ashoka|Ashokan Pillar]] in [[Vaishali (ancient city)|Vaishali]]
| image2 = Naxos Sphinx with humans for size.jpg
| width2 = 131
| caption2 = [[Sphinx of Naxos]] at [[Delphi]]
}}The [[Pillars of Ashoka]] were built during the reign of the [[Maurya Empire]] [[Ashoka]] c. 250 BCE. They were new attempts at mastering stone architecture, as no Indian stone monuments or sculptures are known from before that period.

There are altogether seven remaining capitals, five with lions, one with an elephant and one with a [[zebu]] bull. One of them, the four lions of [[Sarnath]], has become the [[State Emblem of India]].

The animal capitals are composed of a [[Nelumbo nucifera|lotiform]] base, with an [[Abacus (architecture)|abacus]] decorated with floral, symbolic or animal designs, topped by the realistic depiction of an animal, thought to each represent a traditional direction in India. Greek columns of the 6th century BCE such as the [[Sphinx of Naxos]], a {{convert|12.5|m|adj=on}} Ionic column crowned by a sitting animal in the religious centre of [[Delphi]], may have been an inspiration for the pillars of Ashoka.

===== Flame palmette =====
The [[flame palmette]], central decorative element of the Pataliputra pillar is considered as a purely Greek motif. The first appearance of "flame palmettes" goes back to the stand-alone floral [[Acroterion|akroteria]] of the [[Parthenon]] (447–432 BCE), and slightly later at the [[Temple of Athena Nike]].

Flame palmettes were then introduced into friezes of floral motifs in replacement of the regular palmette. Flame palmettes are used extensively in India floral friezes, starting with the floral friezes on the capitals of the pillar of Ashoka, and they are likely to have originated with Greek or Near Eastern art. A monumental flame palmette can be seen on the top of the [[Sunga]] gateway at [[Bharhut]].

=== Persian influence ===

==== Achaemenid influence ====
{{See also|Achaemenid conquest of the Indus Valley}}{{multiple image
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| image1 = Colonne persepolis muze iran bastan teheran.jpg
| caption1 = Achaemenid capital in Persepolis
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| image2 = Achaemenid_capital_Persepolis.jpg
| caption2 = Highly polished [[Persian columns|Achaemenid load-bearing column]], [[Persepolis]]
| header = Achaemenid Derivatives
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| footer = [[Achaemenid Empire|Achaemenid]] influence like stone polishing and dual-headed capital from conquest by Persians and Greeks
| image3 = Sculptures near Teli Mandir, Gwalior Fort.jpg
| caption3 = Lion capital in Vardhana
| image4 = Sarnath capital.jpg
| caption4 = [[Lion Capital of Ashoka]] from [[Sarnath]]
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}}

[[Lion Capital of Ashoka]] from [[Sarnath]].The [[Achaemenid Empire|Achaemenid]] conquered and governed the territories of the North-western regions of the [[Indian subcontinent]], from the 6th to 4th centuries BCE. The conquest occurred in two phases. The first invasion was conducted around 535 BCE by [[Cyrus the Great]], who founded the Achaemenid Empire.{{sfn|Sen|1999|pages=116–117}} Cyrus annexed the regions west of the [[Indus River]], which formed the eastern border of his empire. Following the death of Cyrus, [[Darius the Great]] established his dynasty and began to reconquer former provinces and further expand the extent of the empire. Around 518 BCE Darius crossed the Himalayas into India to initiate a second period of conquest by annexing regions up to the [[Jhelum River]] in [[Punjab]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=André-Salvini|first=Béatrice|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kJnaKu9DdNEC|title=Forgotten Empire: The World of Ancient Persia|date=2005|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-24731-4|language=en}}</ref> Each invasion brought in new style and soon started to influence the art and architectural styles in India.

Various Indian artefacts tend to suggest some Perso-Hellenistic artistic influence in India, mainly felt during the time of the [[Mauryan Empire]].{{sfn|Sen|1999|pages=116–117}}

The [[Pataliputra]] palace with its pillared hall shows decorative influences of the Achaemenid palaces and Persepolis and may have used the help of foreign craftsmen.<ref>[http://jsr.usb.ac.ir/article_1659_265.html The Analysis of Indian Muria Empire affected from Achaemenid's architecture art] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402144452/http://jsr.usb.ac.ir/article_1659_265.html|date=2 April 2015}}. In: Journal of Subcontinent Researches. Article 8, Volume 6, Issue 19, Summer 2014, Page 149-174.</ref>{{sfn|Sen|1999|pages=116–117}} Mauryan rulers may have even imported craftsmen from abroad to build royal monuments.<ref>{{cite book|title=Monuments, Power and Poverty in India: From Ashoka to the Raj|author1=A. S. Bhalla|author2=I.B. Tauris|date=2015|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=emATBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA18 |page= 18|publisher=Bloomsbury Academic |isbn=9781784530877}}</ref> This may be the result of the formative influence of craftsmen employed from Persia following the disintegration of the Achaemenid Empire after the conquests of Alexander the Great.<ref name="auto1">"The Archaeology of South Asia: From the Indus to Asoka, c.6500 BCE-200 CE" Robin Coningham, Ruth Young Cambridge University Press, 31 aout 2015, p.414 [https://books.google.com/books?id=hB5TCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA414]</ref><ref>[[iarchive:reportonexcavat01waddgoog|Report on the excavations at Pātaliputra (Patna); the Palibothra of the Greeks by Waddell, L. A. (Laurence Austine)]]</ref>

The renowned [[Mauryan polish]], especially used in the [[Pillars of Ashoka]], may also have been a technique imported from the Achaemenid Empire.{{sfn|Sen|1999|pages=116–117}}

==== Rock cut architecture ====
The similarity of the 4th century BCE [[Lycia]]n barrel-vaulted tombs, such as the [[tomb of Payava]], in the western part of the Achaemenid Empire, with the Indian architectural design of the [[Chaitya]] (starting at least a century later from circa 250 BCE, with the [[Lomas Rishi]] caves in the [[Barabar caves|Barabar caves group]]), suggests that the designs of the Lycian rock-cut tombs travelled to India along the trade routes across the Achaemenid Empire.<ref name="GHA">{{cite book|last1=Ching|first1=Francis D.K|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SPqKDgAAQBAJ&pg=PT707|title=A Global History of Architecture|last2=Jarzombek|first2=Mark M.|last3=Prakash|first3=Vikramaditya|date=2017|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=9781118981603|page=707|language=en|author-link1=Frank Ching|author-link2=Mark Jarzombek}}</ref><ref name="HI" />

Early on, [[James Fergusson (architect)|James Fergusson]], in his ''" Illustrated Handbook of Architecture"'', while describing the very progressive evolution from wooden architecture to stone architecture in various ancient civilizations, has commented that "In India, the form and construction of the older Buddhist temples resemble so singularly these examples in Lycia".<ref name="IHA">{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_JNbMexY8iWcC|title=The Illustrated Handbook of Architecture Being a Concise and Popular Account of the Different Styles of Architecture Prevailing in All Ages and All Countries by James Fergusson|date=1859|publisher=J. Murray|page=[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_JNbMexY8iWcC/page/n274 212]|language=en}}</ref> The structural similarities, down to many architectural details, with the [[Chaitya]]-type Indian Buddhist temple designs, such as the "same pointed form of roof, with a ridge", are further developed in ''The cave temples of India''.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Fergusson|first1=James|url=https://archive.org/details/cavetemplesofind00ferguoft|title=The cave temples of India|last2=Burgess|first2=James|date=1880|publisher=London : Allen|page=[https://archive.org/details/cavetemplesofind00ferguoft/page/120 120]}}</ref> The Lycian tombs, dated to the 4th century BCE, are either free-standing or rock-cut barrel-vaulted sarcophagi, placed on a high base, with architectural features carved in stone to imitate wooden structures. There are [[:File:Lycian rock-cut tombs.jpg|numerous rock-cut equivalents]] to the free-standing structures and decorated with reliefs.<ref>M. Caygill, The British Museum A-Z companion (London, The British Museum Press, 1999)</ref><ref>E. Slatter, Xanthus: travels and discovery (London, Rubicon Press, 1994)</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Smith|first1=A. H. (Arthur Hamilton)|url=https://archive.org/details/catalogueofsculp02britiala|title=A catalogue of sculpture in the Department of Greek and Roman antiquities, British museum|date=1892–1904|publisher=London : Printed by order of the Trustees|pages=[https://archive.org/details/catalogueofsculp02britiala/page/46 46]–64}}</ref>  Fergusson went on to suggest an "Indian connection", and some form of cultural transfer across the [[Achaemenid Empire]].<ref name="HI">{{cite book|last1=Fergusson|first1=James|url=https://archive.org/details/anhistoricalinq00ferggoog|title=An historical inquiry into the true principles of beauty in art, more especially with reference to architecture|date=1849|publisher=London, Longmans, Brown, Green, and Longmans|pages=[https://archive.org/details/anhistoricalinq00ferggoog/page/n349 316]–320}}</ref> The ancient transfer of Lycian designs for rock-cut monuments to India is considered as "quite probable".<ref name="GHA"/>

===== Masarh Lion =====
{{multiple image
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| image1 = Masarh lion sculpture.jpg
| caption1 = Masarh lion sculpture
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| image2 = Lion-shaped weight-Sb 2718-P5280901-gradient.jpg
| caption2 = Achaemenid lion
| alt3 =
| image3 = Lion of Menecrates at the Corfu Museum.jpg
| caption3 = Lion of Menecrates, Greece
| header = Perso-Hellenistic influence
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}}

The sculpture of the [[Masarh lion]], found near the Maurya capital of [[Pataliputra]], raises the question of the Achaemenid and Greek influence on the art of the [[Mauryan art|Maurya Empire]], and on the western origins of stone carving in India. The lion is carved in [[Chunar stone|Chunar sandstone]], like the [[Pillars of Ashoka]], and its finish is polished, a feature of the [[Mauryan art|Maurya sculpture]].<ref name="Gupta 88">Page 88: "There is one fragmentary lion head from Masarh, Distt. Bhojpur, Bihar. It is carved out of Chunar sandstone and it also bears the typical Mauryan polish. But it is undoubtedly based on the Achaemenian idiom. The tubular or wick-like whiskers and highly decorated neck with long locks of the mane with one series arranged like sea waves is somewhat non-Indian in approach. But, to be exact, we have an example of a lion from a sculptural frieze from Persepolis of 5th century BCE in which it is overpowering a bull which may be compared with the Masarh lion."...&nbsp;Page 122: "This particular example of a foreign model gets added support from the male heads of foreigners from Patna city and Sarnath since they also prove beyond doubt that a section of the elite in the Gangetic Basin was of foreign origin. However, as noted earlier, this is an example of the late Mauryan period since this is not the type adopted in any Ashoka pillar. We are, therefore, visualizing a historical situation in India in which the West Asian influence on Indian art was felt more in the late Mauryan than in the early Mauryan period. The term West Asia in this context stands for Iran and Afghanistan, where the Sakas and Pahlavas had their basecamps for eastward movement. The prelude to future inroads of the Indo-Bactrians in India had after all started in the second century B.C."...&nbsp;in {{cite book|last1=Gupta|first1=Swarajya Prakash|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0lDqAAAAMAAJ|title=The Roots of Indian Art: A Detailed Study of the Formative Period of Indian Art and Architecture, Third and Second Centuries B.C., Mauryan and Late Mauryan|year=1980|publisher=B.R. Publishing Corporation|isbn=978-0-391-02172-3|pages=88, 122|language=en|author-link=Swaraj Prakash Gupta}}. Also {{cite journal|last1=Kumar|first1=Vinay (Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi Faculty Member)|date=2015|title=West Asian Influence on Lion Motifs in Mauryan Art|url=https://www.academia.edu/10709971|journal=Heritage and Us|language=en|issue=4|page=14|access-date=16 August 2021|archive-date=14 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230414181022/https://www.academia.edu/10709971|url-status=live}}</ref> According to [[Swaraj Prakash Gupta|S.P. Gupta]], the sculptural style is unquestionably [[Achaemenid art|Achaemenid]].<ref name="Gupta 88" /> This is particularly the case for the well-ordered tubular representation of whiskers ([[vibrissa]]s) and the geometrical representation of inflated veins flush with the entire face.<ref name="Gupta 88" /> The mane, on the other hand, with tufts of hair represented in wavelets, is rather naturalistic.<ref name="Gupta 88" /> Very similar examples are however known in Greece and [[Persepolis]].<ref name="Gupta 88" /> It is possible that this sculpture was made by an Achaemenid or Greek sculptor in India and either remained without effect, or was the Indian imitation of a Greek or Achaemenid model, somewhere between the fifth century BCE and the first century BCE, although it is generally dated from the time of the [[Maurya Empire]], around the 3rd century BCE.<ref name="Gupta 88" />

==See also==
{{Portal|Architecture|India}}
* [[Architecture of Karnataka]]
* [[Architecture of Kerala]]
* [[Architecture of Tamil Nadu]]
* [[Badami cave temples]]
* [[Hemadpanthi]]
* [[Indian vernacular architecture]]
* [[Kalinga Architecture]]
* [[List of Indian architects]]
* [[Meitei architecture]]
* [[Rajasthani architecture]]
* [[Temples of North Karnataka]]
;Other Indian Art and Architecture forms
* [[Indian art]]
* [[Indo-Greek art]]
* [[Art of Mathura]]
* [[Gupta art]]
* [[Mauryan art]]
* [[Kushan art]]
* [[Hoysala architecture]]
* [[Vijayanagara architecture]]
* [[Greco-Buddhist art]]
* [[Chola art and architecture]]
* [[Pallava art and architecture]]
* [[Badami Chalukya architecture]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}

==References==
{{Indian culture}}
{{Indian art}}
* Blair, S. S., & Bloom, J. M. (1996), ''The art and architecture of Islam 1250-1800'', Yale University Press.
* Chandra, Pramod (2008), "South Asian arts", ''Encyclopædia Britannica''
* {{cite book|last=Evenson|first=Norma|title=The Indian Metropolis|year=1989|publisher=Yale University press|location=New Haven and London|isbn=978-0-300-04333-4}}
* Foekema, Gerard (1996), ''A Complete Guide to Hoysaḷa Temples'', Abhinav Publications, {{ISBN|81-7017-345-0}}.
* Gast, Klaus-Peter (2007), ''Modern Traditions: Contemporary Architecture in India'', Birkhäuser, {{ISBN|978-3-7643-7754-0}}.
* {{cite book | last =Harle | first =J.C. | author-link = | title =The Art and Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent |series=Pelican History of Art | edition =2nd | year =1994 | publisher =Yale University Press | location = | isbn =0300062176 }}
* {{Cite book|last=Haig|first=Thomas Wolseley|url=https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Historic_Landmarks_of_the_Deccan|title=Historic Landmarks of the Deccan|publisher=The Pioneer Press|year=1907|location=Allahabad|author-link=Wolseley Haig}}
* {{Cite journal|last=Hegewald|first=Julia A. B.|title=The International Jaina Style? Māru-Gurjara Temples Under the Solaṅkīs, throughout India and in the Diaspora|url=https://quod.lib.umich.edu/a/ars/13441566.0045.005?view=text;rgn=main|journal=Ars Orientalis|volume=45|doi=10.3998/ars.13441566.0045.005|issn=2328-1286|year=2011|issue=20191029|doi-access=free}}
* Le Huu Phuoc, ''Buddhist Architecture'', 2009, Grafikol
* Livingston, Morna & Beach, Milo (2002), ''Steps to Water: The Ancient Stepwells of India'', Princeton Architectural Press, {{ISBN|1-56898-324-7}}.
* Michell, George, (1977) ''The Hindu Temple: An Introduction to its Meaning and Forms'', 1977, University of Chicago Press, {{ISBN|978-0-226-53230-1}}
* Michell, George (1990), ''The Penguin Guide to the Monuments of India, Volume 1: Buddhist, Jain, Hindu'', 1990, Penguin Books, {{ISBN|0140081445}}
* {{cite book|last=Michell|first=George |title=Architecture and Art of Southern India: Vijayanagara and the Successor States 1350–1750|year=1995|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-44110-0}}
* {{cite book|last=Nilsson|first=Sten|title=European Architecture in India 1750–1850|year=1968|publisher=Faber and Faber|location=London|isbn=978-0-571-08225-4}}
* Piercey, W. Douglas & Scarborough, Harold (2008), ''hospital'', Encyclopædia Britannica.
* Possehl, Gregory L. (1996), "Mehrgarh", ''Oxford Companion to Archaeology'' edited by Brian Fagan, Oxford University Press.
* Rowland, Benjamin, ''The Art and Architecture of India: Buddhist, Hindu, Jain'', 1967 (3rd edn.), Pelican History of Art, Penguin, {{ISBN|0140561021}}
* Savage, George (2008), ''interior design'', Encyclopædia Britannica.
* {{Cite book |last=Sen |first=Sailendra Nath |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/133102415 |title=Ancient Indian history and civilization |date=1999 |publisher=New Age International |isbn=81-224-1198-3 |edition=2 |location=New Delhi |oclc=133102415}}
* {{cite book|last=Tadgell|first=Christopher|title=The history of architecture in India : from the dawn of civilization to the end of the Raj|year=1990|publisher=Architecture Design and Technology Press|location=London|isbn=978-1-85454-350-9}}
* {{cite book|last=Thapar|first=Bindia|title=Introduction to Indian Architecture|year=2004|publisher=Periplus Editions|location=Singapore|isbn=978-0-7946-0011-2}}
* Rodda & Ubertini (2004), ''The Basis of Civilization-Water Science?'', International Association of Hydrological Science, {{ISBN|1-901502-57-0}}.
* Sinopoli, Carla M. (2003), ''The Political Economy of Craft Production: Crafting Empire in South India, C. 1350–1650'', Cambridge University Press, {{ISBN|0-521-82613-6}}.
* Sinopoli, Carla M. (2003), "Echoes of Empire: Vijayanagara and Historical Memory, Vijayanagara as Historical Memory", ''Archaeologies of memory'' edited by Ruth M. Van Dyke & Susan E. Alcock, Blackwell Publishing, {{ISBN|0-631-23585-X}}.
* Singh, Vijay P. & Yadava, R. N. (2003), ''Water Resources System Operation: Proceedings of the International Conference on Water and Environment'', Allied Publishers, {{ISBN|81-7764-548-X}}.
* {{cite book |last=Soekmono |author-link=Soekmono |first=R.|editor=Jan Fontein|editor-link=Jan Fontein| title= The Javanese Candi: Function and Meaning, Volume 17 from Studies in Asian Art and Archaeology, Vol 17| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7cd2Ha7fT90C |publisher=E.J. BRILL | year=1995 |location=Leiden |isbn=9789004102156 }}
* Vastu-Silpa Kosha, Encyclopedia of Hindu Temple architecture and Vastu/S.K.Ramachandara Rao, Delhi, Devine Books, (Lala Murari Lal Chharia Oriental series) {{ISBN|978-93-81218-51-8}} (Set)
* {{cite book |title=Bidar, Its History and Monuments |last=Yazdani |first=Ghulam |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w6xpQpOCtzAC |date=1947 }}

==Further reading==
* {{cite book|last=Havell|first=E.B.|author-link=E. B. Havell|title=Indian Architecture, its psychology, structure, and history from the first Muhammadan invasion to the present day|url=https://archive.org/stream/indianarchitectu00haveuoft#page/n9/mode/2up|year=1913|publisher=J. Murray, London }}
* {{cite book|last=Coomaraswamy|first=Ananda K.|author-link=Ananda K. Coomaraswamy|title=Viśvakarmā; examples of Indian architecture, sculpture, painting, handicraft|url=https://archive.org/stream/cu31924022942993#page/n3/mode/2up|year=1914|publisher=London}}
* {{cite book|last=Havell|first=E. B.|author-link=E. B. Havell|title=The Ancient and Medieval Architecture of India: a study of Indo-Aryan civilisation|url=https://archive.org/stream/cu31924011010109#page/n9/mode/2up|year=1915|publisher=John Murray, London}}
* [[Banister Fletcher|Fletcher, Banister]]; Cruickshank, Dan, [https://books.google.com/books?id=Gt1jTpXAThwC ''Sir Banister Fletcher's a History of Architecture''], Architectural Press, 20th edition, 1996 (first published 1896). {{ISBN|0-7506-2267-9}}. Cf. Part Four, Chapter 26.

==External links==
* {{Commons category-inline}}
* [http://www.kamit.jp/engl.htm Kamiya, Taeko, ''The Architecture of India''.]

{{Reflist|group=note|2}}

{{Architecture of India}}
{{Asia in topic|Architecture of}}
{{India topics}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:India, Architecture Of}}
[[Category:Italianate architecture in India]]
[[Category:Architecture in India| ]]