View source for Arabs


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{{Redirect-multi|2|Arab|Arabians|other uses|Arab (disambiguation)|and|Arabian (disambiguation)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2025}}
{{Infobox ethnic group
| group            = Arabs
| native_name      = {{langx|ar|عَرَب|ʿarab|label=none}}
| native_name_lang = ar
| rawimage         = Arab people around the world.svg
| image            =
| image_caption    =
| total            = {{approx|400 million}}<ref name="Kamel2017">{{Cite book|last=Lorenzo Kamel|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pB8lDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA25|title=The Frailty of Authority: Borders, Non-State Actors and Power Vacuums in a Changing Middle East|date=31 March 2017|publisher=Edizioni Nuova Cultura|isbn=978-88-6812-828-9|page=25}}</ref><ref name="Ellis2018">{{Cite book|last=Kail C. Ellis|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=e7RGDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA159|title=Secular Nationalism and Citizenship in Muslim Countries: Arab Christians in the Levant|date=12 January 2018|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-3-319-71204-8|page=159}}</ref>–420 million<ref name="Nydell2018">{{Cite book|last=Margaret K. Nydell|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Wn9ODwAAQBAJ&pg=PP11|title=Understanding Arabs: A Guide for Modern Times|date=26 July 2018|publisher=John Murray Press|isbn=978-1-4736-9091-2|page=11}}</ref><ref name="Caplan2019">{{Cite book|last=Neil Caplan|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DM-mDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA23|title=The Israel-Palestine Conflict: Contested Histories|date=2019|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-119-52387-1|page=23}}</ref>
{{plainlist|
* [[Arab League]]: 350 million<ref name="CIA Factbook">total population 450 million; [[CIA Factbook]]2030 estimates an Arab population of 450 million, see article text.</ref><ref name="World Arabic Language Day">{{Cite web|date=15 December 2016|title=World Arabic Language Day {{!}} United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization|url=http://www.unesco.org/new/en/unesco/events/prizes-and-celebrations/celebrations/international-days/world-arabic-language-day/|access-date=18 December 2017|website=Unesco.org}}</ref>
* [[Arab diaspora]]: ~50 million
}}
| total_year       =
| total_source     =
| region1          = [[Brazil]]
| pop1             = 11,600,000–20,000,000<ref name="IBGE2008">IBGE. [http://biblioteca.ibge.gov.br/biblioteca-catalogo?view=detalhes&id=263405 IBGE | Biblioteca | Detalhes | Características étnico-raciais da população : classificações e identidades] IBGE: Características Étnico-Raciais da População.</ref><ref name="Ferabolli2014">{{Cite book|last=Silvia Ferabolli|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=R5CbBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA151|title=Arab Regionalism: A Post-Structural Perspective|year=2014|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-317-65803-0|page=151|quote=According to estimates by the Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics (IBGE), countersigned by the League of Arab States, Brazil has the largest Arab colony outside their countries of origin. There are estimated 15 million Arabs living in Brazil today, with some researchers suggesting numbers around 20 million.}}</ref><ref name="Amar2014">{{Cite book|last=Paul Amar|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XGKuCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA40|title=The Middle East and Brazil: Perspectives on the New Global South|year=2014|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=978-0-253-01496-2|page=40|quote=there are, according to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, more than sixteen million Arabs and descendants of Arabs in Brazil, constituting the largest community of Arabs descent outside the Middle East.}}</ref>
| region3          = [[France]]
| pop3             = 5,500,000–7,000,000<ref>{{Citation|last=Crumley|first=Bruce|title=Should France Count Its Minority Population?|date=24 March 2009|url=http://content.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,1887106,00.html|magazine=Time|access-date=11 October 2014|archive-date=8 August 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180808014355/http://content.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,1887106,00.html|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|date=26 March 2009|title=To count or not to count|newspaper=The Economist|url=https://www.economist.com/europe/2009/03/26/to-count-or-not-to-count|access-date=30 January 2019|issn=0013-0613}}</ref>
| region4          = [[Turkey]]
| pop4             = 5,000,000<ref name="www.aljazeera.com2" />{{efn|Including 1–2 million native Arabs<ref name="www.aljazeera.com2" /> and 3,763,565 registered Syrian refugees.<ref name="UNHCRssrrrTurkey">{{Cite web|url=https://data2.unhcr.org/en/situations/syria/location/113|title=UNHCR Situation Syria Regional Refugee Response – Turkey|date=11 November 2021|publisher=Government of Turkey|access-date=17 November 2021}}</ref>}}
| region5          = [[Argentina]]
| pop5             = 3,500,000<ref name="Fearab.org.ar">{{Cite web|title=Inmigración sirio-libanesa en Argentina|url=http://www.fearab.org.ar/inmigracion_sirio_libanesa_en_argentina.php|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100620004217/http://www.fearab.org.ar/inmigracion_sirio_libanesa_en_argentina.php|archive-date=20 June 2010|access-date=13 April 2010|publisher=Fearab.org.ar|language=es}}</ref>
| region6          = [[Colombia]]
| pop6             = 3,200,000<ref name="La República, 2022">{{Cite web|title=Colombia y Medio Oriente|date=26 April 2022|url=https://www.larepublica.co/analisis/simon-gaviria-munoz-401830/colombia-y-medio-oriente-3350223|access-date=2 July 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=6 July 2011|title=Brazil-Arab News Agency – Colombia awakens to the Arab world|url=http://www2.anba.com.br/noticia_diplomacia.kmf?cod=8701931|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706150728/http://www2.anba.com.br/noticia_diplomacia.kmf?cod=8701931|archive-date=6 July 2011|access-date=17 June 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Tiempo|first=Casa Editorial El|date=7 March 2019|title=Los palestinos que encontraron un segundo hogar en el centro de Bogotá|url=https://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/mas-regiones/los-palestinos-que-encontraron-un-segundo-hogar-en-el-centro-de-bogota-334782|access-date=18 June 2022|website=El Tiempo|language=spanish}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=March 2010|title=Estimación de la mortalidad, 1985–2005|trans-title=Estimation of mortality, 1985–2005|url=http://www.dane.gov.co/files/investigaciones/poblacion/proyepobla06_20/7Proyecciones_poblacion.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071123051243/http://www.dane.gov.co/files/investigaciones/poblacion/proyepobla06_20/7Proyecciones_poblacion.pdf|archive-date=23 November 2007|access-date=29 March 2016|website=Postcensal Studies|publisher=[[National Administrative Department of Statistics (Colombia)|DANE]]|location=Bogotá, Colombia|language=es|issue=7}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=September 2007|title=Proyecciones nacionales y departamentales de población. 2006–2020|trans-title=National and departmental population projections. 2006–2020|url=http://www.dane.gov.co/files/investigaciones/poblacion/proyepobla06_20/7Proyecciones_poblacion.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071123051243/http://www.dane.gov.co/files/investigaciones/poblacion/proyepobla06_20/7Proyecciones_poblacion.pdf|archive-date=23 November 2007|access-date=22 September 2015|publisher=DANE National Statistical Service, Colombia|language=es}}</ref>
| region7          = [[United States]]
| pop7             = 2,097,642<ref name="American Community Survey">{{cite web|url=https://data.census.gov/cedsci/table?q=ancestry%20alone%20or%20in%20combination%202019&g=0100000US,.04000.001&tid=ACSDP1Y2019.DP02&hidePreview=true|title=SELECTED SOCIAL CHARACTERISTICS IN THE UNITED STATES|publisher=United States Census Bureau|access-date=2 March 2021}}</ref>
| region8          = [[Israel]]
| pop8             = 2,080,000<ref name="cbs-pop-groups">{{cite web|title=Demographic characteristics – definitions and explanations (translation from Hebrerw into English)|url=https://www-cbs-gov-il.translate.goog/he/subjects/Pages/תכונות-דמוגרפיות-הגדרות%20והסברים.aspx?_x_tr_sl=iw&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-US&_x_tr_pto=wapp|publisher=Israel Central Bureau of Statistics|access-date=6 January 2024}}</ref>{{efn|[[Arab citizens of Israel|native Palestinian Arabs]]}}
| region9          = [[Chad]]
| pop9             = 1,800,000<ref name="chad">{{Cite CIA World Factbook|country=Chad|access-date=3 April 2019|year=2019}}</ref>
| region10         = [[Iran]]
| pop10            = 1,600,000<ref name="Iran">{{Cite CIA World Factbook|country=Iran|access-date=3 August 2013|year=2013}}</ref>–4,000,000<ref>{{Cite journal|date=19 June 2015|title=Arabs|url=https://minorityrights.org/minorities/arabs/|access-date=26 October 2023|website=Minority Rights Group}}</ref>{{efn|native [[Khuzestani Arabs]]}}
| region11         = [[Venezuela]]
| pop11            = 1,600,000<ref name="thedailybeast.com">{{Cite news|last=Margolis|first=Mac|date=15 September 2013|title=Abdel el-Zabayar: From Parliament to the Frontlines|work=The Daily Beast|url=http://www.thedailybeast.com/articles/2013/09/15/abdel-el-zabayar-from-parliament-to-the-frontlines.html}}</ref>
| region12         = [[Germany]]
| pop12            = 1,401,950<ref name="statista">{{Cite web|title=Anzahl der Ausländer in Deutschland nach Herkunftsland in den Jahren 2015 und 2016|url=https://de.statista.com/statistik/daten/studie/1221/umfrage/anzahl-der-auslaender-in-deutschland-nach-herkunftsland/|website=statista|language=de}}</ref>
| region13         = [[Spain]]
| pop13            = 1,350,000<ref name="europapress-18-millones">{{Cite web|date=30 March 2015|title=Los musulmanes en España superan los 1,8 millones|url=http://www.europapress.es/sociedad/noticia-musulmanes-espana-superan-18-millones-20150330182141.html|access-date=25 April 2017|website=europapress.es|language=es}}</ref><ref name="alertadigital-16-millones">{{Cite web|last=Redaction|date=9 October 2012|title=La cifra de musulmanes en España alcanza los 1,6 millones, de los que casi un tercio viven en Cataluña|url=http://www.alertadigital.com/2012/10/09/la-cifra-de-musulmanes-en-espana-casi-alcanza-los-16-millones-de-los-que-casi-un-tercio-viven-en-cataluna/|access-date=25 April 2017|website=alertadigital.com|language=es|archive-date=1 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171201040941/http://www.alertadigital.com/2012/10/09/la-cifra-de-musulmanes-en-espana-casi-alcanza-los-16-millones-de-los-que-casi-un-tercio-viven-en-cataluna/}}</ref>
| region14         = [[Mexico]]
| pop14            = 1,100,000<ref>{{Cite web|last=Sierra|first=Mauricio|date=16 June 2021|title=Arab Ancestry in Latin America|url=https://berkeleyhighjacket.com/column/arab-ancestry-in-latin-america/|access-date=15 February 2022|website=Berkeley High Jacket|quote=Arab Mexicans are an important group within Mexican society. There are around 1,100,000 Mexican citizens of Arab descent, primarily of Lebanese, Syrian, Iraqi and Palestinian heritage.|archive-date=15 February 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220215182429/https://berkeleyhighjacket.com/column/arab-ancestry-in-latin-america/}}</ref>
| region15         = [[Chile]]
| pop15            = 800,000<ref name="aurora-israel.co.il">{{Cite web|title=Aurora &#124; Aurora|url=http://www.aurora-israel.co.il/articulos/israel/Titulares/24782/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120318054736/http://www.aurora-israel.co.il/articulos/israel/Titulares/24782/|archive-date=18 March 2012|website=aurora-israel.co.il}}</ref><ref name="Adnkronos.com">{{Cite web|date=7 April 2003|title=Chile: Palestinian refugees arrive to warm welcome|url=http://www1.adnkronos.com/AKI/English/CultureAndMedia/?id=1.0.2050534508|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110919202702/http://www.adnkronos.com/AKI/English/CultureAndMedia/?id=1.0.2050534508|archive-date=19 September 2011|access-date=17 September 2011|publisher=Adnkronos.com}}</ref><ref name="Laventana.casa.cult.cu">{{Cite web|title=500,000 descendientes de primera y segunda generación de palestinos en Chile|url=http://laventana.casa.cult.cu/modules.php?name=News&file=article&sid=514|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090722073846/http://laventana.casa.cult.cu/modules.php?name=News&file=article&sid=514|archive-date=22 July 2009|access-date=17 September 2011|publisher=Laventana.casa.cult.cu}}</ref>
| region16         = [[Canada]]
| pop16            = 750,925<ref name="canadianarabinstitute.org">{{Cite web|title=Canadian Arab Institute :: 750,925 Canadians Hail from Arab Lands|url=http://www.canadianarabinstitute.org/publications/reports/750925-canadians-hail-arab-lands/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170319032124/http://www.canadianarabinstitute.org/publications/reports/750925-canadians-hail-arab-lands/|archive-date=19 March 2017|access-date=19 October 2019|website=canadianarabinstitute.org}}</ref>
| region17         = [[Italy]]
| pop17            = 705,968<ref name="ISTAT">{{Cite web|title=Cittadini stranieri in Italia – 2021|url=http://www.tuttitalia.it/statistiche/cittadini-stranieri-2021/|website=tuttitalia.it}}</ref>
| region18         = [[Sweden]]
| pop18            = 543,350<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.statistikdatabasen.scb.se/pxweb/en/ssd/START__BE__BE0101__BE0101E/FodelselandArK/?rxid=86abd797-7854-4564-9150-c9b06ae3ab07c9b06ae3ab07=Statistics%20Sweden|access-date=19 September 2019|title=Population by country of birth, age and sex. Year 2000 – 2020}}</ref>
| region19         = [[United Kingdom]]
| pop19            = 500,000<ref>{{Cite web|last=Anthony McRoy|title=The British Arab|url=http://www.naba.org.uk/CONTENT/articles/Diaspora/british_arabs.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150103180941/http://www.naba.org.uk/Content/articles/Diaspora/british_arabs.htm|archive-date=3 January 2015|access-date=17 April 2012|publisher=National Association of British Arabs}}</ref>
| region20         = [[Australia]]
| pop20            = 500,000<ref>{{Cite web|title=australianarab.org|url=http://australianarab.org/about-us|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161030002545/http://australianarab.org/about-us|archive-date=30 October 2016}}</ref>
| region21         = [[Netherlands]]
| pop21            = 480,000–613,800<ref name="auto2">{{Citation|title=Dutch media perceived as much more biased than Arabic media – Media & Citizenship Report conducted by University of Utrecht|date=10 September 2010|url=http://www.media-citizenship.eu/images/stories/pdf/Amsterdam_national_focus_group_report.pdf|publisher=Utrecht University|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190228151603/http://www.media-citizenship.eu/images/stories/pdf/Amsterdam_national_focus_group_report.pdf|access-date=29 November 2010|archive-date=28 February 2019}}</ref>
| region22         = [[Ivory Coast]]
| pop22            = 300,000<ref>{{Cite journal|date=30 January 2018|title=Côte d'Ivoire|url=https://minorityrights.org/country/cote-divoire/|website=Minority Rights Group}}</ref>
| region23         = [[Honduras]]
| pop23            = 280,000<ref name="Espín, 2020">{{Cite magazine|last=J. Espín-Ocampo|url=https://www.revistas.una.ac.cr/index.php/ri/article/view/13945/19447|title=Origen y evolución de la comunidad palestina en Chile|magazine=Revista Relaciones Internacionales, Escuela de Relaciones Internacionales. Universidad Nacional de Costa Rica|year=2020|volume=1|pages=113–132|doi=10.15359/ri.93-1.5|issn=1018-0583|issue=93|s2cid=241082525}}</ref>
| region24         = [[Ecuador]]
| pop24            = 170,000&nbsp;<!--Higher estimate for Lebanese in Ecuador--><ref>{{Cite web |date=16 October 2020|title=El Guayaquil que acogió a los migrantes extranjeros|url=https://www.eltelegrafo.com.ec/noticias/guayaquil-bicentenario/1/guayaquil-migrantes-extranjeros|access-date=16 April 2022|website=El Telégrafo}}</ref>
| region25         = [[Niger]]
| pop25            = 150,000 {{small|(2006)}}<ref>{{Cite web|date=25 October 2006|title=Africa &#124; Niger's Arabs to fight expulsion|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/6081416.stm|access-date=1 June 2020|publisher=BBC News}}</ref>
| region26         = [[Denmark]]
| pop26            = 121,000<ref>{{Cite web|date=8 July 2019|title=Demographics and Ethnic Groups of Denmark|url=https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/what-is-the-ethnic-composition-of-the-population-of-denmark.html|access-date=27 October 2023|website=WorldAtlas}}</ref>
| region27         = [[Indonesia]]
| pop27            = 118,866 {{small|(2010)}}<ref>{{cite book|url=http://www.bphn.go.id/data/documents/ae_peraturan_perundang-undangan_peninggalan_kolonial_belanda.pdf|title=Analisis dan Evaluasi Peraturan Perundang-undangan Tentang Peninggalan Kolonial (Belanda dan Jepang)|last=Hartono|first=Sunaryati|date=2015|publisher=Badan Pembinaan Hukum Nasional, Kementerian Hukum dan Hak Asasi Manusia RI|location=Jakarta|pages=25–26|id=IOS1-INLIS000000000683886|author-link=:en:Sunaryati Hartono|archive-date=30 March 2023|access-date=17 November 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230330185256/https://www.bphn.go.id/data/documents/ae_peraturan_perundang-undangan_peninggalan_kolonial_belanda.pdf}}</ref>
| region28         = [[El Salvador]]
| pop28            = 100,000<ref>{{Cite web|title=Why So Many Palestinians Live in El Salvador &#124; AJ+|url=https://newsvideo.su/video/10798241|website=newsvideo.su|access-date=13 November 2019|archive-date=13 November 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191113091136/https://newsvideo.su/video/10798241}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Lebanese Diaspora Worldwide Geographical Distribution|url=http://theidentitychef.com/2009/09/06/lebanese-diaspora-worldwide-geographical-distribution|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210214110250/http://theidentitychef.com/2009/09/06/lebanese-diaspora-worldwide-geographical-distribution/|archive-date=14 February 2021|access-date=16 October 2018}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Zielger|first=Matthew|title=El Salvador: Central American Palestine of the West?|work=The Daily Star|url=http://www.dailystar.com.lb/Culture/Art/2004/Apr-27/91857-el-salvador-central-american-palestine-of-the-west.ashx#axzz3EZpwYUKb|access-date=27 May 2015}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=AJ Plus: The Palestinians of El Salvador|url=https://latinx.com/discover/aj-plus-the-palestinians-of-el-salvador/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191113091131/https://latinx.com/discover/aj-plus-the-palestinians-of-el-salvador/|archive-date=13 November 2019|access-date=13 November 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Dellios|first=Hugh|title=El Salvador vote divides 2 Arab clans|work=Chicago Tribune|url=https://www.chicagotribune.com/news/ct-xpm-2004-03-21-0403210538-story.html}}</ref>
| region29         = [[Eritrea]]
| pop29            = 80,000 {{small|(2010)}}<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/21/country/ER/languages/|title=Languages of Eritrea|publisher=Ethnologue|access-date=21 October 2023}}</ref>
| region30         = [[Uruguay]]
| pop30            = 75,000<ref>{{Cite web |title=Más de 10 millones de libaneses empujan el crecimiento social y económico de América Latina|url=https://www.infobae.com/2014/06/25/1575973-mas-10-millones-libaneses-empujan-el-crecimiento-social-y-economico-america-latina/|access-date=15 February 2022|website=infobae|date=24 November 2017|language=es-ES}}</ref>
| region31         = [[Tanzania]]
| pop31            = 70,000<ref>{{Cite web|title=Tanzania History and Information – Safari Info for Tanzania|url=http://www.eyesonafrica.net/african-safari-tanzania/tanzania-info.htm|access-date=28 May 2020|website=eyesonafrica.net|archive-date=10 January 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200110084347/http://www.eyesonafrica.net/african-safari-tanzania/tanzania-info.htm}}</ref>
| region32         = [[Kenya]]
| pop32            = 59,021 {{small|(2019)}}<ref name="Census2019">{{Cite web|title=2019 Kenya Population and Housing Census Volume IV: Distribution of Population by Socio-Economic Characteristics|url=https://housingfinanceafrica.org/app/uploads/VOLUME-IV-KPHC-2019.pdf|archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://housingfinanceafrica.org/app/uploads/VOLUME-IV-KPHC-2019.pdf|archive-date=9 October 2022|url-status=live|access-date=2 May 2021|website=Kenya National Bureau of Statistics}}</ref>
| region33         = [[Somalia]]
| pop33            = 30,000<ref>{{Citation|title=Somalia|date=17 October 2023|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/somalia/#people-and-society|work=The World Factbook|access-date=22 October 2023|publisher=Central Intelligence Agency}}</ref>
| languages        = [[Arabic]]
| religions        = {{Plainlist|
* Predominantly:
* [[Islam]]
* {{Hlist|([[Sunni Islam|Sunni]]|[[Shia Islam|Shia]]|[[Ibadi Islam|Ibadi]])}}
* Significant minority:
* [[Arab Christians|Christianity]]
* {{Hlist|([[Greek Orthodox Church|Greek Orthodox]]|[[Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]]|[[Melkite Greek Catholic Church|Melkite Catholic]]|[[Maronite Catholic Church|Maronite Catholic]]|[[Protestantism|Protestant]])}}
* Smaller minority:
* {{Hlist|[[Druze]]|[[Arab Jews|Judaism]]|[[Baháʼí Faith|Baháʼí]]}}
* Historically: 
* [[Religion in pre-Islamic Arabia|Arabian paganism]] ([[Nabataean religion|Nabataean]])
}}
| related          = Other [[Afroasiatic languages|Afroasiatic]] and [[Semitic people]]s of the [[Middle East and North Africa]]<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Mapping the Arab genome|first1=Hamdi|last1=Mbarek|first2=Said I.|last2=Ismail|date=7 December 2022|journal=Nature Genetics|volume=54|issue=12|pages=1761–1763|doi=10.1038/s41588-022-01239-0|pmid=36446885|doi-access=free|issn=1061-4036}}</ref>
| footnotes        = 
}}

'''Arabs''' ({{langx|ar|عَرَب}}){{efn|{{Small|[[DIN 31635]]:}}&nbsp;{{transliteration|ar|DIN|ʿarab}}, {{IPA|ar|ˈʕɑ.rɑb|pron|Arabspronouncedar.oog.ogg}}; {{singular}} {{lang|ar|عَرَبِيّ}}, {{transliteration|ar|DIN|ʿarabī}}, {{IPA|ar|ˈʕɑ.rɑ.biː|pron|LL-Q55633582 (ajp)-Khalil.rantissi-عَرَبيّ.wav}}}} are an [[ethnic group]]{{efn|Sources stating Arabs are an ethnic group:<ref>{{cite book|last1=Mackintosh-Smith|first1=Tim|title=Arabs: A 3,000-Year History of Peoples, Tribes and Empires|year=2019|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=978-0-300-18235-4|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RQ-LDwAAQBAJ&dq=%22Arabs+are+an+ethnic%22&pg=PT14}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Levinson|first1=David|title=Ethnic Groups Worldwide: A Ready Reference Handbook|date=1998|publisher=Oryx Press|isbn=978-1-57356-019-1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hIEYAAAAIAAJ&q=%22Arabs+are+an+ethnic+group%22}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Shakry|first1=Omnia El|title=Understanding and Teaching the Modern Middle East|year=2020|publisher=University of Wisconsin Pres|isbn=978-0-299-32760-6|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pQ8CEAAAQBAJ&dq=%22Arabs+are+an+ethnic+group%22&pg=PA103}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Ahrari|first1=Mohammed E.|title=The Middle East in Transition: An Instructional Guide|date=1994|publisher=Southern Center for International Studies|isbn=978-0-935082-19-7|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=crTZAAAAMAAJ&q=%22Arabs+are+an+ethnic+group%22}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Hitti|first=Philip K.|title=The Arabs: a short history|date=1996|publisher=Regnery Pub.|isbn=0-89526-706-3|location=Washington, D.C.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Rogan|first=Eugene|title=The Arabs: a history|date=2011|publisher=Basic Books|isbn=978-0-465-02504-6|edition=1st pbk.|location=New York}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Hauss|first1=Charles|title=Ie Comparative Politics|date=2005|publisher=Wadsworth|isbn=978-0-495-06294-3|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MFWIVrDgjikC&q=%22Arabs+are+an+ethnic+group%22}}</ref><ref>{{Cite encyclopedia|author=Eickelman, Dale F. |date=September 2013|article=Arabs (anthropology)|url=http://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-3/arabs-anthropology-COM_24947?s.num=0&s.q|title=Encyclopaedia of Islam|volume=Three}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Shoup|first=John A.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SPBfnT_E1mgC&pg=PA16|title=Ethnic Groups of Africa and the Middle East: An Encyclopedia|year=2011|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-59884-362-0}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Barakat|first=Halim|title=The Arab world society, culture, and state|date=1993|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=0-520-91442-2|location=Berkeley}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Reynolds|first=Dwight F.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ifcGBwAAQBAJ|title=The Cambridge Companion to Modern Arab Culture|year=2015|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-89807-2}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Jandt|first=Fred E.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JPb-tb_RmGEC|title=An Introduction to Intercultural Communication: Identities in a Global Community|date=2012|publisher=Sage Publications|isbn=978-1-4129-9287-9}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Kreider|first1=Kyle L.|last2=Baldino|first2=Thomas J.|title=Minority voting in the United States|date=2016|publisher=Praeger|location=Santa Barbara, CA|isbn=978-1-4408-3024-2}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Epstein|first1=Steven|title=Purity Lost: Transgressing Boundaries in the Eastern Mediterranean, 1000–1400|date=2007|publisher=JHU Press|isbn=978-0-8018-8484-9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NQe_swnZLZ4C&dq=%22arabs+are+an+ethnic+group%22&pg=PP19}}</ref><ref>{{Cite encyclopedia|article=ʿARAB|url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/arab-index|title=Encyclopedia Iranica}}</ref><ref>{{Cite encyclopedia|date=28 October 2009|title=Arabs|encyclopedia=MSN Encarta|url=http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761565848/Arabs.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091028022141/http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761565848/Arabs.html|archive-date=28 October 2009}}</ref>
* Arabs share a strong bond through their ethnic, linguistic, and cultural heritage. This connection encompasses their history, nationalism, and geographic ties. Religion also influences it, contributing to its distinct customs, arts, cuisine, and societal identity.<ref>*
* {{cite web|title=Who is an Arab?|url=http://al-bab.com/albab-orig/albab/arab/arabs.htm|website=al-bab.com|access-date=10 November 2016|archive-date=6 October 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181006061004/http://al-bab.com/albab-orig/albab/arab/arabs.htm}}3
* [https://books.google.com/books... War of Visions: Conflict of Identities in Sudan. p 405. By Francis Mading Deng]</ref><ref>
* {{cite web|title=Culture and Tradition in the Arab Countries|url=http://www.habiba.org/culture.html|website=habiba.org}}
* {{cite web|title=Arabic Culture & Traditions – Online Resources|url=http://www.pimsleurapproach.com/.../useful-li.../culture-guides/|website=pimsleurapproach.com}}
* {{cite book|last1=El-Shamy|first1=Hasan M.|title=Folk traditions of the Arab world: a guide to motif classification|date=1995|publisher=Indiana Univ. Press|location=Bloomington|isbn=0-253-35222-3|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/folktraditionsof0002elsh}}</ref>
* [[Arab identity]] concentrating on ethnic identity is another way of defining Arab identity, which can be subdivided into linguistic, cultural, social, historical, political, national, or genealogical terms.|name=}} mainly inhabiting the [[Arab world]] in [[West Asia]] and [[North Africa]]. A significant [[Arab diaspora]] is present in various parts of the world.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Bureš|first=Jaroslav|title=Main characteristic and development trends of migration in the Arab world|date=2008|publisher=Institute of International Relations|isbn=978-80-86506-71-5|location=Prague}}</ref>

Arabs have been in the [[Fertile Crescent]] for thousands of years.<ref>* {{Cite web|author= [[Bamber Gascoigne]]|title=HISTORY OF THE ARABS|url= https://www.historyworld.net/history/Arabs/61?section=BeforeIslam|access-date=15 September 2025|website=historyworld.net}}
* {{Cite book|last=Eph'al|first=Israel|title=The Ancient Arabs: nomads of the fertile crescent|date=1982|publisher=Magnes Press Hebrew University E.J. Brill|isbn=978-965-223-400-1|location=Jerusalem; Leiden}}
* {{Cite book|last=Mackintosh-Smith|first=Tim|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RQ-LDwAAQBAJ&dq=%22Arabs+are+an+ethnic%22&pg=PT14|title=Arabs: A 3,000-Year History of Peoples, Tribes and Empires|date=2019|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=978-0-300-18235-4}}</ref> In the 9th century BCE, the [[Assyria]]ns made written references to Arabs as inhabitants of the [[Levant]], [[Mesopotamia]], and [[Arabia]].<ref>* {{Cite book|last=Myers|first=E. A.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-cRrGQ8bIAkC|title=The Ituraeans and the Roman Near East: Reassessing the Sources|date=2010|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-139-48481-7|page=18}}
* {{cite book|last1=Hoyland|first1=Robert G.|title=Arabia and the Arabs|date=2001|publisher=Routledge|isbn=0-203-76392-0|page=11 Methodology (modern Saudi Arabia minus the east coast, the Sinai and Negev deserts, and parts of modern Jordan, Syria, and Iraq)}}</ref> Throughout the [[Ancient Near East]], Arabs established influential civilizations starting from 3000 BCE onwards, such as [[Dilmun]], [[Gerrha]], and [[Magan (civilization)|Magan]], playing a vital role in trade between Mesopotamia, and the [[History of the Mediterranean region|Mediterranean]].<ref>* {{cite news|last1=Smith|first1=Sylvia|date=21 May 2013|title=Bahrain digs unveil one of oldest civilizations|publisher=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-22596270}}
* {{cite web|title=Qal'at al-Bahrain – Ancient Harbour and Capital of Dilmun|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1192|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120405042527/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1192|archive-date=5 April 2012|access-date=17 August 2011|publisher=[[UNESCO]]}}</ref> Other prominent tribes include [[Midian]],{{Clarify|reason=Were they Arabs? Not clear in sources given here or on linked article page|date=September 2025}} [[ʿĀd]], and [[Thamud]] mentioned in the [[Hebrew Bible|Bible]] and [[Quran]]. Later, in 900 BCE, the [[Qedarites]] enjoyed close relations with the nearby [[Canaan#Canaanites|Canaanite]] and [[Aramaeans|Aramaean]] states, and their territory extended from [[Lower Egypt]] to the [[Southern Levant]].<ref>*{{cite book|last1=Bowman|first1=Alan K.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JZLW4-wba7UC|title=The Cambridge Ancient History|last2=Champlin|first2=Edward|last3=Lintott|first3=Andrew|date=1996|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-26430-3}}
*{{cite journal|last1=Retsö|first1=Jan|date=October 2010|title=Arabs (historical)|url=http://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-3/arabs-historical-COM_22957?s.num=41&s.rows=50&s.start=40|journal=Encyclopaedia of Islam, Three}}
*{{Cite web|title=The origin of the word "Arab"|url=http://www.ismaili.net/histoire/history03/history302.html|access-date=18 December 2017|website=Ismaili.net}}</ref> From 1200 BCE to 110 BCE, powerful kingdoms emerged such as [[Sabaeans|Saba]], [[Lihyan]], [[Minaeans|Minaean]], [[Qataban]], [[Kingdom of Hadhramaut|Hadhramaut]], [[Kingdom of Awsan|Awsan]], and [[Himyarite Kingdom|Homerite]] emerged in Arabia.<ref>{{cite book|author=Werner Daum|title=Yemen: 3000&nbsp;Years of Art and Civilization in Arabia Felix|publisher=Pinguin-Verlag|year=1987|isbn=3-7016-2292-2|page=73}}</ref> According to the [[Abrahamic religions|Abrahamic]] tradition, Arabs are descendants of [[Abraham]] through his son [[Ishmael]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Fisher|first1=Greg|last2=Wood|first2=Philip|title=Arabs and Empires before Islam|date=2015|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-179973-0|page=368|url=https://academic.oup.com/book/12636|access-date=3 August 2023|quote=Origen, in the third century, was the first Christian to identify the Ishmaelites with the Arabs, but he only does so in a cursory fashion}}</ref>

During [[classical antiquity]], the [[Nabataeans]] established their [[Nabataean Kingdom|kingdom]] with [[Petra]] as the capital in 300 BCE,<ref>{{Cite web|title=Thamud {{!}} History, Tribe, & Location {{!}} Britannica|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Thamud|access-date=7 April 2023|website=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref> by 271 CE, the [[Palmyrene Empire]] with the capital [[Palmyra]], led by Queen [[Zenobia]], encompassed the [[Syria Palaestina]], [[Arabia Petraea]], [[Egypt (Roman province)|Egypt]], and large parts of [[Anatolia]].<ref name="waro">{{cite book|author=Warwick Ball|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qQKIAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA80|title=Rome in the East: The Transformation of an Empire|year=2002|isbn=978-1-134-82387-1|page=80|publisher=Routledge}}</ref> The Arab or [[Arameans|Aramean]] [[Iturea]]ns inhabited [[Lebanon]], [[Syria]], and northern Palestine ([[Galilee]]) during the [[Hellenistic period|Hellenistic]] and Roman periods.<ref name="Berndt Schaller 14922">Berndt Schaller, ''Ituraea'', p. 1492.</ref> The [[Osroene]] and [[Kingdom of Hatra|Hatran]] were Arab-ruled kingdoms in [[Upper Mesopotamia]] around 200 CE.<ref name="Hatra and the Parthian Commonwealth2">{{cite journal|last1=de Jong|first1=Albert|date=2013|title=Hatra and the Parthian Commonwealth|url=https://www.academia.edu/18709085|journal=Oriens et Occidens – Band 21|pages=143–161|url-access=registration}}
*{{Cite book|last=Ellerbrock|first=Uwe|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pFEXEAAAQBAJ|title=The Parthians: The Forgotten Empire|publisher=Routledge|year=2021|isbn=978-0-367-48190-2|location=Oxford}}</ref> In 164 CE, the [[Sasanian Empire|Sasanians]] called part of upper Mesopotamia "''[[Arbayistan]]''", meaning "land of the Arabs,"<ref>{{Citation|last=Jullien|first=Christelle|title=Beth 'Arabaye|date=22 March 2018|url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/acref/9780198662778.001.0001/acref-9780198662778-e-715;jsessionid=17E81FF6B5E76812AF9C37A99ADFAD30?rskey=ib3kng&result=3|work=The Oxford Dictionary of Late Antiquity|access-date=20 April 2023|publisher=Oxford University Press|doi=10.1093/acref/9780198662778.001.0001|isbn=978-0-19-866277-8}}</ref> having conquered the land from the previously Jewish [[Adiabene]].<ref name="oxfordreference.com2">{{Oxford Dictionary of Late Antiquity|title=Beth 'Arabaye|url=http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780198662778.001.0001/acref-9780198662778-e-715?rskey=ib3kng&result=3|first=Christelle|last=Jullien}}</ref> The probably Arab [[Emesene dynasty|Emesenes]] ruled [[Emesa]] ([[Homs]]), [[Roman Syria|Syria]] by 46 BCE.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Bowman|first1=Alan|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MNSyT_PuYVMC&q=Emesa+dynasty+arab+city&pg=PA502|title=The Cambridge Ancient History: Volume 12, The Crisis of Empire, AD 193–337|last2=Garnsey|first2=Peter|last3=Cameron|first3=Averil|date=2005|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-30199-2}}; {{cite book|last1=Hornblower|first1=Simon|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bVWcAQAAQBAJ&q=%22arab+kingdom%22+emesa&pg=PA754|title=The Oxford Classical Dictionary|last2=Spawforth|first2=Antony|last3=Eidinow|first3=Esther|date=2012|publisher=OUP Oxford|isbn=978-0-19-954556-8}}; {{cite book|last1=Burns|first1=Jasper|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hL99AgAAQBAJ&q=Emesa+arab+tribe&pg=PA181|title=Great Women of Imperial Rome: Mothers and Wives of the Caesars|date=2006|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-134-13185-3}}; {{cite book|last1=Prado|first1=Leonardo de Arrizabalaga y|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zHbXDgAAQBAJ&q=emesa+arab&pg=PA191|title=Varian Studies Volume One: Varius|date=2017|publisher=Cambridge Scholars Publishing|isbn=978-1-4438-9385-5}}; {{cite book|last=Shahid|first=Irfan|title=Rome and The Arabs: A Prolegomenon to the Study of Byzantium and the Arabs|date=1984|publisher=Dumbarton Oaks|isbn=0-88402-115-7|page=37}}; {{cite book|last1=Freisenbruch|first1=Annelise|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VUR_3B97ctQC&q=%22arab+kingdom%22+emesa&pg=PA182|title=Caesars' Wives: Sex, Power, and Politics in the Roman Empire|date=2011|publisher=Simon and Schuster|isbn=978-1-4165-8305-9}}</ref> During [[late antiquity]], the [[Tanukhids]], [[Salihids]], [[Lakhmid kingdom|Lakhmids]], [[Kingdom of Kinda|Kinda]], and [[Ghassanids]] were dominant Arab tribes in the Levant, Mesopotamia, and Arabia, they predominantly embraced [[Christianity]].<ref>* [[G. W. Bowersock|Bowersock, G. W.]], [[Peter Brown (historian)|Peter Brown]] and [[Oleg Grabar]], eds. 1999. [[iarchive:lateantiquitygui00bowe|Late Antiquity: A Guide to the Postclassical World]] (2nd ed.). Cambridge, MA: [[Belknap Press]]. {{ISBN|978-0-674-51173-6}}.
* {{cite book|last1=Cameron|first1=Averil|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_NSoAgAAQBAJ&pg=PR7|title=The Mediterranean World in Late Antiquity: AD 395–700|date=2015|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-136-67305-4}}
* {{Cite encyclopedia|title=Encyclopaedia Iranica|url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/lakhmids|access-date=18 December 2017|article=Lakhmids}}</ref>

During the [[Middle Ages]], [[Spread of Islam|Islam]] fostered a vast Arab union, leading to significant [[Arab migrations to the Maghreb]], [[Arab migrations to the Levant|the Levant]], and neighbouring territories under the rule of Arab empires such as the [[Rashidun]], [[Umayyad Caliphate|Umayyad]], [[Abbasid Caliphate|Abbasid]], and [[Fatimid Caliphate|Fatimid]], ultimately leading to the decline of the [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] and [[Muslim conquest of Persia|Sasanian]] empires. At its peak, [[Early Muslim conquests|Arab territories]] stretched from [[Southern France|southern]] [[Islam in France|France]] to western [[Islam in China|China]], forming one of [[List of largest empires|history's largest empires]].<ref>*{{Cite web|title=Islam, The Arab Empire of the Umayyads|url=http://history-world.org/islam11.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141215204011/http://history-world.org/islam11.htm|archive-date=15 December 2014|access-date=21 January 2017|website=history-world.org}}
* {{cite web|title=The Arab Empire: Umayyad Empire History|url=http://www.historybits.com/arab-empire.htm|access-date=18 December 2017|website=Historybits.com}}
* {{cite web|date=22 June 2010|title=Top 10 Greatest Empires in History|url=https://listverse.com/2010/06/22/top-10-greatest-empires-in-history/|website=Listverse}}
* {{cite web|last1=Pillalamarri|first1=Akhilesh|date=22 February 2015|title=The 5 Most Powerful Empires in History|url=http://nationalinterest.org/feature/the-5-most-powerful-empires-history-12296?page=2|website=The National Interest|access-date=24 January 2017|archive-date=28 June 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180628153007/http://nationalinterest.org/feature/the-5-most-powerful-empires-history-12296?page=2|url-status=dead}}
* {{cite web|date=24 March 2010|title=10 Greatest Empires in the History of World|url=http://www.smashinglists.com/top-10-greatest-empires-in-the-history-of-world/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170202024450/http://www.smashinglists.com/top-10-greatest-empires-in-the-history-of-world/|archive-date=2 February 2017|access-date=24 January 2017|website=Top Ten Lists}}</ref> The [[Arab Revolt|Great Arab Revolt]] in the early 20th century aided in [[Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire|dismantling]] the [[Ottoman Empire]], ultimately leading to the formation of the [[Arab League]] on 22 March 1945, with its [[Charter of the Arab League|Charter]] endorsing the principle of a "[[Pan-Arabism|unified Arab homeland]]".<ref>*"[https://nzhistory.govt.nz/war/ottoman-empire/arab-revolt The Arab Revolt, 1916–18 | The Ottoman Empire]." ''New Zealand History''. [[Ministry for Culture and Heritage]]. 30 July 2014.
* [[Sean McMeekin|McMeekin, Sean]]. 2012. ''[[The Berlin-Baghdad Express|The Berlin–Baghdad Express]]''. [[Belknap Press]]. {{ISBN|0-674-06432-1}}. pp. 288, 297.
* {{Cite book|last=Rogan|first=Eugene L.|title=Frontiers of the state in the late Ottoman Empire: Transjordan, 1850–1921|date=2004|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-89223-0|oclc=826413749}}
* [[William L. Ochsenwald|Ochsenwald, William L.]] 1968. "The Vilayet of Syria, 1901–1914: A Re-Examination of Diplomatic Documents As Sources." ''[[The Middle East Journal|Middle East Journal]]'' 22(1). p. 73.*[http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/arab-league-formed Arab League formed | This Day in History – 3/22/1945]." ''[[History.com|HISTORY]]''. US: [[A&E Television Networks]]. 2010. Retrieved on 28 April 2014.
* {{cite book|last1=MacDonald|first1=Robert W.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gQ_WCgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1|title=The League of Arab States: A Study in Dynamics of Regional Organization|date=8 December 2015|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-1-4008-7528-3}}
* {{Citation|title=Arab League from The Columbia Encyclopedia, 6th ed|url=https://www.questia.com/read/1E1-ArabLeag/arab-league|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190513151053/https://www.questia.com/read/1E1-ArabLeag/arab-league|archive-date=13 May 2019}}{{ISBN?}}</ref>

Arabs from [[Morocco]] to [[Iraq]] share a common bond based on ethnicity, [[Arabic|language]], [[Arab culture|culture]], [[History of the Arabs|history]], [[Arab identity|identity]], [[Tribes of Arabia|ancestry]], [[Arab nationalism|nationalism]], [[Arab world|geography]], [[Pan-Arabism|unity]], and [[Politics of the Arab League|politics]],<ref>*{{Cite web|title=Who is an Arab?|url=http://al-bab.com/albab-orig/albab/arab/arabs.htm|website=al-bab.com|access-date=10 November 2016|archive-date=6 October 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181006061004/http://al-bab.com/albab-orig/albab/arab/arabs.htm}}
* {{cite book|author=Francis M. Deng|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iAPLHidx8MkC|title=War of Visions: Conflict of Identities in the Sudan|date=2011|publisher=Brookings Institution Press|isbn=978-0-8157-2369-1|page=405}}</ref> which give the region a distinct identity and distinguish it from other parts of the [[Muslim world]].<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Rabasa|first1=Angel|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i1cyn36g3E4C&pg=PA31|title=The Muslim World After 9/11|last2=Waxman|first2=Matthew|last3=Larson|first3=Eric V.|last4=Marcum|first4=Cheryl Y.|date=17 November 2004|publisher=Rand Corporation|isbn=978-0-8330-3755-8|page=31}}</ref> They also have their own customs, [[Arabic literature|literature]], [[Arabic music|music]], [[Arab folk dances|dance]], [[Arab culture#Media|media]], [[Arab cuisine|food]], [[Arab clothing|clothing]], society, [[Sport policies of the Arab League|sports]], [[Arabic architecture|architecture]], [[Islamic art|art]] and, [[Religion in pre-Islamic Arabia|mythology]].<ref>*{{Cite web|title=Culture and Tradition in the Arab Countries|url=http://www.habiba.org/culture.html|access-date=18 December 2017|website=Habiba.org}}
* {{cite web|title=Arabic Culture & Traditions|url=http://www.pimsleurapproach.com/.../useful-li.../culture-guides/|access-date=18 December 2017|website=Pimsleur Approach}}{{Dead link|date=August 2020|bot=InternetArchiveBot|fix-attempted=yes}}
* {{cite book|last1=El-Shamy|first1=Hasan M.|url=https://archive.org/details/folktraditionsof0002elsh|title=Folk traditions of the Arab world: A guide to motif classification|date=1995|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=978-0-253-35222-4|volume=2|location=Bloomington|url-access=registration}}</ref> Arabs have significantly influenced and contributed to [[Progress|human progress]] in many fields, including [[Arabic science|science]], [[List of inventions in the medieval Islamic world|technology]], [[Islamic philosophy|philosophy]], [[Islamic ethics|ethics]], [[Arabic literature|literature]], [[Politics of the Arab League|politics]], [[Arab economy|business]], [[Arabic Art|art]], [[Arabic music|music]], [[Arab humor|comedy]], theatre, [[Arab cinema|cinema]], [[Arabic architecture|architecture]], [[Arab cuisine|food]], [[Arab medicine|medicine]], and [[History of Islam#Origins of Islam|religion]].<ref>* {{Cite web|title=Arab Civilization|url=http://www.alhewar.org/ArabCivilization.htm|url-status=usurped|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171024174615/http://www.alhewar.org/ArabCivilization.htm|archive-date=24 October 2017|access-date=1 November 2017|website=Alhewar.org}}
* Holt, P. M. 2013. ''Studies in the History of the Near East''. p. 28. 113627331X: "He held the post until his death in 1624 and was succeeded by his former pupil, James Golius (1596–1667). Erpenius and Golius made outstanding contributions to the development of Arabic studies by their teaching, their preparation of texts,..."</ref> [[Religion in pre-Islamic Arabia|Before Islam]], most Arabs followed [[polytheistic]] [[Ancient Semitic religion|Semitic religion]], while some [[Jewish tribes of Arabia|tribes]] adopted [[Judaism]] or [[Christianity]] and a few individuals, known as the ''[[hanif]]s'', followed a form of [[monotheism]].<ref name="auto">* {{Cite book|last=Porter Berkey|first=Jonathan|url=https://archive.org/details/formationofislam0000berk|title=The Formation of Islam: Religion and Society in the Near East, 600–1800|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2003|isbn=978-0-521-58813-3|page=[https://archive.org/details/formationofislam0000berk/page/42 42]|url-access=registration}}
* {{cite book|last1=Robinson|first1=Neal|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2UL8AQAAQBAJ&pg=PA75|title=Islam: A Concise Introduction|date=2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-136-81773-1}}</ref> Currently, around 93% of Arabs are [[Arab Muslims|Muslims]], while the rest are mainly [[Arab Christians]], as well as Arab groups of [[Druze]] and [[Baháʼí Faith|Baháʼís]].<ref name="PharesIntro">{{Cite encyclopedia|title=Encyclopedia.com|url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/social-sciences-and-law/anthropology-and-archaeology/people/arabs|access-date=9 May 2018|date=21 April 2018|article=Arabs}}
* {{Cite web|last=Phares|first=Walid|author-link=Walid Phares|date=2001|title=Arab Christians: An Introduction|url=https://www.arabicbible.com/for-christians/christians/1396-arab-christians-introduction.html|publisher=Arabic Bible Outreach Ministry}}
* {{cite web|title=Majority and Minorities in the Arab World: The Lack of a Unifying Narrative|url=http://jcpa.org/article/majority-and-minorities-in-the-arab-world-the-lack-of-a-unifying-narrative/|website=Jerusalem Center For Public Affairs}}*{{Cite web|date=4 April 2014|title=Religious Diversity Around The World – Pew Research Center|url=http://www.pewforum.org/2014/04/04/global-religious-diversity/|website=Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project}}</ref>

== Etymology ==
{{further|Etymology of Arab}}
[[File:Epitaph Imru-l-Qays Louvre AO4083.jpg|thumb|The [[Namara inscription]] is an Arabic epitaph in [[Nabataean script]] of [[Imru' al-Qais]], son of "Amr, king of all the Arabs". Basalt, found at [[Nimreh]] in the [[Hauran]] ([[Southern Syria]]), dated 7 December 328 CE.]]

The earliest documented use of the word ''Arab'' in reference to a people appears in the [[Kurkh Monoliths]], an [[Akkadian language|Akkadian-language]] record of the [[Assyrian conquest of Aram]] (9th century BCE). The Monoliths used the term to refer to [[Bedouin]]s of the [[Arabian Peninsula]] under [[Gindibu|King Gindibu]], who fought as part of a coalition opposed to [[Assyria]].<ref name="Retsop105">{{Cite book|last=Retsö|first=Jan|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pUepRuQO8ZkC&pg=PA105|title=The Arabs in Antiquity: Their History from the Assyrians to the Umayyads|publisher=Psychology Press|year=2003|isbn=978-0-7007-1679-1|author-link=Jan Retsö}} pp. 105, 119, 125–127.</ref>

The related word ''ʾaʿrāb'' is used to refer to Bedouins today, in contrast to ''ʿArab'' which refers to Arabs in general.<ref>[[Hans Wehr|Wehr, Hans]], and J. M. Cowan. ''A Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic'' (3rd ed.) Ithaca, NY: Spoken Language Services. p. 601.</ref> Both terms are mentioned around 40 times in pre-Islamic [[Sabaean language|Sabaean]] inscriptions. The term ''ʿarab'' ('Arab') occurs also in the titles of the [[Himyarite Kingdom|Himyarite kings]] from the time of [[Tubba Abu Karab As'ad|'Abu Karab Asad]] until MadiKarib Ya'fur. According to Sabaean grammar, the term ''ʾaʿrāb'' is derived from the term ''ʿarab''. The term is also mentioned in [[Quran]]ic verses, referring to people who were living in [[Medina|Madina]] and it might be a south Arabian [[loanword]] into Quranic language.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/ABADY_Yemen_Archaeology_9_12|title=ABADY_Yemen_Archaeology_9_12|page=[https://archive.org/details/ABADY_Yemen_Archaeology_9_12/page/n142 127], 128}}</ref>

The oldest surviving indication of an Arab national identity is an inscription made in an archaic form of Arabic in 328 CE using the [[Nabataean alphabet]], which refers to [[Imru' al-Qays ibn 'Amr]] as 'King of all the Arabs'.<ref>{{Cite book|first1=William|last1=Bowden|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fFhsk-ccTsAC&pg=PA91|title=Recent Research on the Late Antique Countryside|first2=Luke|last2=Lavan|first3=Carlos|last3=Machado|publisher=Brill|year=2004|isbn=978-90-04-13607-6|page=91}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Ira M. Lapidus|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kFJNBAAAQBAJ|title=A History of Islamic Societies|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2014|isbn=978-0-521-51430-9|page=29}}</ref> [[Herodotus]] refers to the Arabs in the Sinai, southern Palestine, and the [[Land of Frankincense|frankincense region]] (Southern Arabia). Other Ancient-Greek historians like [[Agatharchides]], [[Diodorus Siculus]] and [[Strabo]] mention Arabs living in [[Mesopotamia]] (along the [[Euphrates]]), in Egypt (the Sinai and the Red Sea), southern Jordan (the [[Nabataeans]]), the [[Syrian steppe]] and in eastern Arabia (the people of [[Gerrha]]). Inscriptions dating to the 6th century BCE in Yemen include the term 'Arab'.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia|encyclopedia=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Classics|url=https://oxfordre.com/classics/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.001.0001/acrefore-9780199381135-e-644|date=2015|doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.013.644|isbn=978-0-19-938113-5|last2=Healey|first2=J.F.|last1=Salles|first1=Jean-François|chapter=Arabs}}</ref>

The most popular Arab account holds that the word ''Arab'' came from an [[eponym]]ous father named [[Ya'rub]], who was supposedly the first to speak Arabic. [[Abu Muhammad al-Hasan al-Hamdani]] had another view; he states that Arabs were called ''gharab'' ('westerners') by [[Mesopotamia]]ns because Bedouins originally resided to the west of Mesopotamia; the term was then corrupted into ''Arab''.{{Citation needed|date=September 2025}}

Yet another view is held by [[al-Masudi]] that the word ''Arab'' was initially applied to the [[Ishmaelites]] of the [[Arabah]] valley. In Biblical etymology, ''Arab'' (Hebrew: ''arvi'') comes from the desert origin of the Bedouins it originally described (''arava'' means 'wilderness').{{Citation needed|date=September 2025}}

The root ''ʿ-r-b'' has several additional meanings in Semitic languages—including 'west, sunset', 'desert', 'mingle', 'mixed', 'merchant' and 'raven'—and are "comprehensible" with all of these having varying degrees of relevance to the emergence of the name. It is also possible that some forms were [[metathesis (linguistics)|metathetical]] from {{transliteration|sem|ʿ-B-R}}, 'moving around' (Arabic: {{transliteration|ar|DIN|ʿ-B-R}}, 'traverse') and hence, it is alleged, 'nomadic'.<ref>{{Cite web|title=The meaning of Arab land in the historical sources|url=http://uqu.edu.sa/page/ar/56829|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100315055238/http://www.uqu.edu.sa/page/ar/56829|archive-date=15 March 2010}}</ref>

== Origins ==
{{further|Pre-Islamic Arabia|Proto-Arabic language|Old Arabic}}
{{see also|Generations of Noah|Ishmaelites|Qahtanite}}
[[File:François-Joseph Navez - Agar et Ismaël dans le désert.jpg|thumb|''A depiction of Hagar and her son [[Ishmael]] in the desert'' (1819) by [[François-Joseph Navez]]]]
Arabic is a Semitic language that belongs to the [[Afroasiatic languages|Afroasiatic language family]]. The majority of scholars accept the "[[Arabian Peninsula]]" has long been accepted as the original ''[[Urheimat]]'' (linguistic homeland) of the [[Semitic languages]].<ref>Gray, Louis Herbert (2006) ''Introduction to Semitic Comparative Linguistics''</ref><ref>Courtenay, James John (2009) ''The Language of Palestine and Adjacent Regions''</ref><ref>Kienast, Burkhart. (2001). ''Historische semitische Sprachwissenschaft''</ref><ref>Bromiley, Geoffrey W. (1995) ''The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia''</ref> with some scholars investigating if its origins are in the [[Levant]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Murtonen|first=A.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cJc3AAAAIAAJ&q=ethiopia|title=Early Semitic: A Diachronical Inquiry into the Relationship of Ethiopic to the Other So-called South-East Semitic Languages|date=1967|publisher=Brill Archive}}</ref> The [[ancient Semitic-speaking peoples]] lived in the [[ancient Near East]], including the Levant, [[Mesopotamia]], and the Arabian Peninsula from the 3rd millennium BCE to the end of antiquity. [[Proto-Semitic language|Proto-Semitic]] likely reached the Arabian Peninsula by the 4th millennium BCE, and its daughter languages spread outward from there,<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Postgate|first=J. N.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nXtlAAAAMAAJ|title=Languages of Iraq, Ancient and Modern|date=2007|publisher=British School of Archaeology in Iraq|isbn=978-0-903472-21-0}}</ref> while [[Old Arabic]] began to differentiate from Central Semitic by the start of the 1st millennium BCE.<ref name="academia.edu">{{cite web|last1=Jallad|first1=Ahmad|date=2018|title=The earliest stages of Arabic and its linguistic classification|url=https://www.academia.edu/18470301}}</ref> [[Central Semitic languages|Central Semitic]] is a branch of the Semitic language includes Arabic, [[Aramaic]], the [[Canaanite languages]] ([[Ammonite language|Ammonite]], [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]], [[Moabite language|Moabite]], [[Philistine language|Philistine]], [[Phoenician language|Phoenician]], etc.) and others.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Aaron D. Rubin|author-link=Aaron D. Rubin|date=2008|title=The subgrouping of the Semitic languages|url=https://www.academia.edu/2603460|journal=Language and Linguistics Compass|volume=2|issue=1|pages=61–84|doi=10.1111/j.1749-818x.2007.00044.x}}</ref><ref name="academia.edu3">{{cite book|last1=Jallad|first1=Ahmad|title=The Routledge Handbook of Arabic Linguistics|date=2018|publisher=Routledge|editor1=Elabbas Benmamoun|location=London|chapter=The earliest stages of Arabic and its linguistic classification|editor2=Reem Bassiouney|chapter-url=https://www.academia.edu/18470301}}</ref> The origins of Proto-Semitic may lie in the Arabian Peninsula, with the language spreading from there to other regions. This theory proposes that Semitic peoples reached Mesopotamia and other areas from the deserts to the west, such as the [[Akkadian Empire|Akkadians]] who entered Mesopotamia around the late 4th millennium BCE.<ref name=":0" /> The origins of Semitic peoples are thought to include various regions Mesopotamia, the Levant, the Arabian Peninsula, and [[North Africa]]. Some view that Semitic may have originated in the Levant around 3800 BCE and subsequently spread to the Horn of Africa around 800 BCE from Arabia, as well as to North Africa.<ref name=AK1>{{cite journal|last1=Kitchen|first1=A.|last2=Ehret|first2=C.|last3=Assefa|first3=S.|last4=Mulligan|first4=C. J.|date=29 April 2009|title=Bayesian phylogenetic analysis of Semitic languages identified an Early Bronze Age origin of Semitic in the Near East|journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences|volume=276|issue=1668|pages=2703–2710|doi=10.1098/rspb.2009.0408|pmc=2839953|pmid=19403539}}</ref><ref>Sabatino Moscati (2001). ''The Phoenicians''. I.B. Tauris. p. 654. {{ISBN|978-1-85043-533-4}}.</ref>

According to Arab–[[Islamic–Jewish relations|Islamic–Jewish]] traditions, [[Ishmael]], the son of Abraham and [[Hagar]] was "father of the Arabs".<ref>{{Cite book|last=Jones|first=Lindsay|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0jMOAQAAMAAJ&q=Ishmael|title=Encyclopedia of religion|date=2005|publisher=Macmillan Reference|isbn=978-0-02-865740-0}}</ref><ref name="EoR-Ishmael">{{cite book|author=Fredrick E. Greenspahn|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0jMOAQAAMAAJ&q=Ishmael|title=Encyclopedia of Religion|publisher=Macmillan Reference|year=2005|isbn=978-0-02-865740-0|editor=Lindsay Jones|volume=7|pages=4551–4552|article=Ishmael}}
* {{cite book|last1=Noegel|first1=Scott B.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lNAWAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA130|title=The A to Z of Prophets in Islam and Judaism|last2=Wheeler|first2=Brannon M.|date=2010|publisher=Scarecrow Press|isbn=978-1-4617-1895-6}}
* {{cite web|title=Ishmael and Isaac|url=http://www.therefinersfire.org/ishmael_and_isaac.htm|website=therefinersfire.org}}</ref><ref name="autogenerated1">''A–Z of Prophets in Islam and Judaism'', Wheeler, ''Ishmael''</ref><ref name="Sajjadi 20152">{{cite encyclopedia|year=2015|title=Abraham|encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Islamica|publisher=[[Brill Publishers]]|location=[[Leiden]] and [[Boston]]|editor1-last=Madelung|editor1-first=Wilferd|volume=1|doi=10.1163/1875-9831_isla_COM_0028|isbn=978-90-04-16860-2|issn=1875-9823|author-last=Sajjadi|author-first=Sadeq|orig-date=2008|translator-last=Negahban|translator-first=Farzin|editor2-last=Daftary|editor2-first=Farhad}}</ref><ref name="bbc2">{{cite news|last=Siddiqui|first=Mona|author-link=Mona Siddiqui|title=Ibrahim – the Muslim view of Ibrahim|work=Religions|publisher=BBC|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/history/ibrahim.shtml|access-date=3 February 2013}}</ref> Ishmael was considered the ancestor of the Islamic prophet [[Muhammad]], the founder of [[Islam]]. The tribes of Central West Arabia called themselves the "people of Abraham and the offspring of Ishmael."<ref>Stacey, Aisha. [2013] 2020. "[https://www.islamreligion.com/articles/10302/signs-of-prophethood-in-noble-life-of-prophet-muhammad-part-1/ Signs of Prophethood in the Noble Life of Prophet Muhammad (part 1 of 2): Prophet Muhammad's Early Life]." ''The Religion of Islam''. Retrieved 18 December 2017. § 18, p. 215.
* [[H. A. R. Gibb|Gibb, Hamilton A. R.]], and [[Johannes Hendrik Kramers|J. H. Kramers]]. 1965. ''[[Shorter Encyclopaedia of Islam|Shorter Encyclopedia of Islam]]''. Ithaca, NY: [[Cornell University Press]]. pp.&nbsp;191–98
* {{Cite book|last=Maalouf|first=Tony|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A0BdsFRX55cC&pg=PA44|title=Arabs in the Shadow of Israel: The Unfolding of God's Prophetic Plan for Ishmael's Line|date=2003|publisher=Kregel Academic|isbn=978-0-8254-9363-8}}
* {{Cite book|last=Urbain|first=Olivier|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oMLkUmraBCAC&pg=PA208|title=Music and Conflict Transformation: Harmonies and Dissonances in Geopolitics|date=2008|publisher=I.B. Tauris|isbn=978-1-84511-528-9}}</ref> [[Ibn Khaldun]], an Arab scholar in the 8th century, described the Arabs as having Ishmaelite origins.<ref name="Levity">{{Cite web|title=Levity.com, Islam|url=http://www.levity.com/alchemy/islam20.html|access-date=13 April 2010|publisher=Levity.com|archive-date=21 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210521001536/http://www.levity.com/alchemy/islam20.html}}</ref>

The [[Quran]] mentions that [[Abraham in Islam|Ibrahim]] (Abraham) and his wife [[Hagar in Islam|Hajar]] (Hagar) bore a [[Prophecy|prophetic]] child named Ishmael, who was gifted by [[Allah|God]] a favor above other nations.<ref>{{qref|6|86|b=y}}</ref> Ibrahim and Ishmael built the [[Kaaba]] in Mecca, which was originally constructed by [[Adam]].<ref>{{qref|14|37|b=y}}</ref> According to the [[Samaritan]] book [[The Asatir|Asaṭīr]]:<ref name="Gaster">{{cite book|last=Gaster|first=Moses|title=The Asatir: the Samaritan book of Moses|publisher=Royal Asiatic Society|year=1927|location=London|chapter=VIII|oclc=540827714|author-link=Moses Gaster|chapter-url=https://archive.org/stream/MN40245ucmf_0#page/n271/mode/2up}}</ref>{{rp|262}} "And after the death of Abraham, Ishmael reigned twenty-seven years; And all the children of [[Nebaioth|Nebaot]] ruled for one year in the lifetime of Ishmael; And for thirty years after his death from the [[Nile|river of Egypt]] to the river [[Euphrates]]; and they built [[Mecca]]."<ref>{{Cite book|last=Gaster|first=Moses|url=http://archive.org/details/MN40245ucmf_0|title=The Asatir: the Samaritan book of the "Secrets of Moses"|date=1927|location=London |publisher=The Royal Asiatic society}}</ref> The [[Targum Onkelos]] annotates ([[Toledot|Genesis 25:16]]), describing the extent of their settlements: The Ishmaelites lived from Hindekaia (India) to Chalutsa (possibly in Arabia), by the side of [[Mizraim]] (Egypt), and from the area around Arthur ([[Assyria]]) up towards the north. This description suggests that the Ishmaelites were a widely dispersed group with a presence across a significant portion of the ancient Near East.<ref>{{cite book|author=Onkelos|title=[[Targum Onkelos]]|via=targum.info|language=arc|chapter=Section V. Chaiyey Sarah|author-link=Onkelos|chapter-url=http://targum.info/pj/pjgen23-5.htm}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=JCR – Comp. JPS, Targums Onkelos, Palestinian, Jerusalem – Genesis 25|url=https://juchre.org/targums/comp/gen25.htm|access-date=2 May 2023|website=juchre.org}}</ref>

== History ==
{{main|History of the Arabs}}
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The nomads of Arabia had been spreading through the desert fringes of the [[Fertile Crescent]] since at least 3000 BCE, but the first known reference to the Arabs as a distinct group is from an Assyrian scribe recording the [[Battle of Qarqar]] in 853 BCE.<ref>{{Cite web|title=HISTORY OF THE ARABS|url=http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/PlainTextHistories.asp?groupid=936&HistoryID=aa94&gtrack=pthc|access-date=1 May 2023|website=historyworld.net}}</ref><ref>Noble, John Travis. 2013. "Let Ishmael Live Before You!" Finding a Place for Hagar's Son in the Priestly Tradition. Doctoral dissertation, Harvard University.</ref> The history of the Arabs during the pre-Islamic period covers various regions such as [[Pre-Islamic Arabia|Arabia]], Levant, Mesopotamia, and Egypt. The Arabs were mentioned by their neighbors, such as [[Assyria]]n and [[Babylonia]]n Royal Inscriptions from 9th to 6th century BCE.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Delitzsche |first=Friedrich |title=Assyriesche Lesestuche|year=1912|location=Leipzig |publisher=J.C. Hinrichs'sche Buchhandlung |oclc=2008786}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Montgomery|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.76203|title=Arabia and the Bible|publisher=U of Pennsylvania|year=1934|location=Philadelphia|oclc=639516}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Winnet|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uEFjAAAAMAAJ&q=qedar|title=Ancient Records from North Arabia|year=1970|isbn=978-0-8020-5219-3|pages=51, 52|publisher=University of Toronto Press|oclc=79767|quote=king of kedar (Qedarites) is named alternatively as king of Ishmaelites and king of Arabs in Assyrian Inscriptions}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Stetkevychc|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OVXC72Td6CsC&pg=PA76|title=Muhammad and the Golden Bough|publisher=Indiana University Press|year=2000|isbn=978-0-253-33208-0|quote=Assyrian records document Ishmaelites as Qedarites and as Arabs}}</ref> There are also records from [[Sargon of Akkad|Sargon's reign]] that mention sellers of iron to people called Arabs in Ḫuzaza in [[Babylon]], causing Sargon to prohibit such trade out of fear that the Arabs might use the resource to manufacture weapons against the Assyrian army. The history of the Arabs in relation to the Bible shows that they were a significant part of the region and played a role in the lives of the [[Israelites]]. The study asserts that the Arab nation is an ancient and significant entity; however, it highlights that the Arabs lacked a collective awareness of their unity. They did not inscribe their identity as Arabs or assert exclusive ownership over specific territories.<ref>{{Cite web|title=The Arabs of North Arabia in later Pre-Islamic Times:Qedar, Nebaioth, and Others|url=https://research.manchester.ac.uk/en/studentTheses/the-arabs-of-north-arabia-in-later-pre-islamic-timesqedar-nebaiot|access-date=29 May 2023|website=Research Explorer The University of Manchester}}</ref>

[[File:Midian.png|left|thumb|upright|Map of Midian]]
[[Magan (civilization)|Magan]], [[Midian]], and [[ʿĀd]] are all ancient tribes or civilizations that are mentioned in Arabic literature and have roots in the Arabia. Magan ({{langx|ar|مِجَانُ}}, ''{{transliteration|ar|ALA|Majan}}''), known for its production of copper and other metals, the region was an important trading center in ancient times and is mentioned in the [[Quran|Qur'an]] as a place where [[Moses in Islam|Musa]] ([[Moses]]) traveled during his lifetime.<ref name="The Archeology Fund">{{cite web|last1=Zarins|first1=Juris|title=The Archeology Fund|url=http://www.arabian-archaeology.com/aboutlinks.htm|access-date=30 November 2021|website=The Archeology Fund|archive-date=1 August 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220801154135/http://www.arabian-archaeology.com/aboutlinks.htm}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=M. Redha Bhacker and Bernadette Bhacker|title=Digging in the Land of Magan|url=http://www.archaeology.org/9705/abstracts/magan.html|publisher=[[Archaeological Institute of America]]|access-date=31 March 2023|archive-date=29 May 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120529051003/http://www.archaeology.org/9705/abstracts/magan.html}}</ref> Midian ({{langx|ar|مَدْيَن}}, ''{{transliteration|ar|ALA|Madyan}}''), on the other hand, was a region located in the northwestern part of the Arabia, the people of Midian are [[List of characters and names mentioned in the Quran|mentioned in the Qur'an]] as having worshiped idols and having been punished by God for their disobedience.<ref>{{citation|last=Dever|first=W. G.|title=Who Were the Early Israelites and Where Did They Come From?|date=2006|page=34|publisher=[[William B. Eerdmans Publishing Co.]]|isbn=978-0-8028-4416-3|author-link=William G. Dever}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Genesis 25:1–2|url=https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Genesis+25%3A1-2&version=KJV|website=[[Bible Gateway]]|version=King James Version}}</ref> [[Moses]] also lived in Midian for a time, where he married and worked as a shepherd. ʿĀd ({{langx|ar|عَادَ}}, ''{{transliteration|ar|ALA|ʿĀd}}''), as mentioned earlier, was an ancient tribe that lived in the southern Arabia, the tribe was known for its wealth, power, and advanced technology, but they were ultimately destroyed by a powerful windstorm as punishment for their disobedience to [[Allah|God]].<ref name="Brill1">{{cite book|title=[[Encyclopaedia of Islam#1st edition, EI1|E.J. Brill's First Encyclopaedia of Islam 1913–1936]]|date=1987|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|isbn=90-04-08265-4|volume=1|page=121}}</ref> ʿĀd is regarded as one of the original Arab tribes.<ref>F. Buhl, "ʿĀd", in ''Encyclopaedia of Islam'', ed. by Paul Bearman and others, 2nd edn, 12 vols (Leiden: Brill, 1960–2005), {{doi|10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_0290}}, {{ISBN|978-90-04-16121-4}}.</ref><ref name="Brill8">{{cite book|title=[[Encyclopaedia of Islam#1st edition, EI1|E.J. Brill's First Encyclopaedia of Islam 1913–1936]]|date=1987|publisher=Brill|isbn=90-04-08265-4|volume=8|page=1074}}</ref>
The historian [[Herodotus]] provided extensive information about Arabia, describing the [[spice]]s, [[terrain]], [[folklore]], [[trade]], [[clothing]], and [[weapon]]s of the Arabs. In his third book, he mentioned the Arabs as a force to be reckoned with in the north of the Arabian Peninsula just before [[Cambyses II|Cambyses]]' campaign against Egypt. Other Greek and Latin authors who wrote about Arabia include [[Theophrastus]], [[Strabo]], [[Diodorus Siculus]], and [[Pliny the Elder]]. The Jewish historian [[Josephus|Flavius Josephus]] wrote about the Arabs and their king, mentioning their relationship with [[Cleopatra]], the queen of Egypt. The tribute paid by the Arab king to Cleopatra was collected by [[Herod the Great|Herod]], the king of the Jews, but the Arab king later became slow in his payments and refused to pay without further deductions.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Josephus: Antiquities of the Jews, Book XV|url=http://penelope.uchicago.edu/josephus/ant-15.html|access-date=30 April 2023|website=penelope.uchicago.edu}}</ref> [[Geshem the Arabian|Geshem the Arab]] was an Arab man who opposed [[Nehemiah]] in the Hebrew Bible ([[Book of Nehemiah|Neh]]. [[Nehemiah 2:19|2:19]], [[Nehemiah 6:1|6:1]]). He was likely the chief of the Arab tribe "Gushamu" and have been a powerful ruler with influence stretching from northern Arabia to Judah. The Arabs and the [[Samaritans]] made efforts to hinder Nehemiah's rebuilding of the [[walls of Jerusalem]].<ref>{{Cite web|date=23 February 2013|title=HOW TO HANDLE OPPOSITION|url=https://abidanshah.com/2013/02/23/how-to-handle-opposition/|access-date=30 April 2023|website=abidanshah.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Geshem the Arabian|url=https://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/6639-geshem-the-arabian|access-date=1 May 2023|website=jewishencyclopedia.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Geshem, Gashmu|url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/religion/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/geshem-gashmu|access-date=1 May 2023|website=encyclopedia.com}}</ref>

[[File:Roman Empire - Arabia Petraea (125 AD).svg|thumb|Arabia Petraea or simply Arabia existed from the 2nd century onwards.
Including regions in Jordan, Palestine, the Sinai Peninsula, and the northwestern Arabian Peninsula]]

[[File:Petra, Al-Khazneh 2.jpg|thumb|right|[[Al-Khazneh]] in [[Petra]], capital of the [[Nabataean Kingdom]], built as a mausoleum to Nabataean King [[Aretas IV]] in the first century AD]]

The term "[[Saracens]]" was a term used in the early centuries, both in [[Greek language|Greek]] and [[Latin]] writings, to refer to the "Arabs" who lived in and near what was designated by the [[Roman Empire|Romans]] as [[Arabia Petraea]] (Levant) and [[Arabia Deserta]] (Arabia).<ref>{{Cite book|last=Retsö|first=Jan|title=The Arabs in antiquity: their history from the Assyrians to the Umayyads|date=2003|publisher=RoutledgeCurzon|isbn=978-1-315-02953-5|location=London|oclc=857081715}}</ref><ref name="Lionheart">{{Cite web|title=Eyewitnesstohistory|url=http://www.eyewitnesstohistory.com/lionheart.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100402073536/http://www.eyewitnesstohistory.com/lionheart.htm|archive-date=2 April 2010|access-date=13 April 2010|website=Eyewitnesstohistory.com}}</ref> The Christians of [[Iberia]] used the term [[Moors|''Moor'']] to describe all the Arabs and Muslims of that time. Arabs of Medina referred to the nomadic tribes of the deserts as the A'raab, and considered themselves sedentary, but were aware of their close racial bonds. [[Hagarenes]] is a term widely used by early [[Syriac language|Syriac]], [[Greek language|Greek]], and [[Armenian language|Armenian]] to&nbsp;describe the early Arab conquerors of Mesopotamia, Syria and Egypt, refers to the descendants of Hagar, who bore a son named Ishmael to Abraham in the Old Testament. In the Bible, the Hagarenes referred to as "Ishmaelites" or "Arabs."<ref>{{Cite web|title=Ibn Khaldun and The Myth of "Arab Invasion"|url=https://www.versobooks.com/blogs/news/3293-ibn-khaldun-and-the-myth-of-arab-invasion|access-date=1 May 2023|website=Verso}}</ref> The [[Arab conquests]] in the 7th century was a sudden and dramatic conquest led by Arab armies, which quickly conquered much of the Middle East, North Africa, and Spain. It was a significant moment for [[Islam]], which saw itself as the successor of Judaism and Christianity.<ref>{{Cite web|title=HISTORY OF THE ARABS|url=http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/PlainTextHistories.asp?groupid=944&HistoryID=aa94&gtrack=pthc|access-date=1 May 2023|website=historyworld.net}}</ref>

=== Antiquity ===
{{Main|Pre-Islamic Arabia|Dilmun|Gerrha|Thamud|Qedarites|Lihyan|}}
[[File:Receipt for garnments sent by boat to Dilmun BM 130462.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|left|Receipt for garments sent by boat to Dilmun in the 1st year of [[Ibbi-Sin]]'s rule, circa 2028 BCE.<ref>{{cite web|title=tablet|url=https://research.britishmuseum.org/research/collection_online/collection_object_details.aspx?objectId=327231&page=171&partId=1&peoA=92773-3-12&people=92773|website=British Museum}}</ref><ref>Transcription: {{cite web|title=CDLI-Archival View|url=https://cdli.ucla.edu/search/archival_view.php?ObjectID=P137833|website=cdli.ucla.edu}}</ref>]]

Limited local historical coverage of these civilizations means that archaeological evidence, foreign accounts and Arab oral traditions are largely relied on to reconstruct this period. Prominent civilizations at the time included, [[Dilmun]] civilization was an important trading centre<ref name="hoj">{{cite journal|author=Jesper Eidema, Flemming Højlundb|date=1993|title=Trade or diplomacy? Assyria and Dilmun in the eighteenth century BC|journal=World Archaeology|volume=24|issue=3|pages=441–448|doi=10.1080/00438243.1993.9980218}}</ref> which at the height of its power controlled the [[Persian Gulf|Arabian Gulf]] trading routes.<ref name="hoj" /> The [[Sumer]]ians regarded Dilmun as [[Holy Land|holy land]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Rice|first1=Michael|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fC6DAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA230|title=Egypt's Making: The Origins of Ancient Egypt 5000–2000 BC|year=1991|isbn=978-1-134-49263-3|page=230|publisher=Routledge}}</ref> Dilmun is regarded as one of the oldest ancient civilizations in the [[Middle East]].<ref>{{cite news|date=21 May 2013|title=Bahrain digs unveil one of oldest civilisations|publisher=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-22596270|url-status=live|access-date=11 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141113080926/http://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-22596270|archive-date=13 November 2014}}</ref><ref name="uns">{{cite web|title=Qal'at al-Bahrain – Ancient Harbour and Capital of Dilmun|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1192|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120405042527/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1192|archive-date=5 April 2012|access-date=17 August 2011|publisher=[[UNESCO]]}}</ref> which arose around the 4th millennium BCE and lasted to 538 BCE. [[Gerrha]] was an ancient city of [[Eastern Arabia]], on the west side of the Gulf, Gerrha was the center of an Arab kingdom from approximately 650 BCE to circa CE 300. [[Thamud]], which arose around the 1st millennium BCE and lasted to about 300 CE. From the beginning of the first millennium BCE, [[Proto-Arabic language|Proto-Arabic]], or [[Ancient North Arabian]], texts give a clearer picture of the Arabs' emergence. The earliest are written in variants of [[Epigraph (literature)|epigraphic]] south Arabian ''[[South Arabian alphabet|musnad]]'' script, including the 8th century BCE [[Al-Ahsa Oasis|Hasaean]] inscriptions of eastern Saudi Arabia, the [[Thamudic]] texts found throughout the Arabian Peninsula and [[Sinai Peninsula|Sinai]].
[[File:Qedarites Map.svg|thumb|Map of the Qedarite Kingdom in the 5th century B.C|left]]
The [[Qedarites]] were a largely nomadic ancient Arab tribal confederation centred in the [[Wadi Sirhan|Wādī Sirḥān]] in the [[Syrian Desert]]. They were known for their [[nomad]]ic lifestyle and for their role in the caravan trade that linked the Arabian Peninsula with the [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]] world. The Qedarites gradually expanded their territory over the course of the 8th and 7th centuries BCE, and by the 6th century BCE, they had consolidated into a kingdom that covered a large area in northern Arabia, southern Palestine, and the [[Sinai Peninsula]]. The Qedarites were influential in the [[ancient Near East]], and their kingdom played a significant role in the political and economic affairs of the region for several centuries.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Kessler|first=P. L.|title=Kingdoms of the Arabs – Kedar / Kedarites|url=https://www.historyfiles.co.uk/KingListsMiddEast/ArabicKedar.htm|access-date=31 March 2023|website=The History Files}}</ref>
[[File:Queen of Sheba0027.jpg|thumb|The Queen of Sheba]]
[[Sheba]] ({{langx|ar|سَبَأٌ}} ''Saba'') is kingdom mentioned in the [[Hebrew Bible]] ([[Old Testament]]) and the [[Quran]], though Sabaean was a South Arabian languaged and not an Arabic one. Sheba features in [[Judaism|Jewish]], [[Islam|Muslim]], and [[Christian]] traditions, whose lineage goes back to [[Qahtanite|Qahtan]] [[Ben|son of]] [[Hud (prophet)|Hud]], one of the ancestors of the Arabs,<ref>{{Cite web|title=Landmarks of the Ancient Kingdom of Saba, Marib|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1700/|access-date=23 March 2023|publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre}}</ref><ref name="qref|27|6-93|b=y">{{qref|27|6–93|b=y}}</ref><ref name="qref|34|15-18|b=y">{{qref|34|15–18|b=y}}</ref> Sheba was mentioned in Assyrian inscriptions and in the writings of [[Greek language|Greek]] and [[Roman Empire|Roman]] writers.<ref name="British Museum – The kingdoms of ancient South Arabia">{{Cite web|date=4 May 2015|title=British Museum – The kingdoms of ancient South Arabia|url=https://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/online_tours/middle_east/ancient_south_arabia/the_kingdoms_of_ancient_south.aspx|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150504061448/https://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/online_tours/middle_east/ancient_south_arabia/the_kingdoms_of_ancient_south.aspx|archive-date=4 May 2015|access-date=25 March 2023}}</ref> One of the ancient written references that also spoke of Sheba is the Old Testament, which stated that the people of Sheba supplied Syria and Egypt with incense, especially frankincense, and exported gold and precious stones to them.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Saba' {{!}} History, Kingdom, & Sabaeans {{!}} Britannica|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Saba-ancient-kingdom-Arabia|access-date=25 March 2023|website=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref> [[File:Dhamar Ali Yahbur (bust).jpg|thumb|upright|left|A bronze statue of Dhamar Ali Yahbur II, a [[Himyarite]] king who reigned in late 3rd or early 4th century CE. Displayed in the [[Sana'a National Museum]].]] [[Sabaeans]] are mentioned several times in the [[Hebrew Bible]]. In the [[Quran]],<ref name="Brannon2002">{{Cite book|last=Wheeler|first=Brannon M.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Lo9jAavEHdIC&pg=PA166|title=Prophets in the Quran: An Introduction to the Quran and Muslim Exegesis|publisher=Continuum International Publishing Group|year=2002|isbn=0-8264-4956-5|page=166}}</ref> they are described as either {{transliteration|ar|Sabaʾ}} ({{lang|ar|سَبَأ}}, not to be confused with {{transliteration|ar|[[Sabians|Ṣābiʾ]]}}, {{lang|ar|صَابِئ}}),<ref name="qref|27|6-93|b=y" /><ref name="qref|34|15-18|b=y" /> or as {{transliteration|ar|Qawm [[Tubba'|Tubbaʿ]]|italics=yes}} ({{langx|ar|قَوْم تُبَّع|lit=People of Tubbaʿ|link=no}}).<ref>{{qref|44|37|b=y}}</ref><ref>{{qref|50|12–14|b=y}}</ref> They were known for their prosperous trade and agricultural economy, which was based on the cultivation of frankincense and myrrh. These highly valued aromatic resins were exported to Egypt, Greece, and [[Roman Empire|Rome]], making the Sabaeans wealthy and powerful, they also traded in spices, textiles, and other luxury goods. The [[Marib Dam|Maʾrib Dam]] was one of the greatest engineering achievements of the ancient world, and it provided water for the city of [[Marib|Maʾrib]] and the surrounding agricultural lands.<ref>{{Citation|last=Zaidi|first=Asghar|title=Conceptualising Well-being of Older People|date=2017|work=Well-being of Older People in Ageing Societies|pages=33–53|publisher=Routledge|doi=10.4324/9781315234182-2|isbn=978-1-315-23418-2}}</ref><ref name="Kitchen">Kenneth A. Kitchen ''The World of "Ancient Arabia" Series''. Documentation for Ancient Arabia. Part I. Chronological Framework and Historical Sources p.110</ref><ref name="British Museum – The kingdoms of ancient South Arabia" />

[[Lihyan]] also called Dadān or Dedan was a powerful and highly organized ancient Arab kingdom that played a vital cultural and economic role in the north-western region of the [[Arabian Peninsula]] and used [[Dadanitic]] language.<ref name="Britannica Lihyan2">{{cite web|author=<!--Not stated-->|title=Liḥyān – Ancient Kingdom, Arabia|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Lihyan|access-date=7 March 2017|website=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref> The Lihyanites were known for their advanced organization and governance, and they played a significant role in the cultural and economic life of the region. The kingdom was centered around the city of Dedan (modern-day [[Al-'Ula|Al Ula]]), and it controlled a large territory that extended from [[Medina|Yathrib]] in the south to parts of the Levant in the north.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Lion Tombs of Dedan|url=https://www.saudiarabiatourismguide.com/lion-tombs-dedan//|access-date=31 March 2023|website=saudiarabiatourismguide.com}}</ref><ref name="Britannica Lihyan2" /> The Arab genealogies consider the Banu Lihyan to be [[Ishmaelites]], and used [[Dadanitic]] language.<ref>{{cite book|last=Nethanel ben Isaiah|title=Sefer Me'or ha-Afelah|date=1983|publisher=Mechon Moshe|location=Kiryat Ono|page=119|language=he|translator=[[Yosef Qafih]]|oclc=970925649|author-link=Nethanel ben Isaiah}}</ref>

The [[Minaeans|Kingdom of Ma'in]] was an ancient Arab kingdom with a hereditary monarchy system and a focus on [[agriculture]] and [[trade]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rossi|first=Irene|date=2014|title=The Minaeans beyond Maʿīn|journal=Proceedings of the Seminar for Arabian Studies|volume=44|pages=111–123|issn=0308-8421|jstor=43782855}}</ref> Proposed dates range from the 15th century BCE to the 1st century CE Its history has been recorded through inscriptions and classical Greek and Roman books, although the exact start and end dates of the kingdom are still debated. The Ma'in people had a local governance system with councils called "Mazood," and each city had its own temple that housed one or more gods. They also adopted the [[Phoenician alphabet]] and used it to write their language. The kingdom eventually fell to the [[Sabaeans|Arab Sabaean]] people.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Weimar|first=Jason|date=November 2021|title=The Minaeans after Maʿīn? The latest presently dateable Minaic text and the God of Maʿīn|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/aae.12176|journal=Arabian Archaeology and Epigraphy|volume=32|issue=S1|pages=376–387|doi=10.1111/aae.12176|issn=0905-7196|s2cid=233780447|url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Ma'in {{!}} History, Minaeans, & Temple {{!}} Britannica|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Main-ancient-kingdom-Yemen|access-date=23 March 2023|website=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref>[[File:Qataban lion bronze.jpg|thumb|Hellenistic-style Qatabānian sculpture depicting the Moon as a baby boy riding a lion representing the Sun.{{sfn|Van Beek|1997}}]]Qataban was an ancient kingdom located in the [[South Arabia]], which existed from the early 1st millennium BCE till the late 1st or 2nd centuries CE.{{sfn|Bryce|2009|page=578}}{{sfn|Bryce|2009|page=578}}{{sfn|Kitchen|2001|page=123}} It developed into a centralized state in the 6th century BCE with two co-kings ruling poles.{{sfn|Bryce|2009|page=578}}{{sfn|Hoyland|2002|page=48}} Qataban expanded its territory, including the conquest of Ma'in and successful campaigns against the Sabaeans.{{sfn|Kitchen|2001|page=123}}{{sfn|Van Beek|1997}}{{sfn|Schiettecatte|2017}} It challenged the supremacy of the Sabaeans in the region and waged a successful war against Hadramawt in the 3rd century BCE.{{sfn|Van Beek|1997}}{{sfn|Hoyland|2002|page=46}} Qataban's power declined in the following centuries, leading to its annexation by Hadramawt and [[Himyarite Kingdom|Ḥimyar]] in the 1st century CE.{{sfn|Hoyland|2002|page=42}}{{sfn|Kitchen|2001|page=123}}{{sfn|Van Beek|1997}}{{sfn|Bryce|2009|page=578}}{{sfn|Hoyland|2002|page=47}}{{sfn|Van Beek|1997}}

The [[Kingdom of Hadhramaut]] it was known for its rich [[cultural heritage]], as well as its strategic location along important [[trade route]]s that connected the [[Middle East]], [[South Asia]], and [[East Africa]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Sedov|first1=Alexander V.|last2=Bâtâyiʿ|first2=Ahmad|date=1994|title=Temples of Ancient Hadramawt|journal=Proceedings of the Seminar for Arabian Studies|volume=24|pages=183–196|issn=0308-8421|jstor=41223417}}</ref> The Kingdom was established around the 3rd century BCE, and it reached its peak during the 2nd century CE, when it controlled much of the southern Arabian Peninsula. The kingdom was known for its impressive [[architecture]], particularly its distinctive towers, which were used as watchtowers, defensive structures, and homes for wealthy families.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Hadhramaut|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Hadhramaut|access-date=26 March 2023|website=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref> The people of Hadhramaut were skilled in agriculture, especially in growing frankincense and myrrh. They had a strong maritime culture and traded with India, East Africa, and Southeast Asia.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Arabian Peninsula, 1–500 A.D.|publisher=The Metropolitan Museum of Art|url=https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/ht/05/wap.html|access-date=26 March 2023|website=The Met's Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History}}</ref> Although the kingdom declined in the 4th century, Hadhramaut remained a cultural and economic center. Its legacy can still be seen today.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Hadramawt|url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/humanities/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/hadramawt|access-date=26 March 2023|website=encyclopedia.com}}</ref>
[[File:HymiariteKingdomAugustusImitation1stCenturyCE.jpg|left|thumb|1st century coin of the [[Himyarite]] Kingdom, southern coast of the [[Arabian peninsula]].]]
The ancient [[Kingdom of Awsan|Kingdom of Awsān]] (8th–7th century BCE) was indeed one of the most important small kingdoms of [[South Arabia]], and its capital Ḥajar Yaḥirr was a significant center of trade and commerce in the ancient world. The destruction of the city in the 7th century BCE by the king and Mukarrib of Saba' Karab El Watar is a significant event in the history of South Arabia. The victory of the Sabaeans over Awsān is also a testament to the military might and strategic prowess of the Sabaeans, who were one of the most powerful and influential kingdoms in the region.<ref>{{Cite web|title=History of Arabia|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/history-of-Arabia-31558|access-date=7 June 2023|website=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref>

The [[Himyarite Kingdom]] or Himyar, was an ancient kingdom that existed from around the 2nd century BCE to the 6th century CE. It was centered in the [[Zafar, Yemen|city of Zafar]], which is located in present-day Yemen. The Himyarites were an Arab people who spoke a [[Old South Arabian|South Arabian language]] and were known for their prowess in trade and seafaring,<ref name=CP1>{{Cite journal|last1=Playfair|first1=Col|year=1867|title=On the Himyaritic Inscriptions Lately brought to England from Southern Arabia|journal=Transactions of the Ethnological Society of London|volume=5|pages=174–177|doi=10.2307/3014224|jstor=3014224}}</ref> they controlled the [[South Arabia|southern part of Arabia]] and had a prosperous economy based on agriculture, commerce, and maritime trade, they were skilled in irrigation and terracing, which allowed them to cultivate crops in the arid environment. The Himyarites converted to [[Judaism]] in the 4th century CE, and their rulers became known as the "Kings of the Jews", this conversion was likely influenced by their trade connections with the Jewish communities of the Red Sea region and the Levant, however, the Himyarites also tolerated other religions, including [[Christianity]] and the local pagan religions.<ref name=CP1/>

==== Classical antiquity ====
{{main|Nabataeans|Palmyra|Palmyrene Empire|Iturea|Osroene|Kingdom of Hatra|Arbayistan|Adiabene|Emesene dynasty}}
{{multiple image
| align             = right
| direction         = vertical
| width             = 170
| footer            = Nabataean Kingdom spanned from southern Jordan to Damascus, including the Tihamah coastal plain and Hejaz region. (above) and Palmyrene Empire extended from Ancyra, central Anatolia, to Upper Egypt. (below)
| width1            = 170
| image1            = Nabatean Kingdom.svg
| width2            = Caruso
| image2            = Palmyrene Empire.png
| alt2              = Pavarotti
}}

The [[Nabataeans]] were nomadic Arabs who settled in a territory centred around their capital of Petra in what is now Jordan.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=stl97FdyRswC&pg=PA483|title=Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Africa and the Middle East|date=2009|publisher=Infobase Publishing|isbn=978-1-4381-2676-0}}</ref><ref name=":02">* [https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/263437/Herod Herod] at ''Encyclopædia Britannica'': "Herod was born in southern Palestine. His father, Antipater, was an Edomite (a Semitic people, identified by some scholars as Arab, who converted to Judaism in the 2nd century BCE). Antipater was a man of great influence and wealth who increased both by marrying the daughter of a noble from Petra (in southwestern Jordan), at that time the capital of the rising Arab Nabataean kingdom. Thus, Herod was of Arab origin, although he was a practicing Jew."
* {{cite web|last=Perowne|first=Stewart Henry|date=25 June 2015|title=Herod – king of Judaea|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Herod-king-of-Judaea|url-status=unfit|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150625081825/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Herod-king-of-Judaea|archive-date=25 June 2015|access-date=22 November 2020|website=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref> Their early inscriptions were in [[Aramaic]], but gradually switched to Arabic, and since they had writing, it was they who made the first inscriptions in Arabic. The [[Nabataean alphabet]] was adopted by Arabs to the south, and evolved into modern Arabic script around the 4th century. This is attested by [[Safaitic]] inscriptions (beginning in the 1st century BCE) and the many Arabic personal names in [[Nabataean]] inscriptions. From about the 2nd century BCE, a few inscriptions from [[Qaryat al-Faw]] reveal a dialect no longer considered ''proto-Arabic'', but ''pre-classical Arabic''. Five [[Syriac language|Syriac]] inscriptions mentioning Arabs have been found at [[Sumatar Harabesi]], one of which dates to the 2nd century CE.<ref>{{cite web|title=Herod|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Herod-king-of-Judaea|website=Encyclopædia Britannica|date=10 August 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Catherwood|first1=Christopher|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=krKeBAAAQBAJ&pg=PT63|title=A Brief History of the Middle East|date=2011|publisher=Little, Brown Book Group|isbn=978-1-84901-807-4}}</ref>

{{Multiple image
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| image1            = Antoninianus of Zenobia (obverse).png
| caption1          = Queen [[Zenobia]], {{c.}} 240 – c. 274 CE) was a third-century queen of the [[Palmyrene Empire]] in [[Syria (region)|Syria]]. One of several ancient female rulers in antiquity of Arab origin.
| total_width       = 160
}}
Arabs are first recorded in [[Palmyra]] in the late first millennium BCE.{{sfn|Bryce|2014|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Xno9AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA278 278]}} The soldiers of the sheikh Zabdibel, who aided the Seleucids in the battle of Raphia (217 BCE), were described as Arabs; Zabdibel and his men were not actually identified as Palmyrenes in the texts, but the name "Zabdibel" is a Palmyrene name leading to the conclusion that the sheikh hailed from Palmyra.{{sfn|Bryce|2014|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Xno9AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA359 359]}} After the [[Battle of Edessa]] in 260 CE. Valerian's capture by the Sassanian king [[Shapur I]] was a significant blow to Rome, and it left the empire vulnerable to further attacks. [[Zenobia]] was able to capture most of the Near East, including Egypt and parts of Asia Minor. However, their empire was short-lived, as [[Aurelian]] was able to defeat the Palmyrenes and recover the lost territories. The Palmyrenes were helped by their Arab allies, but Aurelian was also able to leverage his own alliances to defeat Zenobia and her army. Ultimately, the Palmyrene Empire lasted only a few years, but it had a significant impact on the history of the Roman Empire and the Near East.

Most scholars identify the [[Iturea]]ns as an Arab people who inhabited the region of Iturea,<ref>{{cite journal|author=David F. Graf|url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/topoi_1764-0733_2003_act_4_1_2871|title=Arabs in Syria: Demography and Epigraphy|journal=Topoi. Orient-Occident|publisher=Topoi. Orient-Occident. Supplément|year=2003|volume=4|issue=1|pages=319–340}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Irfan Shahîd|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W4H97SA6pMAC&q=ituraeans+old+arab+people+irfan+shahid&pg=PA5|title=Rome and the Arabs: A Prolegomenon to the Study of Byzantium and the Arabs|publisher=Dumbarton Oaks|year=1984|isbn=978-0-88402-115-5|edition=Hardcover|page=5}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Mark A. Chancey|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YrrRaeP5po0C&q=arab|title=The Myth of a Gentile Galilee (Society for New Testament Studies Monograph Series)|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2002|isbn=0-521-81487-1|edition=Hardcover|page=44}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author1=Zuleika Rodgers|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5I8zfmwEjjUC&q=itureans+arabs&pg=PA207|title=A Wandering Galilean: Essays in Honour of Seán Freyne (Supplements to the Journal for the Study of Judaism)|author2=Margaret Daly-Denton|author3=Anne Fitzpatrick-McKinley|publisher=Brill|year=2009|isbn=978-90-04-17355-2|edition=Hardcover|page=207}}</ref> emerged as a prominent power in the region after the decline of the Seleucid Empire in the 2nd century BCE, from their base around [[Mount Lebanon]] and the [[Beqaa Valley]], they came to dominate vast stretches of [[Syria (region)|Syrian territory]],<ref>Steve Mason, ''Life of Josephus'', Brill, 2007 p.54, n.306.</ref> and appear to have penetrated into northern parts of [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]] as far as the [[Galilee]].<ref name="Berndt Schaller 14922" /> [[Tanukhids]] were an [[Tribes of Arabia|Arab tribal confederation]] that lived in the central and eastern Arabian Peninsula during the late ancient and early medieval periods. As mentioned earlier, they were a branch of the [[Rabi'a ibn Nizar|Rabi'ah tribe]], which was one of the largest Arab tribes in the pre-Islamic period. They were known for their military prowess and played a significant role in the early Islamic period, fighting in battles against the Byzantine and Sassanian empires and contributing to the expansion of the Arab empire.<ref>Ball, Warwick (2001), Rome in the East: The Transformation of an Empire, Routledge, {{ISBN|0-415-11376-8}} pp. 98–102</ref>
[[File:Northern Mesopotamian vassal kingdoms AD 200.png|left|thumb|Map of the kingdoms of Osroene, Hatra, and Adiabene in Mesopotamia in 200 CE]]
The [[Osroene|Osroene Arabs]], also known as the [[Abgarid dynasty|Abgarids]],<ref>{{cite book|last1=Bowman|first1=Alan|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MNSyT_PuYVMC&q=%22arab+principality+of+edessa%22&pg=PA508|title=The Cambridge Ancient History: Volume 12, The Crisis of Empire, AD 193–337|last2=Garnsey|first2=Peter|last3=Cameron|first3=Averil|date=2005|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-30199-2}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Osroene|title=Osroëne &#124; Middle East, Syria, Armenia &#124; Britannica|website=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Skolnik|first1=Fred|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JD0OAQAAMAAJ&q=%22the+Arab+kingdom%22|title=Encyclopaedia Judaica|last2=Berenbaum|first2=Michael|date=2007|publisher=Macmillan Reference US|isbn=978-0-02-865943-5}}</ref> were in possession of the city of [[Edessa]] in the [[ancient Near East]] for a significant period of time. Edessa was located in the region of Osroene, which was an ancient kingdom that existed from the 2nd century BCE to the 3rd century CE. They established a dynasty known as the Abgarids, which ruled Edessa for several centuries. The most famous ruler of the [[Abgarid dynasty|dynasty]] was [[Abgar V]], who is said to have corresponded with [[Jesus|Jesus Christ]] and is believed to have converted to [[Christianity]].<ref>{{iranica|abgar-dynasty-of-edessa-2nd-century-bc-to-3rd-century-ad}}{{blockquote|The fame of Edessa in history rests, however, mainly on its claim to have been the first kingdom to adopt Christianity as its official religion. According to the legend current for centuries throughout the civilized world, Abgar Ukkama wrote to Jesus, inviting him to visit him at Edessa to heal him from sickness. In return he received the blessing of Jesus and subsequently was converted by the evangelist Addai. There is, however, no factual evidence for Christianity at Edessa before the reign of Abgar the Great, 150 years later. Scholars are generally agreed that the legend has confused the two Abgars. It cannot be proved that Abgar the Great adopted Christianity; but his friend Bardaiṣan was a heterodox Christian, and there was a church at Edessa in 201. It is testimony to the personality of Abgar the Great that he is credited by tradition with a leading role in the evangelization of Edessa.}}</ref> The Abgarids played an important role in the early history of Christianity in the region, and Edessa became a center of Christian learning and [[Religious studies|scholarship]].<ref>{{cite web|last1=Ring|first1=Steven|title=History of Syriac texts and Syrian Christianity – Table 1|url=http://www.syriac.talktalk.net/chron_tab1.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180227034200/http://www.syriac.talktalk.net/chron_tab1.html|archive-date=27 February 2018|access-date=26 February 2018|website=syriac.talktalk.net}}</ref> The [[Kingdom of Hatra]] was an ancient city located in the region of [[Mesopotamia]], it was founded in the 2nd or 3rd century BCE and flourished as a major center of trade and culture during the [[Parthian Empire]]. The rulers of Hatra were known as the Arsacid dynasty, which was a branch of the Parthian ruling family. However, in the 2nd century CE, the Arab tribe of [[Tanukhids|Banu Tanukh]] seized control of [[Hatra]] and established their own dynasty. The Arab rulers of Hatra assumed the title of "malka," which means king in Arabic, and they often referred to themselves as the "King of the Arabs."<ref name="Hatra and the Parthian Commonwealth">{{cite journal|last1=de Jong|first1=Albert|date=2013|title=Hatra and the Parthian Commonwealth|url=https://www.academia.edu/18709085|journal=Oriens et Occidens – Band 21|pages=143–161|url-access=registration}}</ref>[[File:KingdomOfEmesa.png|thumb|upright|The Kingdom of Emesa]]
The Osroeni and Hatrans were part of several Arab groups or communities in upper Mesopotamia, which also included the Arabs of [[Adiabene]] which was an ancient [[Monarchy|kingdom]] in northern [[Mesopotamia]], its chief city was [[Erbil|Arbela]] (''Arba-ilu''), where Mar Uqba had a school, or the neighboring Hazzah, by which name the later Arabs also called Arbela.<ref>[[Yaqut al-Hamawi|Yaqut]], ''Geographisches Wörterbuch'', ii. 263; Payne-Smith, ''Thesaurus Syriacus'', under "Hadyab"; Hoffmann, ''Auszüge aus Syrischen Akten'', pp. 241, 243.</ref>{{sfn|Kia|2016|p=54}} This Arab presence in upper Mesopotamia was acknowledged by the [[Sasanian dynasty|Sasanians]], who called the region [[Arbayistan]], meaning "land of the Arabs", is first attested as a province in the [[Shapur I's inscription at the Ka'ba-ye Zartosht|Ka'ba-ye Zartosht inscription]] of the second Sasanian [[King of Kings]], [[Shapur I]] ({{reign|240|270}}),{{sfnp|Brunner|1983b|p=750}} which was erected in {{circa}} 262.{{sfnp|Rapp|2014|p=28}}<ref name="oxfordreference.com2" /> The [[Emesene dynasty|Emesene]] were a dynasty of Arab priest-kings that ruled the city of [[Emesa]] (modern-day [[Homs]], Syria) in the [[Roman Syria|Roman province of Syria]] from the 1st century CE to the 3rd century CE. The dynasty is notable for producing a number of high priests of the god [[Elagabalus|El-Gabal]], who were also influential in [[Political institutions of ancient Rome|Roman politics]] and culture. The first ruler of the Emesene dynasty was [[Sampsiceramus I]], who came to power in 64 CE. He was succeeded by his son, [[Iamblichus]], who was followed by his own son, [[Sampsiceramus II]]. Under Sampsiceramus II, Emesa became a client kingdom of the [[Roman Empire]], and the dynasty became more closely tied to Roman political and cultural traditions.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Bowman|first1=Alan|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MNSyT_PuYVMC&q=Emesa+dynasty+arab+city&pg=PA502|title=The Cambridge Ancient History: Volume 12, The Crisis of Empire, AD 193–337|last2=Garnsey|first2=Peter|last3=Cameron|first3=Averil|date=2005|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-30199-2}}; {{cite book|last1=Hornblower|first1=Simon|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bVWcAQAAQBAJ&q=%22arab+kingdom%22+emesa&pg=PA754|title=The Oxford Classical Dictionary|last2=Spawforth|first2=Antony|last3=Eidinow|first3=Esther|date=2012|publisher=OUP Oxford|isbn=978-0-19-954556-8}}; {{harvnb|Ball|2000}}; {{cite book|last1=Burns|first1=Jasper|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hL99AgAAQBAJ&q=Emesa+arab+tribe&pg=PA181|title=Great Women of Imperial Rome: Mothers and Wives of the Caesars|date=2006|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-134-13185-3}}; {{cite book|last1=Prado|first1=Leonardo de Arrizabalaga y|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zHbXDgAAQBAJ&q=emesa+arab&pg=PA191|title=Varian Studies Volume One: Varius|date=2017|publisher=Cambridge Scholars Publishing|isbn=978-1-4438-9385-5}}; {{harvnb|Birley|2002}}; {{cite book|last=Shahid|first=Irfan|title=Rome and The Arabs: A Prolegomenon to the Study of Byzantium and the Arabs|date=1984|publisher=Dumbarton Oaks|isbn=0-88402-115-7|page=37}}; {{cite book|last1=Freisenbruch|first1=Annelise|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VUR_3B97ctQC&q=%22arab+kingdom%22+emesa&pg=PA182|title=Caesars' Wives: Sex, Power, and Politics in the Roman Empire|date=2011|publisher=Simon and Schuster|isbn=978-1-4165-8305-9}}</ref>

==== Late antiquity ====
{{Further|Tanukh|Salihids|Lakhmid kingdom|Kingdom of Kinda|Ghassanids}}{{Multiple image
| image1            = Ghassanid Kingdom Map.svg
| alt1              =
| caption1          = Map of the [[Ghassanid]]
| image2            = Salihids Map.svg
| caption2          = Map of [[Salihids]]
| image3            = Tanukh Map.svg
| caption3          = Map of the [[Tanukhid]]
| header            =
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}}The [[Ghassanids]], [[Lakhmids]] and [[Kindites]] were the last major migration of pre-Islamic Arabs out of Yemen to the north. The Ghassanids increased the Semitic presence in then-Hellenized [[Syria (Byzantine province)|Syria]], the majority of Semites were Aramaic peoples. They mainly settled in the [[Hauran]] region and spread to modern [[Lebanon]], [[Palestine]] and [[Jordan]]. Greeks and Romans referred to all the nomadic population of the desert in the Near East as Arabi. The Romans called Yemen "[[Arabia Felix]]".<ref>{{Cite web|title=Dionysius Periegetes|url=http://www.cartographic-images.net/Cartographic_Images/117_Dionysius_Periegetes.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180914113448/http://cartographic-images.net/Cartographic_Images/117_Dionysius_Periegetes.html|archive-date=14 September 2018|access-date=18 December 2017|website=Cartographic-images.net}}</ref> The Romans called the vassal nomadic states within the [[Roman Empire]] ''[[Arabia Petraea]]'', after the city of [[Petra]], and called unconquered deserts bordering the empire to the south and east [[Arabia Magna]].  [[File:Lakhmid.png|left|upright|thumb|Lakhmid kingdom]]The [[Lakhmids]] as a dynasty inherited their power from the [[Tanukh]]ids, the mid Tigris region around their capital [[Al-Hira]]. They ended up allying with the [[Sasanian Empire|Sassanids]] against the Ghassanids and the [[Byzantine Empire]]. The Lakhmids contested control of the Central Arabian tribes with the Kindites with the Lakhmids eventually destroying the [[Kingdom of Kinda]] in 540 after the fall of their main ally [[Himyar]]. The [[Persian people|Persian]] Sassanids dissolved the Lakhmid dynasty in 602, being under puppet kings, then under their direct control.<ref>Harold Bailey [https://books.google.com/books?id=Ko_RafMSGLkC&pg=PR59 ''The Cambridge history of Iran'': The Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanian periods], Vol. 1, Cambridge University Press, 1983, {{ISBN|0-521-20092-X}} p. 59</ref> The Kindites migrated from Yemen along with the Ghassanids and Lakhmids, but were turned back in Bahrain by the Abdul Qais [[Rabi`ah|Rabi'a]] tribe. They returned to Yemen and allied themselves with the Himyarites who installed them as a vassal kingdom that ruled Central Arabia from "Qaryah Dhat Kahl" (the present-day called Qaryat al-Faw). They ruled much of the Northern/Central Arabian peninsula, until they were destroyed by the Lakhmid king [[Al-Mundhir III ibn al-Nu'man|Al-Mundhir]], and his son [['Amr III ibn al-Mundhir|'Amr]].

The [[Ghassanids]] were an Arab tribe in the Levant in the early third century. According to Arab genealogical tradition, they were considered a branch of the [[Azd|Azd tribe]]. They fought alongside the [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantines]] against the [[Sasanian Empire|Sasanians]] and Arab Lakhmids. Most Ghassanids were Christians, converting to [[Christianity]] in the first few centuries, and some merged with Hellenized Christian communities. After the Muslim conquest of the Levant, few Ghassanids became Muslims, and most remained Christian and joined Melkite and Syriac communities within what is now Jordan, Palestine, Syria, and Lebanon.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Ganie|first=Mohammad Hafiz|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mlxcEAAAQBAJ&dq=abu+quhafa&pg=PA13|title=Abu Bakr: The Beloved of My Beloved|publisher=Mohammad Hafiz Ganie|isbn=979-8-4112-2592-1|access-date=9 March 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230117131335/https://books.google.com/books?id=mlxcEAAAQBAJ&dq=abu+quhafa&pg=PA13|archive-date=17 January 2023|url-status=live}}</ref> The [[Salihids]] were Arab foederati in the 5th century, were ardent Christians, and their period is less documented than the preceding and succeeding periods due to a scarcity of sources. Most references to the Salihids in Arabic sources derive from the work of [[Hisham ibn al-Kalbi]], with the [[Tarikh al-Yaqubi|Tarikh of Ya'qubi]] considered valuable for determining the Salihids' fall and the terms of their foedus with the Byzantines.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Barker|first=John W.|date=1 April 1996|title=Byzantium and the Arabs in the Fifth Century|url=https://go.gale.com/ps/i.do?p=LitRC&sw=w&issn=00030279&v=2.1&it=r&id=GALE%7CA19027534&sid=googleScholar&linkaccess=abs|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231102112427/https://go.gale.com/ps/i.do?p=LitRC&sw=w&issn=00030279&v=2.1&it=r&id=GALE%7CA19027534&sid=googleScholar&linkaccess=abs|archive-date=2 November 2023|journal=The Journal of the American Oriental Society|language=English|volume=116|issue=2|pages=304–306|doi=10.2307/605736|jstor=605736}}</ref>

=== Middle Ages ===
{{main|Spread of Islam|Early Muslim conquests}}
[[File:The Early Muslim Conquests 630s to 820s.svg|thumb|upright=1.3|The early Arab conquests by reign]]
During the [[Middle Ages]], Arab civilization flourished and the Arabs made significant contributions to the fields of [[science]], [[mathematics]], [[medicine]], [[philosophy]], and [[literature]], with the rise of great cities like [[Baghdad]], [[Cairo]], and [[Córdoba, Spain|Cordoba]], they became centers of learning, attracting scholars, scientists, and intellectuals.<ref name="Wenner 1980 59–79">{{Cite journal|last=Wenner|first=Manfred W.|date=1980|title=The Arab/Muslim Presence in Medieval Central Europe|journal=International Journal of Middle East Studies|volume=12|issue=1|pages=59–79|doi=10.1017/S0020743800027136|issn=0020-7438|jstor=163627|s2cid=162537404}}</ref><ref name="A Golden age of Arab culture">{{Cite web|title=A Golden age of Arab culture|url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000074817|access-date=26 March 2023|website=unesdoc.unesco.org}}</ref> Arabs forged many empires and dynasties, most notably, the Rashidun Empire, the Umayyad Empire, the Abbasid Empire, the Fatimid Empire, among others. These empires were characterized by their expansion, scientific achievements, and cultural flourishing, extended from [[Spain]] to India.<ref name="Wenner 1980 59–79"/> The region was vibrant and dynamic during the Middle Ages and left a lasting impact on the world.<ref name="A Golden age of Arab culture"/><timeline>
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    id:time value:rgb(0.7,0.7,1) #
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  align:center textcolor:black fontsize:8 mark:(line, black) width:10 shift:(0,-3)

  from: 622  till:  632  color:era text:[[Muhammad]]
  from: 632  till:  634  color:age text:[[Abu Bakr]]
  from: 634  till:  644  color:era text:[[Umar ibn al-Khattab]]
  from: 644  till:  656  color:age text:[[Uthman ibn Affan]]
  from: 656  till:  661  color:era text:[[Ali ibn Abi Talib]]
  from: 661  till:  666  color:age text:[[Muawiyah I]]
</timeline>The [[Spread of Islam|rise of Islam]] began when [[Muhammad]] and his followers migrated from [[Mecca]] to [[Medina]] in an event known as the [[Hijrah|Hijra]]. Muhammad spent the last ten years of his life engaged in a series of battles to establish and expand the Muslim community. From 622 to 632, he led the Muslims in a state of war against the Meccans.<ref name="Collins142">Collins ''Early Medieval Europe'' pp. 142–143, 150, 160</ref> During this period, the Arabs conquered the region of [[Basra]], and under the leadership of [[Umar]], they established a base and built a mosque there. Another conquest was [[Midian]], but due to its harsh environment, the settlers eventually moved to [[Kufa]]. Umar successfully defeated rebellions by various Arab tribes, bringing stability to the entire Arabian peninsula and unifying it. Under the leadership of [[Uthman]], the Arab empire expanded through the [[Arab conquest of Persia|conquest of Persia]], with the capture of Fars in 650 and parts of [[Khorasan province|Khorasan]] in 651.<ref name="Cunliffe4212">Cunliffe ''Europe Between the Oceans'' pp. 421–423</ref> The [[Arab conquest of armenia|conquest of Armenia]] also began in the 640s. During this time, the Rashidun Empire extended its rule over the entire [[Sasanian Empire|Sassanid Empire]] and more than two-thirds of the [[Byzantine Empire|Eastern Roman Empire]]. However, the reign of [[Ali|Ali ibn Abi Talib]], the fourth caliph, was marred by the [[First Fitna]], or the First Islamic Civil War, which lasted throughout his rule. After a peace treaty with [[Hasan ibn Ali|Hassan ibn Ali]] and the suppression of early [[Kharijites|Kharijite]] disturbances, [[Mu'awiya I|Muawiyah I]] became the Caliph.<ref name="Brown15">Brown "Transformation of the Roman Mediterranean" ''Oxford Illustrated History of Medieval Europe'' p. 15</ref> This marked a significant transition in leadership.<ref name="Cunliffe4212"/><ref name="Collins376">Collins ''Early Medieval Europe'' pp. 376–377</ref>

==== Arab empires ====

===== Rashidun era (632–661) =====
{{main|Rashidun Caliphate}}
{{See also|Succession to Muhammad|Saqifa|Election of Uthman|Assassination of Uthman}}
{{Further|First Fitna|Muslim conquest of Persia|Muslim conquest of the Levant|Arab conquest of Egypt|Muslim conquest of the Maghreb}}
After the death of [[Muhammad]] in 632, [[Rashidun army|Rashidun armies]] launched campaigns of conquest, establishing the [[Caliphate]], or Islamic Empire, one of the [[List of largest empires|largest empires in history]]. It was larger and lasted longer than the previous Arab empire [[Tanukhids]] of [[Mavia (queen)|Queen Mawia]] or the Arab [[Palmyrene Empire]]. The Rashidun state was a completely new state and unlike the Arab kingdoms of its century such as the [[Himyarite]], [[Lakhmids]] or [[Ghassanids]].

During the Rashidun era, the Arab community expanded rapidly, conquering many territories and establishing a vast Arab empire, which is marked by the reign of the first four caliphs, or leaders, of the Arab community.<ref name="Understanding Islam: The First Ten Steps">{{cite book|author1=C. T. R. Hewer|title=Understanding Islam: The First Ten Steps|author2=Allan Anderson|date=2006|publisher=Hymns Ancient and Modern Ltd|isbn=978-0-334-04032-3|edition=illustrated|page=37}}</ref> These caliphs are [[Abu Bakr]], [[Umar]], [[Uthman]] and [[Ali]], who are collectively known as the Rashidun, meaning "rightly guided." The Rashidun era is significant in Arab and Islamic history as it marks the beginning of the Arab empire and the [[spread of Islam]] beyond the Arabian Peninsula. During this time, the Arab community faced numerous challenges, including internal divisions and external threats from neighboring empires.<ref name="Understanding Islam: The First Ten Steps" /><ref name="Triana 159">{{Cite book|last=Triana|first=María|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VC4lDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA159|title=Managing Diversity in Organizations: A Global Perspective|date=2017|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-1-317-42368-3|page=159}}</ref>

Under the leadership of Abu Bakr, the Arab community successfully quelled a [[rebellion]] by some tribes who refused to pay [[Zakat]], or Islamic charity. During the reign of Umar ibn al-Khattab, the Arab empire expanded significantly, conquering territories such as Egypt, [[Syria]], and [[Iraq]]. The reign of Uthman ibn Affan was marked by internal dissent and rebellion, which ultimately led to his assassination. Ali, the cousin and son-in-law of [[Muhammad]], succeeded Uthman as caliph but faced opposition from some members of the Islamic community who believed he was not rightfully appointed.<ref name="Understanding Islam: The First Ten Steps" /> Despite these challenges, the Rashidun era is remembered as a time of great progress and achievement in Arab and Islamic history. The caliphs established a system of governance that emphasized [[justice]] and equality for all members of the Islamic community. They also oversaw the compilation of the Quran into a single text and spread Arabic teachings and principles throughout the empire. Overall, the Rashidun era played a crucial role in shaping Arab history and continues to be revered by Muslims worldwide as a period of exemplary leadership and guidance.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Azyumardi Azra|title=Indonesia, Islam, and Democracy: Dynamics in a Global Context|date=2006|publisher=[[Equinox Publishing (London)]]|isbn=978-979-99888-1-2|page=9}}</ref>

===== Umayyad era (661–750 and 756–1031) =====
{{main|Umayyad dynasty|Umayyad Caliphate}}
{{Further|Muslim conquest of Armenia|Muslim conquest of the Maghreb|Muslim conquest of the Iberian Peninsula|Muslim conquest of Transoxiana
|Umayyad campaigns in India}}
{{See also|Abbadid dynasty|Taifa|Nasrid dynasty (Sistan)|Zengid dynasty|Ikhshidid dynasty|Umayyad state of Córdoba|Al-Andalus|}}

In 661, the Rashidun Caliphate fell into the hands of the [[Banu Umayya|Umayyad dynasty]] and [[Damascus]] was established as the empire's capital. The Umayyads were proud of their Arab identity and sponsored the poetry and culture of pre-Islamic Arabia. They established garrison towns at [[Ramla]], [[Raqqa]], [[Basra]], [[Kufa]], [[Mosul]] and [[Samarra]], all of which developed into major cities.<ref name="Lunde">{{Cite book|last=Lunde|first=Paul|title=Islam|publisher=Dorling Kindersley Publishing|year=2002|isbn=978-0-7894-8797-1|location=New York|pages=50–52}}</ref> [[Caliph]] [[Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan|Abd al-Malik]] established Arabic as the Caliphate's official language in 686.<ref>John Joseph Saunders, ''A history of medieval Islam'', Routledge, 1965, page 13</ref> Caliph [[Umar II]] strove to resolve the conflict when he came to power in 717, demanding that all Muslims be treated as equals, but his intended reforms did not take effect, as he died after only three years of rule. By now, discontent with the Umayyads swept the region and an uprising occurred in which the [[Abbasid Caliphate|Abbasids]] came to power and moved the capital to [[Baghdad]].
[[File:La civilització del califat de Còrdova en temps d'Abd-al-Rahman III.jpg|thumb|The [[Caliphate of Córdoba]] during the reign of [[Abd al-Rahman III]]. Receiving the Ambassador by [[Dionisio Baixeras Verdaguer]] 1885 CE.]]
Umayyads expanded their Empire westwards capturing North Africa from the Byzantines. Before the Arab conquest, North Africa was conquered or settled by various people including [[Punics]], Vandals and Romans. After the [[Abbasid Revolution]], the Umayyads lost most of their territories with the exception of Iberia.

Their last holding became known as the [[Emirate of Córdoba]]. It was not until the rule of the grandson of the founder of this new emirate that the state entered a new phase as the [[Caliphate of Córdoba]]. This new state was characterized by an expansion of trade, culture and knowledge, and saw the construction of masterpieces of [[al-Andalus]] architecture and the library of [[Al-Hakam II]] which housed over 400,000 volumes. With the collapse of the Umayyad state in 1031 CE, al-Andalus was divided into [[Taifa|small kingdoms]].<ref>Clifford Edmund Bosworth [https://books.google.com/books?id=UB4uSVt3ulUC&pg=PA264 Historic cities of the Islamic world], Brill, Leyden, 2007, {{ISBN|90-04-15388-8}} p. 264</ref>

===== Abbasid era (750–1258 and 1261–1517) =====
{{main|Abbasid Caliphate|Abbasid revolution}}
{{Further|Anarchy at Samarra|Siege of Baghdad|Mongol invasions of the Levant||}}
[[File:Harun al-Rashid receives envoys from Charlemagne.jpg|thumb|[[Harun al-Rashid]] ([[Reign|r.]] 786–809) receiving a delegation sent by [[Charlemagne]] at his court in Baghdad.|left]]
The Abbasids were the descendants of [[Al-Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib|Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib]], one of the youngest uncles of Muhammad and of the same [[Banu Hashim]] clan. The Abbasids led a revolt against the Umayyads and defeated them in the [[Battle of the Zab]] effectively ending their rule in all parts of the Empire with the exception of al-Andalus. In 762, the second Abbasid Caliph [[al-Mansur]] founded the city of [[Baghdad]] and declared it the capital of the Caliphate. Unlike the Umayyads, the Abbasids had the support of non-Arab subjects.<ref name="Lunde" /> The [[Islamic Golden Age]] was inaugurated by the middle of the 8th century by the ascension of the Abbasid Caliphate and the transfer of the capital from [[Damascus]] to the newly founded city of [[Baghdad]]. The Abbasids were influenced by the [[Quran]]ic injunctions and [[hadith]] such as "The ink of the scholar is more holy than the blood of martyrs" stressing the value of knowledge.
[[File:المدرسة المستنصرية ببغداد2011 (cropped).jpg|thumb|upright=1.05|[[Mustansiriyya Madrasa|Al-Mustansiriyya Madrasa]] in Baghdad]]
During this period the Abbasid Empire became an intellectual centre for science, philosophy, medicine and education as the Abbasids championed the cause of knowledge and established the "[[House of Wisdom]]" in Baghdad. Rival dynasties such as the [[Fatimid]]s of [[Egypt]] and the [[Umayyad]]s of al-Andalus were also major intellectual centres with cities such as [[Cairo]] and [[Córdoba, Spain|Córdoba]] rivaling [[Baghdad]].<ref name="Vartan">Vartan Gregorian, "Islam: A Mosaic, Not a Monolith", Brookings Institution Press, 2003, pp. 26–38 {{ISBN|0-8157-3283-X}}</ref> In the 13th-century, the [[Mongol Empire|Mongols]] [[Siege of Baghdad (1258)|conquered Baghdad]] in 1258 and killed the Caliph [[Al-Musta'sim]]. Members of the Abbasid royal family escaped the massacre and resorted to Cairo, which had broken from the Abbasid rule two years earlier; the [[Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)|Mamluk]] generals taking the political side of the kingdom while Abbasid Caliphs were engaged in civil activities and continued patronizing science, arts and literature.

===== Fatimid era (909–1171) =====
{{main|Fatimid dynasty|Fatimid Caliphate}}
[[File:Skylitzes_Simeon_sending_envoys_to_the_Fatimids.jpg|thumb|Bulgarian emperor [[Simeon I of Bulgaria|Simeon]] (left) sending envoys to Caliph al-Mahdi (right). 12th-century miniature from the ''[[Madrid Skylitzes]]'']]
The Fatimid caliphate was founded by [[Abdullah al-Mahdi Billah|al-Mahdi Billah]], a descendant of [[Fatimah]], the daughter of Muhammad, the Fatimid Caliphate was a [[Shia Islam|Shia]] that existed from 909 to 1171 CE. The empire was based in North Africa, with its capital in [[Cairo]], and at its height, it controlled a vast territory that included parts of modern-day [[Egypt]], [[Libya]], [[Tunisia]], [[Algeria]], [[Morocco]], [[Syria]], and [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]]. The Fatimid state took shape among the [[Kutama]], in the West of the North African littoral, in Algeria, in 909 conquering [[Raqqada]], the [[Aghlabid]] capital. In 921 the Fatimids established the Tunisian city of [[Mahdia]] as their new capital. In 948 they shifted their capital to [[Mansouria, Tunisia|Al-Mansuriya]], near [[Kairouan]] in Tunisia, and in 969 they conquered Egypt and established Cairo as the capital of their caliphate.
[[File:Azhar mosque.jpg|left|thumb|[[Al-Azhar Mosque]] in [[Cairo|Cairo, Egypt]] in the [[Islamic Cairo|historic Islamic core of the city]], Cairo was established as the new capital of the [[Fatimid Caliphate]] in 970]]
The Fatimids were known for their religious tolerance and intellectual achievements, they established a network of universities and libraries that became centers of learning in the [[Muslim world|Islamic world]]. They also promoted the arts, architecture, and literature, which flourished under their patronage. One of the most notable achievements of the Fatimids was the construction of the [[Al-Azhar Mosque]] and [[Al-Azhar University]] in Cairo. Founded in 970 CE, it is one of the oldest universities in the world and remains an important center of Islamic learning to this day. The Fatimids also had a significant impact on the development of [[Schools of Islamic theology|Islamic theology]] and [[Fiqh|jurisprudence]]. They were known for their support of Shia Islam and their promotion of the [[Isma'ilism|Ismaili]] branch of Shia Islam. Despite their many achievements, the Fatimids faced numerous challenges during their reign. They were constantly at war with neighboring empires, including the Abbasid Caliphate and the [[Byzantine Empire]]. They also faced internal conflicts and rebellions, which weakened their empire over time. In 1171 CE, the Fatimid Caliphate was conquered by the [[Ayyubid dynasty]], led by [[Saladin]]. Although the Fatimid dynasty came to an end, its legacy continued to influence Arab-Islamic culture and society for centuries to come.<ref name="imamreza.net">Shorter Shi'ite Encyclopaedia, By: Hasan al-Amin, {{Cite web|title=Fatimid Dynasty in Egypt|url=http://www.imamreza.net/eng/imamreza.php?id=574|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100616060639/http://imamreza.net/eng/imamreza.php?id=574|archive-date=16 June 2010|access-date=5 October 2010}}</ref>

===== Ottoman era (1517–1918) =====
{{Main|Ottoman Empire|Ottoman Caliphate}}
{{Further|Arab Revolt|Campaigns of the Arab Revolt|Middle Eastern theatre of World War I||}}
[[File:Sharif Hussein portrait.jpeg|thumb|[[Hussein bin Ali, King of Hejaz|Hussein bin Ali al-Hashimi]] (1854–1931) was a prominent Arab leader who served as the [[Sharifian Solution|Sharif]] and [[Sharif of Mecca|Emir of Mecca]] from 1908 until 1917. He was a member of the [[Hashemites|Hashemite dynasty]], which claimed descent from [[Muhammad]].|left]]
From 1517 to 1918, The Ottomans defeated the [[Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)|Mamluk Sultanate]] in Cairo, and ended the Abbasid Caliphate in the battles of [[Battle of Marj Dabiq|Marj Dabiq]] and [[Battle of Ridaniya|Ridaniya]]. They entered the [[Levant]] and Egypt as conquerors, and brought down the Abbasid caliphate after it lasted for many centuries. In 1911, Arab intellectuals and politicians from throughout the Levant formed al-Fatat ("the [[Young Arab Society]]"), a small Arab nationalist club, in Paris. Its stated aim was "raising the level of the [[Arab Nationalist Movement|Arab nation]] to the level of modern nations." In the first few years of its existence, al-Fatat called for greater autonomy within a unified Ottoman state rather than Arab independence from the empire. Al-Fatat hosted the [[Arab Congress of 1913]] in Paris, the purpose of which was to discuss desired reforms with other dissenting individuals from the Arab world.<ref>Zeine N. Zeine (1973) ''The Emergence of Arab Nationalism'' (3rd ed.). Delmar, New York: Caravan Books Inc. {{ISBN|0-88206-000-7}}. pp. 60–61, 83–92.</ref> However, as the Ottoman authorities cracked down on the organization's activities and members, al-Fatat went underground and demanded the complete independence and unity of the Arab provinces.<ref name="Choueiri166">Choueiri, pp. 166–168.</ref>
[[File:MPK1-426 Sykes Picot Agreement Map signed 8 May 1916.jpg|thumb|The region covered by the modus vivendi, as agreed in the 1916 Sykes–Picot Agreement]]
The [[Arab Revolt]] was a military uprising of Arab forces against the Ottoman Empire during World War I, began in 1916, led by [[Hussein bin Ali, King of Hejaz|Sherif Hussein bin Ali]], the goal of the revolt was to gain independence for the Arab lands under Ottoman rule and to create a unified Arab state. The revolt was sparked by a number of factors, including the Arab desire for greater autonomy within the Ottoman Empire, resentment towards Ottoman policies, and the influence of Arab nationalist movements. The Arab Revolt was a significant factor in the eventual [[Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire|defeat of the Ottoman Empire]]. The revolt helped to weaken Ottoman military power and tie up Ottoman forces that could have been deployed elsewhere. It also helped to increase support for Arab independence and nationalism, which would have a lasting impact on the region in the years to come.<ref>William Easterly, ''The White Man's Burden'', (2006) p. 295</ref><ref>Jeremy Wilson (1989) ''[[Lawrence of Arabia: The Authorised Biography of T. E. Lawrence]]''. William Heinemann. {{ISBN|978-0-434-87235-0}}. p. 548</ref> The Empire's defeat and the occupation of part of its territory by the [[Allies of World War I|Allied Powers]] in the [[aftermath of World War I]], the [[Sykes–Picot Agreement]] had a significant impact on the Arab world and its people. The agreement divided the Arab territories of the Ottoman Empire into zones of control for France and Britain, ignoring the aspirations of the Arab people for independence and self-determination.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Mikaberidze|first=Alexander|title=Conflict and Conquest in the Islamic World: A Historical Encyclopedia, Volume 1|publisher=ABC-CLIO|year=2011|isbn=978-1-59884-336-1|pages=799–802}}</ref>

=== Renaissance ===
{{main|Islamic Golden Age|Islamic world contributions to Medieval Europe|Arab Renaissance}}
{{Further|List of inventions in the medieval Islamic world|Arab Agricultural Revolution}}
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The Golden Age of Arab Civilization known as the "''[[Islamic Golden Age]]''", traditionally dated from the 8th century to the 13th century.<ref name="Saliba">{{cite book|last=Saliba|first=George|title=A History of Arabic Astronomy: Planetary Theories During the Golden Age of Islam|date=1994|publisher=[[New York University Press]]|isbn=0-8147-8023-7|pages=245, 250, 256–257|author-link=George Saliba}}</ref><ref name="King">{{cite journal|last1=King|first1=David A.|year=1983|title=The Astronomy of the Mamluks|journal=Isis|volume=74|issue=4|pages=531–55|doi=10.1086/353360|s2cid=144315162}}</ref><ref name="Hassan-Decline">{{cite encyclopedia|title=Factors Behind the Decline of Islamic Science After the Sixteenth Century|encyclopedia=Islam and the Challenge of Modernity, Proceedings of the Inaugural Symposium on Islam and the Challenge of Modernity: Historical and Contemporary Contexts, Kuala Lumpur, 1–5 August 1994|publisher=International Institute of Islamic Thought and Civilization (ISTAC)|url=http://www.history-science-technology.com/articles/articles%208.html|last=Hassan|first=Ahmad Y|date=1996|editor=Sharifah Shifa Al-Attas|pages=351–99|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402150434/http://www.history-science-technology.com/articles/articles%208.html|archive-date=2 April 2015}}</ref> The period is traditionally said to have ended with the collapse of the Abbasid caliphate due to [[Siege of Baghdad (1258)|Siege of Baghdad]] in 1258.<ref name="Tahir Abbas">{{cite book|url={{Google books|plainurl=yes|id=JdC90uc8PfQC|page=9 }}|title=Islamic Radicalism and Multicultural Politics|date=2011|publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]]|isbn=978-1-136-95960-8|page=9|access-date=26 August 2012}}</ref> During this time, [[List of pre-modern Arab scientists and scholars|Arab scholars]] made significant contributions to fields such as mathematics, astronomy, medicine, and philosophy. These advancements had a profound impact on European scholars during the [[Renaissance]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=University Libraries {{!}} The University of Iowa|url=https://www.lib.uiowa.edu/|access-date=25 April 2023}}</ref>

The Arabs shared its knowledge and ideas with [[Europe]], including translations of Arabic texts.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Al-Tamimi|first=Aymenn Jawad|date=13 May 2022|title=A 13th-Century Text Teaches Us About Arabs and Europeans|url=https://newlinesmag.com/essays/a-13th-century-text-teaches-us-about-arabs-and-europeans/|access-date=26 March 2023|website=New Lines Magazine}}</ref> These translations had a significant impact on [[culture of Europe]], leading to the transformation of many philosophical disciplines in the [[Medieval Latin|medieval Latin world]]. Additionally, the Arabs made original innovations in various fields, including the arts, [[Arab Agricultural Revolution|agriculture]], [[alchemy]], [[music]], and [[pottery]], and [[List of Arabic star names|traditional star names]] such as [[Aldebaran]], scientific terms like ''[[wikt:alchemy|alchemy]]'' (whence also ''[[wikt:chemistry|chemistry]]''), ''[[wikt:algebra|algebra]]'', ''[[wikt:algorithm|algorithm]]'', etc. and names of commodities such as ''[[wikt:sugar|sugar]]'', ''[[wikt:camphor|camphor]]'', ''[[wikt:cotton|cotton]]'', ''[[wikt:coffee|coffee]]'', etc.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Biology – The Arab world and the European Middle Ages|url=https://www.britannica.com/science/biology/The-Arab-world-and-the-European-Middle-Ages|access-date=26 March 2023|website=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wenner|first=Manfred W.|date=August 1980|title=The Arab/Muslim Presence in Medieval Central Europe|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/international-journal-of-middle-east-studies/article/abs/arabmuslim-presence-in-medieval-central-europe/DC701B38E873F9B25B995114D47C3711|journal=International Journal of Middle East Studies|volume=12|issue=1|pages=59–79|doi=10.1017/S0020743800027136|issn=1471-6380|s2cid=162537404|url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=The Arab influence in medieval Europe|date=1996|publisher=Ithaca Press|isbn=0-86372-213-X|editor1=Dionisius A. Agius|edition=1st pbk|location=Reading, UK|oclc=38255663|editor2=Richard Hitchcock}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Ali|first=Samer M.|title=Arabic literary salons in the Islamic Middle Ages: poetry, public performance, and the presentation of the past|date=2010|publisher=University of Notre Dame Press|isbn=978-0-268-07465-4|location=Notre Dame|oclc=794925469}}</ref>

From the medieval scholars of the [[Renaissance of the 12th century]], who had focused on studying [[Greek language|Greek]] and [[Arabic]] works of natural sciences, philosophy, and mathematics, rather than on such cultural texts. Arab logician, most notably [[Averroes]], had inherited Greek ideas after they had invaded and conquered [[Muslim conquest of Egypt|Egypt]] and the [[Muslim conquest of the Levant|Levant]]. Their translations and commentaries on these ideas worked their way through the Arab West into [[Al-Andalus|Iberia]] and [[Emirate of Sicily|Sicily]], which became important centers for this transmission of ideas. From the 11th to the 13th century, many schools dedicated to the translation of philosophical and scientific works from [[Classical Arabic]] to [[Medieval Latin]] were established in Iberia, most notably the [[Toledo School of Translators]]. This work of translation from Arab culture, though largely unplanned and disorganized, constituted one of the greatest transmissions of ideas in history.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Perry|first1=Marvin|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kKGgoNo4un0C&pg=PA261|title=Western Civilization: Ideas, Politics, and Society, Comprehensive Edition|last2=Jacob|first2=Margaret|last3=Jacob|first3=James|last4=Chase|first4=Myrna|last5=Laue|first5=Theodore Von|date=2008|publisher=Cengage Learning|isbn=978-0-547-14701-7}}</ref>

During the [[Timurid Renaissance]] spanning the late 14th, the 15th, and the early 16th centuries, there was a significant exchange of ideas, art, and knowledge between different cultures and civilizations. Arab scholars, artists, and intellectuals played a role in this cultural exchange, contributing to the overall intellectual atmosphere of the time. They participated in various fields, including literature, art, science, and philosophy.<ref>{{Cite web|first=R|last=Carney|date=6 June 2021|title=Timurid Architecture and the Timurid Renaissance|url=https://architectureofcities.com/timurid-architecture|access-date=29 May 2023|website=Architecture of Cities}}</ref> In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the [[Arab Renaissance]] was a cultural and intellectual movement that emerged. The term "Nahda" means "awakening" or "renaissance" in Arabic, and refers to a period of renewed interest in Arabic language, literature, and culture.<ref name="Sheehi2004">[[Stephen Sheehi]], [[Foundations of Modern Arab Identity]]. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2004 [http://florida.theorangegrove.org/og/file/079a66de-df27-a87d-4946-095679fb5de4/1/Sheehi,9781616101343.pdf]</ref><ref>Adnan A. Musallam, [http://admusallam.bethlehem.edu/publications/EndofTheOttomanEra.htm Arab Press, Society and Politics at the End of The Ottoman Era] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719151528/http://admusallam.bethlehem.edu/publications/EndofTheOttomanEra.htm|date=19 July 2011}}</ref><ref name="Pacini1998">{{cite book|last=Pacini|first=Andrea|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KMfYAAAAMAAJ|title=Christian Communities in the Arab Middle East: The Challenge of the Future|publisher=Clarendon Press|year=1998|isbn=978-0-19-829388-0|pages=38, 55|access-date=21 October 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210310101859/https://books.google.com/books?id=KMfYAAAAMAAJ|archive-date=10 March 2021|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Modern period ===
{{Main|Arab world|Arab League|Charter of the Arab League|Arab Maghreb Union|Gulf Cooperation Council}}
{{See also|Arab nationalism|Pan-Arabism|Arab Union|Arab socialism|}}{{See also|Arab Federation|United Arab Republic|United Arab States|Federation of Arab Republics|Arab Islamic Republic|Union of Arab Republics (1972)}}
[[File:Arab League-Map-WS.PNG|thumb|upright=1.2|A map of the Arab world, formally the '''Arab homeland'''; also known as the '''Arab nation.''']]
The modern period in [[History of the Arabs|Arab history]] refers to the time period from the late 19th century to the present day. During this time, the [[Arab world]] experienced significant [[Politics|political]], [[Economy|economic]], and social changes. One of the most significant events of the modern period was the collapse of the Ottoman Empire, the end of Ottoman rule led to the emergence of new [[Nation state|nation-states]] in the Arab world.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Ottoman Empire – The decline of the Ottoman Empire, 1566–1807|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Ottoman-Empire|access-date=7 July 2021|website=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Geography of the Modern Middle East and North Africa|url=http://www.middleeastpdx.org/resources/original/geography-of-the-modern-middle-east-and-north-africa/|access-date=7 July 2021|archive-date=9 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709185925/http://www.middleeastpdx.org/resources/original/geography-of-the-modern-middle-east-and-north-africa/}}</ref>

Sharif Hussein was supposed, in the event of the success of the Arab revolution and the victory of the [[Allies of World War I|Allies in World War I]], to be able to establish an independent Arab state consisting of the Arabian Peninsula and the Fertile Crescent, including Iraq and the Levant. He aimed to become "King of the Arabs" in this state, however, the Arab revolution only succeeded in achieving some of its objectives, including the [[Kingdom of Hejaz|independence of the Hejaz]] and the recognition of Sharif Hussein as its king by the Allies.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Teitelbaum|first=Joshua|date=1998|title=Sharif Husayn ibn Ali and the Hashemite Vision of the Post-Ottoman Order: From Chieftaincy to Suzerainty|journal=Middle Eastern Studies|volume=34|issue=1|pages=103–122|doi=10.1080/00263209808701212|issn=0026-3206|jstor=4283920}}</ref>[[File:Algunos_miembros_de_Al-Rabita_al-Qalamiyya.jpg|thumb|A 1920 photograph of four prominent members of [[Mahjar|The Pen League]] literal meanings being "the [[Arab diaspora]]"<ref>{{Cite book|author=Hans Wehr|title=[[Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic]]|edition=4th|page=1195|author-link=Hans Wehr}}</ref> predecessors in the Nahda movement (or the "[[Nahda|Arab Renaissance]]"). (From left to right): [[Nasib Arida]], [[Kahlil Gibran]], [[Abd al-Masih Haddad]], and [[Mikhail Naimy]].|left]] [[Arab nationalism]] emerged as a major movement in the early 20th century, with many Arab intellectuals, artists, and political leaders seeking to promote unity and independence for the Arab world.<ref name="Requiem">"[http://www.meforum.org/518/requiem-for-arab-nationalism Requiem for Arab Nationalism]" by Adeed Dawisha, ''Middle East Quarterly'', Winter 2003</ref> This movement gained momentum after [[World War II]], leading to the formation of the Arab League and the creation of several new Arab states. [[Pan-Arabism]] that emerged in the early 20th century and aimed to unite all Arabs into a single [[nation]] or state. It emphasized on a shared [[Arab identity|ancestry, culture, history, language and identity]] and sought to create a sense of pan-Arab identity and solidarity.<ref name="smith">Charles Smith, The Arab-Israeli Conflict, in ''International Relations in the Middle East'' by Louise Fawcett, p. 220.</ref><ref name="Sela151">Sela, 151</ref>

The roots of pan-Arabism can be traced back to the [[Nahda|Arab Renaissance]] or Al-Nahda movement of the late 19th century, which saw a revival of Arab culture, literature, and intellectual thought. The movement emphasized the importance of Arab unity and the need to resist colonialism and foreign domination. One of the key figures in the development of pan-Arabism was the Egyptian statesman and intellectual, [[Gamal Abdel Nasser]], who led the [[1952 Egyptian revolution|1952 revolution]] in Egypt and became the country's president in 1954. Nasser promoted pan-Arabism as a means of strengthening Arab solidarity and resisting Western imperialism. He also supported the idea of [[Arab socialism]], which sought to combine pan-Arabism with socialist principles. Similar attempts were made by other [[List of leaders of Middle Eastern and North African states#Leaders of Arab League member states|Arab leaders]], such as [[Hafez al-Assad]], [[Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr]], [[Faisal I of Iraq]], [[Muammar Gaddafi]], [[Saddam Hussein]], [[Gaafar Nimeiry]] and [[Anwar Sadat]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=The Rise and Fall of Pan-Arabism|url=https://www.graduateinstitute.ch/communications/news/rise-and-fall-pan-arabism|access-date=27 March 2023|website=graduateinstitute.ch}}</ref>
[[File:Flag of Hejaz (1917).svg|thumb|The [[Flag of the Arab Revolt|flag]] of the [[Arab Revolt]] against the [[Ottoman Empire]] is a prominent symbol of Arab nationalism. Its design and [[Pan-Arab colors|colors]] are the basis of many of the [[Arab states]]' [[List of Arab flags|flags]]. The [[Pan-Arab colors]] are [[black]], [[white]], [[green]] and [[red]]. Individually, each of the four Pan-Arab colors were intended to represent a certain aspect of the Arabs and their history.]]
Many proposed unions aimed to create a [[Arab Union|unified Arab]] entity that would promote cooperation and integration among Arab countries. However, the initiatives faced numerous challenges and obstacles, including political divisions, regional conflicts, and economic disparities.<ref name="feb1">{{cite news|date=2 February 1958|title=Egypt, Syria Union Aim at Arab Unity|work=The San Francisco Examiner|agency=Associated Press|url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/96294492/egypt-syria-union-aims-at-arab-unity/}}</ref> The [[United Arab Republic]] (UAR) was a political union formed between Egypt and Syria in 1958, with the goal of creating a federal structure that would allow each member state to retain its identity and institutions. However, by 1961, Syria had withdrawn from the UAR due to political differences, and Egypt continued to call itself the UAR until 1971, when it became the [[Egypt|Arab Republic of Egypt]]. In the same year the UAR was formed, another proposed political union, the [[Arab Federation]], was established between [[Jordan]] and [[Iraq]], but it collapsed after only six months due to tensions with the UAR and the [[14 July Revolution]]. A confederation called the [[United Arab States]], which included the UAR and the [[Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen]], was also created in 1958 but dissolved in 1961.<ref name="Continuum">"Arab Unity." ''The Continuum Political Encyclopedia of the Middle East''. Ed. [[Avraham Sela]]. New York: Continuum, 2002.  pp. 160–166.</ref> Later attempts to create a political and economic union among Arab countries included the [[Federation of Arab Republics]], which was formed by Egypt, [[Libya]], and Syria in the 1970s but dissolved after five years due to political and economic challenges. Muammar Gaddafi, the leader of Libya, also proposed the [[Arab Islamic Republic]] with Tunisia, aiming to include [[Algeria]] and [[Morocco]],<ref>Aghrout, A. & Sutton, K. (1990). Regional Economic Union in the Maghrib. ''The Journal of Modern African Studies'', 28(1), 115</ref> instead the [[Arab Maghreb Union]] was formed in 1989.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q3QEAQAAIAAJ&q=%22united+states+of+north+africa%22|title=Africa Research Bulletin|date=7 August 1973|publisher=Blackwell}}</ref>

During the latter half of the 20th century, many Arab countries experienced political upheaval and conflicts, including, revolutions. The [[Arab-Israeli conflict]] remains a major issue in the region, and has resulted in ongoing tensions and periodic outbreaks of violence. In recent years, the Arab world has faced new challenges, including economic and social inequalities, demographic changes, and the impact of [[globalization]].<ref>{{Cite news|date=19 September 2020|title=The Arab-Israeli conflict is fading|newspaper=The Economist|url=https://www.economist.com/middle-east-and-africa/2020/09/19/the-arab-israeli-conflict-is-fading}}</ref> The [[Arab Spring]] was a series of pro-democracy uprisings and protests that swept across several countries in the Arab world in 2010 and 2011. The uprisings were sparked by a combination of political, economic, and social grievances and called for democratic reforms and an end to authoritarian rule. While the protests resulted in the downfall of some long-time authoritarian leaders, they also led to ongoing conflicts and political instability in other countries.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Uprisings in the region and ignored indicators|url=http://www.payvand.com/news/11/feb/1080.html|website=Payvand|access-date=31 March 2023|archive-date=25 April 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130425231858/http://www.payvand.com/news/11/feb/1080.html}}</ref>

== Identity ==
{{Further|Arab identity}}
{{Multiple image|align=right|total_width=320|image_style=border:none;|image1=PLATE8DX foruth sixth.jpg|width1=900|height1=1000|alt1=Costumes of Arab men, fourth to sixth century|image2=PLATE8CX.jpg|width2=900|height2=1000|alt2=Costumes of Arab women, fourth to sixth century.|footer=Artistic rendering of pre-Islamic costumes of Arab men and Arab women between fourth to sixth century}}
Arab identity is defined independently of [[Religion|religious]] identity, and pre-dates the [[spread of Islam]], with historically attested [[Arab Christians|Arab Christian]] kingdoms and [[Jewish tribes of Arabia|Arab Jewish tribes]]. Today, however, most Arabs are Muslim, with a minority adhering to other faiths, largely [[Christianity in the Middle East|Christianity]], but also [[Druze]] and [[Baháʼí Faith|Baháʼí]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Ori Stendel|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=t7Ao8dYsCskC&pg=PA45|title=The Arabs in Israel|publisher=Sussex Academic Press|year=1996|isbn=978-1-898723-24-0|page=45|access-date=4 March 2014}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|first=Mohammad Hassan|last=Khalil|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PmgkD3Hel5IC&pg=PA297|title=Between Heaven and Hell: Islam, Salvation, and the Fate of Others|date=2013|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-994541-2|page=297|access-date=1 March 2014}}</ref> Paternal descent has traditionally been considered the main source of affiliation in the [[Arab world]] when it comes to membership into an [[Ethnicity|ethnic group]] or [[clan]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Parolin|first=Gianluca Paolo|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xSDE7LgTFvUC&q=Arab+paternal&pg=PA127|title=Citizenship in the Arab World: Kin, Religion and Nation-state|date=2009|publisher=Amsterdam University Press|isbn=978-90-8964-045-1}}</ref>

Arab identity is shaped by a range of factors, including ancestry, history, language, customs, [[social construct]]<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Chandra Ford |author2=Nina T Harawa |date=29 April 2010 |title=A new conceptualization of ethnicity for social epidemiologic and health equity research |journal=Soc Sci Med |volume=71 |issue=2 |pages=251–258 |doi=10.1016/j.socscimed.2010.04.008 |pmc=2908006 |pmid=20488602}}</ref> and traditions.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Phillips|first=Christopher|title=Everyday Arab identity: the daily reproduction of the Arab world|date=2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-203-09674-1|location=Abingdon, Oxon|oclc=1058434843}}</ref> Arab identity has been shaped by a rich history that includes the rise and fall of [[empire]]s, [[colonization]], and political turmoil. Despite the challenges faced by Arab communities, their shared cultural heritage has helped to maintain a sense of unity and pride in their identity.<ref name="Imagining the Arabs : Arab identity and the rise of Islam" /> Today, Arab identity continues to evolve as Arab communities navigate complex political, social, and economic landscapes. Despite this, the Arab identity remains an important aspect of the cultural and historical fabric of the Arab world, and continues to be celebrated and preserved by [[Arab diaspora|communities around the world]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Carmichael|first=Joel|title=The shaping of the Arabs: a study in ethnic identity|date=2016|isbn=978-1-000-11333-4|location=London |publisher=Routledge |oclc=1198893560}}</ref>

== Subgroups ==
{{Further|Tribes of Arabia|Arab migrations to the Maghreb|Arab migrations to the Levant}}
[[File:Early_Islamic_Syria,_ca._640s.png|thumb|upright=1.1|The Yaman tribes, including the Banu Kalb, Ghassan, Judham and Tanukh, largely inhabited the districts of [[Jund Filastin|Filastin]], [[Jund al-Urdunn|al-Urdunn]] and [[Jund Hims|Hims]], while the Qays inhabited [[Upper Mesopotamia|al-Jazirah]], the [[Al-Awasim|Byzantine frontier]] and [[Jund Qinnasrin|Qinnasrin]].]]
Arab tribes are prevalent in the Arabian Peninsula, Mesopotamia, Levant, Egypt, Maghreb, the Sudan region and Horn Africa.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2 October 2021|title=ص204 – كتاب الأعلام للزركلي – يعلى بن أمية – المكتبة الشاملة الحديثة|url=https://al-maktaba.org/book/12286/7605|website=maktaba.org|access-date=21 August 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211002101301/https://al-maktaba.org/book/12286/7605|archive-date=2 October 2021}}</ref><ref name="Imagining the Arabs : Arab identity and the rise of Islam">{{Cite book|last=Webb|first=Peter|title=Imagining the Arabs: Arab identity and the rise of Islam|date=2016|isbn=978-1-4744-0827-1|publisher=Edinburgh University Press |oclc=964933606}}</ref><ref>* {{cite book|last=Hourani|first=Albert|title=A history of the Arab peoples|date=2010|publisher=Belknap Press of Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-05819-4|edition=1st Harvard Press paperback|location=Cambridge, Mass.}}
* {{Cite web|title=History of Migration|url=http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/PlainTextHistories.asp?ParagraphID=bbv|access-date=18 December 2017|website=Historyworld.net}}
* Power, Bethany G. "[https://web.archive.org/web/20160903042434/http://people.umass.edu/educ613/WorldhistoryI/WHI.3.html The Emergence and Expansion of Islam to 1500]." ''Education 613: MTEL Guide''. [[University of Massachusetts]]. Archived from the [http://people.umass.edu/educ613/WorldhistoryI/WHI.3.html original] on 3 September 2016.
* {{cite web|title=History of the Arabs (book)|url=http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/PlainTextHistories.asp?ParagraphID=ebh|access-date=18 December 2017|website=Historyworld.net}}</ref>

The Arabs of the [[Levant]] are traditionally divided into [[Qays and Yaman tribes]]. The distinction between Qays and Yaman dates back to the pre-Islamic era and was based on tribal affiliations and geographic locations.; they include [[Banu Kalb]], [[Kinda (tribe)|Kinda]], [[Ghassanids]], and [[Lakhmids]].<ref>Hugh Kennedy ''The Armies of the Caliphs: Military and Society in the Early Islamic State'' p. 33 Routledge, 2013 {{ISBN|1-134-53113-3}}</ref> The Qays were made up of tribes such as [[Banu Kilab]], [[Tayy|Banu Tayy]], [[Banu Hanifa]], and [[Banu Tamim]], among others. The Yaman, on the other hand, were composed of tribes such as [[Banu Hashim]], [[Banu Makhzum]], [[Umayyad dynasty|Banu Umayya]], and [[Banu Zuhrah|Banu Zuhra]], among others.

There are also many Arab tribes indigenous to Mesopotamia (Iraq) and Iran, including from well before the [[Muslim conquest of Persia]] in 633 CE.<ref name="IranicaDaniel2">{{Cite encyclopedia|title=Arab settlements in Iran|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Iranica|url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/arab-iii|access-date=9 April 2011|last=Daniel|first=E. L.|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110429164853/http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/arab-iii|archive-date=29 April 2011}}</ref> The largest group of [[Iranian Arabs]] are the [[Khuzestani Arabs]], including [[Banu Ka'b]], [[Bani Turuf]] and the [[Musha'sha'iyyah]] sect. Smaller groups are the [[Khamseh]] nomads in [[Fars province]] and the [[Khorasani Arabs]].
As a result of the centuries-long [[Arab migration to the Maghreb]], various Arab tribes (including [[Banu Hilal]], [[Banu Sulaym]] and [[Maqil]]) also settled in the Maghreb and formed the sub-tribes which exist to present-day. The [[Banu Hilal]] spent almost a century in [[Egypt]] before moving to [[Libya]], [[Tunisia]] and [[Algeria]], and another century later moved to [[Morocco]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=Clio|title=François Decret, Les invasions hilaliennes en Ifrîqiya – Clio – Voyage Culturel|url=https://www.clio.fr/BIBLIOTHEQUE/les_invasions_hilaliennes_en_ifriqiya.asp|access-date=28 September 2015|website=clio.fr}}</ref>

According to Arab traditions, tribes are divided into different divisions called Arab skulls, which are described in the traditional custom of strength, abundance, victory, and honor. A number of them branched out, which later became independent tribes (sub-tribes). The majority of Arab tribes are descended from these major tribes.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Al Andulsi|first=Ibn Abd Rabuh|title=Al Aqid Al Fareed|year=939}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Al-Qthami|first=Hmood|title=North of Hejaz|publisher=Dar Al Bayan|year=1985|location=Jeddah|page=235}}</ref><ref name="المفصل فى تاريخ العرب قبل الإسلام22">{{cite web|last1=Ali|first1=Jawad|date=2001|title=A Detailed Account of the History of Arabs Before Islam|url=http://islamport.com/w/tkh/Web/2300/2310.htm|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304201846/http://islamport.com/w/tkh/Web/2300/2310.htm|archive-date=4 March 2016|access-date=11 September 2020|website=Al Madinah Digital Library|publisher=Dar Al Saqi}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Al Zibeedi|first=Murtathi|title=Taj Al Aroos min Jawahir Al Qamoos|year=1965}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Al Hashimi|first=Muhammed Ibn Habib Ibn Omaya Ibn Amir|title=Al Mahbar|publisher=Dar Al Afaaq|year=859|location=Beirut}}</ref>

They are:<ref name="المفصل فى تاريخ العرب قبل الإسلام22" />
[[File:Banu Adnan.png|thumb|upright=1.1|A family tree depicting the descendants of the Banu Adnan.]]
* [[Banu Bakr|Bakr]], has descendants in Arabia and [[Iraq]].<ref>Trudy Ring, Noelle Watson, Paul Schellinger. 1995. International Dictionary of Historic Places. Vol. 3 Southern Europe. Routledge. p.190.</ref>
* [[Kinana]]h, has descendants in [[Arabian Peninsula|Arabia]], [[Iraq]], [[Egypt]], [[Sudan]], [[Palestine]], [[Tunisia]], [[Morocco]], and [[Syria]].<ref name="Brill2">{{cite book|title=E. J. Brill's First Encyclopaedia of Islam, 1913–1936, Volume 4|year=1993|isbn=978-90-04-09790-2|editor=M. Th. Houtsma|pages=1017–1018|chapter=Kinana|publisher=Brill}}</ref>
* [[Hawazin]], has descendants in [[Arabian Peninsula|Arabia]], [[Libya]], [[Algeria]], [[Morocco]], [[Sudan]], and [[Iraq]].<ref>{{Cite web|date=26 February 2018|title=نهاية الأرب في معرفة أنساب العرب • الموقع الرسمي للمكتبة الشاملة|url=http://shamela.ws/browse.php/book-31382/page-229|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180226213159/http://shamela.ws/browse.php/book-31382/page-229|archive-date=26 February 2018|access-date=21 August 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=3 September 2019|title=موسوعة تاريخ المغرب العربي – ʻAbd al-Fattāḥ Miqlad Ghunaymī, عبد الفتاح مقلد الغنيمي – كتب Google|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IbVIAAAAMAAJ&q=%D8%A8%D9%86%D9%8A+%D8%B3%D8%B9%D8%AF+%D8%A8%D9%86+%D8%A8%D9%83%D8%B1+%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%BA%D8%B1%D8%A8|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220826054305/https://books.google.com/books?id=IbVIAAAAMAAJ&q=%D8%A8%D9%86%D9%8A+%D8%B3%D8%B9%D8%AF+%D8%A8%D9%86+%D8%A8%D9%83%D8%B1+%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%BA%D8%B1%D8%A8|archive-date=26 August 2022|access-date=21 August 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=17 December 2019|title=موسوعة العشائر العراقية – Thāmir ʻAbd al-Ḥasan ʻĀmirī – كتب Google|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bBBO1pj5XCAC&q=%D8%B3%D8%B9%D8%AF+%D8%A8%D9%86+%D8%A8%D9%83%D8%B1+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%82|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220826054305/https://books.google.com/books?id=bBBO1pj5XCAC&q=%D8%B3%D8%B9%D8%AF+%D8%A8%D9%86+%D8%A8%D9%83%D8%B1+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%82|archive-date=26 August 2022|access-date=21 August 2022}}</ref>
* [[Banu Tamim|Tamim]], has descendants in [[Arabian Peninsula|Arabia]], [[Iraq]], [[Iran]], [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]], [[Algeria]], and [[Morocco]]<ref>{{Cite web|date=2 October 2021|title=ص204 – كتاب الأعلام للزركلي – يعلى بن أمية – المكتبة الشاملة الحديثة|url=https://al-maktaba.org/book/12286/7605|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211002101301/https://al-maktaba.org/book/12286/7605|archive-date=2 October 2021|access-date=21 August 2022}}</ref>
* [[Azd]], has descendants in [[Arabian Peninsula|Arabia]], [[Iraq]], [[Levant]], and [[North Africa]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=الموسوعة الشاملة – قلائد الجمان في التعريف بقبائل عرب الزمان|url=http://islamport.com/w/nsb/Web/489/27.htm|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180324041246/http://islamport.com/w/nsb/Web/489/27.htm|archive-date=24 March 2018|access-date=21 August 2022}}</ref>
* [[Ghatafan]], has descendants in [[Arabian Peninsula|Arabia]] and the [[Maghreb]].<ref>{{Citation|last=Fück|first=J. W.|title=G̲h̲aṭafān|date=24 April 2012|url=https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-2/ghatafan-SIM_2476?s.num=0&s.f.s2_parent=s.f.book.encyclopaedia-of-islam-2&s.q=Gha%E1%B9%ADaf%C4%81n|encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition|access-date=21 August 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220314181616/https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-2/ghatafan-SIM_2476?s.num=0&s.f.s2_parent=s.f.book.encyclopaedia-of-islam-2&s.q=Gha%E1%B9%ADaf%C4%81n|url-status=live|publisher=Brill|archive-date=14 March 2022}}</ref>
* [[Madhhaj]], has descendants in [[Arabian Peninsula|Arabia]] and [[Iraq]].<ref>عشائر العراق – عباس العزاوي</ref>
* [[Abd al-Qays]], has descendants in [[Arabian Peninsula|Arabia]].
* [[Qays|Al Qays]] (القيس), has descendants in [[Arabian Peninsula|Arabia]].
* [[Quda'a]], has descendants in [[Arabian Peninsula|Arabia]], [[Syria]], and [[North Africa]].

== Geographic distribution ==
=== Arab homeland ===
{{further|Demographics of the Arab world|List of Arab League countries by population}}
[[File:Arab people around the world.svg|thumb|upright=1.2|Countries with significant Arab population and descendants.{{Legend|#000000|Arab world}}{{Legend|#004c22|+ 5,000,000}}{{Legend|#008438|+ 1,000,000}}{{Legend|#00c152|+ 100,000}}]]
The total number of Arabs living in the [[Arab League|Arab nations]] is estimated at 366 million by the [[CIA Factbook]] (as of 2014). The estimated number of Arabs in countries outside the Arab League is estimated at 17.5 million, yielding a total of close to 384 million. The Arab world stretches around {{Convert|13000000|km2|sqmi|abbr=}}, from the [[Atlantic Ocean]] in the west to the [[Arabian Sea]] in the east and from the [[Mediterranean Sea]] in the north to the [[Horn of Africa]] and the [[Indian Ocean]] in the southeast.
[[File:Detailed Afroasiatic map.svg|thumb|Geographical distribution of Afroasiatic languages and [[varieties of Arabic]]]]

=== Arab diaspora ===
{{main|Arab diaspora}}
[[Arab diaspora]] refers to descendants of the [[Arab people|Arab]] [[Emigration|immigrants]] who, voluntarily or as refugees, emigrated from their native lands in non-Arab countries, primarily in [[East Africa]], [[South America]], [[Europe]], [[North America]], Australia and parts of [[South Asia]], [[Southeast Asia]], the [[Caribbean]], and [[West Africa]]. According to the [[International Organization for Migration]], there are 13 million first-generation Arab migrants in the world, of which 5.8 million reside in Arab countries. Arab expatriates contribute to the circulation of financial and human capital in the region and thus significantly promote regional development. In 2009, Arab countries received a total of US$35.1 billion in [[remittance]] in-flows and remittances sent to [[Jordan]], [[Egypt]] and [[Lebanon]] from other Arab countries are 40 to 190 per cent higher than trade revenues between these and other Arab countries.<ref>[http://www.egypt.iom.int/Doc/IOM%20Intra%20regional%20labour%20mobility%20in%20Arab%20region%20Facts%20and%20Figures%20(English).pdf Intra-Regional Labour Mobility in the Arab World] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160507114953/http://www.egypt.iom.int/Doc/IOM%20Intra%20regional%20labour%20mobility%20in%20Arab%20region%20Facts%20and%20Figures%20(English).pdf|date=7 May 2016}}, International Organization for Migration (IOM) Cairo</ref> The 250,000 strong Lebanese community in [[West Africa]] is the largest non-African group in the region.<ref>{{Cite news|date=20 May 2011|title=Lebanese in west Africa: Far from home|newspaper=The Economist|url=https://www.economist.com/blogs/baobab/2011/05/lebanese_west_africa}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|date=10 January 2010|title=Tenacity and risk – the Lebanese in West Africa|publisher=BBC News|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/8479134.stm}}</ref> Arab traders have long operated in [[Southeast Asia]] and along the [[East Africa]]'s [[Swahili coast]]. [[Zanzibar]] was once ruled by [[Omanis|Omani]] Arabs.<ref>{{Cite news|date=18 July 2012|title=Zanzibar profile|publisher=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14115176}}</ref> Most of the prominent [[Arab Indonesians|Indonesians]], [[Arab Malaysians|Malaysians]], and [[Arab Singaporeans|Singaporeans]] of Arab descent are [[Hadhrami people]] with origins in southern Arabia in the [[Hadhramaut|Hadramaut]] coastal region.<ref>"[http://www.managementtoday.co.uk/news/648273/ The world's successful diasporas]". Managementtoday.co.uk. 3 April 2007.</ref>

==== Europe ====
{{main|Arabs in Europe|Arabs in Austria|Arabs in Bulgaria|Arabs in Finland|Arabs in France|Arabs in Germany|Arabs in Greece|Arabs in Italy|Arabs in the Netherlands|Arabs in Romania|Arabs in Serbia|Arabs in Spain|Arabs in Sweden|Arabs in Switzerland|Arabs in Turkey|British Arabs|Arabs in Malta|Arma people}}
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There are millions of [[Arabs in Europe|Arabs living in Europe]], mostly concentrated in [[France]] (about 6,000,000 in 2005<ref name="variety.com">{{Cite magazine|date=29 January 2008|title=French-Arabs battle stereotypes – Entertainment News, French Cinema, Media|url=https://variety.com/2008/film/global/french-arabs-battle-stereotypes-1117979837/|url-status=live|magazine=Variety|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100221202920/http://www.variety.com/article/VR1117979837.html?categoryid=2879&cs=1|archive-date=21 February 2010|access-date=22 August 2010}}</ref>). Most [[Arabs in France]] are from the [[Maghreb]] but some also come from the [[Mashreq]] areas of the Arab world. Arabs in France form the second largest [[ethnic group]] after [[French people]].<ref name="economist.com2">[https://www.economist.com/europe/2009/03/26/to-count-or-not-to-count France's ethnic minorities: To count or not to count]. ''The Economist'' (26 March 2009). Retrieved on 12 July 2013.</ref> In [[Italy]], Arabs first arrived on the southern island of [[Sicily]] in the 9th century. The largest modern societies on the island from the Arab world are Tunisians and Moroccans, who make up 10.9% and 8% respectively of the foreign population of Sicily, which in itself constitutes 3.9% of the island's total population.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Cittadini stranieri 2020 – Sicilia|url=https://www.tuttitalia.it/sicilia/statistiche/cittadini-stranieri-2020/|access-date=9 September 2021|website=Tuttitalia.it|language=Italian}}</ref> The modern [[Arabs in Spain|Arab population of Spain]] numbers 1,800,000,<ref>{{Cite web|date=4 December 2013|title=¿Cuántos musulmanes hay en España?|url=http://islamhoy.com/actualidad/analisis/estudio-demografico-orientativo-sobre-la-poblacion-musulmana-en-espana/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130609101638/http://islamhoy.com/actualidad/analisis/estudio-demografico-orientativo-sobre-la-poblacion-musulmana-en-espana/|archive-date=9 June 2013|access-date=18 December 2017|website=Islamhoy.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Medina|first=Miguel Ángel|title=Los musulmanes son el 3,6% de la población en España (1,7 millones)|url=http://blogs.elpais.com/miradas-arabes/2014/02/poblacion-cuantos-musulmanes-espana-3-por-ciento-2014.html|access-date=18 December 2017|website=Blogs.elpais.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=30 March 2015|title=Los musulmanes en España superan los 1,8 millones|url=http://www.europapress.es/sociedad/noticia-musulmanes-espana-superan-18-millones-20150330182141.html|access-date=18 December 2017|website=Europapress.es}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=9 October 2012|title=La cifra de musulmanes en España alcanza los 1,6 millones, de los que casi un tercio viven en Cataluña|url=http://www.alertadigital.com/2012/10/09/la-cifra-de-musulmanes-en-espana-casi-alcanza-los-16-millones-de-los-que-casi-un-tercio-viven-en-cataluna/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171201040941/http://www.alertadigital.com/2012/10/09/la-cifra-de-musulmanes-en-espana-casi-alcanza-los-16-millones-de-los-que-casi-un-tercio-viven-en-cataluna/|archive-date=1 December 2017|access-date=18 December 2017|website=Alertadigital.com}}</ref> and there have been Arabs in [[Spain]] since the early 8th century when the [[Umayyad conquest of Hispania|Muslim conquest of Hispania]] created the state of Al-Andalus.<ref>{{Cite web|title=spanish property|url=http://www.villa.spain-property-costa-blanca.com/archives/2003/12/03/the-history-of-arabs-in-spain/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171129191002/http://www.villa.spain-property-costa-blanca.com/archives/2003/12/03/the-history-of-arabs-in-spain|archive-date=29 November 2017|access-date=18 December 2017|website=Villa.spain-property-costa-blanca.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Arab Influences on Spanish Language and Culture|url=http://www.donquijote.org/culture/spain/society/customs/arab-influence-on-spanish-language-and-culture|website=donQuijote}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=BBC – Religions – Islam: Muslim Spain (711–1492)|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/history/spain_1.shtml|publisher=BBC}}</ref> In [[Germany]] the Arab population numbers over 1,401,950.<ref name="statista2">{{cite web|title=Anzahl der Ausländer in Deutschland nach Herkunftsland in den Jahren 2015 und 2016|url=https://de.statista.com/statistik/daten/studie/1221/umfrage/anzahl-der-auslaender-in-deutschland-nach-herkunftsland/|work=statista|language=de}}</ref><ref name="cz-herborn.de2">{{Cite web|title=Arabische Christen in Deutschland|url=http://www.cz-herborn.de/arabische/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131230235841/http://www.cz-herborn.de/arabische/|archive-date=30 December 2013|access-date=27 September 2014}}</ref> in the United Kingdom between 366,769<ref name="Naba11a2">{{Cite web|title=REPORT ON THE 2011 CENSUS – MAY 2013 – Arabs and Arab League Population in the UK|url=http://www.naba.org.uk/library/reports/appendix_6.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141008073407/http://www.naba.org.uk/library/reports/appendix_6.html|archive-date=8 October 2014|access-date=9 April 2015|publisher=National Association of British Arabs}}</ref> and 500,000,<ref>{{Cite web|title=British Arabs|url=http://www.naba.org.uk/Content/articles/Diaspora/british_arabs.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150103180941/http://www.naba.org.uk/Content/articles/Diaspora/british_arabs.htm|archive-date=3 January 2015|access-date=18 December 2017|website=Naba.org.uk}}</ref> and in [[Greece]] between 250,000 and 750,000<ref name="Gre12">{{Cite web|date=19 May 2016|title=Refugees, migrants reach 54,574 in Greece on Wednesday|url=http://www.ekathimerini.com/208747/article/ekathimerini/news/refugees-migrants-reach-54574-in-greece-on-wednesday|access-date=19 May 2016|website=[[Kathimerini]]}}</ref>). In addition, Greece is home to people from Arab countries who have the status of refugees (e.g. [[refugees of the Syrian civil war]]).<ref name="Kniffka19952">{{Cite book|last=Hannes Kniffka|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=j2wbAQAAIAAJ|title=Elements of culture-contrastive linguistics|date=June 1995|publisher=P. Lang|isbn=978-0-8204-2927-4|page=244}}</ref> In the [[Netherlands]] 180,000,<ref name="auto2" /> and in [[Denmark]] 121,000. Other countries are also home to Arab populations, including [[Norway]], [[Austria]], [[Bulgaria]], [[Switzerland]], [[North Macedonia]], [[Romania]] and [[Serbia]].<ref name="Arab migration facts and figures2">{{Citation|title=Intra-Regional Labour Mobility in the Arab World, Facts and Figures|url=http://www.egypt.iom.int/Doc/IOM%20Intra%20regional%20labour%20mobility%20in%20Arab%20region%20Facts%20and%20Figures%20(English).pdf|year=2010|access-date=21 July 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160507114953/http://www.egypt.iom.int/Doc/IOM%20Intra%20regional%20labour%20mobility%20in%20Arab%20region%20Facts%20and%20Figures%20(English).pdf|publisher=International Organization for Migration|archive-date=7 May 2016}}</ref> As of late 2015, [[Turkey]] had a total population of 78.7 million, with [[Refugees of the Syrian Civil War|Syrian refugees]] accounting for 3.1% of that figure based on conservative estimates. Demographics indicated that the country previously had 1,500,000<ref name="ChapinMetz2">{{Cite web|title=Turkey – Arabs|url=http://countrystudies.us/turkey/29.htm|website=countrystudies.us}}</ref> to 2,000,000 Arab residents,<ref name="www.aljazeera.com2">{{Cite web|title=Turkey's demographic challenge|url=http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/2016/02/turkey-demographic-challenge-arabs-syria-refugees-isis-160218063810080.html|publisher=Al Jazeera}}</ref> [[Arabs in Turkey|Turkey's Arab population]] is now 4.5 to 5.1% of the total population, or approximately 4–5 million people.<ref name="www.aljazeera.com2" /><ref name="www.washingtoninstitute.org2">{{Cite web|title=The Impact of Syrian Refugees on Turkey|url=http://www.washingtoninstitute.org/policy-analysis/view/the-impact-of-syrian-refugees-on-turkey|website=washingtoninstitute.org}}</ref>

==== Americas ====
{{Main|Arab immigration to the United States|Arab Americans|History of Middle Eastern people in Metro Detroit|Arab Canadians|Arab Brazilians|Arab Mexicans|Arab Chileans|Arab Colombians|Arab Uruguayans|Arab Venezuelans|Arab Cubans|Arab Haitians|Arab immigration to Honduras|Arab Argentines|Lebanese Paraguayans|Arab Uruguayans|}}
{{See also|Arab American Institute|Arab American National Museum|Arab American Action Network|Arab American Book Award}}{{multiple image
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[[Arab immigration to the United States]] began in significant numbers during the 1880s, and today, an estimated 2 million Americans trace their roots to an Arab background according the Census Bureau.<ref name="American Community Survey"/><ref>{{Cite book|last=Kayyali|first=Randa|title=The Arab Americans|publisher=Greenwood Press|year=2006|page=26}}</ref> [[Arab Americans]] are found in every state, but more than two thirds of them live in just ten states, and one-third live in [[Los Angeles]], [[Detroit]], and New York City specifically.<ref name="aaiusa.org">{{Cite web|title=Demographics|url=http://www.aaiusa.org/demographics|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161023235625/http://www.aaiusa.org/demographics|archive-date=23 October 2016|access-date=18 December 2017|publisher=Arab American Institute}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Kayyali|first=Randa|title=The Arab Americans|publisher=Greenwood Press|year=2006|page=35}}</ref> Most Arab Americans were born in the US, and nearly 82% of US-based Arabs are citizens.<ref name="autogenerated42">{{Cite book|last=Orfalea|first=Gregory|url=https://archive.org/details/arabamericans00greg|title=The Arab Americans: A History|publisher=Olive Branch Press|year=2006|page=[https://archive.org/details/arabamericans00greg/page/189 189]|url-access=registration}}</ref><ref name="aai.3cdn.net2">{{Cite web|title=Arab American Population Highlights|url=http://aai.3cdn.net/9298c231f3a79e30c6_g7m6bx9hs.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110723000336/http://aai.3cdn.net/9298c231f3a79e30c6_g7m6bx9hs.pdf|archive-date=23 July 2011|access-date=7 July 2011}} Arab American Population Highlights Arab American Institute Foundation</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last1=de la Cruz|first1=G. Patricia|last2=Angela Brittingham|date=December 2003|title=The Arab Population: 2000|url=https://www.census.gov/prod/2003pubs/c2kbr-23.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.census.gov/prod/2003pubs/c2kbr-23.pdf|archive-date=9 October 2022|access-date=17 October 2016|website=U.S. Census Bureau}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=U.S. Census website|url=https://www.census.gov|access-date=18 March 2015|website=US Bureau of Statistics}}</ref>

Arab immigrants began to arrive in Canada in small numbers in 1882. Their [[immigration]] was relatively limited until 1945, after which time it increased progressively, particularly in the 1960s and thereafter.<ref>{{Cite web|title=The Arab Community in Canada|url=http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/89-621-x/89-621-x2007009-eng.htm|access-date=18 December 2017|website=Statcan.gc.ca}}</ref> According to the website "Who are [[Arab Canadians]]", [[Montreal]], the Canadian city with the largest Arab population, has approximately 267,000 Arab inhabitants.<ref>{{Cite web|date=12 March 2015|title=Home|url=http://www.rcinet.ca/arabs-canada/|website=Canadians of Arab Origin – Who are they?}}</ref>

[[Latin America]] has the largest Arab population outside of the [[Arab World]].<ref>{{Cite web|date=8 May 2015|title=Out of MENA: Nine cities the Arab Diaspora calls home|url=http://www.albawaba.com/slideshow/out-mena-nine-cities-arab-diaspora-calls-home-691942|website=Al Bawaba}}</ref> Latin America is home to anywhere from 17–25 to 30 million people of Arab descent, which is more than any other diaspora region in the world.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Arab roots grow deep in Brazil's rich melting pot|work=The Washington Times|url=http://m.washingtontimes.com/news/2005/jul/11/20050711-092503-1255r/?page=all|access-date=17 April 2016}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Origem e destino dos imigrantes do Levante|url=http://brasil500anos.ibge.gov.br/territorio-brasileiro-e-povoamento/arabes/origem-e-destino-dos-imigrantes|access-date=11 April 2016|publisher=ibge}}</ref> The [[Federal government of Brazil|Brazilian]] and Lebanese governments claim there are 7 million [[Lebanese Brazilians|Brazilians of Lebanese descent]].<ref name="itamaraty12">{{Cite web|title=Lebanese Republic|url=http://www.itamaraty.gov.br/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=7223:lebanese-republic&catid=155&lang=en&Itemid=478|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923004630/http://www.itamaraty.gov.br/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=7223:lebanese-republic&catid=155&lang=en&Itemid=478|archive-date=23 September 2015|access-date=18 December 2017|website=Itamaraty.gov.br}}</ref><ref name="libano12">{{Cite web|date=1996|title=Lebanon: Geography|url=http://www.libano.org.br/olibano_geografia.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080529005221/http://www.libano.org.br/olibano_geografia.htm|archive-date=29 May 2008|website=Embassy of Lebanon in Brazil|language=pt}}</ref> Also, the Brazilian government claims there are 4 million [[Syrian Brazilians|Brazilians of Syrian descent]].<ref name="itamaraty12" /><ref name="IBGE2008"/><ref name="saudiaramcoworld12">{{Cite magazine|title=The Arabs of Brazil|url=http://archive.aramcoworld.com/issue/200505/the.arabs.of.brazil.htm|magazine=Saudi Aramco World|access-date=17 September 2011}}</ref><ref name="dsbra2">{{Cite news|date=23 April 2010|title=Sleiman meets Brazilian counterpart, Lebanese community|work=The Daily Star|url=http://www.dailystar.com.lb//News/Lebanon-News/2010/Apr-23/57092-sleiman-meets-brazilian-counterpart-lebanese-community.ashx#axzz0rLGUHTtA}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=1996|title=O Líbano: Geografia|trans-title=Lebanon: Geography|url=http://www.libano.org.br/olibano_geografia.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101112211835/http://www.libano.org.br/olibano_geografia.htm|archive-date=12 November 2010|publisher=Lebanese Embassy in Brazil|language=pt}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Estadão de Hoje|url=http://www.estadao.com.br/estadaodehoje/20091222/index.htm|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130101021406/http://www.estadao.com.br/estadaodehoje/20091222/index.htm|archive-date=1 January 2013|access-date=17 September 2011|publisher=Estadao.com.br}}</ref> Other large Arab communities includes [[Argentina]] (about 3,500,000<ref name="Fearab.org.ar" /><ref name="oni.escuelas.edu.ar2">{{Cite web|title=Sirios, turcos y libaneses|trans-title=Syrians, Turks and Lebanese|url=http://www.oni.escuelas.edu.ar/olimpi98/BajarondelosBarcos/Colectividades/Turcos,%20sirios%20y%20libaneses/inmigraci%C3%B3n.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081211122017/http://www.oni.escuelas.edu.ar/olimpi98/bajarondelosbarcos/Colectividades/Turcos%2C%20sirios%20y%20libaneses/inmigraci%C3%B3n.htm|archive-date=11 December 2008|publisher=oni.escuelas.edu.ar|language=es}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=October 2009|title=Mapping the Global Muslim Population: A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World's Muslim Population|url=http://www.pewforum.org/files/2009/10/Muslimpopulation.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180619214725/http://www.pewforum.org/files/2009/10/Muslimpopulation.pdf|archive-date=19 June 2018|access-date=4 November 2016|publisher=Pew Research Center|page=24}}</ref>)

The interethnic marriage in the Arab community, regardless of religious affiliation, is very high; most community members have only one parent who has Arab ethnicity.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Barros |first=Carolina |date=23 August 2012 |title=Argentina's Syrians |url=http://www.buenosairesherald.com/article/109558/argentina%27s-syrians |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151130112314/http://www.buenosairesherald.com/article/109558/argentina%27s-syrians |archive-date=30 November 2015 |access-date=4 November 2016 |work=Buenos Aires Herald |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Colombia]] (over 3,200,000<ref>{{Cite web|title=Colombia y Medio Oriente|url=https://www.larepublica.co/analisis/simon-gaviria-munoz-401830/colombia-y-medio-oriente-3350223|access-date=12 July 2022|website=Diario La República|date=26 April 2022|language=es}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=6 July 2011|title=Brazil-Arab News Agency – Colombia awakens to the Arab world|url=http://www2.anba.com.br/noticia_diplomacia.kmf?cod=8701931|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706150728/http://www2.anba.com.br/noticia_diplomacia.kmf?cod=8701931|archive-date=6 July 2011|access-date=19 June 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=7 March 2019|title=Los palestinos que encontraron un segundo hogar en el centro de Bogotá|url=https://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/mas-regiones/los-palestinos-que-encontraron-un-segundo-hogar-en-el-centro-de-bogota-334782|access-date=19 June 2022|website=El Tiempo|language=spanish}}</ref>), [[Venezuela]] (over 1,600,000),<ref name="thedailybeast.com" /><ref>[http://www.aljadid.com/content/arabs-making-their-mark-latin-america-generations-immigrants-colombia-venezuela-and-mexico Habeeb Salloum, "Arabs Making Their Mark in Latin America: Generations of Immigrants in Colombia, Venezuela and Mexico"], ''Al Jadid'', Vol. 6, no. 30 (Winter 2000).</ref> [[Mexico]] (over 1,100,000),<ref>{{Cite web|last=Sierra|first=Mauricio|date=16 June 2021|title=Arab Ancestry in Latin America|url=https://berkeleyhighjacket.com/column/arab-ancestry-in-latin-america/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210805180425/https://berkeleyhighjacket.com/column/arab-ancestry-in-latin-america/|archive-date=5 August 2021|access-date=15 February 2022|website=Berkeley High Jacket|quote=Arab Mexicans are an important group within Mexican society. There are around 1,100,000 Mexican citizens of Arab descent}}</ref> [[Chile]] (over 800,000),<ref>{{Cite web|title=Zalaquett pone a Chile como modelo de convivencia palestino-judía|url=http://www.lanacion.cl/zalaquett-pone-a-chile-como-modelo-de-convivencia-palestino-judia/noticias/2009-10-16/160813.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160308011730/http://www.lanacion.cl/zalaquett-pone-a-chile-como-modelo-de-convivencia-palestino-judia/noticias/2009-10-16/160813.html|archive-date=8 March 2016|website=La Nación}}</ref><ref>''Arab and Jewish immigrants in Latin America'': images and realities, by Ignacio Klich, Jeff Lesser, 1998, p. 165.</ref><ref name="select.nytimes.com2">{{Cite news|last=Nemy|first=Enid|date=14 September 1969|title=In Santiago Society, No One Cares If Your Name Is Carey or de Yrarrazaval|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1969/09/14/archives/in-santiago-society-no-one-cares-if-your-name-is-carey-or-de.html}}</ref> and [[Central America]], particularly [[El Salvador]], and [[Honduras]] (between 150,000 and 200,000).<ref name="The Arabs of Honduras2">{{Cite web|date=27 June 1936|title=The Arabs of Honduras|url=http://archive.aramcoworld.com/issue/200104/the.arabs.of.honduras.htm|access-date=17 September 2011|publisher=Saudiaramcoworld.com}}</ref><ref name="Adnkronos.com" /><ref name="Laventana.casa.cult.cu" /> [[Arab Haitians]] (257,000<ref>{{Cite web|title=A brief history of Haiti as a destination for groups seeking refuge|url=https://haitiantimes.com/2022/05/19/a-brief-history-of-haiti-as-a-destination-for-groups-seeking-refuge/|website=Haitian Times|date=19 May 2022 |last1=Augustin |first1=Noah }}</ref>) a large number of whom live in the [[Port-au-Prince|capital]] are more often than not, concentrated in financial areas where the majority of them establish businesses.<ref name="al-shorfa.com2">{{Cite web|title=From Lebanon to Haiti: A Story Going Back to the 19th Century|url=http://al-shorfa.com/en_GB/articles/meii/features/main/2010/01/26/feature-02?format=mobile&mobile=true|access-date=30 January 2014}}</ref>

==== Caucasus ====
{{main|Arabs in the Caucasus}}
[[File:Caucasus 1060 map en.svg|thumb|Georgia and the Caucasus in 1060, during the final decline of the emirate]]
In 1728, a Russian officer described a group of Arab nomads who populated the [[Caspian Sea|Caspian]] shores of [[Mughan plain|Mughan]] (in present-day [[Azerbaijan]]).<ref name="Genko2">Genko, A. ''The Arabic Language and Caucasian Studies''. USSR Academy of Sciences Publ. Moscow-Leningrad. 8–109</ref> It is believed that these groups migrated to the [[South Caucasus]] in the 16th century.<ref name="zelkina2">Zelkina, Anna. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Ih6b9iupT6oC&pg=PA101 Arabic as a Minority Language]. Walter de Gruyter, 2000; {{ISBN|3-11-016578-3}} p. 101</ref> The 1888 edition of [[Encyclopædia Britannica]] also mentioned a certain number of Arabs populating the [[Baku Governorate]] of the [[Russian Empire]].<ref name="Baynesp5142">Baynes, Thomas Spencer (ed). "Transcaucasia." Encyclopædia Britannica. 1888. p. 514</ref> They retained an [[Shirvani Arabic|Arabic dialect]] at least into the mid-19th century,<ref name="Bakik2">[http://www.vostlit.info/Texts/rus2/Bakihanov/framevved.htm Golestan-i Iram] by [[Abbasgulu Bakikhanov]]. Translated by [[Ziya Bunyadov]]. Baku: 1991, p. 21</ref> there are nearly 30 settlements still holding the name ''Arab'' (for example, [[Ərəbqədim|Arabgadim]], [[Ərəbocağı|Arabojaghy]], [[Ərəbyengicə|Arab-Yengija]], etc.). From the time of the Arab conquest of the [[South Caucasus]], continuous small-scale Arab migration from various parts of the Arab world occurred in [[Dagestan]]. The majority of these lived in the village of Darvag, to the north-west of [[Derbent]]. The latest of these accounts dates to the 1930s.<ref name="zelkina2" /> Most Arab communities in southern Dagestan underwent linguistic [[Turkification|Turkicisation]], thus nowadays Darvag is a majority-[[Azerbaijanis|Azeri]] village.<ref name="Sefer2">Seferbekov, Ruslan. [http://www.tabasaran.com/modules.php?name=News&file=print&sid=171 Characters Персонажи традиционных религиозных представлений азербайджанцев Табасарана.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081216032153/http://www.tabasaran.com/modules.php?name=News&file=print&sid=171|date=16 December 2008}}</ref><ref name="Wrum2">Stephen Adolphe Wurm et al. [https://books.google.com/books?id=glU0vte5gSkC&pg=PA966 Atlas of languages of intercultural communication]. Walter de Gruyter, 1996; p. 966</ref>

==== Central, South, East and Southeast Asia ====
{{main|Arabs in India|Arab Indonesians|Iranian Arabs|Arabs in Khorasan|Khuzestani Arabs|Arabs in Japan|Arab Malaysians|||Arabs in the Philippines|Arab Singaporeans|Sri Lankan Moors}}

According to the ''History of Ibn Khaldun'', the Arabs that were once in [[Central Asia]] have been either killed or have fled the Tatar invasion of the region.<ref name="Khaldun2">History of Ibn Khaldun</ref> However, today many people in Central Asia identify as Arabs. Most [[Central Asian Arabic|Arabs of Central Asia]] are fully integrated into local populations, and sometimes call themselves the same as locals (for example, [[Tājik people|Tajiks]], [[Uzbeks]]) but they use special titles to show their Arab origin such as [[Sayyid]], [[Khoja (Turkestan)|Khoja]] or [[Siddiqui]].<ref name="Owensp1842">Arabic As a Minority Language By Jonathan Owens, pg. 184</ref>

[[File:Ketchimalai_Mosque-_Beruwala,_Sri_Lanka.jpg|thumb|The mosque is built at the spot where the first Arab traders landed and subsequently settled in the area.<ref>{{cite news|author=Jayawardena, Dulip|date=13 March 2018|title=Communal violence and political instability in Sri Lanka|newspaper=[[The Daily Mirror (Sri Lanka)|The Daily Mirror]]|url=http://www.dailymirror.lk/article/Communal-violence-and-political-instability-in-Sri-Lanka--147158.html|access-date=20 May 2020}}</ref>]]
There are only two communities in India which claim Arab descent, the [[Chaush]] of the [[Deccan Plateau|Deccan]] region and the [[Arab (Gujarat)|Chavuse]] of [[Gujarat]].<ref>People of India: Vol. XIII: Andhra Pradesh (3 Parts-Set)Edited by D.L. Prasada Rao, N.V.K. Rao and S. Yaseen Saheb, Affiliated East-West Press</ref><ref>People of India: Volume XXII: Gujarat (3 Parts-Set): Edited by R.B. Lal, P.B.S.V. Padmanabham, Gopal Krishan and Md. Azeez Mohidden, Popular Prakashan for ASI, 2003.</ref> These groups are largely descended from [[Hadhrami people|Hadhrami]] migrants who settled in these two regions in the 18th century. However, neither community still speaks Arabic, although the Chaush have seen re-immigration to [[Eastern Arabia]] and thus a re-adoption of Arabic.<ref>Muslim society in transition Javed, Arifa Kulsoom {{ISBN|81-7169-096-3}}</ref> In [[South Asia]], where Arab ancestry is considered prestigious, some communities have origin myths that claim Arab ancestry. Several communities following the [[Shafiʽi school|Shafi'i madhab]] (in contrast to other [[Islam in South Asia|South Asian Muslims]] who follow the [[Hanafi|Hanafi madhab]]) claim descent from Arab traders like the [[Konkani Muslims]] of the [[Konkan|Konkan region]], the [[Mappilla]] of [[Kerala]], and the [[Labbai]] and [[Marakkar]] of [[Tamil Nadu]] and a few Christian groups in India that claim and have Arab roots are situated in the state of [[Kerala]].<ref>Frontiers of embedded Muslim communities in India / editor, Vinod K. Jairath {{ISBN|978-0-415-66888-0}}</ref> South Asian [[Iraqi Biradari|Iraqi biradri]] may have records of their ancestors who migrated from Iraq in historical documents. The [[Sri Lankan Moors]] are the third largest ethnic group in [[Sri Lanka]], constituting 9.2% of the country's total population.<ref>{{Cite web|title=A2: Population by ethnic group according to districts, 2012|url=http://www.statistics.gov.lk/PopHouSat/CPH2011/index.php?fileName=pop42&gp=Activities&tpl=3|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170428063924/http://www.statistics.gov.lk/PopHouSat/CPH2011/index.php?fileName=pop42&gp=Activities&tpl=3|archive-date=28 April 2017|access-date=19 December 2016|website=Census of Population & Housing, 2011|publisher=Department of Census & Statistics, Sri Lanka}}</ref> Some sources trace the ancestry of the Sri Lankan [[Moors]] to Arab traders who settled in Sri Lanka at some time between the 8th and 15th centuries.<ref name="TheSundayTimes2">{{Cite web|title=Race in Sri Lanka What Genetic evidence tells us|url=http://www.sundaytimes.lk/140126/plus/race-in-sri-lanka-what-genetic-evidence-tells-us-80911.html|access-date=20 July 2014}}</ref><ref name="Anthropos2">{{Cite journal|last=de Munck|first=Victor|year=2005|title=Islamic Orthodoxy and Sufism in Sri Lanka|journal=Anthropos|volume=100|issue=2|pages=401–414 [403]|doi=10.5771/0257-9774-2005-2-401|jstor=40466546}}</ref><ref name="Islamic Studies2">{{Cite journal|last=Mahroof|first=M.M.M.|year=1995|title=Spoken Tamil Dialects of the Muslims of Sri Lanka: Language As Identity-Classifier|journal=Islamic Studies|volume=34|issue=4|pages=407–426 [408]|jstor=20836916}}</ref> There are about 118,866 [[Arab-Indonesians]]<ref>{{Cite web|last=Shahab|first=Alwi|date=21 January 1996|title=Komunitas Arab Di Pekojan Dan Krukut: Dari Mayoritas Menjadi Minoritas|url=http://www.library.ohiou.edu/indopubs/1996/01/21/0012.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080809013353/http://www.library.ohiou.edu/indopubs/1996/01/21/0012.html|archive-date=9 August 2008|access-date=19 April 2015|language=id}}</ref> of [[Hadhrami people|Hadrami]] descent in the 2010 Indonesian census.<ref>{{cite book |author1=Aris Ananta |author2=Evi Nurvidya Arifin |author3=M Sairi Hasbullah |author4=Nur Budi Handayani |author5=Agus Pramono |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=crKfCgAAQBAJ|title=Demography of Indonesia's Ethnicity (Table 4.38 The 145 Ethnic Groups: Indonesia, 2010)|publisher=[[Institute of Southeast Asian Studies]]|date=2015|isbn=978-981-4519-87-8|access-date=29 August 2022}}</ref>

==== Sub-Saharan Africa ====
{{Main|Afro-Arabs|Baggara Arabs|Ghanaian Arabs|Arabs in Ivory Coast|Lebanese people in Senegal|Lebanese people in Sierra Leone|Diffa Arabs}}
[[File:Baggara belt.png|thumb|upright=1.1|Map of the Baggara belt]]
[[Afro-Arabs]] are individuals and groups from [[Africa]] who are of partial Arab descent. Most Afro-Arabs inhabit the [[Swahili coast|Swahili Coast]] in the [[African Great Lakes]] region, although some can also be found in parts of the Arab world.<ref name="Romero2">{{Cite book|last=Romero|first=Patricia W.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Y5hyAAAAMAAJ|title=Lamu|date=1997|publisher=Markus Wiener|isbn=978-1-55876-106-3|page=7|access-date=25 November 2014}}</ref><ref name="Gunnar2">{{Cite book|first1=Gunnar M|last1=Sorbø|first2=Abdel Ghaffar Muhammad|last2=Ahmed|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fe3QAQAAQBAJ|title=Sudan Divided: Continuing Conflict in a Contested State|date=2013|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=978-1-137-33824-2|page=90|access-date=25 November 2014}}</ref> Large numbers of Arabs migrated to [[West Africa]], particularly [[Côte d'Ivoire]] (home to over 100,000 Lebanese),<ref>{{Cite web|title=Ivory Coast – The Levantine Community|url=http://countrystudies.us/ivory-coast/72.htm|access-date=17 September 2011|publisher=Countrystudies.us}}</ref> [[Senegal]] (roughly 30,000 Lebanese),<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20081118213343/http://voanews.com/english/archive/2007-07/2007-07-10-voa46.cfm Lebanese Immigrants Boost West African Commerce], By Naomi Schwarz, voanews.com, 10 July 2007</ref> [[Sierra Leone]] (roughly 10,000 Lebanese today; about 30,000 prior to the outbreak of [[Sierra Leone Civil War|civil war]] in 1991), [[Liberia]], and [[Nigeria]].<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/6908065.stm Lebanese man shot dead in Nigeria], BBC News</ref> Since the end of the civil war in 2002, [[Lebanese people|Lebanese]] traders have become re-established in Sierra Leone.<ref>{{cite web|title=African Union Summit|url=http://ausummit-accra.org.gh/index1.php?linkid=289&adate=04%2F07%2F2007&archiveid=140&page=1|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120307113837/http://ausummit-accra.org.gh/index1.php?linkid=289&adate=04%2F07%2F2007&archiveid=140&page=1|archive-date=7 March 2012}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Randall|first=Colin|date=19 November 2004|title=The night westerners were hunted for being white|work=The Daily Telegraph|location=London|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/france/1477006/The-night-westerners-were-hunted-for-being-white.html|url-status=live|url-access=subscription|access-date=26 June 2009|archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220110/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/france/1477006/The-night-westerners-were-hunted-for-being-white.html|archive-date=10 January 2022}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Ivory Coast: A Country Study|publisher=[[United States Government Printing Office|GPO]] for the [[Library of Congress]]|year=1988|editor-last=Handloff|editor-first=Robert E.|series=Country Studies|location=Washington, DC|chapter=The Levantine Community|chapter-url=http://countrystudies.us/ivory-coast/72.htm}}</ref> The Arabs of Chad occupy northern Cameroon and Nigeria (where they are sometimes known as Shuwa), and extend as a belt across Chad and into Sudan, where they are called the [[Baggara]] grouping of [[Arab]] ethnic groups inhabiting the portion of Africa's [[Sahel]]. There are 171,000 in [[Cameroon]], 150,000 in [[Niger]]<ref>{{Cite web|date=25 October 2006|title=Niger's Arabs to fight expulsion|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/6081416.stm|access-date=18 December 2017|publisher=BBC News}}</ref>), and 107,000 in the [[Central African Republic]].<ref>{{Citation|title=Central African Republic|date=22 March 2023|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/central-african-republic/|work=The World Factbook|access-date=28 March 2023|publisher=Central Intelligence Agency}}</ref>

== Religion ==
{{Main|Religion in pre-Islamic Arabia|Arab Muslims|Arab Christians|Druze|Arab Jews|Baháʼí Faith}}
Arabs are mostly Muslims with a [[Sunni Islam|Sunni]] majority and a [[Shia Islam|Shia]] minority, one exception being the [[Ibadis]], who predominate in [[Oman]].<ref name="ahmadi2">See, for example:
* {{Cite book|first=Ori|last=Stendel|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=t7Ao8dYsCskC&pg=PA45|title=The Arabs in Israel|publisher=Sussex Academic Press|year=1996|isbn=978-1-898723-24-0|page=45|access-date=4 March 2014}}
* {{cite book|author=Mohammad Hassan Khalil|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PmgkD3Hel5IC&pg=PA297|title=Between Heaven and Hell: Islam, Salvation, and the Fate of Others|date=2013|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-994541-2|page=297|access-date=1 March 2014}}</ref> [[Arab Christians]] generally follow [[Eastern Churches]] such as the [[Greek Orthodox]] and [[Greek Catholic]] churches, though a minority of [[Protestant Church]] followers also exists.<ref name="Christi2">{{Cite web|title=Christians (in the Arab world)|url=http://www.medea.be/index.html?page=2&lang=en&doc=38|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100611202018/http://www.medea.be/index.html?page=2&lang=en&doc=38|archive-date=11 June 2010|access-date=13 April 2010|publisher=Medea.be}}</ref> There are also Arab communities consisting of [[Druze]] and [[Baháʼí Faith|Baháʼís]].<ref>{{Citation|title=The Bahá'í World Centre: Focal Point for a Global Community|url=http://info.bahai.org/article-1-6-0-5.html|access-date=2 July 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070629171538/http://info.bahai.org/article-1-6-0-5.html|publisher=The Baháʼí International Community|archive-date=29 June 2007}}</ref><ref>"[http://faculty-staff.ou.edu/L/Joshua.M.Landis-1/Joshua_Landis_Druze_and_Shishakli.htm Shishakli and the Druzes: Integration and Intransigence]"</ref> Historically, there were also sizeable populations of [[Arab Jews]] around the Arab World.

[[Religion in pre-Islamic Arabia|Before the coming of Islam]], most Arabs followed a pagan religion with a number of deities, including [[Hubal]],<ref name="Hubal2">{{Cite web|title=Is Hubal The Same As Allah?|url=http://www.islamic-awareness.org/Quran/Sources/Allah/hubal.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100325235432/http://www.islamic-awareness.org/Quran/Sources/Allah/hubal.html|archive-date=25 March 2010|access-date=13 April 2010|publisher=Islamic-awareness.org}}</ref> [[Wadd]], [[Al-lāt|Allāt]],<ref name="autogenerated12">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jEcpkWjYOZQC&q=Allat&pg=PA34|title=Dictionary of Ancient Deities|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2001|isbn=978-0-19-514504-5}}</ref> [[Manāt|Manat]], and [[Al-Uzza|Uzza]]. A few individuals, the ''[[hanif]]s'', had apparently rejected [[polytheism]] in favor of [[monotheism]] unaffiliated with any particular religion. Some tribes had converted to Christianity or Judaism. The most prominent Arab Christian kingdoms were the [[Ghassanid]] and [[Lakhmid]] kingdoms.<ref name="Marib2">{{Cite web|title=From Marib The Sabean Capital To Carantania|url=http://www.buzzle.com/editorials/1-29-2005-64989.asp|url-status=usurped|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051227165349/http://www.buzzle.com/editorials/1-29-2005-64989.asp|archive-date=27 December 2005|access-date=13 April 2010|publisher=Buzzle.com}}</ref> When the [[Himyarite]] king converted to [[Judaism]] in the late 4th century,<ref name="Hima2">{{Cite encyclopedia|title=Msn Encarta entry on Himyarites|url=http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761570797/himyarites.html|access-date=10 April 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040704090616/http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761570797/Himyarites.html|archive-date=4 July 2004}}</ref> the elites of the other prominent Arab kingdom, the [[Kindites]], being Himyirite vassals, apparently also converted (at least partly). With the expansion of Islam, polytheistic Arabs were rapidly [[Islamization|Islamized]], and polytheistic traditions gradually disappeared.<ref name="MSNU2">{{Cite web|date=6 January 2009|title=History of Islam|url=http://www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/cultural/religion/islam/history.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100531045659/http://www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/cultural/religion/islam/history.html|archive-date=31 May 2010|access-date=13 April 2010|publisher=Mnsu.edu}}</ref><ref name="EncyRe2">{{Cite web|title=Encyclopedia of Politics and Religion|url=http://www.cqpress.com/context/articles/epr_islam.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100428065818/http://www.cqpress.com/context/articles/epr_islam.html|archive-date=28 April 2010|access-date=13 April 2010|publisher=Cqpress.com}}</ref>
{{multiple image
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| caption1          = [[Kaaba]] is the holiest place in Islam, [[Masjid al-Haram]] in [[Mecca]]
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| caption2          = The [[Church of the Nativity]] in [[Bethlehem]], State of Palestine
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Today, Sunni Islam dominates in most areas, vastly so in Levant, North Africa, West Africa and the Horn of Africa. Shia Islam is dominant in [[Bahrain]] and southern [[Iraq]] while northern Iraq is mostly Sunni. Substantial Shia populations exist in [[Lebanon]], [[Yemen]], [[Kuwait]], [[Saudi Arabia]],<ref name="Shia2">{{Cite web|first=Lionel|last=Beehner|title=Shia Muslims in the Mideast|url=http://www.cfr.org/publication/10903/shiite_muslims_in_the_middle_east.html#2|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100411123648/http://www.cfr.org/publication/10903/shiite_muslims_in_the_middle_east.html|archive-date=11 April 2010|access-date=13 April 2010|publisher=Cfr.org}}</ref> northern [[Syria]] and Al-Batinah Region in [[Oman]]. There are small numbers of [[Ibadi]] and [[non-denominational Muslims]] too.<ref name="ahmadi2" /> The [[Druze]] community is concentrated in Levant.<ref>{{cite book|title=Middle East Patterns: Places, People, and Politics|first=Colbert|last=C. Held|year=2008|isbn=978-0-429-96200-4|page=109|publisher=Routledge|quote=Worldwide, they number 1 million or so, with about 45 to 50 percent in Syria, 35 to 40 percent in Lebanon, and less than 10 percent in Israel. Recently there has been a growing Druze diaspora.}}</ref>

Christianity had a prominent presence In [[pre-Islamic Arabia]] among several Arab communities, including the [[Bahrani people]] of [[Eastern Arabia]], the [[Christian community of Najran]], in parts of [[Yemen#Ancient history|Yemen]], and among certain northern Arabian tribes such as the [[Ghassanids]], [[Lakhmids]], [[Taghlib]], [[Banu Amela]], [[Banu Judham]], [[Tanukhids]] and [[Tayy]]. In the early Christian centuries, Arabia was sometimes known as ''Arabia heretica'', due to its being "well known as a breeding-ground for heterodox interpretations of Christianity."<ref>{{cite book|title=A House of Many Mansions: The History of Lebanon Reconsidered|date=2003|publisher=I.B. Tauris|isbn=978-1-86064-912-7|edition=ill., reprint, rev.|page=88|author1=Kamal S. Salibi}}</ref>
Christians make up 5.5% of the population of Western Asia and North Africa.<ref name="Pacini2">{{Cite book|title=Christian Communities in the Middle East|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1998|isbn=978-0-19-829388-0|editor-last=Andrea Pacini}}</ref> In Lebanon, Christians number about 40.5% of the population.<ref name="CIA World Factbook: Lebanon2">{{Cite CIA World Factbook|country=Lebanon}}</ref> In Syria, Christians make up 10% of the population.<ref name="CIA World Factbook: Syria2">{{Cite CIA World Factbook|country=Syria}}</ref> [[Palestinian Christians|Christians in Palestine]] make up 8% and 0.7% of the populations, respectively.<ref name="FactbookGazaStrip2">{{Cite CIA World Factbook|country=Gaza Strip}}</ref><ref name="FactbookWestBank2">{{Cite CIA World Factbook|country=West Bank}}</ref> In Egypt, Christians number about 10% of the population. In Iraq, Christians constitute 0.1% of the population.<ref>[http://www.arabicbible.com/christian/arab_christians_who_are_they.htm Arab Christians&nbsp;– Who are they?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101206024540/http://www.arabicbible.com/christian/arab_christians_who_are_they.htm|date=6 December 2010}}. Arabicbible.com. Retrieved on 3 January 2011.</ref>

In Israel, Arab Christians constitute 2.1% (roughly 9% of the Arab population).<ref name="WFIS2">{{Cite CIA World Factbook|country=Israel|access-date=18 July 2011|year=2011}}</ref> Arab Christians make up 8% of the population of [[Jordan]].<ref name="WFJord2">{{Cite CIA World Factbook|country=Jordan|access-date=18 July 2011|year=2011}}</ref> Most [[North America|North]] and [[South America]]n Arabs are Christian,<ref name="AAIUSA2">{{Cite web|title=The Arab American Institute &#124; Arab Americans|url=http://www.aaiusa.org/arab-americans/22/demographics|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100403085410/http://www.aaiusa.org/arab-americans/22/demographics|archive-date=3 April 2010|access-date=10 March 2010|publisher=Aaiusa.org}}</ref> so are about half of the Arabs in Australia who come particularly from Lebanon, Syria and Palestine. One well known member of this religious and ethnic community is [[Abo of Tiflis|Saint Abo]], martyr and the patron saint of [[Tbilisi]], [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Mgaloblishvili|first=Tamila|title=Ancient Christianity in the Caucasus|publisher=Routledge|year=1998|isbn=978-0-7007-0633-4|page=272}}</ref> Arab Christians also live in holy Christian cities such as [[Nazareth]], [[Bethlehem]] and the [[Christian Quarter]] of the [[Old City of Jerusalem]] and many other villages with holy Christian sites.

== Culture ==
{{main|Arab culture}}
[[File:Illustration by David Roberts, digitally enhanced by rawpixel-com 120.jpg|thumb|Dancing girls at Cairo]]
Arab culture is shaped by a long and rich history that spans thousands of years, from the [[Atlantic Ocean]] in the west to the [[Arabian Sea]] in the east, and from the [[Mediterranean Sea]] in the north to the Horn of Africa and the Indian Ocean in the southeast. The various religions the Arabs have adopted throughout [[History of the Arabs|their history]] and the various empires and kingdoms that have ruled and took lead of the Arabic civilization have contributed to the [[ethnogenesis]] and formation of modern Arab culture. [[Language]], [[literature]], [[gastronomy]], [[art]], [[architecture]], [[music]], [[spirituality]], [[philosophy]] and [[mysticism]] are all part of the cultural heritage of the Arabs.<ref>{{Cite book|first=Doris|last=Behrens-Abouseif|title=Beauty in Arabic culture|date=1999|publisher=Markus Wiener Publishers|isbn=978-1-55876-199-5|oclc=40043536}}</ref>

=== Language ===
{{main|Arabic}}
[[File:Learning_Arabic_calligraphy.jpg|thumb|[[Arabic calligraphy]] is the artistic practice of writing Arabic script in a decorative and stylized manner.]]
[[Arabic]] is a [[Semitic language]] of the [[Afroasiatic languages|Afro-Asiatic family]].<ref>{{Cite news|title=Al-Jallad. The earliest stages of Arabic and its linguistic classification (Routledge Handbook of Arabic Linguistics, forthcoming)|via=Academia.edu|url=https://www.academia.edu/18470301|access-date=27 October 2016 |last1=Al-Jallad |first1=Ahmad |date=16 November 2015 }}</ref> The first evidence for the emergence of the language appears in military accounts from 853 BCE. Today it has developed widely used as a ''[[lingua franca]]'' for more than 500 million people. It is also a [[Liturgy#Islam|liturgical]] language for 1.7 billion [[Muslims]].<ref name="pewmuslim422">{{Cite web|date=27 January 2011|title=Executive Summary|url=http://www.pewforum.org/2011/01/27/the-future-of-the-global-muslim-population|access-date=22 December 2011|website=Future of the Global Muslim Population|publisher=Pew Research Center}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|date=27 January 2011|title=Table: Muslim Population by Country|work=Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project|publisher=Features.pewforum.org|url=http://features.pewforum.org/muslim-population/?sort=Pop2030|access-date=18 May 2014}}</ref> Arabic is one of six [[official languages of the United Nations]],<ref>{{Cite news|title=UN official languages|publisher=United Nations|url=https://www.un.org/en/sections/about-un/official-languages/|access-date=18 October 2015}}</ref> and is revered in [[Islam]] as the language of the [[Quran]].<ref name="pewmuslim422" /><ref>{{Cite web|date=27 January 2011|title=Table: Muslim Population by Country &#124; Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project|url=http://features.pewforum.org/muslim-population/?sort=Pop2030|access-date=18 May 2014|publisher=Features.pewforum.org}}</ref>

Arabic has two main registers. [[Classical Arabic]] is the form of the [[Arabic]] language used in literary texts from [[Umayyad Caliphate|Umayyad]] and Abbasid times (7th to 9th centuries). It is based on the medieval dialects of [[Tribes of Arabia|Arab tribes]]. [[Modern Standard Arabic]] (MSA) is the direct descendant used today throughout the Arab world in writing and in formal speaking, for example, prepared speeches, some radio broadcasts, and non-entertainment content,{{sfn|Bin-Muqbil|2006|p=14}} while the [[Lexis (linguistics)|lexis]] and [[Stylistics (linguistics)|stylistics]] of [[Modern Standard Arabic]] are different from [[Classical Arabic]]. There are also various regional dialects of colloquial spoken Arabic that both vary greatly from both each other and from the formal written and spoken forms of Arabic.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Arabs facts, information, pictures – articles about Arabs|url=http://www.encyclopedia.com/social-sciences-and-law/anthropology-and-archaeology/people/arabs|access-date=18 December 2017|website=Encyclopedia.com}}</ref>

=== Mythology ===
{{Main|Arabian mythology}}
[[File:Illustration_of_Aladdin_Flying_Away_with_Two_People_from_the_Arabian_Nights.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Aladdin]] from the ''[[One Thousand and One Nights]]'']]
[[Arabic mythology]] comprises the ancient beliefs of the Arabs. Prior to Islam the Kaaba of Mecca was covered in symbols representing the myriad demons, djinn, demigods, or simply tribal gods and other assorted deities which represented the polytheistic culture of pre-Islamic. It has been inferred from this plurality an exceptionally broad context in which mythology could flourish.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Stetkevych|first=Jaroslav|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OVXC72Td6CsC|title=Muhammad and the Golden Bough: Reconstructing Arabian Myth|date=2000|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=978-0-253-21413-3}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O02TygAACAAJ&q=Arabian+mythology|title=Arabian Mythology, Noah's Ark, Hafaza, Jesus, Khidr, Dhul-Qarnayn, Isra and Mi'raj, Luqman, Devil, Throne of God|date=2011|publisher=General Books|isbn=978-1-233-18051-6}}</ref>

The most popular beasts and demons of Arabian mythology are [[Bahamut]], [[Dandan]], [[Falak (Arabian legend)|Falak]], [[Ghoul]], [[Hinn (mythology)|Hinn]], [[Jinn]], [[Karkadann]], [[Marid]], [[Nasnas]], [[Qareen]], [[Roc (mythology)|Roc]], [[Shadhavar]], [[Werehyena]] and other assorted creatures which represented the profoundly [[polytheistic]] environment of pre-Islamic.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Leeming|first=David|url=https://archive.org/details/jealousgodschose00leem_0|title=Jealous Gods and Chosen People: The Mythology of the Middle East|date=2004|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-534899-6|page=[https://archive.org/details/jealousgodschose00leem_0/page/119 119]|url-access=registration}}</ref>

The most prominent symbol of Arabian mythology is the [[Jinn]] or genie.<ref>{{Cite web|title=jinni|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/jinni|website=Encyclopædia Britannica|date=2 January 2024}}</ref> Jinns are supernatural beings that can be good or evil.<ref>Benjamin W. McCraw, ''Philosophical Approaches to Demonology'' Robert Arp Routledge 2017 {{ISBN|978-1-315-46675-0}}</ref><ref>[[Qur'ān 55:15]]</ref> They are not purely spiritual, but are also physical in nature, being able to interact in a tactile manner with people and objects and likewise be acted upon. The ''jinn'', humans, and [[Islamic view of angels|angels]] make up the known [[Sapience|sapient]] creations of [[God in Islam|God]].<ref>Amira El-Zein ''Islam, Arabs, and Intelligent World of the Jinn'' Syracuse University Press 2009 {{ISBN|978-0-8156-5070-6}} p. 19</ref>

[[Ghoul]]s also feature in the mythology as a [[monster]] or [[evil spirit]] associated with graveyards and consuming human flesh.<ref>{{Cite web|title=The Story of Sidi-Nouman|url=http://www.sacred-texts.com/neu/lang1k1/tale31.htm|access-date=5 July 2012}}</ref><ref>{{Cite encyclopedia|title=Ghoul Facts, information, pictures &#124; Encyclopedia.com articles about Ghoul|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia.com|url=http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1O27-ghoul.html|access-date=23 March 2011}}</ref> In Arabic folklore, ghouls belonged to a diabolic class of jinn and were said to be the offspring of Iblīs, the prince of darkness in Islam. They were capable of constantly changing form, but always retained [[donkey]]'s hooves.<ref>{{Cite web|title=ghoul|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/ghoul|website=Encyclopædia Britannica|date=14 June 2024}}</ref>

=== Literature ===
{{main|Arabic literature}}
[[File:Khalili Collection Islamic Art MSS 0902-61b-62a.jpg|thumb|left|Manuscript from the ''Diwan'' of [[Al-Mutanabbi]]]]
The [[Quran]], the main [[Religious text|holy book]] of [[Islam]], had a significant influence on the Arabic language, and marked the beginning of Arabic literature. Muslims believe it was transcribed in the Arabic dialect of the [[Quraysh]], the tribe of [[Muhammad]].<ref name="Glen Van Brummelen-2013">{{Cite journal|first=Glen|last=Van Brummelen|date=2013|title=Seeking the Divine on Earth: The Direction of Prayer in Islam|journal=Math Horizons|volume=21|issue=1|pages=15–17|doi=10.4169/mathhorizons.21.1.15|jstor=10.4169/mathhorizons.21.1.15|s2cid=218543141}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=8 September 2019|title=الوثائقية تفتح ملف "اللغة العربية"|url=https://doc.aljazeera.net/followup/الوثائقية-تفتح-ملف-اللغة-العربية/|access-date=18 June 2020|website=الجزيرة الوثائقية|language=ar}}</ref> As Islam spread, the Quran had the effect of unifying and standardizing Arabic.<ref name="Glen Van Brummelen-2013" />

Not only is the Quran the first work of any significant length written in the language, but it also has a far more complicated structure than the earlier literary works with its 114 ''[[Surah|suwar]]'' (chapters) which contain 6,236 ''[[ayat]]'' (verses). It contains [[injunction]]s, [[narrative]]s, [[homilies]], [[parable]]s, direct addresses from God, instructions and even comments on how the Quran will be received and understood. It is also admired for its layers of metaphor as well as its clarity, a feature which is mentioned in [[An-Nahl]], the 16th surah.

[[Al-Jahiz]] (born 776, in [[Basra]] – December 868/January 869) was an Arab prose writer and author of works of literature, [[Mu'tazili]] theology, and politico-religious polemics. A leading scholar in the Abbasid Caliphate, his canon includes two hundred books on various subjects, including [[Arabic grammar]], [[zoology]], poetry, lexicography, and [[rhetoric]]. Of his writings, only thirty books survive. Al-Jāḥiẓ was also one of the first Arabian writers to suggest a complete overhaul of the language's grammatical system, though this would not be undertaken until his fellow linguist [[Ibn Maḍāʾ]] took up the matter two hundred years later.<ref>[[Shawqi Daif]], Introduction to Ibn Mada's ''Refutation of the Grammarians'', pg. 48. Cairo, 1947.</ref>

There is a small remnant of [[pre-Islamic poetry]], but Arabic literature predominantly emerges in the [[Middle Ages]], during the [[Islamic Golden Age]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Arabic literature|url=https://www.britannica.com/art/Arabic-literature|website=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref> [[Imru' al-Qais]] was a king and poet in the 6th century, he was the last king of [[Kingdom of Kinda|Kindite]]. He is among the finest Arabic poetry to date, as well sometimes considered the father of [[Arabic poetry]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Pendergast|first=Tom|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OaURAQAAMAAJ|title=Reference Guide to World Literature|date=2003|publisher=St. James Press|isbn=978-1-55862-490-0|page=30}}</ref> ''[[Kitab al-Aghani]]'' by [[Abu al-Faraj al-Isfahani|Abul-Faraj]] was called by the 14th-century historian [[Ibn Khaldun]] the register of the Arabs.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Sawa|first1=George Dimitri|title=Erotica, Love and Humor in Arabia: Spicy Stories from The Book of Songs by al-Isfahani|date=2016|publisher=[[McFarland & Company]]|isbn=978-1-4766-6365-4|page=2}}</ref> [[Modern Standard Arabic|Literary Arabic]] is derived from [[Classical Arabic]], based on the language of the Quran as it was analyzed by [[Arabic grammarians]] beginning in the 8th century.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Literature|url=https://www.library.cornell.edu/colldev/mideast/arablit.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170102163724/https://www.library.cornell.edu/colldev/mideast/arablit.htm|archive-date=2 January 2017|website=Library.cornell.edu}}</ref>
[[File:Khalil Gibran - Autorretrato con musa, c. 1911.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Kahlil Gibran]] was a writer, poet and visual artist; he is best known as the author of ''[[The Prophet (book)|The Prophet]]'', has since become one of the [[List of best-selling books|best-selling books]] of all time, having been [[Translations of The Prophet|translated into more than 100 languages]]]]
A large portion of Arabic literature before the 20th century is in the form of [[Arabic poetry|poetry]], and even prose from this period is either filled with snippets of poetry or is in the form of ''[[Saj (literature)|saj]]'' or rhymed prose.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Arabic literature|url=http://www.infoplease.com/encyclopedia/entertainment/arabic-literature.html|access-date=18 December 2017|website=Infoplease.com}}</ref> The ''[[ghazal]]'' or love poem had a long history being at times tender and chaste and at other times rather explicit.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Richards|first=D.S.|title=Arabic literature in the post-classical period|date=2006|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-139-05399-0|editor-last=Allen|editor-first=Roger|edition=1st|location=Cambridge, UK}}</ref> In the [[Sufi]] tradition the love poem would take on a wider, [[Mysticism|mystical]] and [[Religion|religious]] importance.

[[Arabic epic literature]] was much less common than poetry, and presumably originates in oral tradition, written down from the 14th century or so. [[Maqama]] or [[rhymed prose]] is intermediate between poetry and [[prose]], and also between fiction and non-fiction.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Night and horses and the desert: an anthology of classical Arabic literature|date=2002|publisher=Anchor Books|isbn=978-0-385-72155-4|editor-last=Irwin|editor-first=Robert|edition=1st Anchor Books|location=New York}}</ref> [[Maqama]] was an incredibly popular form of Arabic literature, being one of the few forms which continued to be written during the decline of Arabic in the 17th and 18th centuries.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Islamic History in Arabia and Middle East|url=http://www.islamicity.com/mosque/ihame/ref5.htm|access-date=18 December 2017|website=Islamicity.com}}</ref>

Arabic literature and [[Arab culture|culture]] declined significantly after the 13th century, to the benefit of [[Ottoman Turkish language|Turkish]] and [[Persian literature|Persian]]. A modern revival took place beginning in the 19th century, alongside [[National awakenings under the Ottoman Empire|resistance against Ottoman rule]]. The literary revival is known as ''[[al-Nahda]]'' in Arabic, and was centered in [[Egypt]] and [[Lebanon]]. Two distinct trends can be found in the ''nahda'' period of revival.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Arabic Literature|url=http://www.indigenouspeople.net/arabiclit/|access-date=18 December 2017|website=Indigenouspeople.net}}</ref>

The first was a neo-classical movement which sought to rediscover the literary traditions of the past, and was influenced by traditional literary genres—such as the ''[[maqama]]''—and works like ''[[One Thousand and One Nights]]''. In contrast, a modernist movement began by translating Western modernist works—primarily novels—into Arabic.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Gelder|first=Geert Jan Van|url=https://muse.jhu.edu/book/21087|title=Classical Arabic Literature|date=2012|publisher=NYU Press|isbn=978-0-8147-4511-3}}</ref> A tradition of [[modern Arabic poetry]] was established by writers such as [[Francis Marrash]], [[Ahmad Shawqi]] and [[Hafiz Ibrahim]]. Iraqi poet [[Badr Shakir al-Sayyab]] is considered to be the originator of free verse in [[Arabic poetry]].<ref>{{Cite web|date=17 September 2013|title=Arabian literature|url=http://www.slideshare.net/JennyOh17/arabian-literature|website=Slideshare.net}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Modern Arabic literature|date=1992|publisher=Cambridge Univ. Press|isbn=978-0-521-33197-5|editor-last=Badawi|editor-first=M.M.|edition=1. publ.|location=Cambridge [u.a.]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Cachia|first=Pierre|url=https://archive.org/details/arabicliterature0000cach|title=Arabic literature: an overview|date=2002|publisher=RoutledgeCurzon|isbn=978-0-7007-1725-5|edition=1. publ.|location=New York|url-access=registration}}</ref>

=== Cuisine ===
{{main|Arab cuisine}}
[[File:Petra metzes.jpg|thumb|Plate of [[Meze]]s in [[Petra]], Jordan]]
[[Arab cuisine]] is largely divided into [[Khaleeji cuisine]], [[Levantine cuisine]] and [[Maghrebi cuisine]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=Food: a culinary history from Antiquity to the present|date=1999|publisher=Penguin Books|isbn=978-0-231-11154-6|editor-last=Flandrin|editor-first=Jean-Louis|location=New York|translator-last=Clarissa Botsford|editor-last2=Montanari|editor-first2=Massimo|editor-last3=Sonnenfeld|editor-first3=Albert}}</ref> Arab cuisine has influenced other cuisines various cultures, including [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]], [[Iranian peoples|Persian]], and [[Andalusian Spanish|Andalusian]].

It is characterized by a variety of herbs and spices, including [[cumin]], [[coriander]], [[cinnamon]], [[sumac]], [[za'atar]], [[cardamom]], [[Mentha|mint]], [[saffron]], [[sesame]], [[thyme]] [[turmeric]] and [[parsley]].<ref name="Food and recipes2">{{Cite web|title=Food and recipes|url=http://al-bab.com/special-topics/food-and-recipes|website=al-bab.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Arabic Cuisine|url=http://www.canadianarabcommunity.com/arabiccuisine.php|access-date=18 December 2017|website=Canadianarabcommunity.com|archive-date=25 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171225000342/http://www.canadianarabcommunity.com/arabiccuisine.php}}</ref> Arab cuisine is also known for its sweets and desserts, such as [[Knafeh]], [[Baklava]], [[Halva]], and [[Qatayef]]. [[Arabic coffee]], or qahwa, is a traditional drink that is served with dates.

===Art===
{{main|Arabic art|Nabataean art|Arabic miniature|Arabesque}}
{{multiple image
| perrow            = 3/3/3
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| image1            = Umayyad fresco of Prince (future caliph) Walid bin Yazid.jpg
| image2            = Arabischer Maler um 730 001.jpg
| image3            = Jordan Qusair Amra 2013 0449.jpg
| image4            = Stucco wall painting of a man from Samarra, Iraq, 9th century CE. Pergamon Museum.jpg
| image5            = British Museum Harem wall painting fragments 1.jpg
| image6            = Stucco frieze of a camel from Samarra, Iraq, 9th century CE. Pergamon Museum.jpg
| image7            = Bowl with hare, Egypt, Fatimid period, 11th century AD, earthenware with overglaze luster painting - Cincinnati Art Museum - DSC04163.JPG
| image8            = Seated drinker, Fatimid art.jpg
| image9            = Luster bowl, Fatimid, 11th cent.; Museum of Islamic Art, Cairo (2).jpg
| footer            = (1st row) Various examples of early Umayyad paintings in Qusayr 'Amra. (2nd row) Examples of Abbasid Figural paintings from Samarra.
(3rd row) Examples of Fatimid art.
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}}
[[Arabic art]] has taken various forms, including, among other things, [[jewelry]], [[textile]]s and [[architecture]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=d'Avennes|first=Prisse|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B3MWAwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1|title=Arabic Art in Color|date=1 January 1978|publisher=Courier Corporation|isbn=978-0-486-23658-2}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Arabic art: after monuments in Cairo|date=1 January 2007|publisher=L'Aventurine|isbn=978-2-914199-60-5|oclc=216662541}}</ref> Arabic script has also traditionally been heavily embellished with often colorful [[Arabic calligraphy]], with one notable and widely used example being [[Kufic script]].<ref>{{Cite web|date=25 April 2011|title=A Brief History on Arabic Art: Different Forms of Arabic Artworks Outlined|url=http://www.brighthubeducation.com/history-homework-help/115127-arabic-art-and-architecture-brief-history/|website=Bright Hub Education}}</ref> Arabic miniatures ([[Arabic]]: الْمُنَمْنَمَات الْعَرَبِيَّة, ''Al-Munamnamāt al-ʿArabīyah'') are small [[painting]]s on [[paper]], usually book or manuscript illustrations but also sometimes separate artworks that occupy entire pages. The earliest example dates from around 690 CE, with a flourishing of the art from between 1000 and 1200 CE in the Abbasid caliphate. The art form went through several stages of evolution while witnessing the fall and rise of several [[Caliphate|Arab caliphates]].
{{multiple image
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| footer            = Arabic miniature
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Arab miniaturists got totally assimilated and subsequently disappeared due to the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] occupation of the Arab world. Nearly all forms of Islamic miniatures ([[Persian miniature]]s, [[Ottoman miniature]]s and [[Mughal miniature]]s) owe their existences to Arabic miniatures, as Arab patrons were the first to demand the production of illuminated manuscripts in the Caliphate, it was not until the 14th century that the artistic skill reached the non-Arab regions of the Caliphate.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Mihram|first=Danielle|title=Research Guides: Medieval Studies and Research: Manuscripts: Art & Techniques|url=https://libguides.usc.edu/MedRenMSSandRareMatStudies/artandtechniques|access-date=27 May 2022|website=libguides.usc.edu}}</ref><ref name="DavidCollection2">{{Cite web|title=Miniature Painting|url=https://www.davidmus.dk/en/collections/islamic/materials/miniatures|access-date=30 December 2017|publisher=The David Collection}}</ref><ref name="MMA19332">{{Cite journal|date=October 1933|title=Islamic Miniature Painting and Book Illumination|url=https://www.metmuseum.org/pubs/bulletins/1/pdf/3255467.pdf.bannered.pdf|journal=Bulletin of the Metropolitan Museum of Art|volume=28|issue=10|pages=166–171|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120406001359/https://www.metmuseum.org/pubs/bulletins/1/pdf/3255467.pdf.bannered.pdf|archive-date=6 April 2012|access-date=28 June 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dutton|first=Yasin|date=2016|title=Review of Qur'ans of the Umayyads: A First Overview (Leiden Studies in Islam & Society), François Déroche|journal=Journal of Qur'anic Studies|volume=18|issue=1|pages=153–157|doi=10.3366/jqs.2016.0227|issn=1465-3591|jstor=44031130}}</ref><ref>''La Peinture arabe''</ref>

Despite the considerable changes in Arabic miniature style and technique, even during their last decades, the early [[Umayyad Caliphate|Umayyad]] Arab influence could still be noticed. Arabic miniature artists include [[Ismail al-Jazari]], who illustrated his own ''Book of Knowledge of Ingenious Mechanical Devices.''<ref name="Jazari2">al-Jazari, ''The Book of Knowledge of Ingenious Mechanical Devices: Kitáb fí ma'rifat al-hiyal al-handasiyya'', transl. & anno. [[Donald Hill|Donald R. Hill]]. (1973), [[Springer Science+Business Media]].</ref>

The Abbasid artist, [[Yahya ibn Mahmud al-Wasiti|Yahya Al-Wasiti]], who probably lived in [[Baghdad]] in the late Abbasid era (12th to 13th-centuries), was one of the pre-eminent exponents of the Baghdad school. In the period 1236–1237, he transcribed and illustrated the book ''Maqamat'' (also known as the ''Assemblies'' or the ''Sessions''), a series of anecdotes of social satire written by [[Al-Hariri of Basra]].<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia|title=Baghdad school – Islamic art|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|url=https://www.britannica.com/art/Baghdad-school|access-date=23 May 2022}}</ref> The narrative concerns the travels of a middle-aged man as he uses his charm and eloquence to swindle his way across the Arabic world.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Art, Awakening, and Modernity in the Middle East|date=2017|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-315-12197-0|editor-last=Esanu|editor-first=Octavian|doi=10.4324/9781315121970}}</ref>[[File:Egitto,_cairo,_placca_decorativa_in_avorio,_XI_sec_-_Louvre_-_OA_6265-1.jpg|thumb|Arabesque pattern behind hunters on [[Ivory carving|ivory plaque]], 11th–12th century, Egypt]]
With most surviving Arabic [[manuscript]]s in western museums,<ref>{{Cite web|date=30 August 2017|title=الكنوز الضائعة.. هكذا انتقلت أشهر المخطوطات العربية إلى مكتبات العالم المختلفة|url=https://www.sasapost.com/arabic-manuscripts-in-foreign-libraries/|access-date=27 May 2022|website=ساسة بوست|archive-date=5 October 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221005024423/https://www.sasapost.com/arabic-manuscripts-in-foreign-libraries/}}</ref> Arabic miniatures occupy very little space in modern Arab culture.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Thābit|first1=Mahmūd|last2=Albin|first2=Michael W.|date=1977|title=The Tragedy of Arabic Manuscripts, (1)|journal=MELA Notes|issue=12|pages=16–19|issn=0364-2410|jstor=29785032}}</ref> [[Arabesque]] is a form of artistic decoration consisting of "surface decorations based on rhythmic linear patterns of scrolling and interlacing foliage, tendrils" or plain lines,<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Fleming|first1=John|url=https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofdeco00john|title=Dictionary of the Decorative Arts|last2=Honour|first2=Hugh|publisher=Penguin|year=1977|isbn=978-0-670-82047-4}}</ref> often combined with other elements. Another definition is "Foliate ornament, typically using leaves, derived from stylised [[half-palmette]]s, which were combined with spiralling stems".<ref>Rawson, 236</ref> It usually consists of a single design which can be 'tiled' or seamlessly repeated as many times as desired.<ref name="RobinsonIllustrated2">{{Cite book|last=Robinson|first=Francis|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780521435109|title=The Cambridge Illustrated History of the Islamic World|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1996|isbn=978-0-521-66993-1|url-access=registration}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Arts of the Islamic World (article)|url=https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/art-islam/beginners-guide-islamic-world-art/beginners-guide-islamic-art/a/arts-of-the-islamic-world|website=Khan Academy}}</ref>

===Architecture===
{{Further|Nabataean architecture|Islamic architecture}}
The Arab world is home to around 8%<ref>{{cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/stat/|title=Number of World Heritage Properties by region|author=<!--Not stated-->|website=World Heritage Convention|publisher=UNESCO|access-date=21 November 2023}}</ref> of [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Site]]s ([[List of World Heritage Sites in Arab states]]). The oldest examples of architecture include those of [[pre-Islamic Arabia]],<ref name=":05222">{{Cite book|last=Finster|first=Barbara|title=Encyclopaedia of Islam, Three|publisher=Brill|year=2009|isbn=978-90-04-16165-8|editor-last=Fleet|editor-first=Kate|chapter=Arabian Peninsula, art and architecture|editor-last2=Krämer|editor-first2=Gudrun|editor-last3=Matringe|editor-first3=Denis|editor-last4=Nawas|editor-first4=John|editor-last5=Rowson|editor-first5=Everett}}</ref> as well as [[Nabataean architecture]] that developed in the ancient [[Nabataean Kingdom|kingdom of the Nabataeans]], a nomadic Arab tribe that controlled a significant portion of the [[Middle East]] from the 4th century BCE to the 2nd century CE.<ref>[https://www.researchgate.net/publication/259265552_Nabataean_Architectural_Identity_and_its_Impact_on_Contemporary_Architecture_in_Jordan "Nabataean Architectural Identity and its Impact on Contemporary Architecture in Jordan"], ''Dirasat, Engineering Sciences''.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/naba/hd_naba.htm|title=Nabataean Kingdom and Petra &#124; Essay &#124; the Metropolitan Museum of Art &#124; Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History|date=October 2000 }}</ref> The Nabataeans were known for their skill in carving out elaborate buildings, tombs, and other structures from the sandstone cliffs of the region. One of the most famous examples of Nabataean architecture is the city of [[Petra]], which is located in modern-day [[Jordan]], was the capital of the Nabataean kingdom and is renowned for its impressive rock-cut architecture.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Bloom|first1=Jonathan|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=un4WcfEASZwC&pg=PA79|title=Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art & Architecture: Three-Volume Set|last2=Blair|first2=Sheila S.|date=2009|publisher=OUP US|isbn=978-0-19-530991-1}}</ref>

Prior to the start of the [[Early Muslim conquests|Arab conquests]], Arab tribal client states, the [[Lakhmid kingdom|Lakhmids]] and [[Ghassanids]], were located on the borders of the Sassanid and Byzantine empires and were exposed to the cultural and architectural influences of both.{{Sfn|Shahîd|1995a|pp=401–403}}{{Sfn|Flood|Necipoğlu|2017|p=58}} They most likely played a significant role in transmitting and adapting the architectural traditions of these two empires to the later Arab Islamic dynasties.{{Sfn|Shahîd|1995a|pp=391, 402}}{{sfn|Ettinghausen|Grabar|Jenkins-Madina|2001|pp=4–5}}

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The Arab empire expanded rapidly, and with it, came a diverse range of architectural influences. One of the most notable architectural achievements of the Arab Empire is the [[Umayyad Mosque|Great Mosque of Damascus]] in Syria, which was built in the early 8th century, was constructed on the site of a Christian basilica and incorporated elements of Byzantine and Roman architecture, such as arches, columns, and intricate mosaics. Another important architectural is the [[Al-Aqsa Mosque]] in [[Jerusalem]], which was built in the late 7th century. The mosque features an impressive dome and a large prayer hall, as well as intricate geometric patterns and calligraphy on the walls.<ref>Fletcher, Banister [https://books.google.com/books?id=ULcsAAAAYAAJ&q=islam A History of Architecture on the Comparative Method] 4th Edition, London, p. 476.</ref><ref name="Krautheimer2">Krautheimer, Richard. [https://books.google.com/books?id=WXwX7fQ2DkUC&q=islam Early Christian and Byzantine Architecture] Yale University Press Pelican History of Art, Penguin Books Ltd., 1965, p. 285.</ref>

=== Music ===
{{main|Arabic music}}
[[File:Umm_Kulthum4.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Umm Kulthum]] was an Arab singer, [[songwriter]], and film actress (1920s–1970s). She has been named among the "200 Greatest Singers of All Time".<ref>{{citation|title=Rolling Stone Magazine named iconic singer Umm Kulthum among the greatest 200 singers of all time.|date=8 January 2023|url=https://www.egypttoday.com/Article/4/121771/Rolling-Stone-Magazine-named-iconic-singer-Umm-Kulthum-among-the}}</ref>]]
[[Arabic music]], while independent and flourishing in the 2010s, has a long history of interaction with many other regional musical styles and genres. It is an amalgam of the music of the Arab people in the Arabian Peninsula and the music of all the peoples that make up the Arab world today.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Touma|first=Habib Hassan|date=1972|title=[Review of ''Das arabische Tonsystem im Mittelalter'' by Liberty Manik]|department=Book Reviews|journal=Ethnomusicology|volume=16|issue=1|pages=140–144|doi=10.2307/850449|jstor=850449}}</ref> Pre-Islamic Arab music was similar to that of Ancient Middle Eastern music. Most historians agree that there existed distinct forms of music in the [[Arabian peninsula]] in the pre-Islamic period between the 5th and 7th century CE. [[Arabic poetry|Arab poets]] of that "Jahili poets", meaning "the poets of the period of ignorance"—used to recite poems with a high notes.<ref name="Jahili2">{{Cite web|date=16 December 2004|title=الغناء في العصر الجاهلي|url=https://www.khaledtrm.net/?p=74}}</ref> It was believed that [[Genie|Jinns]] revealed poems to poets and music to musicians.<ref name="Jahili2" /> By the 11th century, Islamic Iberia had become a center for the manufacture of instruments. These goods spread gradually throughout [[France]], influencing French [[troubadour]]s, and eventually reaching the rest of [[Europe]]. The English words [[lute]], [[rebec]], and [[Naqareh|naker]] are derived from Arabic [[oud]], [[Rebab|rabab]], and [[naqareh]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Smith|first=Douglas Alton|title=A History of the Lute from Antiquity to the Renaissance|year=2002|publisher=Lute Society of America|isbn=978-0-9714071-0-7}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=20 December 2008|title=Asian Music Tribal Music of India, 32, 1, Fall, 2000/ Winter, 2001|url=http://www.utexas.edu/utpress/journals/archive/am/00449202_ap030061.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081220100655/http://www.utexas.edu/utpress/journals/archive/am/00449202_ap030061.html|archive-date=20 December 2008|access-date=18 December 2017}}</ref>

A number of [[musical instrument]]s used in [[classical music]] are believed to have been derived from Arabic musical instruments: the [[lute]] was derived from the ''[[Oud]]'', the [[rebec]] (ancestor of [[violin]]) from the ''[[Maghreb rebab]]'', the [[guitar]] from ''qitara'', which in turn was derived from the Persian [[Tar (lute)|Tar]], [[Naqareh|naker]] from ''[[naqareh]]'', [[adufe]] from ''[[Daf|al-duff]]'', [[alboka]] from ''al-buq'', ''anafil'' from ''[[Nafir (trumpet)|al-nafir]]'', exabeba from ''al-shabbaba'' ([[flute]]), atabal ([[bass drum]]) from ''al-tabl'', atambal from ''al-tinbal'',<ref>{{Citation|last=Farmer|first=Henry George|title=Historical facts for the Arabian Musical Influence|year=1988|publisher=Ayer Publishing|isbn=0-405-08496-X|oclc=220811631|author-link=Henry George Farmer|page=137}}</ref> the [[Balaban (instrument)|balaban]], the [[castanet]] from ''kasatan'', [[Tuna (music)|sonajas de azófar]] from ''sunuj al-sufr'', the [[Bore (wind instruments)|conical bore]] [[wind instrument]]s,<ref>{{Harvnb|Farmer|1988|p=140}}</ref> the xelami from the ''sulami'' or ''[[fistula]]'' (flute or [[Organ pipe|musical pipe]]),<ref>{{Harvnb|Farmer|1988|pp=140–41}}</ref> the [[shawm]] and [[dulzaina]] from the [[Reed (instrument)|reed instruments]] ''zamr'' and ''[[Zurna|al-zurna]]'',<ref>{{Harvnb|Farmer|1988|p=141}}</ref> the [[Galician gaita|gaita]] from the ''[[Rhaita|ghaita]]'', [[rackett]] from ''iraqya'' or ''iraqiyya'',<ref>{{Harvnb|Farmer|1988|p=142}}</ref> [[Violin|geige]] (violin) from ''ghichak'',<ref>{{Harvnb|Farmer|1988|p=143}}</ref> and the [[theorbo]] from the ''tarab''.<ref>{{Harvnb|Farmer|1988|p=144}}</ref>

During the 1950s and the 1960s, Arabic music began to take on a more Western tone – artists [[Umm Kulthum]], [[Abdel Halim Hafez]], and [[Shadia]] along with composers [[Mohammed Abdel Wahab|Mohamed Abd al-Wahab]] and [[Baligh Hamdi]] pioneered the use of western instruments in Egyptian music. By the 1970s several other singers had followed suit and a strand of [[Arabic pop]] was born. Arabic pop usually consists of Western styled songs with Arabic instruments and lyrics. Melodies are often a mix between Eastern and Western. Beginning in the mid-1980s, [[Lydia Canaan]], musical [[Innovator|pioneer]] widely regarded as the first rock star of the [[Middle East]]<ref name="Daily Star Rock Hall2">O'Connor, Tom. [https://www.dailystar.com.lb/News/Lebanon-News/2016/Apr-27/349450-lydia-canaan-one-step-closer-to-rocknroll-hall-of-fame.ashx "Lydia Canaan One Step Closer to Rock n' Roll Hall of Fame"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160429000832/http://www.dailystar.com.lb/News/Lebanon-News/2016/Apr-27/349450-lydia-canaan-one-step-closer-to-rocknroll-hall-of-fame.ashx|date=29 April 2016}}, ''[[The Daily Star (Lebanon)|The Daily Star]]'', Beirut, 27 April 2016.</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Lydia Canaan: The Mideast's first rock star|url=http://www.dailystar.com.lb/News/Lebanon-News/2014/Nov-17/277842-lydia-canaan-the-mideasts-first-rock-star.ashx?|website=dailystar.com.lb|access-date=8 May 2015|archive-date=5 May 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150505080129/http://www.dailystar.com.lb/News/Lebanon-News/2014/Nov-17/277842-lydia-canaan-the-mideasts-first-rock-star.ashx}}</ref>

=== Spirituality ===
[[File:Nemesis_Allat_and_dedicater-MBA_Lyon-IMG_0557.JPG|alt=|thumb|Bas-relief: [[Nemesis]], [[al-Lat]] and the dedicator. [[Palmyra|Palmyrene]], 2nd–3rd century CE.]]
[[Religion in pre-Islamic Arabia|Arab polytheism]] was the dominant religion in [[pre-Islamic Arabia]]. [[Deity|Gods]] and [[goddess]]es, including [[Hubal]] and the goddesses [[Al-Lat|al-Lāt]], [[Al-'Uzzá]] and [[Manāt]], were worshipped at local shrines, such as the [[Kaaba]] in [[Mecca]], whilst Arabs in the south, in what is today's Yemen, worshipped various gods, some of which represented the Sun or Moon. Different theories [[Religion in pre-Islamic Arabia#Mecca|have been proposed]] regarding the role of [[Allah]] in Meccan religion.<ref name="Robinson2">{{Cite book|first=Neal|last=Robinson|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2UL8AQAAQBAJ&pg=PA75|title=Islam: A Concise Introduction|date=2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-136-81773-1|page=75}}</ref><ref name="Peters2">{{Cite book|first=Francis E.|last=Peters|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0OrCo4VyvGkC&pg=PA110|title=Muhammad and the Origins of Islam|publisher=SUNY Press|year=1994|isbn=978-0-7914-1875-8|page=110}}</ref><ref name="Peterson20072">{{Cite book|first=Daniel C.|last=Peterson|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9zpbEj0xA_sC&pg=PA21|title=Muhammad, Prophet of God|date=2007|publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing|isbn=978-0-8028-0754-0|page=21}}</ref> Many of the physical descriptions of the pre-Islamic gods are traced to [[Cult image|idols]], especially near the Kaaba, which is said to have contained up to 360 of them.<ref name="armstrong2">{{Cite book|first=Karen|last=Armstrong|url=https://archive.org/details/islamshorthistor00arms_354|title=Islam: A Short History|date=2000|isbn=978-0-8129-6618-3|page=[https://archive.org/details/islamshorthistor00arms_354/page/n50 11]|publisher=Random House Publishing|url-access=limited}}</ref> Until about the fourth century, almost all Arabs practised polytheistic religions.{{sfn|Hoyland|2002|p=139}} Although significant [[Judaism|Jewish]] and Christian minorities developed, [[polytheism]] remained the dominant belief system in pre-Islamic Arabia.<ref name="Nicolle2">{{Cite book|first=David|last=Nicolle|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=o3PgFtHzLVEC&pg=PA19|title=The Great Islamic Conquests AD 632–750|date=2012|publisher=Osprey Publishing|isbn=978-1-78096-998-5|page=19|author-link=David Nicolle}}</ref>

The religious beliefs and practices of the nomadic [[bedouin]] were distinct from those of the settled tribes of towns such as [[Mecca]].<ref name="Aslan62">{{Cite book|first=Reza|last=Aslan|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HP1zoWqpqg4C&pg=PA6|title=No God But God: The Origins, Evolution and Future of Islam|date=2008|publisher=Random House|isbn=978-1-4070-0928-5|page=6}}</ref> Nomadic religious belief systems and practices are believed to have included [[fetishism]], [[totemism]] and [[veneration of the dead]] but were connected principally with immediate concerns and problems and did not consider larger [[Philosophy|philosophical]] questions such as the afterlife.<ref name="Aslan62" /> Settled urban Arabs, on the other hand, are thought to have believed in a more complex [[Pantheon (religion)|pantheon]] of deities.<ref name="Aslan62" /> While the Meccans and the other settled inhabitants of the [[Hejaz]] worshipped their gods at permanent shrines in towns and oases, the bedouin practised their religion on the move.<ref name="Peters1052">{{Cite book|first=Francis E.|last=Peters|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0OrCo4VyvGkC&pg=PA105|title=Muhammad and the Origins of Islam|publisher=SUNY Press|year=1994|isbn=978-0-7914-1875-8|page=105}}</ref>

Most notable Arab gods and goddesses: [['Amm]], [[A'ra]], [[Abgal (god)|Abgal]], [[Allah#Pre-Islamic Arabians|Allah]], [[Al-Lat]], [[Al-Qaum]], [[Almaqah]], [[Anbay]], [[ʿAṯtar]], [[Basamum]], [[Demolition of Dhul Khalasa|Dhu l-Khalasa]], [[Dushara]], [[Haukim]], [[Hubal]], [[Isāf and Nā'ila]], [[Manaf (deity)|Manaf]], [[Manāt]], [[Nasr (deity)|Nasr]], [[Nuha (deity)|Nuha]], [[Quzah]], [[Ruda (deity)|Ruda]], [[Sa'd (deity)|Sa'd]], [[Shams (goddess)|Shams, Samas]], [[Sin (mythology)|Syn]], [[Suwa']], [[Ta'lab]], [[Theandrios]], [[al-'Uzzá]], [[Wadd]], [[Ya'uq]], [[Yaghūth]], [[Yatha]], [[Aglibol]], [[Astarte]], [[Atargatis]], [[Baalshamin]], [[Bel (mythology)|Bēl]], [[Bes]], [[El (deity)|Ēl, Ilāh]], [[Inanna|Inanna/Ishtar]], [[Malakbel]], [[Nabu|Nabū, Nebo]], [[Nergal]], [[Yarhibol]].

=== Philosophy ===
{{main|Islamic philosophy}}
{{Multiple image
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| footer            = Ibn Rushd (left), known in the west as [[Averroes]], was a philosopher that influenced the rise of secular thought in Western Europe, while [[Ibn Khaldun]] (right) was a sociologist, philosopher, and historian widely acknowledged to be one of the greatest social scientists of the Middle Ages.
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The philosophical thought in the Arab world is heavily influenced by Arabic philosophy. Schools of Arabic/Islamic thought include [[Avicennism]] and [[Averroism]]. The first great Arab thinker in the Islamic tradition is widely regarded to be [[al-Kindi]] (801–873 A.D.), a [[Neo-Platonic]] philosopher, [[mathematician]] and [[scientist]] who lived in [[Kufa]] and [[Baghdad]] (modern day [[Iraq]]). After being appointed by the [[Abbasid Caliphs]] to translate [[Greeks|Greek]] scientific and [[philosophical]] texts into [[Arabic]], he wrote a number of original treatises of his own on a range of subjects, from [[metaphysics]] and [[ethic]]s to [[mathematic]]s and [[pharmacology]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Arabic philosophy|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Arabic-philosophy|website=Encyclopædia Britannica|date=28 January 2024}}</ref>

Much of his [[Philosophy|philosophical]] output focuses on [[Theology|theological]] subjects such as the nature of [[God]], the [[soul]] and [[Prophecy|prophetic]] knowledge. Doctrines of the Arabic philosophers of the 9th–12th century who influenced medieval [[Scholasticism]] in Europe. The Arabic tradition combines [[Aristotelianism]] and [[Neoplatonism]] with other ideas introduced through [[Islam]]. Influential thinkers include the non-Arabs [[al-Farabi]] and [[Avicenna]]. The Arabic philosophic literature was translated into [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] and [[Latin]], this contributed to the development of modern European philosophy. The Arabic tradition was developed by [[Moses Maimonides]] and [[Ibn Khaldun]].<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia|last=Street|first=Tony|url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/arabic-islamic-language/|title=Arabic and Islamic Philosophy of Language and Logic|date=1 January 2015|encyclopedia=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy|publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Arabic and Islamic Philosophy – Bibliography – PhilPapers|url=https://philpapers.org/browse/arabic-and-islamic-philosophy|website=philpapers.org}}</ref>

=== Science ===
{{main|Science in the medieval Islamic world}}
{{see also|Islamic world contributions to Medieval Europe}}
[[File:Houghton_Typ_620.47.452_-_Selenographia,_title.jpg|thumb|upright|left|[[Hevelius]]'s ''[[Selenographia]]'', showing [[Alhazen]] {{sic}} representing reason, and [[Galileo Galilei|Galileo]] representing the senses.]]
Arabic science underwent considerable development during the [[Middle Ages]] (8th to 13th centuries CE), a [[Islamic world contributions to Medieval Europe|source of knowledge that later spread throughout Medieval Europe]] and greatly influenced both medical practice and education. The language of recorded science was [[Arabic]]. Scientific treatises were composed by thinkers originating from across the [[Muslim world]]. These accomplishments occurred after [[Muhammad]] united the Arab tribes and the spread of Islam beyond the Arabian peninsula.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Falagas|first1=Matthew E.|last2=Zarkadoulia|first2=Effie A.|last3=Samonis|first3=George|date=1 August 2006|title=Arab science in the golden age (750–1258 CE) and today|journal=The FASEB Journal|volume=20|issue=10|pages=1581–1586|doi=10.1096/fj.06-0803ufm|doi-access=free|issn=0892-6638|pmid=16873881|s2cid=40960150}}</ref>

Within a century after Muhammed's death (632 CE), an empire ruled by Arabs was established. It encompassed a large part of the planet, stretching from southern Europe to [[North Africa]] to [[Central Asia]] and on to India. In 711 CE, Arab Muslims invaded southern Spain; [[al-Andalus]] was a center of Arabic scientific accomplishment. Soon after, Sicily too joined the greater Islamic world. Another center emerged in [[Baghdad]] from the Abbasids, who ruled part of the [[Muslim world|Islamic world]] during a historic period later characterized as the "[[Islamic Golden Age|Golden Age]]" (~750 to 1258 CE).<ref>{{Cite web|title=Rediscovering Arabic Science|url=http://www.muslimheritage.com/article/rediscovering-arabic-science|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161220185540/http://www.muslimheritage.com/article/rediscovering-arabic-science|archive-date=20 December 2016|access-date=18 December 2016|website=Muslimheritage.com |date=12 August 2009 }}</ref>

This era can be identified as the years between 692 and 945,<ref name="World Civilization Vol 1 1974, pg. 2342">[[Marshall Hodgson]], ''The Venture of Islam; Conscience and History in a World Civilisation Vol 1''. [[The University of Chicago]], 1974, p. 234.</ref> and ended when the caliphate was marginalized by local Muslim rulers in Baghdad&nbsp;– its traditional seat of power. From 945 onward until the [[Sack of Baghdad|sacking of Baghdad]] by the [[Mongol invasions|Mongols]] in 1258, the Caliph continued on as a figurehead, with power devolving more to local subordinates.<ref name="World Civilization Vol 1 1974, pg. 2332">[[Marshall Hodgson]], ''The Venture of Islam; Conscience and History in a World Civilisation Vol 1''. [[The University of Chicago]], 1974, p. 233.</ref> The pious scholars of Islam, men and women collectively known as the [[ulama]], were the most influential element of society in the fields of [[Sharia]] law, speculative thought and theology.<ref>[[Marshall Hodgson]], ''The Venture of Islam; Conscience and History in a World Civilisation Vol 1''. [[The University of Chicago]], 1974, p. 238.</ref> Arabic scientific achievement is not as yet fully understood, but is very large.<ref name="RobinsonCambridge2">{{Cite book|title=The Cambridge Illustrated History of the Islamic World|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1996|editor-last=Robinson|editor-first=Francis|pages=228–229}}</ref> These achievements encompass a wide range of subject areas, especially [[Mathematics in medieval Islam|mathematics]], [[Astronomy in medieval Islam|astronomy]], and [[Medicine in medieval Islam|medicine]].<ref name="RobinsonCambridge2" /> Other subjects of scientific inquiry included [[Physics in medieval Islam|physics]], [[Alchemy and chemistry in medieval Islam|alchemy and chemistry]], [[Cosmology in medieval Islam|cosmology]], [[Medieval Islamic ophthalmology|ophthalmology]], [[Geography and cartography in medieval Islam|geography and cartography]], [[Sociology in medieval Islam|sociology]], and [[Psychology in medieval Islam|psychology]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=The Origins of Islamic Science|url=http://www.muslimheritage.com/article/origins-islamic-science|access-date=18 December 2016|website=Muslimheritage.com|date=30 August 2010}}</ref>

[[File:Maqamat hariri.jpg|thumb|Illustration of scholars dating from the Abbasid period by [[Yahya ibn Mahmud al-Wasiti]] from the ''[[Maqamat of Al-Hariri (manuscript)|Maqamat of Al-Hariri]]'' manuscript.]]
[[Al-Battani]] was an astronomer, astrologer and mathematician of the [[Islamic Golden Age]]. His work is considered instrumental in the development of science and astronomy. One of Al-Battani's best-known achievements in astronomy was the determination of the solar year as being 365 days, 5 hours, 46 minutes and 24 seconds which is only 2 minutes and 22 seconds off.<ref name="MacTutor2">{{MacTutor Biography|id=Al-Battani|title=Abu Abdallah Mohammad ibn Jabir Al-Battani}}</ref> In [[Islamic mathematics|mathematics]], al-Battānī produced a number of [[Trigonometry|trigonometrical]] relationships.<ref name="MacTutor2" /> [[Al-Zahrawi]], regarded by many as the greatest surgeon of the [[Middle Ages]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Weinberg|first=Steven|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7rZvBQAAQBAJ&q=alhazen+greatest&pg=PT116|title=To Explain the World: The Discovery of Modern Science|date=2015|publisher=Penguin Books Limited|isbn=978-0-241-19665-6}}</ref> His surgical treatise "[[Al-Tasrif|De chirurgia]]" is the first illustrated surgical guide ever written. It remained the primary source for surgical procedures and instruments in Europe for the next 500 years.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Krebs|first=Robert E.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MTXdplfiz-cC&q=texts+for+next+500+years+al-zahrawi&pg=PA95|title=Groundbreaking Scientific Experiments, Inventions, and Discoveries of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance|date=2004|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-313-32433-8}}</ref> The book helped lay the foundation to establish [[surgery]] as a scientific discipline independent from [[medicine]], earning al-Zahrawi his name as one of the founders of this field.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Krebs|first=Robert E.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MTXdplfiz-cC&q=%22father+of+surgery%22+al-zahrawi&pg=PA95|title=Groundbreaking Scientific Experiments, Inventions, and Discoveries of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance|date=2004|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-313-32433-8}}</ref>

Other notable Arabic contributions include among other things: the pioneering of [[organic chemistry]] by [[Jābir ibn Hayyān]],<ref>{{cite journal <!-- Citation bot bypass--> |last1=Stapleton |first1=Henry E. |author1-link=Henry Ernest Stapleton |last2=Azo |first2=R.F. |last3=Hidayat Husain |first3=M. |year=1927 |title=Chemistry in Iraq and Persia in the Tenth Century A.D. |url=http://www.southasiaarchive.com/Content/sarf.100203/231270 |journal=Memoirs of the Asiatic Society of Bengal |volume=VIII |issue=6 |pages=317–418 |oclc=706947607}} pp. 338–340; {{Cite book|last=Kraus|first=Paul|title=Jâbir ibn Hayyân: Contribution à l'histoire des idées scientifiques dans l'Islam. I. Le corpus des écrits jâbiriens. II. Jâbir et la science grecque|publisher=Institut Français d'Archéologie Orientale|year=1942–1943 |location=Cairo|oclc=468740510|author-link=Paul Kraus (Arabist)}} vol. II, pp. 41–42. Note that Jabir ibn Hayyan, if he ever existed at all, may also have been a non-Arab client of the Arab [[Azd]] tribe: see {{harvnb|Kraus|1942–1943|loc=vol. I, p. xli, note 1}}, and further [[Jabir ibn Hayyan#Biography]].</ref> establishing the science of [[cryptology]] and [[cryptanalysis]] by [[al-Kindi]],<ref>{{Cite book|last=Kahn|first=David|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3S8rhOEmDIIC&q=David+Kahn+The+Codebreakers|title=The Codebreakers: The Comprehensive History of Secret Communication from Ancient Times to the Internet|date=1996|publisher=Simon and Schuster|isbn=978-1-4391-0355-5|quote=Cryptology was born among the Arabs. They were the first to discover and write down the methods of cryptoanalysis.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Borda|first=Monica|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Lyte2yl1SPAC&q=cryptography+arabs&pg=PA122|title=Fundamentals in Information Theory and Coding|date=2011|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-3-642-20347-3|page=122|quote=Al Kindi, an Arab scientist from 9th century is considered the father of cryptology, his book on this subject being, at this moment, the oldest available.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Arab Code Breakers|url=https://simonsingh.net/media/articles/maths-and-science/arab-code-breakers/|website=simonsingh.net}}</ref> the development of [[analytic geometry]] by [[Ibn al-Haytham]],<ref>Glick, Thomas F.; Livesey, Steven; Wallis, Faith (2014). Medieval Science, Technology, and Medicine: An Encyclopedia. Routledge. p. 237.</ref><ref>Kalin, Ibrahim (2014). The Oxford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Science, and Technology in Islam. Oxford University Press. p. 321.</ref> who has been described as the "world's first true scientist",<ref>{{Cite news|last=Al-Khalili|first=Jim|date=4 January 2009|title=BBC News|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/7810846.stm|access-date=11 April 2014}}</ref> the discovery of the [[pulmonary circulation]] by [[Ibn al-Nafis]],<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Kidder|first1=David S.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hpzb_yA42TAC&q=Ibn+al-Nafis+circulation&pg=PA122|title=The Intellectual Devotional Biographies: Revive Your Mind, Complete Your Education, and Acquaint Yourself with the World's Greatest Personalities|last2=Oppenheim|first2=Noah D.|date=2010|publisher=Rodale|isbn=978-1-60529-088-1}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Ibn an-Nafīs|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Ibn-an-Nafis|website=Encyclopædia Britannica|date=14 March 2024}}</ref> the discovery of the [[itch mite]] parasite by [[Ibn Zuhr]],<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Glick|first1=Thomas F.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=77y2AgAAQBAJ&q=%22Ibn+Zuhr%22&pg=PA259|title=Medieval Science, Technology, and Medicine: An Encyclopedia|last2=Livesey|first2=Steven|last3=Wallis|first3=Faith|date=2014|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-135-45932-1}}</ref>{{Page needed|date=June 2024}} the first use of [[irrational numbers]] as an algebraic objects by [[Abū Kāmil]],<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Akyeampong|first1=Emmanuel Kwaku|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=39JMAgAAQBAJ&q=%22Abu+kamil%22+%22the+first%22&pg=PA62|title=Dictionary of African Biography. 1St- Ed.; 1970|last2=Niven|first2=Mr. Steven J|date=1970|publisher=OUP US|isbn=978-0-19-538207-5}}</ref> the first use of the positional [[decimal fractions]] by [[Abu'l-Hasan al-Uqlidisi|al-Uqlidisi]],<ref>{{Cite web|title=Al-Uqlidisi biography|url=http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Al-Uqlidisi.html|website=www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Selin|first=Helaine|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GzjpCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA69|title=Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures|date=2013|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-94-017-1416-7|page=69|quote=Historian J.L. Berggren, for example, concludes that while the Hindus were the first to use a "cipherized, decimal positional system", the Arabs pioneered in extending this system to "represent parts of the unit by decimal fractions".}}</ref> the development of the [[Arabic numerals]] and an early [[History of mathematical notation|algebraic symbolism]] in the [[Maghreb]],<ref>{{Cite book|last=Selin|first=Helaine|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GzjpCAAAQBAJ&q=%22algebraic+symbolism%22+maghreb&pg=PA831|title=Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures|date=2013|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-94-017-1416-7}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Al-Qalasadi biography|url=http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Al-Qalasadi.html|website=www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk}}</ref> the [[Thabit number]] and [[Amicable numbers#Thābit ibn Qurra theorem|Thābit theorem]] by [[Thābit ibn Qurra]],<ref name="Rashed2">{{cite book|last=Rashed|first=Roshdi|title=The development of Arabic mathematics: between arithmetic and algebra.|publisher=Kluwer Academic Publishers|year=1994|isbn=978-0-7923-2565-9|volume=156|location=Dordrecht, Boston & London|pages=278, 279}}</ref> the discovery of several new [[List of trigonometric identities|trigonometric identities]] by [[Ibn Yunus]] and [[al-Battani]],<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Tonias|first1=Elias C.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=I0QWDAAAQBAJ&q=Al-Battani+%22trigonometric+identities&pg=PA15|title=Geometric Procedures for Civil Engineers|last2=Tonias|first2=Constantine N.|date=2016|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-3-319-24295-8}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Ben-Menahem|first=Ari|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9tUrarQYhKMC&q=%22ibn+yunus%22+%22trigonometric++formula%22&pg=PA565|title=Historical Encyclopedia of Natural and Mathematical Sciences|date=2009|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-3-540-68831-0}}</ref> the [[mathematical proof]] for [[Ceva's theorem]] by [[Yusuf al-Mu'taman ibn Hud|Ibn Hűd]],<ref>{{Cite book|last=Holme|first=Audun|url=https://archive.org/details/geometryourcultr0000holm_2nded/page/193/mode/1up?q=ibn|title=Geometry: Our Cultural Heritage|publisher=Springer|year=2010|isbn=978-3-642-14440-0|page=[https://archive.org/details/geometryourcultr0000holm_2nded/page/193/mode/1up?q=ibn 194]|url-access=limited}}</ref> the invention of the [[equatorium]] by [[al-Zarqali]],<ref>{{Cite book|last=May|first=Andrew|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=blsqDwAAQBAJ&q=al-Zarqali+Equatorium&pg=PA115|title=The Telescopic Tourist's Guide to the Moon|date=2017|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-3-319-60741-2}}</ref> the discovery of the [[Reaction (physics)|physical reaction]] by [[Avempace]],<ref>Franco, Abel B.. "Avempace, Projectile Motion, and Impetus Theory". ''Journal of the History of Ideas''. Vol. 64(4): 543.</ref> the identification of more than 200 new [[plants]] by [[Ibn al-Baitar]]<ref>{{Cite web|title=Ibn al-Baitar – Dictionary definition of Ibn al-Baitar|url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/science/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/ibn-al-baitar|website=encyclopedia.com}}</ref> the [[Arab Agricultural Revolution]], and the [[Tabula Rogeriana]], which was the most accurate world map in pre-modern times by [[al-Idrisi]].<ref name="bacharach2">Bacharach, 2006, p. 140.</ref>
{{multiple image
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| footer            = Diagram of a hydro-powered perpetual flute from The Book of Knowledge of Ingenious Mechanical Devices by [[Ismail al-Jazari]], 1206. (left) The eye according to [[Hunayn ibn Ishaq]], c.1200 (right)
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Several universities and educational institutions of the Arab world such as the [[University of al-Qarawiyyin|University of al-Quarawiyyin]], [[Al-Azhar University]], and [[University of Ez-Zitouna|Al Zaytuna University]] are considered to be the oldest in the world. Founded by [[Fatima al-Fihriya|Fatima al Fihriya]] in 859 as a mosque, the University of Al Quaraouiyine in [[Fez, Morocco|Fez]] is the oldest existing, continually operating and the first [[Academic degree|degree]] awarding educational institution in the world according to [[UNESCO]] and [[Guinness World Records]]<ref>{{Cite web|title=Oldest university|url=http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/3000/oldest-university|access-date=18 December 2017|website=Guinnessworldrecords.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Medina of Fez|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/170|access-date=7 April 2016|publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre}}</ref> and is sometimes referred to as the oldest university.<ref>Verger, Jacques: "Patterns", in: Ridder-Symoens, Hilde de (ed.): ''A History of the University in Europe. Vol. I: Universities in the Middle Ages'', Cambridge University Press, 2003, {{ISBN|978-0-521-54113-8}}, pp.&nbsp;35–76 (35)</ref>

There are many scientific [[Influence of Arabic on other languages|Arabic loanwords]] in Western European languages, including [[wikt:Category:English terms derived from Arabic|English]], mostly via Old French.<ref>Lebedel, p.113</ref> This includes [[List of Arabic star names|traditional star names]] such as [[Aldebaran]], scientific terms like ''[[wikt:alchemy|alchemy]]'' (whence also ''[[wikt:chemistry|chemistry]]''), ''[[wikt:algebra|algebra]]'', ''[[wikt:algorithm|algorithm]]'', ''[[wikt:alcohol|alcohol]]'', ''[[wikt:alkali|alkali]]'', ''[[wikt:cipher|cipher]]'', ''[[wikt:zenith|zenith]]'', etc.

Under [[Ottoman rule]], cultural life and science in the Arab world declined. In the 20th and 21st centuries, Arabs who have won important science prizes include [[Ahmed Zewail]] and [[Elias Corey]] ([[Nobel Prize]]), [[Michael DeBakey]] and [[Alim Louis Benabid|Alim Benabid]] ([[Lasker Award]]), [[Omar M. Yaghi]] ([[Wolf Prize]]), [[Huda Zoghbi]] ([[Shaw Prize]]), [[Zaha Hadid]] ([[Pritzker Prize]]), and [[Michael Atiyah]] (both [[Fields Medal]] and [[Abel Prize]]). [[Rachid Yazami]] was one of the co-inventors of the [[lithium-ion battery]],<ref>{{Cite web|date=6 January 2014|title=UT Austin's John B. Goodenough Wins Engineering's Highest Honor for Pioneering Lithium-Ion Battery|url=https://news.utexas.edu/2014/01/06/goodenough-wins-highest-engineering-honor|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160514211211/http://news.utexas.edu/2014/01/06/goodenough-wins-highest-engineering-honor|archive-date=14 May 2016|access-date=18 December 2018|website=UT News}}</ref> and [[Tony Fadell]] was important in the development of the [[iPod]] and the [[iPhone]].<ref>{{Cite news|last=Salter|first=Jessica|date=14 November 2014|title=Tony Fadell, father of the iPod, iPhone and Nest, on why he is worth $3.2bn to Google|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/people-in-technology/10892436/Tony-Fadell-father-of-the-iPod-iPhone-and-Nest-on-why-he-is-worth-3.2bn-to-Google.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140614091359/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/people-in-technology/10892436/Tony-Fadell-father-of-the-iPod-iPhone-and-Nest-on-why-he-is-worth-3.2bn-to-Google.html|archive-date=14 June 2014}}</ref>

=== Theatre ===
{{main|Experimental theatre in the Arab world}}
[[File:Yousef_wahby.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Youssef Wahbi]], (1898–1982) was a prominent Arab playwright, actor, and director who played a major role in shaping modern Arab theatre.]]
Arab theatre is a rich and diverse cultural form that encompasses a wide range of styles, genres, and historical influences. Its roots in the pre-Islamic era, when poetry, storytelling, and musical performances were the main forms of artistic expressionIt refers to theatrical performances that are created by Arab playwrights, actors, and directors. The roots of Arab theatre can be traced back to ancient [[Arabic poetry]] and storytelling, which often incorporated music and dance. In the [[Historiography of early Islam|early Arabic period]], storytelling evolved into a more formalized art form that was performed in public gatherings and festivals.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Arab theatre|url=https://al-bab.com/arts-and-culture/arab-theatre|access-date=19 March 2023|website=al-bab.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Ḥamdān|first=Masʻūd|title=Poetics, politics and protest in Arab theatre: the bitter cup and the holy rain|date=2006|publisher=Sussex Academic Press|isbn=1-84519-106-4|location=Brighton [England]|oclc=60697132}}</ref>

During the [[Islamic Golden Age]] in the 8th and 9th centuries, the city of [[Baghdad]] emerged as a hub of intellectual and artistic activity, including theatre. The court of the Abbasid Caliphate was home to many influential playwrights and performers, who helped to develop and popularize theatre throughout the Islamic world. Arab theatre has a long tradition of incorporating comedy and satire into its performances, often using humor to address social and political issues.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Guo|first=Li|title=Arabic shadow theatre, 1300–1900: a handbook|date=2020|isbn=978-90-04-43615-2|location=Leiden |publisher=Brill |oclc=1157810700}}</ref>

Arab theatre encompasses a wide range of dramatic genres, including tragedy, melodrama, and historical plays. Many Arab playwrights have used drama to address contemporary issues, the role of [[Women in the Arab world|women in Arab society]], and the challenges facing young people in the modern world. In recent decades, many Arab theatre artists have pushed the boundaries of the form, experimenting with new styles and techniques. This has led to the emergence of a vibrant contemporary theatre scene in many Arab countries, with innovative productions and performances that challenge traditional notions of Arab identity and culture.<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000109545|title=The Birth of modern Arab theatre|last=Maleh|first=Ghassan|magazine=The UNESCO Courier|year=1997|access-date=31 March 2023}}</ref>

=== Fashion ===
{{main|Arab Fashion Council}}
[[File:Six_cushions_from_Palestine.jpg|thumb|Modern [[cross-stitch]] cushions. From top left, clockwise: [[Gaza City|Gaza]], [[Ramallah]], Ramallah, [[Nablus]], [[Beit Jalla]], [[Bethlehem]].]]
Arab fashion and design have a rich history and cultural significance that spans centuries, each with its unique fashion and design traditions. One of the most notable aspects of Arab fashion is the use of luxurious [[Textile|fabrics]] and intricate [[embroidery]]. Traditional garments, such as the [[Abaya]] and [[Thawb|Thobe]], are often made from high-quality fabrics like [[silk]], [[satin]], [[brocade]], and are embellished with intricate embroidery and beading.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Foreman|first=Liza|title=The visionaries modernising Arab fashion|date=26 October 2017 |url=https://www.bbc.com/culture/article/20171026-the-visionaries-contemporising-arab-fashion|access-date=19 March 2023|publisher=BBC}}</ref> In recent years, Arab fashion has gained global recognition, with designers like [[Elie Saab]], [[Zuhair Murad]], and [[Reem Acra]] showcasing their designs on international runways.<ref>{{Cite web|date=9 February 2022|title=The evolution of Arab Fashion|url=https://thechicicon.com/2022/02/09/the-evolution-of-arab-fashion/|access-date=19 March 2023|website=The Chic Icon}}</ref>

These designers incorporate traditional Arab design elements into their collections, such as ornate patterns, luxurious fabrics, and intricate embellishments. In addition to fashion, Arab design is also characterized by its intricate geometric [[pattern]]s, [[Arab calligraphy|calligraphy]], and use of vibrant colors. Arabic art and architecture, with their intricate geometric patterns and motifs, have influenced Arab design for centuries.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Arab Fashion Week|url=https://europaregina.eu/fashion-weeks/fashion-weeks-middle-east/arab-fashion-week/|access-date=19 March 2023|website=Europa Regina}}</ref> Arab designers also incorporate traditional motifs, such as the paisley and the [[arabesque]], into their work. Overall, Arab fashion elements are rooted in the rich cultural heritage of the Arab world and continue to inspire designers today.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Textile Trades, Consumer Cultures, and the Material Worlds of the Indian Ocean: an Ocean of Cloth|date=2018|editor1=Pedro Machado|editor2=Sarah Fee|editor3=Gwyn Campbell|isbn=978-3-319-58265-8|location=Cham |publisher=Springer |oclc=1029071537}}</ref>

=== Wedding and marriage ===
{{main|Arab wedding}}
[[File:Tatouage_au_Henné,_Maroc.jpg|thumb|[[Henna]] tattoo in [[Morocco]]]]
[[Arab wedding|Arabi weddings]] have changed greatly over the years. Original traditional Arab weddings have involved elements such as elaborate attire and traditional music, dance and ceremonies, and are in some cases unique from one region to another, even within the same country. The practice of [[Marriage|marrying]] of relatives is a common feature of [[Arab culture]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Jehad|first=Al-Omari|title=Understanding the Arab culture: a practical cross-cultural guide to working in the Arab world|date=2008|publisher=How To Books|isbn=978-1-84803-646-8|oclc=408662262}}</ref>

In the Arab world today, between 40% and 50% of all marriages are [[consanguineous]] or between close family members, though these figures may vary among Arab nations.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Middle East Health Magazine|url=http://www.middleeasthealthmag.com/cgi-bin/index.cgi?http://www.middleeasthealthmag.com/may2012/feature2.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010101037/http://www.middleeasthealthmag.com/cgi-bin/index.cgi?http%3A%2F%2Fwww.middleeasthealthmag.com%2Fmay2012%2Ffeature2.htm|archive-date=10 October 2017|access-date=18 December 2017|website=Middleeasthealthmag.com}}</ref><ref name="pmid242942992">{{Cite journal|vauthors=Bener A, Dafeeah EE, Samson N|year=2012|title=Does consanguinity increase the risk of schizophrenia? Study based on primary health care centre visits|journal=Ment Health Fam Med|volume=9|issue=4|pages=241–8|pmc=3721918|pmid=24294299}}</ref> In [[Egypt]], around 40% of the population [[Cousin marriage|marry a cousin]]. A 1992 survey in [[Jordan]] found that 32% were married to a first cousin; a further 17.3% were married to more distant relatives.<ref>[https://www.economist.com/news/middle-east-and-africa/21693632-marriage-between-close-relatives-much-too-common-keeping-it-family Consanguineous marriage: Keeping it in the family]. ''Economist'', 27 February 2016</ref> 67% of marriages in [[Saudi Arabia]] are between close relatives as are 54% of all marriages in [[Kuwait]], whereas 18% of all [[Lebanon|Lebanese]] were between [[blood relatives]].<ref name="Inbreeding2">{{Cite web|title=Inbreeding|url=http://www.as.wvu.edu/~kgarbutt/QuantGen/Gen535Papers2/Inbreeding.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171220105324/http://www.as.wvu.edu/~kgarbutt/QuantGen/Gen535Papers2/Inbreeding.htm|archive-date=20 December 2017|access-date=18 December 2017|website=As.wvu.edu}}</ref> Due to the actions of [[Muhammad]] and the [[Rashidun]], marriage between cousins is explicitly allowed in [[Islam]] and the [[Quran]] itself does not discourage or forbid the practice.<ref>[[Surah|Surah chapter]] 4, verse 23</ref> Nevertheless, opinions vary on whether the [[phenomenon]] should be seen as exclusively based on Islamic practices as a 1992 study among Arabs in Jordan did not show significant differences between [[Arab Christians|Christian Arabs]] or [[Arab Muslims|Muslim Arabs]] when comparing the occurrence of [[consanguinity]].<ref name="Inbreeding2" />

== Genetics ==
{{see also|Genetic studies on Arabs|Genetic history of the Middle East}}
Arabs are genetically diverse, arising from admixture with indigenous peoples of pre-Islamic Middle East and North Africa, following the Islamic expansion.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last1=Hajjej|first1=Abdelhafidh|last2=Almawi|first2=Wassim Y.|last3=Arnaiz-Villena|first3=Antonio|last4=Hattab|first4=Lasmar|last5=Hmida|first5=Slama|date=9 March 2018|title=The genetic heterogeneity of Arab populations as inferred from HLA genes|journal=PLOS ONE|volume=13|issue=3|article-number=e0192269|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0192269|issn=1932-6203|pmc=5844529|pmid=29522542|bibcode=2018PLoSO..1392269H|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Teebi|first1=Ahmad S.|last2=Teebi|first2=Saeed A.|date=2005|title=Genetic Diversity among the Arabs|journal=Community Genetics|volume=8|issue=1|pages=21–26|doi=10.1159/000083333|jstor=26679441|pmid=15767750|s2cid=21134947|issn=1422-2795}}</ref> Genetic ancestry components related to the Arabian Peninsula display an increasing frequency pattern from west to east over North Africa. A similar frequency pattern exist across [[Northeast Africa|northeastern Africa]] with decreasing genetic affinities to groups of the Arabian Peninsula along the [[Nile|Nile river valley]] across [[Sudan]] and [[South Sudan]] the more they go south.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last1=Schlebusch|first1=Carina M.|last2=Jakobsson|first2=Mattias|date=31 August 2018|title=Tales of Human Migration, Admixture, and Selection in Africa|journal=Annual Review of Genomics and Human Genetics|volume=19|issue=1|pages=405–428|doi=10.1146/annurev-genom-083117-021759|pmid=29727585|s2cid=19155657|issn=1527-8204|doi-access=free}}</ref> This [[Cline (biology)|genetic cline]] of admixture is dated to the time of [[Arab migrations to the Maghreb|Arab expansion and immigration to the Maghreb]] and northeast Africa.<ref name=":3" /> Genetic research has indicated that Palestinian Arabs and [[Jews]] share common genetic ancestry and are closely related.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Jews and Arabs Share Recent Ancestry|url=https://www.science.org/content/article/jews-and-arabs-share-recent-ancestry|access-date=8 June 2023|website=science.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=4 June 2020|title=Confirmed Cousins, Jews and Arabs Genetically and Anciently Linked|url=https://israelbetweenthelines.com/2020/06/04/confirmed-cousins-jews-and-arabs-genetically-and-anciently-linked/|access-date=8 June 2023}}</ref><ref name="Nebel2000">{{cite journal|last1=Nebel|first1=Almut|last2=Filon|first2=Dvora|last3=Weiss|first3=Deborah A.|last4=Weale|first4=Michael|last5=Faerman|first5=Marina|last6=Oppenheim|first6=Ariella|last7=Thomas|first7=Mark G.|date=December 2000|title=High-resolution Y chromosome haplotypes of Israeli and Palestinian Arabs reveal geographic substructure and substantial overlap with haplotypes of Jews|url=http://www.ucl.ac.uk/tcga/tcgapdf/Nebel-HG-00-IPArabs.pdf|journal=Human Genetics|volume=107|issue=6|pages=630–641|doi=10.1007/s004390000426|pmid=11153918|s2cid=8136092|quote=According to historical records part, or perhaps the majority, of the Muslim Arabs in this country descended from local inhabitants, mainly Christians and Jews, who had converted after the Islamic conquest in the seventh century CE (Shaban 1971; Mc Graw Donner 1981). These local inhabitants, in turn, were descendants of the core population that had lived in the area for several centuries, some even since prehistorical times (Gil 1992)... Thus, our findings are in good agreement with the historical record...|archive-date=24 December 2018|access-date=26 June 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181224213531/http://www.ucl.ac.uk/tcga/tcgapdf/Nebel-HG-00-IPArabs.pdf%20|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="Behar2010">{{cite journal|author1=Doron M. Behar|author2=Bayazit Yunusbayev|author3=Mait Metspalu|author4=Ene Metspalu|author5=Saharon Rosset|author6=Jüri Parik|author7=Siiri Rootsi|author8=Gyaneshwer Chaubey|author9=Ildus Kutuev |author10=Guennady Yudkovsky|author11=Elza K. Khusnutdinova|author12=Oleg Balanovsky|author13=Olga Balaganskaya|author14=Ornella Semino|author15=Luisa Pereira|date=July 2010|title=The genome-wide structure of the Jewish people|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/44657170|journal=Nature|volume=466|issue=7303|pages=238–242|bibcode=2010Natur.466..238B|doi=10.1038/nature09103|pmid=20531471|s2cid=4307824 |author20=Michael F. Hammer|author21=Karl Skorecki|author22=Richard Villems|author19=Tudor Parfitt|author18=Batsheva Bonne-Tamir|author16=David Comas|author17=David Gurwitz}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Atzmon|first1=G|display-authors=etal|year=2010|title=Abraham's Children in the Genome Era: Major Jewish Diaspora Populations Comprise Distinct Genetic Clusters with Shared Middle Eastern Ancestry|journal=[[American Journal of Human Genetics]]|volume=86|issue=6|pages=850–859|doi=10.1016/j.ajhg.2010.04.015|pmc=3032072|pmid=20560205}}</ref><ref>Nebel (2000), quote: By the fifth century CE, the majority of non-Jews and Jews had become Christians by conversion ([[Roberto Bachi|Bachi]] 1974). The first millennium CE was marked by the immigration of Arab tribes, reaching its climax with the Moslem conquest from the Arabian Peninsula (633–640 CE). This was followed by a slow process of Islamization of the local population, both of Christians and Jews (Shaban 1971; Mc Graw Donner 1981). Additional minor demographic changes might have been caused by subsequent invasions of the Seljuks, Crusaders, Mongols, Mamelukes and Ottoman Turks. Recent gene-flow from various geographic origins is reflected, for example, in the heterogeneous spectrum of globin mutations among Israeli Arabs (Filon et al. 1994). Israeli and Palestinian Arabs share a similar linguistic and geographic background with Jews. (p. 631) According to historical records part, or perhaps the majority, of the Moslem Arabs in this country descended from local inhabitants, mainly Christians and Jews, who had converted after the Islamic conquest in the seventh century CE (Shaban 1971; Mc Graw Donner 1981). These local inhabitants, in turn, were descendants of the core population that had lived in the area for several centuries, some even since prehistorical times (Gil 1992). On the other hand, the ancestors of the great majority of present-day Jews lived outside this region for almost two millennia. Thus, our findings are in good agreement with historical evidence and suggest genetic continuity in both populations despite their long separation and the wide geographic dispersal of Jews.(p.637)</ref><ref>{{Citation|last=Kalmar|first=Ivan|title=Is there a Judeo-Christian Tradition?|chapter=4. Jews, Cousins of Arabs: Orientalism, Race, Nation, And Pan-Nation in the Long Nineteenth Century|date=21 March 2016|pages=53–74|publisher=De Gruyter|doi=10.1515/9783110416596-005|isbn=978-3-11-041659-6|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Nebel 2001">{{cite journal|vauthors=Nebel A, Filon D, Brinkmann B, Majumder PP, Faerman M, Oppenheim A|date=November 2001|title=The Y chromosome pool of Jews as part of the genetic landscape of the Middle East|journal=American Journal of Human Genetics|volume=69|issue=5|pages=1095–112|doi=10.1086/324070|pmc=1274378|pmid=11573163}}</ref> According to a 2016 study, indigenous Arabs from the Arabian Peninsula are direct descendants of the first Eurasian populations established by [[Out of Africa migration]]s. They are also very distant from contemporary Eurasians although there is signal of European admixture.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Rodriguez-Flores|first1=Juan L.|last2=Fakhro|first2=Khalid|last3=Agosto-Perez|first3=Francisco|last4=D. Ramstetter|first4=Monica|date=2016|title=Indigenous Arabs are descendants of the earliest split from ancient Eurasian populations|journal=Genome Research|volume=26|issue=2|pages=151–162|doi=10.1101/gr.191478.115|pmid=26728717|pmc=4728368}}</ref>

Ancient DNA analysis has confirmed the genetic relationship between [[Natufians]] and other ancient and modern Middle Easterners and the broader West Eurasian meta-population (i.e. [[Genetic history of Europe|Europeans]] and [[Ganj Dareh|South-Central Asians]]). A 2021 study found that some modern Arab groups, such as [[Saudi Arabians]] and [[Yemenis]], derive most of their ancestry from local Natufian hunter-gatherers and have less [[Anatolian hunter-gatherers|Neolithic Anatolian]] ancestry than Levantines. The presence of [[Iranian hunter-gatherers|Neolithic Iranian]] ancestry among modern Arabs can be attributed to [[Pre-modern human migration|migrations]] during the [[Bronze Age]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Almarri |first1=Mohamed A. |last2=Haber |first2=Marc |last3=Lootah |first3=Reem A. |last4=Hallast |first4=Pille |display-authors=3 |date=2021 |title=The genomic history of the Middle East |journal=Cell |volume=184 |issue=18 |pages=4612–4625 |doi=10.1016/j.cell.2021.07.013 |pmid=34352227 |pmc=8445022 }}</ref> The Natufian population displays also ancestral ties to Paleolithic [[Taforalt]] samples, the makers of the Epipaleolithic [[Iberomaurusian]] culture of the Maghreb.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Salem |first1=Nada |last2=van de Loosdrecht |first2=Marieke S. |last3=Sümer |first3=Arev Pelin |last4=Vai |first4=Stefania |last5=Hübner |first5=Alexander |last6=Peter |first6=Benjamin |last7=Bianco |first7=Raffaela A. |last8=Lari |first8=Martina |last9=Modi |first9=Alessandra |last10=Al-Faloos |first10=Mohamed Faraj Mohamed |last11=Turjman |first11=Mustafa |last12=Bouzouggar |first12=Abdeljalil |last13=Tafuri |first13=Mary Anne |last14=Manzi |first14=Giorgio |last15=Rotunno |first15=Rocco |date=2 April 2025 |title=Ancient DNA from the Green Sahara reveals ancestral North African lineage |journal=Nature |volume=641 |issue=8061 |language=en |pages=144–150 |doi=10.1038/s41586-025-08793-7 |pmid=40175549 |issn=1476-4687|doi-access=free |pmc=12043513 |bibcode=2025Natur.641..144S }}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Demographics of the Arab world]]
* [[Maghrebi Arabs]]

== References ==
===Notes===
{{Reflist|group=nb}}
{{notelist}}

===Citations===
{{reflist|group=a}}
{{Reflist}}

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{{Refend}}

==Further reading==
* Price-Jones, David. ''The Closed Circle: an Interpretation of the Arabs''. Pbk. ed., with a new preface by the author. Chicago: I. R. Dee, 2002. xiv, 464 p. {{ISBN|1-56663-440-7}}
* Ankerl, Guy. ''Coexisting Contemporary Civilizations: Arabo-Muslim, Bharati, Chinese, and Western.'' INU PRESS, Geneva, 2000. {{ISBN|2-88155-004-5}}.
* {{Cite book|last=Bitar|first=Amer|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=X4oBEAAAQBAJ|title=Bedouin Visual Leadership in the Middle East: The Power of Aesthetics and Practical Implications|date=2020|publisher=[[Springer Nature]]|isbn=978-3-030-57397-3}}

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
* [http://www.lasportal.org/Pages/Welcome.aspx www.LasPortal.org]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20161202074825/http://arabculturefund.org/home/index.php ArabCultureFund AFAC] (archived 2 December 2016)

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[[Category:Semitic-speaking peoples]]
[[Category:Ancient peoples of the Near East]]
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