View source for Antisemitism in Islam

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{{Islam and other religions}}
There is considerable debate about the nature of antisemitism in [[Islam]], including [[Muslim]] attitudes towards [[Jews]], Islamic teachings on Jews and [[Judaism]], and the treatment of Jews in Islamic societies throughout the [[history of Islam]]. [[Islamic holy books|Islamic literary sources]] have described Jewish groups in negative terms and have also called for acceptance of them.<ref name="Laqueur192" /><ref name="kramer" /><ref name="Schweitzer266" /> Some of these descriptions overlap with [[Islam and other religions|Islamic remarks on non-Muslim religious groups]] in general.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.alislam.org/question/islam-view-about-jews/ | title=What is Islam's view about Jews? }}</ref>  

With the [[rise of Islam]] in [[Arabian Peninsula|Arabia]] in the 7th century CE and its subsequent spread during the [[early Muslim conquests]], Jews, alongside many other peoples, became [[History of the Jews under Muslim rule|subject to the rule of Islamic polities]].<ref name="Silverman 47-48">{{cite book |last=Silverman |first=Eric |year=2013 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nZYdAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA48 |title=A Cultural History of Jewish Dress |location=[[London]] and [[New York City|New York]] |publisher=[[Bloomsbury Academic]] |pages=47–48 |isbn=978-1-84520-513-3}}</ref><ref name="Stillman 1998">{{cite book |last=Stillman |first=Norman A. |author-link=Norman Stillman |year=1998 |orig-date=1979 |title=The Jews of Arab Lands: A History and Source Book |chapter=Under the New Order |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bFN2ismyhEYC&pg=PA22 |location=[[Philadelphia]] |publisher=[[Jewish Publication Society]] |pages=22–28 |isbn=978-0-8276-0198-7}}</ref><ref name="Runciman 1987">{{cite book |last=Runciman |first=Steven |author-link=Steven Runciman |year=1987 |orig-year=1951 |chapter=The Reign of Antichrist |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uDj9sNezWzEC&pg=PA20 |title=[[A History of the Crusades|A History of the Crusades, Volume 1: The First Crusade and the Foundation of the Kingdom of Jerusalem]] |location=[[Cambridge]] |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |pages=20–37 |isbn=978-0-521-34770-9}}</ref> Their quality of life under Muslim rule varied considerably in different periods, as did the attitudes of the rulers, government officials, the [[Clergy#Islam|clergy]], and the general population towards Jews, ranging from [[Religious tolerance#Islam|tolerance]] to [[Persecution of Jews#Middle East and Islamic antisemitism|persecution]].<ref name="Silverman 47-48"/><ref name="Stillman 1998"/><ref name="Runciman 1987"/>

An [[antisemitic trope]] found in some Islamic discourse is the accusation of Jews as the "killers of prophets".<ref name="Reynolds 2012" /><ref name=":2">{{Cite web |date=2024-04-23 |title=Qatari official: Jews are murderers of prophets; October 7 is only a 'prelude' |url=https://www.jpost.com/middle-east/iran-news/qatari-official-jews-are-murderers-of-prophets-october-7th-is-only-a-prelude-798358 |access-date=2024-04-24 |website=[[The Jerusalem Post]] |language=en |issn=0792-822X}}</ref>

==Range of opinions==
*[[Claude Cahen]]<ref name="Cahen">Claude Cahen. "Dhimma" in ''[[Encyclopedia of Islam]]''.</ref> and [[Shelomo Dov Goitein]]<ref name="Shelomo Dov Goitein">[[Shelomo Dov Goitein]], ''A Mediterranean Society: An Abridgment in One Volume'', p. 293.</ref> argue against the claim that [[History of antisemitism|antisemitism has a long history in Muslim countries]], writing that the discrimination that was practiced against [[Kafir|non-Muslims]] ({{transliteration|ar|kuffar}}) was of a general nature, so it was not specifically directed against Jews.<ref name="OxfordDic">''The Oxford Dictionary of the Jewish Religion'', "Antisemitism"</ref> According to these scholars, antisemitism in [[Islamic Golden Age|medieval Islam]] was local and sporadic rather than general and endemic.
*[[Bernard Lewis]]<ref>Lewis, Bernard. "The New Anti-Semitism", ''The American Scholar'', Volume 75 No. 1, Winter 2006, p. 25–36; based on a lecture delivered at Brandeis University on 24 March 2004.</ref> writes that while Muslims have held [[stereotypes of Jews]] throughout most of [[Islamic history]], these stereotypes were different from those stereotypes which accompanied European [[medieval antisemitism]] because, unlike [[Christians]] who considered Jews objects of fear, Muslims considered Jews objects of only ridicule. He argues that Muslims did not attribute "cosmic evil" to Jews.<ref>Lewis (1999) p. 192.</ref> In Lewis's view, it was only in the late 19th century that movements first appeared among Muslims that can be described as antisemitic in the European forms.<ref>Lewis (1984) p. 184</ref>
*Frederick M. Schweitzer and Marvin Perry argue that there are mostly negative references to Jews in the [[Quran]] and [[Hadith]], and that Islamic regimes treated Jews in degrading ways. They assert that both the Jews and the Christians were relegated to the status of ''[[dhimmi]]''. Schweitzer and Perry state that throughout much of history, Christians treated Jews worse than Muslims did, stating that Jews in the lands of [[Christendom]] were subjected to worse polemics, persecutions, and massacres than [[History of the Jews under Muslim rule|Jews living under Muslim rule]].<ref name=Schweitzer266>Schweitzer, p. 266.</ref>
*According to [[Walter Laqueur]], the varying [[Tafsir|interpretations of the Quran]] are important for understanding Muslim attitudes towards Jews. Many Quranic verses preach tolerance towards the Jews; others make hostile remarks about them (which are similar to hostile remarks against all who do not accept Islam). [[Muhammad]] interacted with the [[Jewish tribes of Arabia]]: he preached to [[Conversion to Islam|convert them]], fought and killed many, but also befriended other Jews.<ref name="Laqueur192"/>
* For [[Martin Kramer]], the idea that contemporary [[new antisemitism]] by Muslims is authentically Islamic "touches on some truths, yet it misses many others" (see [[antisemitism in the Arab world]]). Kramer believes that contemporary antisemitism is only partially due to the policies of the [[State of Israel]], which Muslims consider an injustice and a major cause of their sense of victimhood and loss. Kramer attributes the primary causes of Muslim antisemitism to modern European antisemitic ideologies, which have infected the [[Muslim world]].<ref name =kramer>{{cite web|url=http://www.martinkramer.org/sandbox/reader/archives/the-salience-of-islamic-antisemitism/ |title=The Salience of Islamic Antisemitism|website=www.martinkramer.org|date=11 October 2010}}</ref>
*[[Amal Saad-Ghorayeb]], a Lebanese writer and political analyst, devoted a chapter of her book ''Hizbu'llah: Politics and Religion'' to an analysis of [[Hezbollah]]'s anti-Jewish [[racial antisemitism]] and [[anti-Judaism]].<ref name="Saad-Ghorayeb">[[Amal Saad-Ghorayeb|Saad-Ghorayeb, Amal]]. ''Hizbu'llah: Politics and Religion''. London: Pluto Press, 2002. pp. 168–86.</ref> She argues that although [[Zionism]] has influenced Hezbollah's anti-Judaism, "it is not contingent upon it" because Hezbollah's hatred of Jews is more [[Islamic–Jewish relations|religiously motivated]] than politically motivated.<ref name="Saad-Ghorayeb" />

==Jews in the Quran==
{{further|Early history of Islam|Historical reliability of the Quran|Historicity of Muhammad|Sura Bani Isra'il}}

===No mention of Jews during the Meccan period===
Jews are not mentioned at all in verses dating from the [[Muhammad before Medina|Meccan period]].<ref name="Stillman2">Stillman, Norman (2005). ''Antisemitism: A historical encyclopedia of prejudice and persecution''. Vol. 1. pp. 356–61</ref> According to [[Bernard Lewis]], the attention given to Jews is relatively insignificant.<ref>Lewis (1999) p. 127</ref>

===Terms referring to Jews===
====Bani Israil====
The Quran makes 44 specific references to the ''Banū Isrāʾīl'' (the [[Israelites|Children of Israel]]).<ref name="Yahud" /><ref name="Crone 2016">{{cite book |author-last=Crone |author-first=Patricia |author-link=Patricia Crone |chapter=Jewish Christianity and the Qurʾān (Part I) |year=2016 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_wpRDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA237 |editor1-last=Crone |editor1-first=Patricia |editor2-last=Siurua |editor2-first=Hanna |editor1-link=Patricia Crone |title=The Qurʾānic Pagans and Related Matters: Collected Studies in Three Volumes, Volume 1 |series=Islamic History and Civilization |volume=129 |location=[[Leiden]] |publisher=[[Brill Publishers]] |pages=237–276 |doi=10.1163/9789004319288_010 |isbn=978-90-04-31228-9 |lccn=2016010221}}</ref> although the term might refer to both Jews and [[Arab Christians]] as a single religious lineage.<ref name="Crone 2016"/> In ''[[surah]]'' 2:140 of the Quran, Jews (''Yahūdi'') are considered a religious group, while ''Banū Isrāʾīl'' are an ethnic group.{{citation needed|date=December 2023}}

====Yahud and Yahudi====
The Arabic terms ''Yahūd'' (Jew) and ''Yahūdi'' (Jews), occur 11 times, and the verb ''hāda'' (meaning "to be a Jew") occurs 10 times.<ref>Jews and Judaism, Encyclopedia of the Quran</ref>{{Full citation needed|date=September 2015}} According to [[Khalid Duran]], the negative passages use ''Yahūd'', while the positive references speak mainly of the ''Banū Isrāʾīl''.<ref>Khalid Durán, with Abdelwahab Hechichep, ''Children of Abraham: an introduction to Islam for Jews'', American Jewish Committee/Harriet and Robert Heilbrunn Institute for International Interreligious Understanding, KTAV Publishing House, Inc., 2001 p. 112</ref>

===Negative references to Jews===
The references in the Quran to Jews are interpreted in different ways. According to Frederick M. Schweitzer and Marvin Perry, these references are "mostly negative".<ref name=Schweitzer266/> According to Tahir Abbas, the general references to Jews are favorable, with only those addressed to particular groups of Jews containing harsh criticism.<ref name="Tahir">Abbas, pp. 178–179</ref>

===Adoption of Jewish practices===
According to [[Bernard Lewis]] and some other scholars, the earliest verses of the Quran were largely sympathetic to Jews. Muhammad admired them as fellow monotheists and saw them as natural adherents to his new faith. Early Islam followed similar religious practices to Jews, and may have been modeled to a degree on [[Judaism]]:

* [[Jewish prayer]] is [[Fixed prayer times#Judaism|fixed]] and mandatory at least three times daily, depending on the day of the week and the time of year, with {{transliteration|he|[[Shacharit]]}} ({{langx|he|rtl=yes|שַׁחֲרִית}}) as the morning service, {{transliteration|he|[[Mincha]]}} ({{lang|he|rtl=yes|מִנְחָה}}) as the afternoon service, and {{transliteration|he|[[Ma'ariv]]}} ({{lang|he|rtl=yes|מַעֲרִיב}}) as the evening service. On [[Shabbat]], which [[Zmanim#Components|begins]] with [[Jewish prayer#Friday night|Kabbalat Shabbat]] and ''Ma'ariv'' every Friday night, Jews congregate to pray, engage in [[Torah study]], and rest. Jews have prayed toward the site of the [[Jerusalem Temple]] since the compilation of [[tractate Berkahot]] in the Talmud, if not before.<ref>{{cite Talmud|b|Berakhot|30a:9}}</ref> Jews observe [[Ta'anit|fasts]] and [[Jewish holidays|holy days]] other than Shabbat throughout the [[Hebrew year]].
* Similarly, Muslims are obligated to perform {{transliteration|ar|[[Salah]]}} five times daily according to [[fixed prayer times#Islam|fixed prayer times]]. Muslims congregate on {{transliteration|ar|Yawm al-Jum'ah}} ('Day of Congregation') for [[Friday prayers]] (though Friday is not considered a holy day like Shabbat). Until 623 CE, the Islamic ''[[qibla]]'' was Jerusalem. Muslims observe [[Fasting in Islam|fasts]] like [[Ramadan]] and [[Islamic holidays|religious holidays]].<ref>Rodinson, p. 159</ref>

===Constitution of Medina===
After his flight (''[[Hijra (Islam)|al-hijra]]'') from Mecca in 622 CE, Muhammad with his followers settled in [[Medina|Yathrib]], subsequently renamed ''Medina al-Nabi'' ('City of the Prophet'), where he drew up a "[[social contract]]",<ref>Ali Khan, 'Commentary on the Constitution of Medina', in Hisham M. Ramadan (ed.) ''Understanding Islamic law: from classical to contemporary'', Rowman Altamira, 2006 pp. 205–210</ref> the [[Constitution of Medina]].<ref>Michael Lecker, [https://academic.oup.com/jis/article-abstract/19/2/251/671860 "''The ‘Constitution of Medina’: Muhammad's First Legal Document"''], Studies in late antiquity and early Islam SLAEI vol.23, Darwin Press, 2004, passim</ref> This contract, known as "the Leaf" (''ṣaḥīfa''), upheld a peaceful coexistence between Muslims, Jews, and Christians, defining them all, under certain conditions, as constituting the ''[[ummah]]'', or "community", of that city and granting freedom of religious thought and practice to all.<ref>Pratt, p. 121, citing John Esposito, ''What Everyone Needs to Know About Islam'', Oxford University Press, New York p. 73</ref> Alongside the roughly 200 [[Muhajirun|emigrants from Mecca]] (''Muhājirūn'') who had followed Muhammad, the population of  Yathrib/Medina consisted of the [[Ansar (Islam)|Faithful of Medina]] (''Anṣār'', "the Helpers"), [[Religion in pre-Islamic Arabia|Arab Pagans]], three Jewish tribes, and some Christians.<ref>Pratt, p. 122</ref>

The foundational constitution sought to establish, for the first time in history, according to Ali Khan, a formal agreement securing [[Interfaith dialogue|interfaith]] coexistence, with articles requiring mutual support in the defense of the city:<ref>Rodinson, pp. 152–3</ref>

{{Blockquote|text=Those Jews who follow us are entitled to our aid and support so long as they shall not have wronged us or lent assistance (to any enemies) against us|source=paragraph 16}}{{Blockquote|text=To the Jews their own expenses and to the Muslims theirs. They shall help one another in the event of any attack on the people covered by this document. There shall be sincere friendship, exchange of good counsel, fair conduct and no treachery between them.|source=paragraph 37}}

The three local Jewish tribes were the [[Banu Nadir]], the [[Banu Qurayza]], and the [[Banu Qaynuqa]]. According to Rodinson, Muhammad had no prejudice against them, and appears to have regarded his own message as substantially the same as that [[Shavuot|received]] by Jews at [[Mount Sinai (Bible)|Mount Sinai]].<ref>Rodinson, p. 158</ref> [[Reuven Firestone]] claims that tribal politics, and Muhammad's deep frustration with Jewish refusals to accept his prophethood,<ref>According to Reuven Firestone, Muhammad expected the Jews of Medina to accept his prophethood since Jews were respected by Arabs as "a wise and ancient community of monotheists with a long prophetic tradition". This rejection was a major blow to his authority in Medina, and relations soon deteriorated: Firestone, p. 33</ref> quickly led to a break with all three.

====Hostility between Muslims and the Banu Qaynuqa====
The Banu Qaynuqa were expelled from Medina in 624 CE. In March 624 CE, Muslims led by Muhammad defeated the [[Mecca]]ns of the [[Quraysh (tribe)|Banu Quraysh]] tribe in the [[Battle of Badr]]. [[Ibn Ishaq]] writes that a dispute broke out between the Muslims and the Banu Qaynuqa (the allies of the [[Khazraj]] tribe) soon afterwards. When a Muslim woman visited a jeweler's shop in the Qaynuqa marketplace, she was pestered to uncover her hair. The goldsmith, a Jew, pinned her clothing such that, upon getting up, she was stripped naked. A Muslim man, coming upon the resulting commotion, killed the shopkeeper in retaliation. A mob of Jews from the Qaynuqa tribe then pounced on the Muslim man and killed him. This escalated to a chain of revenge killings, and enmity grew between Muslims and the Banu Qaynuqa.<ref name="Ishaq1">Guillaume 363, Stillman 122, ibn Kathir 2</ref>

Traditional [[Historiography of early Islam|Islamic sources]] view these episodes as a violation of the Constitution of Medina.<ref name="Ishaq1"/> Muhammad himself regarded this as ''[[casus belli]]''. However, [[Islamic studies]] scholars often do not find in these events the underlying reason for Muhammad's attack on the Qaynuqa.<ref name="Watt 1956, p. 209">Watt (1956), p. 209.</ref> [[Fred Donner]] argues that Muhammad turned against the Banu Qaynuqa because, as artisans and traders, the latter were in close contact with Meccan merchants.<ref>Donner, Fred M.. "[https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1478-1913.1979.tb03388.x Muhammad's Political Consolidation in Arabia up to the Conquest of Mecca]". Muslim World 69: 229–247, 1979.</ref> Dutch early twentieth-century [[Semiticist]] Arent Jan Weinsinck viewed the episodes cited by Muslim historians used to justify the Jews' expulsion as having no more than anecdotal value. He writes that the Jews had assumed a contentious attitude towards Muhammad, and as a group possessing substantial independent power, they posed a great danger. Wensinck thus concludes that Muhammad, strengthened by the victory at the [[Battle of Badr]], soon resolved to eliminate the Jewish opposition to himself.<ref>Wensinck, A. J. "Kaynuka, banu". Encyclopaedia of Islam</ref> [[Norman Stillman]] also believes that Muhammad decided to move against the Jews of Medina after being strengthened in the wake of the Battle of Badr.<ref>Stillman, Norman. The Jews of Arab Lands: A History and Source Book. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America, 1979. {{ISBN|0-8276-0198-0}}</ref>

Thus, in 624 CE, Muhammad approached the Banu Qaynuqa, gathered them in the marketplace, and warned them to stop their hostility, lest they suffer the same fate as the [[Quraysh]] at Badr. He also told them to accept Islam, saying he was a prophet sent by God, supposedly per the [[Hebrew Bible]]. The tribe responded by mocking Muhammad's followers for accepting him as a prophet and also mocked their victory at Badr, saying the Quraysh had no knowledge of war. They then warned him that if he ever fought with them, he would know that they were real men.<ref name="Ishaq363">Guillaume 363</ref> This response was viewed as a declaration of war.<ref name="NomMu">Nomani 90–91, al-Mubarakpuri 239</ref> Muhammad then besieged the Banu Qaynuqa,{{where|date=November 2025}}<ref name= "Stillman 123">Stillman 123</ref> after which the tribe surrendered unconditionally and was expelled from Medina.<ref name="Ishaq2">Guillaume 363, Stillman 123</ref>

In 625 CE, the Banu Nadir tribe was evicted from [[Medina]] after they attempted to assassinate Muhammad.<ref name="Halabi">{{cite book|last=al-Halabi|first=Nur al-Din|title=Sirat-i-Halbiyyah |publisher=Idarah Qasmiyyah Deoband | volume = 2, part 10 |location= Uttar Pradesh |page= 34 }} Translated by Muhammad Aslam Qasmi.</ref><ref name="BanuNadir">{{cite encyclopedia |author=Vacca, V. |editor1=P.J. Bearman |editor2=Th. Bianquis |editor3=[[Clifford Edmund Bosworth|C.E. Bosworth]] |editor4=E. van Donzel |editor5=W.P. Heinrichs | encyclopedia =[[Encyclopaedia of Islam]] Online|title=Nadir, Banu 'l|publisher=Brill Academic Publishers |issn=1573-3912}}</ref> In 627 CE, when the Quraysh and their allies besieged the city in the [[Battle of the Trench]], the Qurayza initially tried to remain neutral but eventually entered into negotiations with the besieging army, violating the Constitution of Medina.<ref name="Destiny Disrupted">{{cite book|title=Destiny Disrupted: A History of the World Through Islamic Eyes|url=https://archive.org/details/destinydisrupted00ansa_0|url-access=registration|first=Tamim|last=Ansary|year=2009|publisher=PublicAffairs |isbn=9781586486068}}</ref> Subsequently, the tribe was charged with treason and besieged{{where|date=November 2025}} by the Muslims commanded by Muhammad.<ref name="Peterson">Peterson, ''Muhammad: the prophet of God'', p. 125-127.</ref><ref name="Ramadan140">Ramadan, ''In the Footsteps of the Prophet'', p. 140f.</ref> The Banu Qurayza eventually surrendered, and their men were beheaded.<ref name="Peterson"/><ref name="Ramadan140"/><ref>Hodgson, ''The Venture of Islam'', vol. 1, p. 191.</ref><ref name="Brown, p. 81">Brown, ''A New Introduction to Islam'', p. 81.</ref><ref name="Lings229">Lings, ''Muhammad: His Life Based on the Earliest Sources'', p. 229-233.</ref> The 'spoils' of battle, including enslaved women and children of the tribe, were divided up among the Muslims who had participated in the siege and among the emigrees from Mecca who had until now depended on the help of the native Muslims. Although the Banu Qurayza never took up arms against Muhammad or the Muslims, they entered into negotiations with the invading army and violated the Constitution of Medina. However, [[Nuaym ibn Masud]] sowed discord between the invading forces and the Banu Qurayza, thereby breaking down the negotiations.<ref name= "Stillman 13">See e.g. Stillman, p. 13.</ref><ref name= "Guillalume458">Guillaume, p. 458f.</ref><ref name= "Ramadan143">Ramadan, p. 143.</ref>

====Verses in the Quran====
As a result, the direction of Muslim prayer was shifted towards [[Mecca]] from [[Jerusalem]] soon after migration to Medina because Jews were always undermining the separate identity of Islam .<ref>{{cite book|author=Marshall G. S. Hodgson|title=The Venture of Islam: The classical age of Islam|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fFyZu8s1E2UC&pg=PA177|access-date=1 June 2012|date=15 February 1977|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=978-0-226-34683-0|pages=170–190}}</ref><ref name="autogenerated4" /> According to Laqueur, conflicting statements about Jews in the Quran have affected Muslim attitudes towards Jews to this day, especially during periods of rising [[Islamic fundamentalism]].<ref>Laqueur, p. 191</ref>

===Judaism in Islamic theology===
According to [[Bernard Lewis]], there is nothing in [[Islamic theology]], with one single exception,{{which|date=October 2023}} that can be considered refutations of Judaism or ferocious anti-Jewish diatribes.<ref>Lewis (1999) p. 126</ref> Lewis and [[Jerome Chanes|Chanes]] suggest that, for a variety of reasons, Muslims were not antisemitic for the most part. The Quran, like Judaism, orders Muslims to profess strict monotheism. It also rejects the stories of [[Jewish deicide]] as a blasphemous absurdity, and other similar stories in the [[Gospels]] play no part in the Muslim educational system. The Quran does not present itself as a fulfillment of the [[Hebrew Bible]] but rather a restoration of its original message (see [[Tahrif]] for such claimed alterations and [[Tawrat]] for the Islamic understanding of the Torah as an [[Islamic holy book]]). In such a line of argument, no clash of interpretations between Judaism and Islam can arise.<ref>Lewis (1999), pp. 117–118</ref><ref name="Chanes">Chanes, Jerome A (2004). ''Antisemitism''. Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO. pp. 41–5.</ref>

In addition, Lewis argues that the Quran lacks the popular Western traditions of 'guilt and betrayal'.<ref name="autogenerated4">Lewis (1999) p. 122</ref> Rosenblatt and Pinson suggest that the Quran teaches tolerance toward Judaism as a fellow monotheistic faith.<ref name="Rosenblatt">Pinson; Rosenblatt (1946) pp. 112–119</ref>

Lewis adds that negative attributes ascribed to subject religions (in this case Judaism and Christianity) are usually expressed in religious and social terms, but only very rarely in ethnic or racial terms. However, this does sometimes occur. The language of abuse is often quite strong. Lewis adduces that three Quranic verses ({{qref|2|65}}, {{qref|5|60}}, {{qref|7|166}}) ground conventional Muslim [[epithets]] for Jews (as [[apes]]) and Christians (as [[pigs]]).<ref>Lewis, ''The Jews and Islam'', pp. 33, 198</ref> The interpretation of these 'enigmatic'<ref>Firestone, p. 242 n.8</ref> passages in Islamic exegetics is highly complex, dealing as they do with infractions like breaking the Sabbath.<ref>On 2:62, the reference is to Jewish Sabbath breakers. See the synthesis of commentaries in Mahmoud Ayoub, ''The Qur'an and Its Interpreters'', SUNY Press, New York,1984, Vol. 1 pp. 108–116</ref> According to Goitein, the idea of Jewish Sabbath breakers turning into apes may reflect the influence of [[Yemen]]i [[midrash]]im.<ref>Gerald R. Hawting, ''The idea of idolatry and the emergence of Islam: from polemic to history'', Cambridge University Press, 1999 p. 105 n.45</ref> Firestone notes that the Qurayza tribe itself is described in Muslim sources as using the trope of being turned into apes if one breaks the Sabbath to justify not exploiting the Sabbath in order to attack Mohammad, when they were under siege.<ref>Firestone, p. 37</ref>

According to Stillman, the Quran praises [[Moses]], and depicts the Israelites as the recipients of divine favour.<ref name="Stillman2"/> The Quran dedicates many verses to the glorification of Hebrew prophets, says Leon Poliakov.<ref name="Poliakov74">Poliakov (1974) pp. 27, 41–3</ref> He quotes verse {{qref|6|85}} as an example,
<blockquote>And We blessed him with Isaac and Jacob. We guided them all as We previously guided Noah and those among his descendants: David, Solomon, Job, Joseph, Moses, and Aaron. This is how We reward the good-doers. Likewise, ˹We guided˺ Zachariah, John, Jesus, and Elias, who were all of the righteous. ˹We also guided˺ Ishmael, Elisha, Jonah, and Lot, favouring each over other people ˹of their time˺.</blockquote>

===Islamic remarks about Jews===
[[Leon Poliakov]],<ref name="EncJud">Poliakov</ref> [[Walter Laqueur]],<ref name="Laqueur192"/> and [[Jane Gerber]],<ref name="autogenerated1">Gerber, p. 78</ref> argue that passages in the Quran reproach Jews for their refusal to recognize [[Muhammad]] as a [[prophet]] of [[God]].<ref name="EncJud"/> "The Quran is engaged mainly in dealing with the sinners among the Jews, and the attack on them is shaped according to models that one encounters in the New Testament."<ref name=autogenerated5>Uri Rubin, [[Encyclopedia of the Qur'an]], Jews and Judaism</ref> The Muslim holy text defined the [[Arab]] and Muslim attitude towards Jews to this day, especially in the periods when [[Islamic fundamentalism]] was on the rise.<ref name="Laqueur192"/>

Walter Laqueur states that the Quran and its interpreters have a great many conflicting things to say about the Jews. Jews are said to be treacherous and hypocritical and could never be friends with a Muslim.<ref name="Laqueur192"/>

Frederick M. Schweitzer and Marvin Perry state that references to Jews in the Quran are mostly negative. The Quran states that wretchedness and baseness were stamped upon the Jews, and they were visited with wrath from Allah, that was because they disbelieved in Allah's revelations and slew the prophets wrongfully. And for their taking [[usury]], which was [[Usury in Jewish Law|prohibited for them]], and because of their consuming people's wealth under false pretense, a painful punishment was prepared for them. The Quran requires their "abasement and poverty" in the form of the poll tax [[jizya]]. In his "wrath," God has "cursed" the Jews and will turn them into apes/monkeys and swine and idol worshipers because they are "infidels".<ref name=Schweitzer266 />

According to Martin Kramer, the Quran negatively speaks of Jews and reports instances of Jewish treachery against the [[Islamic prophet]] [[Muhammad]]. However, Islam did not hold up those Jews who practiced treachery against Muhammad as archetypes, nor did it portray treachery as the embodiment of Jews in all times and places. The Quran also attests to Muhammad's amicable relations with Jews.<ref name=kramer/>

While traditional religious supremacism played a role in the Islamic view of Jews, the same attitude applied to Christians and other non-Muslims. Islamic tradition regards Jews as a legitimate community of [[monotheists|believers in God]] (called "[[people of the Book]]") [[Sharia|legally]] entitled to sufferance.<ref name=kramer/>

The standard Quranic reference to Jews is the verse {{qref|2|61–62}}.<ref>Lewis (1999) p. 128</ref> It says:

{{blockquote|And ˹remember˺ when you said, “O Moses! We cannot endure the same meal ˹every day˺. So ˹just˺ call upon your Lord on our behalf, He will bring forth for us some of what the earth produces of herbs, cucumbers, garlic, lentils, and onions.” Moses scolded ˹them˺, “Do you exchange what is better for what is worse? ˹You can˺ go down to any village and you will find what you have asked for.” They were stricken with disgrace and misery, and they invited the displeasure of Allah for rejecting Allah’s signs and unjustly killing the prophets. This is ˹a fair reward˺ for their disobedience and violations. Indeed, the believers, Jews, Christians, and Sabians—whoever ˹truly˺ believes in Allah and the Last Day and does good will have their reward with their Lord. And there will be no fear for them, nor will they grieve.|{{qref|2|61–62|c=y}} }}

However, due to the Quran's timely process of storytelling, some scholars argue that all references to Jews or other groups within the Quran refer only to certain populations at a certain point in history.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Sanders |first1=Katie |title=Sean Hannity: The Koran says 'don't take Christians and Jews as your friends |url=https://www.politifact.com/punditfact/statements/2014/may/16/sean-hannity/sean-hannity-koran-says-dont-take-christians-and-j/ |website=[[Politifact]] |access-date=15 December 2019}}</ref> Also, the Quran praises some Jews in {{qref|5|69}}:
"Indeed, the believers, Jews, Sabians and Christians—whoever ˹truly˺ believes in Allah and the Last Day and does good, there will be no fear for them, nor will they grieve."

The Quran gives credence to the Christian claim of Jews scheming against Jesus, " ... but God also schemed, and God is the best of schemers." ({{qref|3|54|b=y}}) In the [[Islamic views on Jesus' death|mainstream Muslim view]], the [[crucifixion of Jesus]] was an illusion, and thus the Jewish plots against him failed.<ref name="Lewis 1999, p. 120">Lewis (1999), p. 120</ref> According to Gerber, in numerous verses ({{qref|3|63|b=y}}; {{qref|3|71}}; {{qref|4|46}}; {{qref|4|160–161}}; {{qref|5|41–44}}, {{qref|5|63–64}}, {{qref|5|82}}; {{qref|6|92}})<ref name="Gerber">Gerber, p. 91</ref> the Quran accuses Jews of [[tahrif|altering the Scripture]].<ref name="autogenerated1" /> According to [[Gabriel Said Reynolds]], "the Qur’ān makes 'the killing of the prophets' one of the principal characteristics of the Jews";<ref name="Reynolds 2012">{{cite journal |author-last=Reynolds |author-first=Gabriel Said |title=On the Qur'ān and the Theme of Jews as "Killers of the Prophets" |author-link=Gabriel Said Reynolds |date=April 2012 |url=https://www3.nd.edu/~reynolds/index_files/jews%20as%20killers%20of%20the%20prophets%20final.pdf |journal=Al-Bayan: Journal of Qur'an and Hadith Studies |location=[[Leiden]] |publisher=[[Brill Publishers]] |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=9–32 |doi=10.11136/jqh.1210.02.02 |issn=2232-1969 |s2cid=162290561 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170216004900/https://www3.nd.edu/~reynolds/index_files/jews%20as%20killers%20of%20the%20prophets%20final.pdf |archive-date=16 February 2017 |url-status=live |access-date=13 February 2021}}</ref> although the Quran emphasizes the killing of the [[Prophets in Judaism|Jewish prophets]] by the Israelites,<ref name="Fastenbauer 2020">{{cite book |author-last=Fastenbauer |author-first=Raimund |year=2020 |editor1-last=Lange |editor1-first=Armin |editor2-last=Mayerhofer |editor2-first=Kerstin |editor3-last=Porat |editor3-first=Dina |editor4-last=Schiffman |editor4-first=Lawrence H. |title=An End to Antisemitism! – Volume 2: Confronting Antisemitism from the Perspectives of Christianity, Islam, and Judaism |chapter=Islamic Antisemitism: Jews in the Qur’an, Reflections of European Antisemitism, Political Anti-Zionism: Common Codes and Differences |location=[[Berlin]] and [[Boston]] |publisher=[[De Gruyter]] |pages=279–300 |doi=10.1515/9783110671773-018 |doi-access=free |isbn=9783110671773}}</ref> Reynolds remarks that none of them were killed by the Israelites according to the [[Hebrew Bible|Biblical account]].<ref name="Reynolds 2012"/>

{{Blockquote
|text=If we look to Islamic tradition for the answer to this question we might come to the conclusion that Muhammad's rivalry with the Jews of Medina led him to develop increasingly hostile anti-Jewish polemic. This is the sort of conclusion suggested by the ''[[Encyclopaedia of Islam]]'' article on Jews by [[Norman Stillman]]. Speaking of the Medinan period of Muhammad's career, Stillman comments: "During this fateful time, fraught with tension after the Hidjra, when Muhammad encountered contradiction, ridicule and rejection from the Jewish scholars in Medina, he came to adopt a  radically more negative view of the people of the Book who had received earlier scriptures".<ref name="Reynolds 2012"/>
|author=[[Gabriel Said Reynolds]]
}}

But the Quran differentiates between "good and bad" Jews, adding to the idea that the Jewish people or their religion itself are not the target of the story-telling process.<ref name="Poliakov74" /> Rubin claims the criticisms deal mainly "with the sinners among the Jews and the attack on them is shaped according to models that one encounters in the New Testament."<ref name=autogenerated5 /> The Quran also speaks favorably of Jews. Though it also criticizes them for not being grateful for God's blessing on them, the harsh criticisms are only addressed towards a particular group of Jews, which is clear from the context of the Quranic verses, but translations usually confuse this by using the general term "Jews". To judge Jews based on the deeds of some of their ancestors is an anti-Quranic idea.<ref name="Tahir" />

[[Ali S. Asani]] suggests that the Quran endorses the establishment of religiously and culturally plural societies, and this endorsement has affected the treatment of religious minorities in Muslim lands throughout history. He cites the endorsement of [[Pluralism (political philosophy)|pluralism]] to explain why violent forms of antisemitism generated in medieval and modern Europe, culminating in the Holocaust, never occurred in regions under Muslim rule.<ref>[http://www.twf.org/Library/Pluralism.html On Pluralism, Intolerance, and the Quran]. Twf.org. Retrieved on 2012-06-01.</ref>

Some verses of the Quran, notably {{qref|2|256}}, preach tolerance towards members of the Jewish faith.<ref name="Laqueur192">Laqueur, pp. 191–192</ref> According to Kramer, Jews are regarded as members of a legitimate community of believers in God, "[[people of the Book]]", and therefore [[Sharia|legally]] entitled to sufferance.<ref name=kramer/>

As one of the [[Five Pillars of Islam|five pillars of Islam]] Muslims perform daily [[Salat]] prayers, which involves reciting the first chapter of the Qur'an, the [[Al-Fatiha]].<ref name="Quran 4 U">{{cite web|url=http://www.quran4u.com/Tafsir%20Ibn%20Kathir/001%20Fatihah.htm |title=Tafsir Ibn Kathir (English): Surah Al Fatihah |work=Quran 4 U|access-date=8 December 2019}}</ref>  Most commentators<ref>{{cite book|author= Ayoub, Mahmoud M.|title=The Qur'an and Its Interpreters: v.1: Vol 1|publisher=State University of New York Press|isbn=978-0873957274|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sIXpFtvp2JYC&q=%22those+who+have+incurred+Your+wrath%22%29+refers+to+the+Jews.&pg=PA49|page=49|quote=Most commentators have included the Jews among those who have "incurred" divine wrath and the Christians among those who have "gone astray"|year=1984|author-link=Mahmoud M. Ayoub}}</ref> suggest that the description, "those who earn Thine anger" in {{qref|1|7|c=y}} refers to the Jews. Israel Shrenzel, former chief analyst in the Arabic section of the research division of the [[Shin Bet]] and a current teacher in [[Tel Aviv University]]’s department of Arabic and Islamic studies wrote, "Given that there is contradiction between the content and message of the two groups of verses – those hostile to Jews and those tolerant toward them – the question is which group is to be adopted nowadays by the Muslim scholars and masses. The more dominant view adheres to the first group".<ref>{{cite journal| journal = Jewish Political Studies Review | volume = 29 | issue = 3–4 | url=http://jcpa.org/article/verses-and-reality-what-the-koran-really-says-about-jews/ |title=Verses and Reality: What the Koran Really Says about Jews |author=Shrenzel, Israel|date=4 September 2018 |access-date=8 December 2019}}</ref>

In 567, [[Khaybar]] was invaded and its Jewish inhabitants were driven out by the [[Ghassanid]] Arab Christian king [[Al-Harith ibn Jabalah]]. He was later released from captivity upon his return to the [[Levant]]. A brief account of the campaign is given by [[Ibn Qutaybah]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.islamport.com/b/5/adab/%df%ca%c8%20%c7%e1%c3%cf%c8/%c7%e1%e3%da%c7%d1%dd/%c7%e1%e3%da%c7%d1%dd%20005.html|title=Ibn Qutaybah: al-Ma'arif|access-date=11 October 2015|archive-date=9 September 2012|archive-url=https://archive.today/20120909212342/http://www.islamport.com/b/5/adab/%DF%CA%C8%20%C7%E1%C3%CF%C8/%C7%E1%E3%DA%C7%D1%DD/%C7%E1%E3%DA%C7%D1%DD%20005.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> and potentially also mentioned in the sixth-century [[Harran inscription]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.islamic-awareness.org/History/Islam/Inscriptions/harran.html|title=Harran Inscription: A Pre-Islamic Arabic Inscription From 568 CE|website=www.islamic-awareness.org}}</ref> See Irfan Shahid's ''Byzantium and the Arabs in the Sixth Century'' for full details.<ref>[[Irfan Shahid]]: ''Byzantium and the Arabs in the sixth century'', p. 322</ref>

{{Main|Jewish community of Khaybar}}

In the 7th century, Khaybar was inhabited by Jews, who pioneered the cultivation of the oasis<ref>Yāqut, ''Šihāb al-Dīn ibn ‘Abd Allah al-Ḥamawī al-Rūmī al-Baġdādī'' (ed. Ferdinand Wüstenfeld), Mu’jam al-Buldān, vol. IV, Leipzig 1866, p. 542 (reprint: Ṭaharān 1965, ''Maktabat al-Asadi''); Hayyim Zeev Hirschberg, ''Israel Ba-‘Arav'', Tel Aviv 1946, p. 343 (Hebrew).</ref> and made their living growing date palm trees, as well as through commerce and craftsmanship, accumulating considerable wealth. Some objects found by the Muslims when they entered Khaybar — a [[siege engine|siege-engine]], 20 [[:wikt:bale#Etymology 3|bale]]s of [[Yemen]]ite cloth, and 500 cloaks — point to an intense trade carried out by the Jews.  In the past, some scholars attempted to explain the siege engine by suggesting that it was used to settle quarrels among the community's families.  Today, most academics believe it was stored in a depôt for future sale, in the same way that the Jews had sold swords, lances, shields, and other weaponry to Arabs. Equally, the cloth and the cloaks may have been intended for sale, as it was unlikely that such a quantity of luxury goods was kept for the exclusive use of the Jews.{{Citation needed|date=February 2008}}

The oasis was divided into three regions: al-Natat, al-Shikk, and al-Katiba, probably separated by natural divisions, such as the desert, [[lava]] drifts, and swamps. Each of these regions contained several fortresses or redoubts, each with homes, storehouses, and stables. Each fortress was occupied by a separate family and surrounded by cultivated fields and palm groves. To improve their defensive capabilities, the settlers built fortresses on hills or [[basalt]] rocks.

Jews continued to live in the oasis for several more years afterwards until they were finally expelled by the caliph [[Umar]]. The imposition of tribute upon the conquered Jews of the Khaybar Fortress served as a precedent.  Islamic law came to require exaction of tribute known as ''[[jizya]]'' from ''[[dhimmi]]s'' (i.e., non-Muslims under Muslim rule).

For many centuries, the [[oasis]] at Khaybar was an important [[Caravan (travellers)|caravan]] stopping place.  The center developed around a series of ancient dams built to hold run-off water from the rain. Around the water catchments, [[date palm]]s grew.  Khaybar became an important date-producing center.

The words "humility" and "humiliation" occur frequently in the Quran and later Muslim literature in relation to Jews. According to Lewis, "This, in Islamic view, is their just punishment for their past rebelliousness, and is manifested in their present impotence between the mighty powers of Christendom and Islam." The standard Quranic reference to Jews is verse {{qref|2|61}}: "And remember ye said: "O [[Moses]]! we cannot endure one kind of food (always); so beseech thy Lord for us to produce for us of what the earth groweth, -its pot-herbs, and cucumbers, [[garlic]], [[lentil]]s, and [[onion]]s." He said: "Will ye exchange the better for the worse? Go ye down to any town, and ye shall find what ye want!" They were covered with humiliation and misery; they drew on themselves the wrath of Allah. This because they went on rejecting the Signs of Allah and slaying His Messengers without just cause. This because they rebelled and went on transgressing."<ref name="Lewis p128">Lewis (1999), p. 128</ref>

Two verses later we read: "And ˹remember˺ when We took a covenant from you and raised the [[Mount Sinai|mountain]] above you ˹saying˺, “Hold firmly to that ˹Scripture˺ which We have given you and observe its teachings so perhaps you will become mindful ˹of Allah˺.” Yet you turned away afterwards. Had it not been for Allah's grace and mercy upon you, you would have certainly been of the losers. You are already aware of those of you who broke the [[Shabbat|Sabbath]]. We said to them, “Be disgraced apes!” So We made their fate an example to present and future generations, and a lesson to the God-fearing."{{qref|2|63|b=y|s=y}}

The Quran associates Jews with the rejection of God's prophets, including Jesus and Muhammad, thus explaining their resistance to him personally. (Cf. Surah {{qref|2|87–91}}; {{qref|5|59}}, 61, 70, and 82.) It also asserts that Jews and Christians claim to be children of God (Surah {{qref|5|18}}), and that only they will achieve salvation (Surah {{qref|2|111}}). According to the Quran, Jews blasphemously claim that [[Ezra]] is the son of God, as [[Christians]] claim Jesus is, (Surah {{qref|9|30}}) and that God's hand is fettered (Surah {{qref|5|64}} – i.e., that they can freely defy God). Some of those who are Jews,<ref name="Yahud">Here the Quran uses an Arabic expression ''alladhina hadu'' ("those who are Jewish"), which appears in the Quran ten times. Stillman (2006)</ref> "pervert words from their meanings", (Surah {{qref|4|44}}), and because they have committed wrongdoing, God has "forbidden some good things that were previously permitted them", thus explaining Jewish commandments regarding food, Sabbath restrictions on work, and other rulings as a punishment from God (Surah {{qref|4|160}}). They listen for the sake of mendacity (Surah {{qref|5|41}}), twisting the truth, and practice forbidden usury, and therefore they will receive "a painful doom" (Surah {{qref|4|161}}).<ref name="Yahud"/> The Quran gives credence to the Christian claim of Jews scheming against Jesus, "... but God also schemed, and God is the best of schemers"(Surah {{qref|3|54}}). In the Muslim view, the [[crucifixion of Jesus]] was an illusion, and thus the supposed Jewish plots against him ended in complete failure.<ref name="Lewis 1999, p. 120"/> In numerous verses (Surah {{qref|3|63}}, {{qref|3|71}}; {{qref|4|46}}, {{qref|4|160–161}}; {{qref|5|41–44}}, {{qref|5|63–64}}, {{qref|5|82}}; {{qref|6|92}})<ref name="Gerber" /> the Quran accuses Jews of deliberately [[tahrif|obscuring and perverting scripture]].<ref name="autogenerated1" />

===Influence of Western antisemitism===
[[Martin Kramer]] argues that "Islamic tradition did not hold up those Jews who practiced treachery against Muhammad as archetypes—as the embodiment of Jews in all times and places."<ref name=kramer/> Thus for Muslims to embrace the belief that the Jews are the eternal "enemies of God", there must be more at work than the [[Hadith|Islamic tradition]].<ref name=kramer/> Islamic tradition does, however, provide the sources for Islamic antisemitism and "there is no doubt whatsoever that the Islamic tradition provides sources on which Islamic antisemitism now feeds."<ref name=kramer/> The modern use of the Quran to support antisemitism is, however, selective and distorting.<ref name="kramer"/> The fact that many Islamic thinkers have spent time in the [[Western world|West]] has resulted in the absorption of antisemitism, he says. Specifically, Kramer believes that the twin concepts of the "eternal Jew" as the enemy of God and the "arch conspirator" are themes that are borrowed "from the canon of Western religious and racial antisemitism."<ref name=kramer/> In his view, Islamic antisemitism is "[l]Like other antisemitism" in that "it has its origins in the anti-rational ideologies of modern Europe, which have now infected the Islamic world."<ref name=kramer/>

==Muhammad and Jews==

During Muhammad's life, Jews lived on the [[Arabian Peninsula]], especially in and around [[Medina]]. Muhammad is known to have had a Jewish wife, [[Safiyya bint Huyayy]], who subsequently converted to Islam.<ref>Ibn Saad, al-Tabaqat, pp.120–123.</ref> Safiyya, who was previously the wife of [[Kenana ibn al-Rabi]],<ref>Ibn Hisham. Al-Sira al-Nabawiyya (The Life of The Prophet). English translation in Guillame (1955), pp. 145–146</ref> was selected by Muhammad as his bride after the [[Battle of Khaybar]].<ref>[http://sunnah.com/bukhari/64/251 Sahih Bukhari Vol. 5, Book 59, Hadith 522]</ref>

According to Islamic sources, the Medinian Jews began to develop friendly alliances with Muhammad's enemies in Mecca so they could overthrow him, despite the fact that they had promised, in the Constitution of Medina, to take his side and fight against his enemies.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Constitution of Medina. Muḥammad's First Legal Document|last=Lecker|first=Michael|publisher=Darwin Press|year=2004|pages=7–32 & 152–155}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Annali dell'Islam|last=Leone|first=Cestani|publisher=I. Milan: Hoepli|pages=390–393}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Skizzen und Vorabeiten. IV. Berlin: Reimer.|last=Julius|first=Wellhausen|pages=80–84}}</ref><ref name="Rosenblatt"/><ref name="F.E.Peters2003, p. 194">F.E. Peters (2003), p. 194</ref><ref name="Islam 1977 pp. 43">The Cambridge History of Islam (1977), pp. 43–44</ref><ref name="Sameul">Samuel Rosenblatt, ''Essays on Antisemitism: The Jews of Islam'', p. 112</ref> Two Jewish tribes were expelled and the third one was wiped out.<ref name="Laqueur192"/><ref>Esposito (1998) pp. 10–11</ref> The [[Banu Qaynuqa]] was expelled for their hostility against the Muslims and for mocking them.<ref name="Ishaq1"/><ref name="Ishaq363"/><ref name="NomMu"/><ref name= "Stillman 123"/><ref name="Ishaq2"/> The [[Banu Nadir]] was expelled after they attempted to assassinate Muhammad.<ref name="Halabi"/><ref name="BanuNadir"/> The last one, the [[Banu Qurayza]], was wiped out after the Battle of Trench, in which they allegedly attempted to ally themselves with the invading Quraysh.<ref name= "Stillman 13"/><ref name= "Guillalume458"/><ref name= "Ramadan143"/>

Samuel Rosenblatt opines that these incidents were not part of policies directed exclusively against Jews, and Muhammad was more severe with his pagan Arab relatives.<ref name="Rosenblatt"/><ref name="Sameul"/> In addition, Muhammad's conflict with Jews was considered of rather minor importance. According to Lewis, since the clash of Judaism and Islam was resolved and ended with the victory of the Muslims during Muhammad's lifetime, no unresolved theological dispute among Muslims fueled antisemitism. There is also a difference between the Jewish denial of the Christian message and the Jewish denial of the Muslim message, because Muhammad never claimed to be the [[Messiah]] nor did he claim to be the [[Son of God]]; however, he is referred to as "[[Prophets of Islam|the Apostle of God]]."<ref>Lewis (1999) p. 118</ref> The cause of Muhammad's death is disputable, though the [[Hadith]] tends to suggest he may have eventually succumbed to being poisoned at [[Khaybar]] by one of his surviving Jewish widows.<ref>[http://www.sahih-bukhari.com/Pages/Bukhari_3_47.php Sahih Bukhari Volume 3, Book 47, Number 786]</ref><ref>[http://www.sahih-bukhari.com/Pages/Bukhari_5_59.php Sahih Bukhari Volume 5, Book 59, Number 713]</ref>

According to Rosenblatt, Muhammad's disputes with the neighboring Jewish tribes left no marked traces on his immediate successors, known as [[caliphs]]). The first caliphs generally based their treatment of Jews upon the Quranic verses that encourage tolerance.<ref name="Rosenblatt" /> Classical commentators viewed Muhammad's struggle with the Jews as a minor episode in his career, but the interpretation of it has shifted in modern times.<ref name="autogenerated4" />

===Hadith===
The [[Hadith]]—believed to be non-Quranic accounts of Muhammad—use both ''Banu Israil'' and ''Yahud'' as [[Jew (word)#Yehudi in the Hebrew Bible|terms for Jews]], the latter term becoming increasingly common and appearing mostly in negative contexts. For example, Jews were "cursed and changed into rats" in {{Hadith-usc|Bukhari|usc=yes|4|54|524}} (see also {{hadith-usc|usc=yes|Muslim|42|7135}} {{hadith-usc|usc=yes|Muslim|42|7136}}).

According to [[Norman Stillman]]:
<blockquote> Jews in Medina are singled out as "men whose malice and enmity was aimed at the Apostle of God". The ''Yahūd'' in this literature appear not only as malicious, but also deceitful, cowardly and totally lacking resolve. However, they have none of the demonic qualities attributed to them in mediaeval Christian literature, neither is there anything comparable to the overwhelming preoccupation with Jews and Judaism (except perhaps in the narratives on Muhammad's encounters with Medinan Jewry) in Muslim traditional literature. Except for a few notable exceptions ... the Jews in the Sira and the Maghazi are even heroic villains. Their ignominy stands in marked contrast to Muslim heroism, and in general, conforms to the Quranic image of "wretchedness and baseness stamped upon them".<ref name="Yahud"/></blockquote>

According to Schweitzer and Perry, the Hadith is "even more scathing (than the Quran) in attacking the Jews".
<blockquote>They are debased, cursed, anathematized forever by God and so can never repent and be forgiven; they are cheats and traitors; defiant and stubborn; they killed the prophets; they are liars who falsify scripture and take bribes; as infidels they are ritually unclean, a foul odor emanating from them – such is the image of the Jew in classical Islam, degraded and malevolent.<ref name="Schweitzer266" /></blockquote>

==== Gharqad tree hadith ====
{{Main article|Gharqad}}
''[[Sahih Muslim]]'' and ''[[Sahih al-Bukhari]]'' record various recensions of a hadith wherein Muhammad prophesies that the [[Islamic eschatology|Day of Judgment]] will not come until Muslims and Jews fight each other. The Muslims will kill the Jews with such success that they will then hide behind stones (or both trees and stones according to various recensions), which will then cry out to a Muslim that a Jew is hiding behind them and ask them to kill the Jew. The only one not to do so will be the [[Gharqad]] tree, as it is the tree of the Jews. The following hadith, which forms a part of the ''Sahih Muslim'' hadiths, has been quoted many times, and it became a part of the [[Hamas]] militant organization's original [[1988 Hamas charter|1988 charter]]:<ref>Laqueur, p. 192</ref>
{{cquote
| bgcolor = #F0FFF0|The Day of Judgement will not come about until Muslims fight the Jews, when the Jew will hide behind stones and trees. The stones and trees will say O Muslims, O Abdullah, there is a Jew behind me, come and kill him. Only the [[Gharqad|Gharkad]] tree, (the [[Boxthorn]] tree) would not do that because it is one of the trees of the Jews. (related by al-Bukhari and Muslim).{{hadith-usc|usc=yes|Muslim|41|6985}}, see also {{hadith-usc|usc=yes|Muslim|41|6981}}, {{hadith-usc|usc=yes|Muslim|41|6982}}, {{hadith-usc|usc=yes|Muslim|41|6983}}, {{hadith-usc|usc=yes|Muslim|41|6984}}, {{Hadith-usc|Bukhari|usc=yes|4|56|791}},({{Hadith-usc|Bukhari|usc=yes|4|52|177}})
}}

Different interpretations about the Gharqad tree mentioned in the Hadith exist. One interpretation is that the Gharqad tree is an actual tree. Israelis have been alleged to plant the tree around various locations, e.g., [[Israeli settlements|their settlements]] in the [[West Bank]] and [[Gaza Strip]], around the [[Israel Museum]], and the [[Knesset]]. Other claims about the tree are that it grows outside Jerusalem's [[Herod's Gate]] or that it is actually a bush that grows outside [[Jaffa Gate]] which some Muslims believe is where [[Jesus in Islam#Second coming|Jesus will return to Earth]] and slay the [[Dajjal]], following the final battle between the Muslims and unbelievers which some believe will take place directly below the Jaffa Gate and the [[Sultan's Pool]]. Another interpretation that exists is that the mention of the Gharqad tree is symbolic and is in reference to all the forces of the world believed to conspire with the Jews against Muslims.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1HfsAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA52|title=Medieval and Modern Perspectives|author=Ronald N. Nettler|publisher=Routledge|year=2014|pages=52–53|isbn=9781134366828}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4aqmBQAAQBAJ&q=the+jews+will+fight+with+you&pg=PT79|title=The End of the World|author= Muhammad Al Arifi|publisher=Darussalam Publishers|page=79|date=2018-08-20}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tYRoAgAAQBAJ&q=the+final+hour+would+not+arrive+until+Muslims+fight+with+the+Jews&pg=PA484|title=The Oxford Handbook of Religion and Violence|author1=Mark Juergensmeyer |author2=Margo Kitts |author3=Michael Jerryson |publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2013|page=484|isbn=9780199344086}}</ref>

==Pre-modern Islam==
Jerome Chanes,<ref name="Chanes" /> [[Koppel Pinson]] and Samuel Rosenblatt,<ref name="Rosenblatt" /> [[Mark R. Cohen]], [[Norman Stillman]], [[Uri Avnery]], M. Klein, and [[Bernard Lewis]] all argue that antisemitism did not emerge in the Muslim world until modern times, because in their view, it was rare in pre-modern Islam. Lewis argues that there is no sign that any deep-rooted feeling of emotional hostility that can be characterized as antisemitism was directed against Jews or any other group. There were, however, clearly negative attitudes, which were partially due to the "normal" feelings of a dominant group towards subject groups. More specifically, the contempt consisted of Muslim contempt for disbelievers.<ref>Sources for the following are:
*Lewis (1984) p. 32–33
*[[Mark R. Cohen]] (2002), p. 208
*Stillman (2006)
*Avnery, Uri (1968). ''Israel without Zionists''. (New York: Macmillan). p. 220
*M. Klein. New Encyclopedia of Zionism and Israel, ''Anti-semitism''</ref>{{Full citation needed|date=November 2025}}

===Literature===
According to Lewis, the outstanding characteristic of the [[classical Islam]]ic view of Jews is their unimportance. The religious, philosophical, and literary Islamic writings tended to ignore Jews and focused more on Christianity. Although Jews received little praise and faced blame and accusations like blood libels, there were no fears of conspiracy, domination, or evil, nor charges of poisoning wells, spreading plague, or engaging in blood libels until the Ottomans adopted these concepts from their Greek subjects in the 15th century.<ref>Lewis (1999), pp. 122, 123, 126, 127{{Incomplete short citation|date=November 2025}}</ref>

Poliakov writes that various examples of medieval Muslim literature portray Judaism as an exemplary pinnacle of faith, and Israel as being destined by this virtue. He quotes stories from ''[[The Book of One Thousand and One Nights]]'' that portray Jews as pious, virtuous, and devoted to God, and seems to borrow plots from the [[Midrash]]. However, Poliakov writes that treatment of Jews in Muslim literature varies, and the tales are meant for pure entertainment, with no didactic aim.<ref>Poliakov (1974) pp. 77–8{{Incomplete short citation|date=November 2025}}</ref> 

After [[Samuel ibn Naghrillah]], a Jew, attacked the Quran by alleging various [[Criticism of the Quran|contradictions]] in it, [[Ibn Hazm]], a [[Moors|Moor]], criticized him furiously. Ibn Hazm wrote that Ibn Naghrillah was "filled with hatred" and "conceited in his vile soul".<ref>Poliakov (1974) pp. 92–3.</ref>

According to Schweitzer and Perry, some literature during the 10th and 11th centuries "made Jews out to be untrustworthy, treacherous oppressors, and exploiters of Muslims". This propaganda sometimes even resulted in outbreaks of [[Pogrom|violence against Jews]]. An 11th-century Moorish poem describes Jews as "a criminal people" and blames them for causing social decay, betraying Muslims, and poisoning food and water.<ref name="Schweitzer267-268" />
[[File:Alfred Dehodencq - Execution of a Jewess in Tangiers c1861.jpg|thumb|''Execution of a Jewess in Morocco'' ([[Sol Hachuel]]), {{Circa|1861}}; painting by [[Alfred Dehodencq]].]]
Martin Kramer writes that in Islamic tradition, in striking contrast with the [[Antisemitism in Christianity|antisemitic Christian]] concept of the '[[Wandering Jew|eternal Jew]]', contemporary Jews were not presented as archetypes—as the embodiment of Jews in all times and places.<ref name=kramer/>

===Life under Muslim rule===
{{main|History of the Jews under Muslim rule|Islamic–Jewish relations|Dhimmi}}
Jews, [[Christians]], [[Sabians]], and [[Zoroastrianism|Zoroastrians]] living under early and medieval Muslim rule were known as "[[People of the Book]]" ({{langx|ar|rtl=yes|translit=Ahl al-Kitāb|أهل الكتاب}}) to Muslims and held the status of ''[[dhimmi]]'', a status that was later also extended to other non-Muslims like [[Sikhs]], [[Hindus]], [[Jainism|Jains]], and [[Buddhism|Buddhists]].<ref>{{cite book|author=Annemarie Schimmel|year=2004|page=[https://archive.org/details/empireofgreatmug00anne/page/107 107]|title=The Empire of the Great Mughals: History, Art and Culture|publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]]|isbn=978-1861891853|quote=The conqueror [[Muhammad bin Qasim|Muhammad Ibn Al Qasem]] gave both Hindus and Buddhists the same status as the Christians, Jews and Sabaeans the Middle East. They were all "dhimmi" ('protected people')|url=https://archive.org/details/empireofgreatmug00anne/page/107|author-link=Annemarie Schimmel}}</ref><ref name=bonner>{{cite book|author=Michael Bonner|author-link=Michael Bonner|title=Jihad in Islamic History: Doctrines and Practice|publisher=[[Princeton University Press]]|year=2008|page=89|isbn=9780691138381|jstor=j.ctt7sg8f}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Wael B. Hallaq|author-link=Wael Hallaq|title=Sharī'a: Theory, Practice, Transformations|year=2009|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|page=327|doi=10.1017/CBO9780511815300|isbn=9780511815300}}</ref> As ''dhimma'', Jews were to be tolerated, and were entitled to the protection and resources of the ''[[ummah]]'', or Muslim community. In return, they had to pay a tax known as the ''[[jizya]]'' as required by the Quran.<ref>Wehr (1976) pp. 515-516.</ref> Lewis and Poliakov argue that Jewish communities enjoyed toleration and limited rights as long as they accepted Muslim superiority. These rights were legally established and enforced.<ref name="Poliakov74"/><ref>Lewis (1999) p. 123.</ref> The restrictions on ''dhimmi'' included: payment of higher taxes; at some locations, being forced to wear clothing or some other insignia distinguishing them from Muslims; sometimes barred from holding public office, bearing arms or riding a horse; disqualified as witnesses in litigation involving Muslims; at some locations and times, ''dhimmi'' were prevented from repairing existing or erecting new places of worship. Proselytizing on behalf of any faith but Islam was barred.

''Dhimmi'' were subjected to a number of restrictions, the application and severity of which varied with time and place. Restrictions included residency in [[Racial segregation|segregated quarters]], [[Jewish religious clothing#Historical background|obligation to wear distinctive clothing]] such as the [[Yellow badge]],<ref name="Silverman 2013">{{cite book |last=Silverman |first=Eric |author-link=Eric Silverman |year=2013 |title=A Cultural History of Jewish Dress |chapter=Bitter Bonnets and Badges: Dressing the Infidel |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nZYdAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA48 |location=[[London]] |publisher=[[Bloomsbury Academic]] |pages=47–50 |isbn=978-0-857-85209-0 |s2cid=190749766}}</ref>{{#tag:ref|In many [[Muslim world|Islamic countries]], Jewish men typically wore [[tunic]]s, instead of trousers. In the same countries, many different local regulations emerged to make Christian and Jewish ''dhimmi'' look distinctive in their public appearance. In 1198, the [[Almohad Caliphate|Almohad caliph]] [[Abu Yusuf Yaqub al-Mansur]] decreed that Jews must wear a [[Dark blue (color)|dark blue]] garb, with very large sleeves and a grotesquely oversized hat; his son altered the colour to [[Yellow badge|yellow]], a change that may have influenced [[Yellow badge#Medieval and early modern Europe|Catholic ordinances]] some time later.<ref name="Silverman 2013"/> German ethnographer [[Erich Brauer]] (1895–1942) noted that [[Yemenite Jews|Jews in Yemen]] were not allowed to wear clothing of any color besides [[blue]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Brauer|first1=Erich|author-link=Erich Brauer|year=1934|title=Ethnologie der Jemenitischen Juden|location=Heidelberg|publisher=Carl Winters Kulturgeschichte Bibliothek, I. Reihe: Ethnologische bibliothek|volume=7|issue=1934|page=79}}</ref>|group=Note}} public subservience to Muslims, prohibitions against proselytizing and against marrying Muslim women, and limited access to the legal system (the testimony of a ''dhimmi'' did not count if contradicted by that of a Muslim). ''Dhimmi'' had to pay a special poll tax (the ''[[jizya]]''), which exempted them from military service, and also from payment of the ''[[zakat]]'' alms tax required of Muslims. In return, ''dhimmi'' were granted limited rights, including a degree of [[Toleration#Islam|tolerance]], community autonomy in personal matters, and protection from being killed outright. Jewish communities, like Christian ones, were typically constituted as semi-autonomous entities, governed by their own laws and leadership, and responsible to the Muslim rulers.<ref>{{cite book|title=Under Crescent and Cross: The Jews in the Middle Ages|author=Cohen, Mark R. |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]]|year=1995|isbn=0-691-01082-X |page=74 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fgbib5exskUC&q=cohen+Under+Crescent+and+Cross|access-date=10 April 2010 |author-link=Mark R. Cohen }}</ref>

By medieval standards, conditions for Jews under Islam were often more formalized and better than those of Jews in Christian lands. However, treatment of Jews in medieval Christian and Islamic countries greatly varied on ruler and nation. This was in part due to the sharing of minority status with Christians in these lands. There is evidence for this claim in that the status of Jews in lands with no Christian minority was usually worse than their status in lands with one. For example, there were numerous incidents of massacres and [[ethnic cleansing]] of Jews in [[North Africa]],<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20080927133652/http://www.theforgottenrefugees.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=66&Itemid=39 The Forgotten Refugees]</ref> especially in [[Morocco]], [[Libya]], and [[Algeria]] where eventually Jews were forced to live in [[Mellah|ghettos]].<ref>Roumani, Maurice. ''The Case of the Jews from Arab Countries: A Neglected Issue'', 1977, pp. 26–27.</ref> Decrees ordering the destruction of synagogues were enacted in the Middle Ages in [[Egypt]], [[Syria]], [[Iraq]], and [[Yemen]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/anti-semitism/Jews_in_Arab_lands_(gen).html |title=The Treatment of Jews in Arab/Islamic Countries |publisher=Jewishvirtuallibrary.org |date=19 February 1947 |access-date=2 July 2011}}</ref>{{better source needed|date=June 2022}} At certain times in Yemen, Morocco, and [[History of the Jews in Baghdad|Baghdad]], Jews were [[Forced conversion#Islam|forced to convert to Islam]] or face the [[Capital punishment in Islam|death penalty]].<ref>Bat Ye'or, ''The Dhimmi'', 1985, p. 61</ref> 

Later additions to the code included prohibitions on adopting Arab names, studying the Quran, and selling alcoholic beverages.<ref name=Schweitzer266/> Abdul Aziz Said writes that the Islamic concept of ''dhimmi'', when applied, allowed other cultures to flourish and prevented the general rise of antisemitism.<ref>Abdul Aziz Said (1979), {{Citation needed|date=July 2008}}</ref> The situation where Jews both enjoyed cultural and economic prosperity at times, but were widely persecuted at other times, was summarised by G. E. Von Grunebaum:

<blockquote>It would not be difficult to put together the names of a very sizable number of Jewish subjects or citizens of the Islamic area who have attained to high rank, to power, to great financial influence, to significant and recognized intellectual attainment; and the same could be done for Christians. But it would again not be difficult to compile a lengthy list of persecutions, arbitrary confiscations, attempted forced conversions, or pogroms.<ref>G. E. Von Grunebaum, ''Eastern Jewry Under Islam'', 1971, p. 369.</ref>
</blockquote>

Schweitzer and Perry give as examples of early Muslim antisemitism: 9th-century "persecution and outbreaks of violence"; 10th- and 11th-century antisemitic propaganda that "made Jews out to be untrustworthy, treacherous oppressors, and exploiters of Muslims". This propaganda "inspired outbreaks of violence and caused many casualties in Egypt". An 11th-century Moorish poem describes Jews as "a criminal people" and alleges that "society is nearing collapse on account of Jewish wealth and domination, their exploitation and betrayal of Muslims; that Jews worship the devil, physicians poison their patients, and Jews poison food and water as required by Judaism, and so on."<ref name="Schweitzer267-268" />

Jews under Muslim rule rarely faced [[Martyrdom in Judaism|martyrdom]], exile, or forced conversion to Islam, and they were fairly free to choose their residence and profession. Their freedom and economic condition varied from time to time and place to place.<ref>Lewis (1999) p. 131</ref><ref>Stillman (1979) p. 27</ref> Forced conversions occurred mainly in the Maghreb, especially under the [[Almohad Caliphate|Almohads]], a militant dynasty with messianic claims, as well as in [[Medieval Persia|Persia]], where [[Shia Islam|Shia Muslims]] were generally less tolerant than their Sunni counterparts.<ref>Lewis (1984), pp. 94–95</ref> Notable examples of the cases where the choice of residence was taken away from them include confining Jews to walled quarters (''[[mellah]]'') in Morocco beginning from the 15th century and especially since the early 19th century.<ref>Lewis (1984), p. 28</ref>

===Egypt and Iraq===
The caliphs of the [[Fatimid]] dynasty in Egypt were known to be [[Philo-Semitism|Judeophiles]], according to Leon Poliakov. They regularly paid to support Jewish institutions (such as the rabbinical academy in Jerusalem). A significant number of their ministers and counselors were Jews. The Abbasids, too, were similarly respectful and tolerant towards the Jews under their rule. [[Benjamin of Tudela]], a famous 12th-century Jewish explorer, described the Caliph [[Al-Mustanjid|al-Abbasi]] as a "great king and kind unto Israel". Benjamin also further goes on to describe about al-Abassi that "many belonging to the people of Israel are his attendants, he knows all languages and is well-versed in the Law of Israel. He reads and writes the holy language [Hebrew]." He further mentions Muslims and Jews being involved in common devotions, such as visiting the grave of [[Ezekiel]], whom both religions regard as a prophet.<ref>Poliakov (1974) pp. 60–2</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tiz6jbjgSjEC&q=caliph+great+king+kind+unto+israel&pg=PA259|title=The Human Record: To 1700|last1=Andrea|first1=Alfred J.|author-link1=Alfred J. Andrea|last2=Overfield|first2=James H.|date=2001-01-01|publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt|isbn=978-0618042456|language=en}}</ref>

===Iberian Peninsula===
With the [[Al-Andalus|Muslim conquest of the Iberian Peninsula]], Spanish Judaism flourished for several centuries. Thus, what some refer to as the "[[Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain|golden age]]" for Jews began. During this period, Muslims in Spain tolerated other religions, including Judaism, and created a heterodox society.<ref name="Poliakov741">Poliakov (1974) pp. 91–6</ref>

Muslim relations with Jews in Spain were not always peaceful, however. The eleventh century saw Muslim pogroms against Jews in Spain; those occurred in [[Córdoba, Spain|Córdoba]] in 1011 and in [[Granada]] in 1066.<ref name="Schweitzer267-268">Schweitzer, pp. 267–268.</ref> In the [[1066 Granada massacre]], a Muslim mob crucified the Jewish [[vizier]] [[Joseph ibn Naghrela]] and massacred about 4,000 Jews.<ref>[http://jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=412&letter=G&search=Granada Granada] by Richard Gottheil, [[Meyer Kayserling]], ''[[Jewish Encyclopedia]]''. 1906 ed.</ref> The Muslim grievance involved was that some Jews had become wealthy, and others had advanced to positions of power.<ref name="Schweitzer267-268" />

The [[Almohad]] dynasty, which seized rule over Muslim Iberia in the 12th century, offered Christians and Jews the choice of conversion or expulsion; in 1165, one of their rulers ordered that all Jews in the country convert on pain of death (forcing the Jewish rabbi, [[theologian]], [[philosopher]], and [[physician]] [[Maimonides]] to feign conversion to Islam before fleeing the country). In Egypt, Maimonides resumed practicing Judaism openly only to be accused of [[apostasy]]. He was saved from death by [[Saladin]]'s chief administrator, who held that conversion under coercion is invalid.<ref>Kraemer, Joel L., ''Moses Maimonides: An Intellectual Portrait'' in ''The Cambridge Companion to Maimonides'' pp. 16–17 (2005)</ref>

During his wanderings, Maimonides also wrote [[The Yemen Epistle]], a famous letter to the Jews of [[Yemen]], who were then experiencing severe persecution at the hands of their Muslim rulers. In it, Maimonides describes his assessment of the treatment of the Jews at the hands of Muslims:<blockquote> ... on account of our sins God has cast us into the midst of this people, the nation of Ishmael [that is, Muslims], who persecute us severely, and who devise ways to harm us and to debase us.... No nation has ever done more harm to Israel. None has matched it in debasing and humiliating us. None has been able to reduce us as they have.... We have borne their imposed degradation, their lies, their absurdities, which are beyond human power to bear.... We have done as our sages of blessed memory have instructed us, bearing the lies and absurdities of Ishmael.... In spite of all this, we are not spared from the ferocity of their wickedness and their outbursts at any time. On the contrary, the more we suffer and choose to conciliate them, the more they choose to act belligerently toward us.<ref>Maimonides, "Epistle to the Jews of Yemen", translated in Stillman (1979), pp. 241–242</ref></blockquote>

[[Mark R. Cohen|Mark Cohen]] quotes Haim Hillel Ben-Sasson, a specialist in [[medieval]] European Jewish history, who cautioned that Maimonides' condemnation of Islam should be understood "in the context of the harsh persecutions of the 12th century and that furthermore one may say that he was insufficiently aware of the status of the Jews in Christian lands, or did not pay attention to this, when he wrote the letter". Cohen continues by quoting Ben-Sasson, who argues that Jews generally had a better legal and security situation in Muslim countries than Jews had in [[Christendom]].<ref>Cohen (1995) pp. xvii–xviii</ref>

===Ottoman Empire===
While some Muslim states declined, the [[Ottoman Empire]] rose as the "greatest Muslim state in history". As long as the empire flourished, the Jews did as well, according to Schweitzer and Perry. In contrast with their [[Christianity in the Ottoman Empire#Persecution|treatment of Christians]], the Ottomans were more tolerant of Jews and promoted their economic development. The Jews flourished as great [[merchants]], financiers, government officials, traders and [[artisan]]s.<ref name=autogenerated6>Schweitzer, pp. 266–267</ref> The Ottomans also allowed some [[Judaism|Jewish]] immigration to what was then referred to as [[Ottoman Syria|Syria]], which allowed for [[Zionists]] to establish permanent settlements in the 1880s.

===Contrast to antisemitism in Christian Europe===
{{main|Antisemitism in Europe|History of the Jews in Europe}}
Lewis states that in contrast to [[Antisemitism in Christianity|Christian antisemitism]], the attitude of Muslims towards non-Muslims is not one of hate, fear, or envy, but rather contempt. This contempt is expressed in various ways, such as an abundance of [[polemic]] literature which attacks the Christians and occasionally, it also attacks the Jews. "The negative attributes ascribed to the subject religions and their followers are usually expressed in religious and social terms, very rarely are they expressed in [[ethnic]] or [[Race (classification of human beings)|racial]] terms, though this sometimes does occur." The language of abuse is often quite strong. The conventional epithets are apes for Jews, and pigs for Christians. Lewis continues with several examples of regulations which symbolize the inferiority that non-Muslims who lived under Muslim rule had to live with, such as different formulae of greetings when addressing Jews and Christians than when addressing Muslims (both in conversations or correspondences), and forbidding Jews and Christians from choosing names that Muslims chose for their children during [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] rule.<ref>Lewis (1984) p. 33</ref>

Schweitzer and Perry argue that there are two general views of the status of Jews under Islam, the traditional "golden age" and the [[Historical revisionism|revisionist]] "persecution and pogrom" interpretations. The former was first promulgated by Jewish historians in the 19th century as a rebuke of the Christian treatment of Jews, and it was taken up by [[Arab Muslims]] after 1948 as "an Arab-Islamist weapon in what is primarily an ideological and political struggle against Israel". The revisionists argue that this idealized view ignores "a catalog of lesser-known hatred and massacres".<ref name="Schweitzer267-268" /> Mark Cohen concurs with this view, arguing that the "myth of an interfaith utopia" went unchallenged until Arabs adopted it as a "propaganda weapon against Zionism",<ref>Cohen (1995) p. 6.</ref> and that this "Arab polemical exploitation" was met with the "counter-myth" of the "neo-lachrymose conception of Jewish-Arab history",<ref>Cohen (1995) p. 9.</ref> which also "cannot be maintained in the light of historical reality".<ref>{{cite journal|jstor=1455066|author= Daniel J. Lasker|title= Review of Under Crescent and Cross. The Jews in the Middle Ages by Mark R. Cohen|journal= The Jewish Quarterly Review|volume=88|issue= 1/2 |year=1997|pages=76–78|doi=10.2307/1455066|last2=Cohen|first2=Mark R.}}</ref><ref>Cohen (1995) p.xvii: According to Cohen, both the views equally distort the past.</ref>

==Antisemitism in the Islamic Middle East since 1600 CE==
{{Main|Antisemitism in the Arab world|Arab Jews|Jewish exodus from the Muslim world|Racism in the Arab world|Racism in Muslim communities|Xenophobia and racism in the Middle East}}
Antisemitism has increased in the Muslim world during modern times.<ref name="autogenerated2">[http://www.meforum.org/article/396 Muslim Anti-Semitism] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090207232944/http://www.meforum.org/article/396 |date=7 February 2009 }} by Bernard Lewis (''Middle East Quarterly'') June 1998</ref> While [[Bernard Lewis]] and Uri Avnery date the increase in antisemitism to the establishment of [[Israel]],<ref name="autogenerated2"/> M. Klein suggests that antisemitism could have been present in the mid-19th century.<ref name="autogenerated3">Avnery, Uri (1968). ''Israel without Zionists''. (New York: Macmillan). pg. 220</ref>

Scholars point to European influences, including those of the [[Nazis]] (see below), and the establishment of Israel as the root causes of antisemitism.<ref name="autogenerated2"/><ref name="autogenerated3" /> [[Norman Stillman]] explains that increased European commercial, missionary, and imperialist activities during the 19th and 20th centuries brought antisemitic ideas to the Muslim world. Initially, these prejudices only found a reception among [[Arab Christians]] because they were too foreign to gain any widespread acceptance among Muslims. However, with the rise of the [[Arab–Israeli conflict]], European antisemitism began to gain acceptance in modern literature.<ref name="Yahud"/>

===17th century===
One of the most prominent acts of Islamic [[antisemitism]] took place in [[Yemen]] between 1679 and 1680, in an event known as the [[Mawza Exile]]. During this event, the Jews living in nearly all cities and towns throughout Yemen were banished by decree of the [[Imam of Yemen]], [[Al-Mahdi Ahmad]].<ref>See [[Mawza Exile]] wiki page</ref>

===19th century===
According to [[Mark R. Cohen|Mark Cohen]], Arab antisemitism in the modern world arose relatively recently, in the 19th century, against the backdrop of conflicting Jewish and Arab nationalisms, and it was primarily imported into the Arab world by nationalistically minded Christian Arabs (and only subsequently was it "Islamised").<ref>[[Mark R. Cohen|Mark Cohen]] (2002), p. 208</ref>
[[File:Execution of a Moroccan Jewess by Alfred Dehodencq.jpg|thumb|"Execution of a Moroccan Jewess ([[Sol Hachuel]])", painting by [[Alfred Dehodencq]]]]
The [[Damascus affair]] occurred in 1840, when an Italian monk and his servant disappeared in [[Damascus]]. Immediately following it, a charge of [[ritual murder]] was brought against a large number of Jews in the city. All of them were found guilty. The consuls of [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|Britain]], [[July Monarchy|France]], and [[Austrian Empire|Austria]] protested against the persecution by the Ottoman authorities, and Christians, Muslims, and Jews all played a great role in this affair.<ref>Frankel, Jonathan: ''The Damascus Affair: 'Ritual Murder', Politics, and the Jews in 1840'' (Cambridge University Press, 1997) {{ISBN|0-521-48396-4}} p. 1</ref>

A massacre of Jews also occurred in [[Baghdad]] in 1828.<ref name=Morris10>[[Benny Morris|Morris, Benny]]. ''Righteous Victims: A History of the Zionist-Arab Conflict, 1881–2001''. Vintage Books, 2001, pp. 10–11.</ref> There was another massacre in [[Babol|Barfurush]] in 1867.<ref name=Morris10/>

In 1839, in the eastern [[Persia]]n city of [[Meshed]], a mob burst into the [[Jewish quarter (diaspora)|Jewish Quarter]], burned the synagogue, and destroyed the [[Sefer Torah|Torah scrolls]]. This is known as the [[Allahdad incident]]. It was only by forcible conversion that a massacre was averted.<ref name="Patai">{{cite book | last = Patai | first = Raphael | title = Jadid al-Islam: The Jewish "New Muslims" of Meshhed | publisher = Wayne State University Press | year= 1997 | location = Detroit | isbn = 978-0-8143-2652-7 }}</ref>

[[Benny Morris]] writes that one symbol of Jewish degradation was the phenomenon of stone-throwing at Jews by Muslim children. Morris quotes a 19th-century traveler: "I have seen a little fellow of six years old, with a troop of fat toddlers of only three and four, teaching [them] to throw stones at a Jew, and one little urchin would, with the greatest coolness, waddle up to the man and literally spit upon his Jewish [[gaberdine]]. To all this, the Jew is obliged to submit; it would be more than his life was worth to offer to strike a Mahommedan."<ref name=Morris10/>

===20th century===
==== Origins ====
{{See also|Rashid Rida#On Zionism|Aftermath of World War I|Rashid Rida's World War Era Activities#Condemnation of the Post-War World Order|label 1=Anti-Zionist Campaign of Rashid Rida|label 3=Rashid Rida's Condemnation of Post-World War Order}}
The origins of modern antisemitic trends in the [[Muslim world|Islamic World]] can be traced back to the ideas of the [[Syrians|Syrian]]-[[Egyptians|Egyptian]] [[Salafi movement|Salafist]] theologian [[Rashid Rida|Muhammad Rashid Rida]] (1865–1935 CE), who turned highly antisemitic after the [[British Empire|British imperial]] designs on the [[Arab world|Arab World]] after [[World War I|World War 1]] and their co-operation with [[Zionism|Zionists]] to further British objectives. [[1988 Hamas charter|The 1988 Hamas Charter]], and particularly its Articles 7 and 22, represented a condensed version of the [[Pan-Islamism|pan-Islamist]] anti-Jewish ideas cultivated by Rashid Rida. Rida believed that the international Jewry [[Stab-in-the-back myth|contributed to Germany's defeat]] in the First World War; in exchange for [[Balfour Declaration|Britain's promise]] to grant them Palestine. Furthermore, he asserted that they controlled the Western Banking System and the Capitalist system, created [[Communism]] in [[Eastern Europe]], and led [[Freemasonry]] to plot against World Nations. He also drew from Islamic traditions that displayed hostility to Jews and popularised them, rendering the conflict with the Zionists an apocalyptic religious dimension. Rida would persistently cite ''[[hadith]]s'' regarding the [[Islamic eschatology|End Times]] Jewish-Muslim conflicts; some of which would be included in the future Charter of [[Hamas]], such as:<ref>{{Cite book|last=McHugo|first=John|title=A CONCISE HISTORY OF THE ARABS|publisher=The New Press|year=2013|isbn=978-1-59558-950-7|location=The New Press, 38 Greene Street, New York, NY 10013|pages=162–163}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Achcar|first=Gilbert|title=The Arabs and the Holocaust:The Arab-Israeli War of Narratives|publisher=Actes Sud|year=2010|isbn=978-0-86356-835-0|location=26 Westbourne Grove, London w2 5RH, UK|pages=208, 250}}</ref>
<blockquote>The Jews will fight you and you will be led to dominate them until the rock cries out: "O Muslim! There is a Jew hiding behind me, kill him!"</blockquote>Rashid Rida condemned the Jews for their arrogance towards the [[Prophets and messengers in Islam|Prophets]] and arraigned them for abandoning religious values for materialism, all of which made them recipients of Divine Wrath, which led to their downfall. He asserted that [[Allah]] decreed Muslims to construct [[Al-Aqsa Mosque|Masjid al-Aqsa]] in the ruins of the [[Temple in Jerusalem]] and favoured Muslims to rule the [[Holy Land]]s by implementing ''[[Sharia|shari'a]]'' (Islamic law) and upholding ''[[Tawhid]]''. Rashid Rida's anti-Zionism was part of his wider campaign as a towering figure in the [[Pan-Islamism|Pan-Islamist]] movement and would immensely impact subsequent Islamist, Jihadist and anti-colonial activists.<ref name="Ryad 2022 1–18">{{Cite journal |last=Ryad |first=Umar |date=2022 |title=From the Dreyfus Affair to Zionism in Palestine: Rashid Riḍā's Views of Jews in Relation to the 'Christian' Colonial West |url=https://er.ceres.rub.de/index.php/ER/article/view/9762/9312 |journal=Entangled Religions |volume=13 |issue=2 |pages=1–18 |doi=10.46586/er.11.2022.9762 |s2cid=251877486 |via=Ruhr Universitat Bochum|doi-access=free }}</ref> He also severely rebuked [[Christian Zionism|Christian Zionists]], writing:
{{Blockquote|text="It was astonishing that the intrigues of the Jews seduced many of the Christians of Europe and America by convincing them that believing in the Bible requires helping them to return to Palestine and the possession of Jerusalem … etc., as a confirmation to the prophets and a realization of the appearance of Jesus regarding whose person and deeds the two groups [Jewish and Christian] differed [in their interpretation]. The Jews refer to their Messiah as the earthly king who will come to restore the kingdom of Solomon, whereas the Christians refer to Jesus, son of Mary, who will return in His kingdom to judge the world."|title=Al-Manar 30/7 pg. 555|source=<ref name="Ryad 2022 1–18">{{Cite journal |last=Ryad |first=Umar |date=2022 |title=From the Dreyfus Affair to Zionism in Palestine: Rashid Riḍā's Views of Jews in Relation to the 'Christian' Colonial West |url=https://er.ceres.rub.de/index.php/ER/article/view/9762/9312 |journal=Entangled Religions |volume=13 |issue=2 |pages=1–18 |doi=10.46586/er.11.2022.9762 |s2cid=251877486 |via=Ruhr Universitat Bochum|doi-access=free }}</ref>|character=Muhammad Rashid Rida}}

==== Early massacres ====
The massacres of Jews in Muslim countries continued into the 20th century. The Jewish quarter in Fez was almost destroyed by a Muslim mob in 1912.<ref name="Morris10" /> There were [[Nazism|Nazi]]-inspired pogroms in [[Algeria]] in the 1930s, and massive attacks on the Jews in [[Iraq]] and [[Libya]] in the 1940s (see [[Farhud]]). Pro-Nazi Muslims slaughtered dozens of Jews in Baghdad in 1941.<ref name="Morris10" />

American academic [[Bernard Lewis]] and others have charged that standard antisemitic themes have become commonplace in the publications of Arab Islamist movements such as [[Hezbollah]] and [[Hamas]], in the pronouncements of various agencies of the [[Islamic Republic of Iran]], and even in the newspapers and other publications of [[Refah Partisi]], the Turkish Islamic party whose head served as [[prime minister]] in 1996–97."<ref name="autogenerated2" /> Lewis has also written that the language of abuse is often quite strong, arguing that the conventional epithets for Jews and Christians are apes and pigs, respectively.<ref>Lewis (1984) pp. 33–34</ref>

On 1 March 1994, [[1994 Brooklyn Bridge shooting|Rashid Baz]], an American Muslim living in Brooklyn, New York, shot at a van carrying Hassidic Jewish students over the Brooklyn Bridge. The students were returning to Brooklyn after visiting their ailing leader, the Lubavitcher Rebbe, who suffered a stroke two years earlier. Ari Halberstam, one of the students, was killed. Others were wounded. Baz was quoted in his confession in 2007 as saying, "I only shot them because they were Jewish."

====Relations between Nazi Germany and Muslim countries====
{{Main|Relations between Nazi Germany and the Arab world}}
{{Further|Mein Kampf in Arabic|Nazi propaganda|Religious views of Adolf Hitler}}
[[File:Allepo1947.jpg|thumb|Burning synagogue in [[Aleppo]] in 1947]]

Some [[Arabs]] found common cause with [[Nazi Germany]] against colonial regimes in the [[Middle East]]. [[Relations between Nazi Germany and the Arab world|The influence of the Nazis grew in the Arab world during the 1930s]].<ref>Lewis (1999) p. 147</ref> [[Egypt]], [[Syria]], and [[Iran]] are claimed to have harbored Nazi war criminals, though they have rejected this charge.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.adl.org/holocaust/Denial_ME/hdme_genocide_denial.asp |title=Holocaust Denial in the Middle East: The Latest anti-Israel, Anti-Semitic Propaganda Theme|year=2001 |publisher=[[Anti-Defamation League]] |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070913104923/http://www.adl.org/holocaust/Denial_ME/hdme_genocide_denial.asp |archive-date=13 September 2007 }}</ref> With the recruiting help of the [[Grand Mufti of Jerusalem]], [[Amin al-Husseini]], the [[13th Waffen Mountain Division of the SS Handschar (1st Croatian)|13th Waffen Mountain Division of the SS ''Handschar'']], mostly formed by Muslims in 1943, was the first non-Germanic [[Schutzstaffel|SS]] division.<ref>{{cite book|first=Jozo|last=Tomasevich|title=War and Revolution in Yugoslavia, 1941–1945: Occupation and Collaboration|volume=2|publisher=Stanford University Press|year=2001 |location=San Francisco |isbn=978-0-8047-3615-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fqUSGevFe5MC |ref=Tomasevich_2001 | access-date= 24 December 2011 | page =496}}</ref>

=====Amin al-Husseini=====
{{Main|Amin al-Husseini}}
[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 146-1987-004-09A, Amin al Husseini und Adolf Hitler.jpg|230px|thumb|right|[[Amin al-Husseini]], Grand Mufti of Jerusalem and the chairman of the Supreme Islamic Council meeting with [[Adolf Hitler]] (December 1941)]]
[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 146-1978-070-04A, Amin al Husseini bei bosnischen SS-Freiwilligen.jpg|230px|thumb|right|November 1943: al-Husseini greeting [[Bosniaks#Yugoslavia and World War II|Bosnian Muslim]] [[Waffen-SS]] volunteers with a [[Nazi salute]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Fisk |first=Robert |author-link=Robert Fisk |year=2007 |orig-year=2005 |title=[[The Great War for Civilisation|The Great War for Civilisation: The Conquest of the Middle East]] |location=[[London]] |publisher=[[Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group]] |page=459 |isbn=978-0-307-42871-4 |oclc=84904295}}</ref> At left is SS General [[Karl-Gustav Sauberzweig]].]]
[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 101III-Mielke-036-23, Waffen-SS, 13. Gebirgs-Div. "Handschar".jpg|230px|thumb|right|[[Bosniaks#Yugoslavia and World War II|Bosnian Muslim]] soldiers of the [[13th Waffen Mountain Division of the SS Handschar (1st Croatian)|SS "Handschar"]] reading a [[Nazi propaganda]] book, ''Islam und Judentum'', in [[German occupation of France during World War II|Nazi-occupied Southern France]] ([[German Federal Archives|Bundesarchiv]], June 1943)]]

The [[Grand Mufti of Jerusalem]], [[Amin al-Husseini]], a pupil of [[Rashid Rida|Muhammad Rashid Rida]], attempted to create an alliance with [[Nazi Germany]] and [[Fascist Italy (1922–1943)|Fascist Italy]] in order to obstruct the [[Homeland for the Jewish people|creation of a Jewish homeland]] in [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]], and hinder any emigration by [[Jewish refugees from Nazi Germany|Jewish refugees]] from [[the Holocaust]] there. Historians debate to what extent al-Husseini's fierce opposition to [[Zionism]] was based on [[Arab nationalism]] or [[antisemitism]], or a combination of the two.<ref name="rouleau">[[Eric Rouleau]], ''[https://www.monde-diplomatique.fr/1994/08/ROULEAU/646 Qui était le mufti de Jérusalem ?] (Who was the Mufti of Jerusalem ?)'', [[Le Monde diplomatique]], August 1994.</ref>

On 31 March 1933, within weeks of [[Adolf Hitler|Hitler]]'s [[Adolf Hitler's rise to power|rise to power in Germany]], al-Husseini sent a telegram to Berlin addressed to the German Consul-General in the [[Mandatory Palestine|British Mandate of Palestine]] saying that Muslims in Palestine and elsewhere looked forward to spreading their ideology in the Middle East. Al-Husseini secretly met the German Consul-General near the [[Dead Sea]] in 1933 and expressed his approval of the anti-Jewish boycott in Germany and asked him not to send any Jews to Palestine. Later that year, the Mufti's assistants approached Wolff,{{Who|date=August 2011}} seeking his help in establishing an Arab [[National Socialist]] party in Palestine. Reports reaching the foreign offices in Berlin showed high levels of Arab admiration of Hitler.<ref>Nicosia (2000), pp. 85–86.</ref>

Al-Husseini met the German Foreign Minister, [[Joachim von Ribbentrop]] on 20 November 1941, and was officially received by Hitler on 30 November 1941, in Berlin.<ref>Segev (2001), p. 463.</ref> He asked Hitler for a public declaration that "recognized and sympathized with the Arab struggles for independence and liberation, and that it would support the elimination of a national Jewish homeland", and he submitted to the German government a draft of such a declaration, containing the clause.<ref name="declaration">Lewis (1984), p. 190.</ref>

Al-Husseini aided the Axis cause in the Middle East by issuing a fatwa for a [[Jihad|holy war]] against Britain in May 1941. The Mufti's proclamation against Britain was declared in Iraq, where he was instrumental in the outbreak of the [[Anglo-Iraqi War|Anglo-Iraqi War of 1941]].<ref>Hirszowicz, pp. 82–83</ref> During the war, the Mufti repeatedly made requests to "the German government to bomb Tel Aviv".<ref>Lewis (1995), p. 351.</ref>

Al-Husseini was involved in the organization and recruitment of [[History of Bosnia and Herzegovina (1941–45)|Bosnian]] [[Bosniaks#Yugoslavia and World War II|Muslims]] into several divisions of the [[Waffen SS]] and other units.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ushmm.org/wlc/article.php?lang=en&ModuleId=10007255 |title=Hajj Amin Al-Husayni: The Mufti of Jerusalem |access-date=2007-10-19 |date=25 June 2007 |publisher=[[Holocaust Encyclopedia]] |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071018095955/http://www.ushmm.org/wlc/article.php?lang=en&ModuleId=10007255 |archive-date=18 October 2007 }}</ref> and also blessed sabotage teams trained by Germans before they were dispatched to [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]], [[Iraq]], and [[Emirate of Transjordan|Transjordan]].<ref>{{cite book |title=The Beast Reawakens|last=Lee |first=Martin A. |year=1999 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-0-415-92546-4 |page=123}}</ref>

=====Iraq=====
{{Main|History of the Jews in Iraq}}
In March 1940, General [[Rashid Ali]], a nationalist Iraqi officer, forced the pro-British Iraqi [[Prime Minister of Iraq|Prime Minister]] [[Nuri Said Pasha]] to resign.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.csus.edu/indiv/s/scottjc/coup.htm |title=Iraqi Coup: The Coup |access-date=2007-10-19 |last=Scott |first=James C. |date=9 August 2001 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071024000835/http://www.csus.edu/indiv/s/scottjc/coup.htm |archive-date=24 October 2007 }}</ref> In May, he declared [[jihad]] against Great Britain, effectively issuing a declaration of war. Forty days later, British troops had [[Anglo-Iraqi War|defeated his forces]] and occupied the country. The [[1941 Iraqi coup d'état]] occurred on 3 April 1941, when the regime of the Regent [['Abd al-Ilah]] was overthrown, and [[Rashid Ali]] was installed as Prime Minister.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.csus.edu/indiv/s/scottjc/introduction.htm |title=Iraqi Coup: Introduction |access-date=2007-10-18 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071024000840/http://www.csus.edu/indiv/s/scottjc/introduction.htm |archive-date=24 October 2007 }}</ref>

In 1941, following [[Rashid Ali]]'s pro-[[Axis Powers|Axis]] coup, riots known as the ''[[Farhud]]'' broke out in [[Baghdad]] in which approximately 180 Jews were killed and about 240 were wounded, 586 Jewish-owned businesses were looted and 99 Jewish houses were destroyed.<ref>Levin, Itamar (2001). ''Locked Doors: The Seizure of Jewish Property in Arab Countries''. (Praeger/Greenwood) {{ISBN|0-275-97134-1}}, p. 6.</ref>
[[File:Farhud mass grave.jpg|thumb|[[Mass grave]] of victims of the ''[[Farhud]]'', 1941]]
Iraq initially forbade the emigration of its Jews after the 1948 war because allowing them to go to Israel would strengthen that state, but they were allowed to emigrate again after 1950, if they agreed to forgo their assets.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/anti-semitism/iraqijews.html |title=The Jews of Iraq |access-date=2007-10-17 |last=Bard |first=Michell |year=2007 |encyclopedia=[[Jewish Virtual Library]] }}</ref>{{better source needed|date=June 2022}}

===The Ottoman Empire, Turkey, and Iraq===
{{Main|Armenian genocide|Assyrian genocide|Greek genocide|Hamidian massacres}}

====Forced migrations of Jews and Assyrian Christians between 1842 and the 21st century====
{{Further|Antisemitism in Turkey|Christianity in the Middle East|Christianity in the Ottoman Empire|Christianity in Turkey|Expulsions and exoduses of Jews|History of the Jews in the Ottoman Empire|History of the Jews in Turkey|Late Ottoman genocides|Jewish exodus from the Muslim world|Persecution of Christians|Persecution of Jews#Muslim world|Racism and discrimination in Turkey}}

In his recent PhD thesis<ref>Mordechai Zaken, "Tribal chieftains and their Jewish Subjects: A comparative Study in Survival": PhD Thesis, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, 2004.</ref> and his recent book<ref>Mordechai Zaken, [https://books.google.com/books?id=DZ_bGJhOXxoC "Jewish Subjects and their tribal chieftains in Kurdistan: A Study in Survival"], Brill: Leiden and Boston, 2007 ISBN .</ref> the Israeli scholar Mordechai Zaken discussed the history of the [[Assyrian people|Assyrian Christians]] of Turkey and Iraq (in the Kurdish vicinity) during the last 90 years, from 1843 onwards. In his studies Zaken outlines three major eruptions that took place between 1843 and 1933 during which the Assyrian Christians lost their land and hegemony in their habitat in the Hakkārī (or Julamerk) region in southeastern Turkey and became refugees in other lands, notably Iran and Iraq, and they ultimately established exiled communities in European and western countries (the US, Canada, Australia, New-Zealand, Sweden, France, to mention some of these countries). Mordechai Zaken wrote this study from an analytical and comparative point of view, comparing the Assyrian Christians' experience with the experience of the [[History of the Jews in Kurdistan|Kurdish Jews]] who had been dwelling in [[Kurdistan]] for two thousand years or so, but were forced to emigrate to Israel in the early 1950s. The Jews of Kurdistan were forced to leave as a result of the Arab-Israeli war, as a result of increasing hostility and acts of violence which were committed against Jews in Iraqi and Kurdish towns and villages, and as a result of a new situation that developed during the 1940s in Iraq and Kurdistan in which the ability of Jews to live in relative comfort and tolerance (that was disrupted from time to time prior to that period) with their Arab and Muslim neighbors, as they had done for many years, practically came to an end. In the end, the Jews of Kurdistan had to leave their Kurdish habitat en masse and migrate to Israel. The Assyrian Christians, on the other hand, suffered a similar fate, but they migrated in stages following each political crisis with the regime in whose boundaries they lived or following each conflict with their Muslim, Turkish, or Arab neighbors, or following the departure or expulsion of their patriarch Mar Shimon in 1933, first to Cyprus and then to the United States. Consequently, although there is still a small and fragile community of Assyrians in Iraq, today, millions of Assyrian Christians live in exiled and prosperous communities in the West.<ref>Joyce Blau, one of the world's leading scholars of [[Kurdish culture]], [[Kurdish languages|languages]] and [[History of the Kurds|history]], suggested, "This part of Mr. Zaken's thesis, concerning Jewish life in Iraqi Kurdistan, well complements the impressive work of the pioneer ethnologist Erich Brauer. Brauer was indeed one of the most skilled ethnographs of the first half of the 20th century and wrote an important book on the Jews of Kurdistan." (Erich Brauer, ''The Jews of Kurdistan'', first edition 1940, revised edition 1993, completed and edited by Raphael Patai, Wayne State University Press, Detroit)</ref>

=====Iran=====
{{Main|History of the Jews in Iran}}
{{Further|Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran}}
Although Iran was officially neutral during the Second World War, [[Reza Shah]] sympathized with Nazi Germany, making the Jewish community fearful of possible persecution.<ref name="sanasarian2">Sanasarian (2000), p. 46.</ref> Although these fears did not materialise, anti-Jewish articles were published in the Iranian media. Following the [[Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran]] in 1941, [[Reza Shah]] was deposed and replaced by his son [[Mohammad Reza Pahlavi]].

However, [[Kaveh Farrokh]] argues that there is a misconception that antisemitism was widespread in [[Iran]] during Reza Shah's reign.<ref name=Farrokh>{{cite book|last=Farrokh|first=Kaveh|title=Iran at War|year=2011|publisher=Oxford: Osprey Publishing|isbn=978-1-84603-491-6|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dUHhTPdJ6yIC|archive-date=26 March 2016|access-date=8 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160326200731/https://books.google.com/books?id=dUHhTPdJ6yIC|url-status=dead}}</ref> After the [[Fall of France]] during the time that [[Reza Shah]] was still regent, the head of the Iranian legation in [[Paris]], [[Abdol Hossein Sardari]], used his influence with Nazi contacts to gain exemptions from Nazi race laws for an estimated 2000 [[Iranian Jews]] living in Paris at the time. The legation also issued Iranian travel documents for the Iranian Jews and their non-Iranian family members to facilitate travel through Nazi occupied Europe to safety.<ref name=BBC_Iranian_Schindler>{{cite news|last=Wheeler|first=Brian|title=The 'Iranian Schindler' who saved Jews from the Nazis|year=2012|publisher=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-16190541}}</ref>

=====Egypt=====
{{Main|History of the Jews in Egypt}}
In [[Egypt]], [[Ahmad Husayn]] founded the [[Young Egypt Party (1933)|Young Egypt Party]] in 1933. He immediately expressed his sympathy for [[Nazi Germany]] to the German ambassador to Egypt. Husayn sent a delegation to the [[Nuremberg rally]] and returned with enthusiasm. After the [[Sudeten Crisis]], the party's leaders denounced Germany for aggression against small nations, but they retained elements which were similar to those of [[Nazism]] or [[Fascism]], e.g., salutes, torchlight parades, leader worship, and antisemitism and [[racism]]. The party's impact before 1939 was minimal, and its espionage efforts were of little value to the Germans.<ref>Lewis (1999) pp. 148–149.</ref>

During World War II, [[Cairo]] was a haven for agents and spies throughout the war. [[Egyptian nationalism|Egyptian nationalists]] were active, with many Egyptians, including [[Farouk of Egypt]] and prime minister [[Ali Mahir Pasha]], all of whom hoped for an Axis victory, and the complete severance of Egyptian ties with Britain.<ref>{{cite book |title=Encyclopedia of World War II: A Political, Social, and Military History |last=Tucker |first=Spencer |year=2005 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-57607-999-7 |page=477 }}</ref>

====Islamist and Jihadist groups====
{{Islamism sidebar}}
Antisemitism, alongside [[anti-Western sentiment]], [[Anti-Zionism|anti-Israeli sentiment]], [[Anti-democracy|rejection of democracy]], and [[Jewish conspiracy theory|conspiracy theories involving the Jews]], is widespread both within [[Islamism]] and [[Jihadism]].{{refn|<ref name="Fastenbauer 2020"/><ref name="CTC-Sentinel 2023">{{cite journal |author1-last=Atiyas-Lvovsky |author1-first=Lorena |author2-last=Azani |author2-first=Eitan |author3-last=Barak |author3-first=Michael |author4-last=Moghadam |author4-first=Assaf |date=20 September 2023 |url=https://ctc.westpoint.edu/wp-content/uploads/2023/09/CTC-SENTINEL-092023.pdf |title=CTC-ICT Focus on Israel: In Word and Deed? Global Jihad and the Threat to Israel and the Jewish Community |url-status=live |editor1-last=Cruickshank |editor1-first=Paul |editor2-last=Hummel |editor2-first=Kristina |editor3-last=Morgan |editor3-first=Caroline |journal=[[CTC Sentinel]] |volume=16 |issue=9 |pages=1–12 |publisher=[[Combating Terrorism Center]] |location=[[West Point, New York]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230920143721/https://ctc.westpoint.edu/wp-content/uploads/2023/09/CTC-SENTINEL-092023.pdf |archive-date=20 September 2023 |access-date=1 October 2023}}</ref><ref name="Jikeli 2015">{{cite book |last=Jikeli |first=Günther |year=2015 |chapter=Anti-Semitism within the Extreme Right and Islamists' Circles |editor1-last=Fireberg |editor1-first=Haim |editor2-last=Glöckner |editor2-first=Olaf |title=Being Jewish in 21st-Century Germany |location=[[Berlin]] and [[Boston]] |publisher=[[De Gruyter]] |series=Europäisch-jüdische Studien – Beiträge |volume=16 |pages=188–207 |doi=10.1515/9783110350159-013 |doi-access=free |isbn=9783110350159 |jstor=j.ctvbj7jwc.15 |jstor-access=free |s2cid=183381200}}</ref><ref name="Berridge 2018">{{cite book |author-last=Berridge |author-first=Willow J. |year=2018 |chapter=Islamism and the Instrumentalisation of Conspiracism |editor1-last=Asprem |editor1-first=Egil |editor2-last=Dyrendal |editor2-first=Asbjørn |editor3-last=Robertson |editor3-first=David G. |title=Handbook of Conspiracy Theory and Contemporary Religion |location=[[Leiden]] |publisher=[[Brill Publishers]] |series=Brill Handbooks on Contemporary Religion |volume=17 |doi=10.1163/9789004382022_015 |pages=303–320 |isbn=978-90-04-38150-6 |s2cid=201582498 |issn=1874-6691}}</ref><ref name="JCPA 2020">{{cite journal |last=Spoerl |first=Joseph S. |date=January 2020 |url=https://jcpa.org/article/parallels-between-nazi-and-islamist-anti-semitism/ |title=Parallels between Nazi and Islamist Anti-Semitism |journal=Jewish Political Studies Review |publisher=[[Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs]] |volume=31 |issue=1/2 |pages=210–244 |jstor=26870795 |issn=0792-335X |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200609120031/https://jcpa.org/article/parallels-between-nazi-and-islamist-anti-semitism/ |archive-date=9 June 2020 |url-status=live |access-date=25 March 2021}}</ref>}} Many [[Islamic terrorism|militant Islamist]] and [[Jihadism|Jihadist]] individuals, groups, and organizations have openly expressed both antisemitic and anti-Zionist views.{{refn|<ref name="CTC-Sentinel 2023"/><ref name="Jikeli 2015"/><ref name="Berridge 2018"/><ref name="JCPA 2020"/>}} However, even outside Islamist circles, [[Conspiracy theories in the Arab world|anti-Jewish and anti-Zionist conspiracism]] are widespread phenomena in both the [[Arab world]] and the [[Middle East]],<ref name="Fastenbauer 2020"/><ref name="DePoli 2018">{{cite book |author-last=De Poli |author-first=Barbara |year=2018 |chapter=Anti-Jewish and Anti-Zionist Conspiracism in the Arab World: Historical and Political Roots |editor1-last=Asprem |editor1-first=Egil |editor2-last=Dyrendal |editor2-first=Asbjørn |editor3-last=Robertson |editor3-first=David G. |title=Handbook of Conspiracy Theory and Contemporary Religion |location=[[Leiden]] |publisher=[[Brill Publishers]] |series=Brill Handbooks on Contemporary Religion |volume=17 |doi=10.1163/9789004382022_016 |pages=321–342 |isbn=978-90-04-38150-6 |s2cid=158462967 |issn=1874-6691}}</ref> and it has seen an extraordinary proliferation since the beginning of the [[Information Age|Internet Era]].<ref name="DePoli 2018"/>

[[Lashkar-e-Toiba]]'s propaganda arm has declared that the Jews are the "Enemies of Islam", and it has also declared that Israel is the "Enemy of Pakistan".<ref>B. Raman {{cite web|url=http://www.hinduonnet.com/businessline/2001/01/05/stories/040555ra.htm |title=Lashkar-e-Toiba: Spreading the jehad |access-date=2011-12-05 |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071226011450/http://www.hinduonnet.com/businessline/2001/01/05/stories/040555ra.htm |archive-date=26 December 2007 }}. The Hindu (2001-01-05)</ref>

[[Hamas]] has widely been described as an [[Antisemitism|antisemitic]] organization. It has issued antisemitic leaflets, and its writings and manifestos rely upon antisemitic documents (the [[Protocols of the Elders of Zion]], and other works of European Christian literature), exhibiting antisemitic themes.<ref name=NAS>Antisemitic:
*[[David Aaronovitch|Aaronovitch, David]]. [https://www.theguardian.com/world/2003/jun/22/religion.guardiancolumnists "The New Anti-Semitism"], ''The Observer'', 22 June 2003.
*"Hamas refuses to recognize Israel, claims the whole of Palestine as an Islamic endowment, has issued virulently antisemitic leaflets, ..." Laurence F. Bove, Laura Duhan Kaplan, ''From the Eye of the Storm: Regional Conflicts and the Philosophy of Peace'', Rodopi Press, 1995, {{ISBN|90-5183-870-0}}, p. 217.
*"But of all the anti-Jewish screeds, it is the ''Protocols of the Elders of Zion'' that emboldens and empowers antisemites. While other antisemitic works may have a sharper intellectual base, it is the conspiratorial imagery of the ''Protocols'' that has fueled the imagination and hatred of Jews and Judaism, from the captains of industry like Henry Ford, to teenage Hamas homicide bombers." Mark Weitzman, Steven Leonard Jacobs, ''Dismantling the Big Lie: the Protocols of the Elders of Zion'', KTAV Publishing House, 2003, {{ISBN|0-88125-785-0}}, p. xi.
*"There is certainly very clear evidence of antisemitism in the writings and manifestos of organizations like Hamas and Hizbullah...." ''Human Rights Implications of the Resurgence of Racism and Anti-Semitism'', United States Congress, House Committee on Foreign Affairs, Subcommittee on International Security, International Organizations and Human Rights – 1993, p. 122.
*"The denomination of the Jews/Zionists by the Hamas organization is also heavily shaped by European Christian anti-Semitism. This prejudice began to infiltrate the Arab world, most notably in the circulation of the 1926 Arabic translation of the ''Protocols of the Elders of Zion''....&nbsp;Reliance upon the document is evidenced in the group's charter.... The ''Protocols of the Elders of Zion'' also informs Hamas's belief that Israel has hegemonic aspirations that extend beyond Palestinian land. As described in the charter, the counterfeit document identifies the Zionists' wish to expand their reign from the Nile River to the Euphrates." Michael P. Arena, Bruce A. Arrigo, ''The Terrorist Identity: Explaining the Terrorist Threat'', NYU Press, 2006, {{ISBN|0-8147-0716-5}}, pp. 133–134.
*"Standard anti-Semitic themes have become commonplace in the propaganda of Arab Islamic movements like Hizballah and Hamas...." Lewis (1999)</ref> In 1998, Esther Webman of the Project for the Study of Anti-Semitism at [[Tel Aviv University]] wrote that although the above is true, antisemitism was not the main tenet of Hamas ideology.<ref>{{cite web|title=Anti-semitic motifs in Hamas leaflets, 1987–1992 |url=http://www.ict.org.il/articles/articledet.cfm?articleid=51#motifs |publisher=[[The Institute for Counter-Terrorism]] |date=9 July 1998 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071209065350/http://ict.org.il/articles/articledet.cfm?articleid=51 |archive-date=9 December 2007 }}</ref>

In an editorial in ''[[The Guardian]]'' in January 2006, [[Khaled Meshaal]], the chief of Hamas's political bureau, denied antisemitism on Hamas's part, and he said that the nature of the [[Israeli–Palestinian conflict]] was not religious but political. He also said that Hamas has "no problem with Jews who have not attacked us".<ref>{{cite news |title=We will not sell our people or principles for foreign aid |date=31 January 2006 |newspaper=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2006/jan/31/comment.israelandthepalestinians |location=London |first=Khalid |last=Mish'al |access-date=10 April 2014}}</ref>

The tone and casting of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict as part of an eternal struggle between Muslim and Jews by the [[1988 Hamas charter|Hamas Covenant]] had become an obstacle for the movement to be able to take part in diplomatic forums involving Western nations.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.smh.com.au/world/the-new-hamas-charter-explained-20170502-gvx10t.html|title=The new Hamas charter explained|author=Maher Mughrabi|newspaper=The Sydney Morning Herald|date=2017-05-02}}</ref> The movement came under pressure to update its founding charter issued in 1988 which called for Israel's destruction and advocated violent means for achieving a Palestinian state.<ref name=CNNQiblawi>{{cite news|url=https://edition.cnn.com/2017/05/01/middleeast/hamas-charter-palestinian-israeli/|title=Hamas says it accepts '67 borders, but doesn't recognize Israel|publisher=CNN|author1=Tamara Qiblawi|author2= Angela Dewan|author3= Larry Register|date=1 May 2017|access-date=3 May 2017}}</ref> A new charter issued in May 2014 stated that the group does not seek war with the [[Jewish people]] but only against Zionism which it holds responsible for "occupation of Palestine",<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/may/01/hamas-new-charter-palestine-israel-1967-borders|title=Hamas presents new charter accepting a Palestine based on 1967 borders|newspaper=The Guardian|author=Patrick Wintour|date=2 May 2017|access-date=3 May 2017}}</ref> while terming Israel as the "Zionist enemy".<ref name=CNNQiblawi/> It also accepted a Palestinian state within the [[Green Line (Israel)|Green Line]] as transitional but also advocated "liberation of all of Palestine".<ref name=Mughrabi>{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-palestinians-hamas-document-idUSKBN17X1N8|title=Hamas softens stance on Israel, drops Muslim Brotherhood link|work=Reuters|author1=Nidal al-Mughrabi|author2= Tom Finn|date=2 May 2017|access-date=3 May 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/2017/05/hamas-accepts-palestinian-state-1967-borders-170501114309725.html|title=Hamas accepts Palestinian state with 1967 borders|publisher=Al-Jazeera|date=2 May 2017|access-date=3 May 2017}}</ref>

[[Amal Saad-Ghorayeb]], a [[Shiite]] scholar and assistant professor at the [[Lebanese American University]] has written that [[Hezbollah]] is not [[anti-Zionist]], but rather [[anti-Jewish]]. She quoted [[Hassan Nasrallah]] as saying: "If we searched the entire world for a person more cowardly, despicable, weak and feeble in psyche, mind, ideology and religion, we would not find anyone like the Jew. Notice, I do not say the Israeli."<ref name=ASG>{{cite magazine |url =http://www.jeffreygoldberg.net/articles/tny/a_reporter_at_large_in_the_par.php |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070223074001/http://www.newyorker.com/fact/content/articles/021014fa_fact4 |archive-date=23 February 2007 |last=Goldberg |first= Jeffrey|title=In the Party of God: Are terrorists in Lebanon preparing for a larger war? |magazine=[[The New Yorker]] |date=14 October 2002 |access-date=2015-07-29}}</ref> Regarding the official public stance of Hezbollah as a whole, she said that while Hezbollah, "tries to mask its anti-Judaism for public-relations reasons ... a study of its language, spoken and written, reveals an underlying truth." In her book ''Hezbollah: Politics & Religion'', she argues that Hezbollah "believes that Jews, by the nature of Judaism, possess fatal character flaws". Saad-Ghorayeb also said, "Hezbollah's Quranic reading of Jewish history has led its leaders to believe that Jewish theology is evil."<ref name=ASG/>

===21st century===
France is home to [[Islam in France|Europe's largest population]] of [[Muslims]]—about 6 million—as well as the continent's largest community of Jews, about 600,000. Particularly during the beginning of the [[Al-Aqsa Intifada|second intifada]], Muslims attacked synagogues throughout France in solidarity with those in Palestine. Many Jews protested, and the acts were declared "Muslim antisemitism". By 2007, however, attacks were much less severe, and an "all-clear" was perceived.<ref>[https://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/841445.html Jews for Le Pen] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090417090654/http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/841445.html |date=17 April 2009 }} by Daniel Ben-Simon. ''Haaretz''. 25/03/07</ref> However, during the [[Gaza War (2008–09)|2008–2009 Gaza War]], tensions between the two communities increased and there were several dozen reported instances of Muslim violence such as arson and assaults. French Jewish leaders complained of "a diffuse kind of anti-Semitism becoming entrenched in the Muslim community" while Muslim leaders responded that the issues were "political rather than religious" and that Muslim anger is "not against Jews, it's against Israel".<ref>[https://www.nytimes.com/2009/01/20/world/europe/20iht-france.4.19529663.html?pagewanted=1&_r=2 Gaza conflict reverberates in France] by Katrin Bennhold, ''The New York Times'', 20 January 2009.</ref>

On 28 July 2006, at around 4:00&nbsp;p.m. [[Pacific Time]], the [[Seattle Jewish Federation shooting]] occurred when Naveed Afzal Haq shot six women, one fatally, at the Jewish Federation of Greater Seattle building in the [[Belltown, Seattle, Washington|Belltown]] neighborhood of [[Seattle, Washington]], United States. He shouted, "I'm a Muslim American; I'm angry at Israel" before he began his shooting spree. Police have classified the shooting as a [[hate crime]] based on what Haq said during a [[9-1-1]] call.<ref name="LATimes">Associated Press. [https://www.foxnews.com/story/1-killed-5-wounded-in-seattle-jewish-center-shooting "1 Killed, 5 Wounded in Seattle Jewish Center Shooting"], [[Fox News]], 29 July 2006.  [https://www.foxnews.com/story/0%2C2933%2C206172%2C00.html%3Dtrue]</ref>

In 2012, the Palestinian Authority [[Grand Mufti of Jerusalem]], [[Muhammad Ahmad Hussein]], citing [[Hadiths]], called for the killing of all Jews.<ref>[http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-4179044,00.html PM: Probe Jerusalem mufti who encouraged killing of Jews – Israel News, Ynetnews]. Ynetnews.com (1995-06-20). Retrieved on 2012-06-01.</ref><ref>[http://www.cbn.com/cbnnews/insideisrael/2012/January/Palestinian-Authoritys-Grand-Mufti-Kill-the-Jews/ Palestinian Authority's Grand Mufti: 'Kill the Jews']. CBN.com (2012-01-18). Retrieved on 2012-06-01.</ref><ref>[http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/Terrorism-+Obstacle+to+Peace/Palestinian_incitement/PA_Mufti_encourages_killing_Jews_9-Jan-2012.htm PA Mufti encourages killing of Jews 9-Jan-2012]. Mfa.gov.il. Retrieved on 2012-06-01.</ref>

In [[Egypt]], Dar al-Fadhilah published a translation of [[Henry Ford]]'s antisemitic treatise, [[The International Jew]], complete with distinctly antisemitic imagery on the cover.<ref>
[http://www.intelligence.org.il/eng/sib/4_04/as_egypt.htm Examples of anti-Semitism in the Arab and Muslim world] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070703175632/http://www.intelligence.org.il/eng/sib/4_04/as_egypt.htm |date=3 July 2007 }} on intelligence.org.il, site of the [[Intelligence and Terrorism Information Center]]
at the [[Center for Special Studies]] (C.S.S), Israel. Retrieved 24 September 2006.
</ref>

In 2014, the [[Anti-Defamation League]] published a global survey of worldwide antisemitic attitudes, reporting that in the Middle East, 74% of adults agreed with a majority of the survey's eleven antisemitic propositions, including that "Jews have too much power in international financial markets" and that "Jews are responsible for most of the world's wars."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.timesofisrael.com/hating-the-jew-youve-never-met/|title=Hating the Jew you've never met|date=15 May 2014|work=The Times of Israel|access-date=1 January 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=The ADL Global 100: An Index of Anti-Semitism |url=http://global100.adl.org/|publisher=Anti-Defamation League}}</ref>

==== Saudi school books ====
{{Main article| Saudi Arabian textbook controversy}}
A May 2006 study of [[Saudi Arabia]]'s revised schoolbook curriculum discovered that the eighth grade books included the following statements,<ref>[http://www.freedomhouse.org/uploads/special_report/48.pdf Saudi Arabia's Curriculum of Intolerance] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081001152022/http://www.freedomhouse.org/uploads/special_report/48.pdf |date=1 October 2008 }} (pdf), [[Freedom House]], May 2006, pp. 24–25.</ref>

{{Cquote|They are the people of the Sabbath, whose young people God turned into apes, and whose old people God turned into swine to punish them. As cited in [[Ibn Abbas]]: The apes are Jews, the keepers of the Sabbath; while the swine are the Christian infidels of the communion of Jesus.}}

{{Cquote|Some of the people of the Sabbath were punished by being turned into apes and swine. Some of them were made to worship the devil, and not God, through consecration, sacrifice, prayer, appeals for help, and other types of worship. Some of the Jews worship the devil. Likewise, some members of this nation worship devil, and not God.}}

Heads of American publishing houses have issued a statement asking the Saudi government to delete the "hate".<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.thedailybeast.com/articles/2012/10/17/saudi-textbooks-incite-hate-say-leaders-in-american-publishing.html |title=Saudi Textbooks Incite Hate, Say Leaders in American Publishing |date=17 October 2012 |work=The Daily Beast |access-date=10 April 2014}}</ref>

According to the [[Anti-Defamation League]]'s November 2018 report, Saudi government-published school textbooks for the 2018–19 academic year promoting incitement to hatred or violence against Jews.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/prince-mohammed-bin-salman-aims-rebrand-saudi-arabia-n817201|title=Prince Mohammed bin Salman Aims to Rebrand Saudi Arabia|access-date=6 November 2017|work=NBC News|date=6 November 2017 }}</ref> The Antisemitic material remains in the Saudi text books, as of November 2019.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://forward.com/opinion/434169/saudi-arabias-children-are-learning-from-anti-semitic-textbooks/ |title=Saudi Arabia's Children Are Learning From Anti-Semitic Textbooks |author=Weinberg, David|date=4 November 2019|work=Forward|access-date=24 January 2020}}</ref>

====Reconciliation efforts====
{{Further|Muslim supporters of Israel}} 
In Western countries, some Islamic groups and individual Muslims have made efforts to reconcile with the Jewish community through dialogue and to oppose antisemitism. For instance, in Britain, there is the group ''Muslims Against Anti-Semitism''.<ref>[http://www.ma-as.org.uk/ Muslims Against Anti-Semitism, Anti-Semitism in Europe, Islamophobia in Europe] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180902095645/http://www.ma-as.org.uk/ |date=2 September 2018 }}. Ma-as.org.uk. Retrieved on 2012-06-01.</ref><ref>See also, the position of the [http://www.freemuslims.org/issues/dont-blame-jews.php Free Muslims Coalition].</ref> Islamic studies scholar [[Tariq Ramadan]] has been outspoken against antisemitism, stating: "In the name of their faith and conscience, Muslims must take a clear position so that a pernicious atmosphere does not take hold in the Western countries. Nothing in Islam can legitimize xenophobia or the rejection of a human being due to his/her religious creed or ethnicity. One must say unequivocally, with force, that anti-Semitism is unacceptable and indefensible."<ref>For instance, see Ramadan's article in the [https://www.un.org/Pubs/chronicle/2004/issue4/0404p35.html UN Chronicle] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070524002635/http://www.un.org/Pubs/chronicle/2004/issue4/0404p35.html |date=24 May 2007 }} and coverage of his efforts by [http://news.haaretz.co.il/hasen/pages/ShArt.jhtml?itemNo=168205 Ha-artez]  {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040813071914/http://news.haaretz.co.il/hasen/pages/ShArt.jhtml?itemNo=168205 |date=13 August 2004 }}, an Israeli newspaper.</ref> [[Mohammad Khatami]], former president of Iran, declared antisemitism to be a "Western phenomenon", having no precedents in Islam, and stating the Muslims and Jews had lived harmoniously in the past. An Iranian newspaper stated that there has been hatred and hostility in history, but conceded that one must distinguish Jews from Zionists.<ref name="autogenerated2"/>

In North America, the [[Council on American-Islamic Relations]] has spoken against some antisemitic violence, such as the 2006 [[Seattle Jewish Federation shooting]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cair.com/AmericanMuslims/Interfaith.aspx |title=Interfaith |access-date=2007-10-17 |year=2007 |publisher=[[Council on American-Islamic Relations]] |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071011175635/http://cair.com/AmericanMuslims/Interfaith.aspx |archive-date=11 October 2007 }}</ref> According to the [[Anti-Defamation League]], CAIR has also been affiliated with antisemitic organizations such as [[Hamas]] and [[Hezbollah]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.adl.org/Israel/cair.asp |title=Council on American-Islamic Relations (CAIR) |date=10 August 2007 |publisher=[[Anti-Defamation League]] |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080426053638/http://www.adl.org/Israel/cair.asp |archive-date=26 April 2008 }}</ref>

The Saudi mufti, Shaykh Abd al-Aziz Bin Baz, gave a fatwa ruling that negotiating peace with Israel is permissible, as is the pilgrimage to Jerusalem by Muslims. He specifically said:
{{cquote|The Prophet made absolute peace with the Jews of Medina when he went there as an immigrant. That did not entail any love for them or amiability with them. But the Prophet dealt with them, buying from them, talking to them, calling them to God and Islam. When he died, his shield was mortgaged to a Jew, for he had mortgaged it to buy food for his family.}}
Martin Kramer considers that as "an explicit endorsement of normal relations with Jews".<ref name =kramer />

====Trends====
According to [[Norman Stillman]], Antisemitism in the Muslim world increased greatly for more than two decades following 1948 but "peaked by the 1970s, and declined somewhat as the slow process of rapprochement between the Arab world and the state of Israel evolved in the 1980s and 1990s".<ref name="Yahud" /> Johannes J. G. Jansen believes that antisemitism will have no future in the Arab world in the long run. In his view, like other imports from the [[Western World]], antisemitism is unable to establish itself in the private lives of Muslims.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Jansen, Johannes, J. G. |title=Lewis' Semites and Anti-Semites|journal=The Jewish Quarterly Review|jstor=1454485 |volume=77|issue= 2/3 |year=1986 |pages=231–233|doi=10.2307/1454485}}</ref> In 2004 [[Khaleel Mohammed]] said, "Anti-Semitism has become an entrenched tenet of Muslim theology, taught to 95 per cent of the religion's adherents in the Islamic world," a claim immediately dismissed as false and racist by Muslim leaders, who accused Mohammed of destroying efforts at relationship building between Jews and Muslims.<ref>Bruemmer, Rene. "Muslim speaker denounced: He doesn't speak for Islam: leaders. U.S. scholar tells Montreal conference theologians teach anti-Semitism". ''[[The Gazette (Montreal)|The Gazette]]'', 16 March 2004, p. A8.</ref><ref>{{cite journal|url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0411/is_1-2_53/ai_n8967463 |title=Produce your proof: Muslim exegesis, the Hadith, and the Jews |first=Khaleel |last=Mohammed |journal=Judaism |publisher=[[American Jewish Congress]] |date=Winter–Spring 2004 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080622154857/http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0411/is_1-2_53/ai_n8967463 |archive-date=22 June 2008 }}</ref> In 2010, Moshe Ma'oz, Professor Emeritus of Islamic and Middle Eastern Studies at The Hebrew University, edited a book questioning the common perception Islam is antisemitic or anti-Israel, and maintaining that most Arab regimes and most leading Muslim clerics have a pragmatic attitude to Israel.<ref>Moshe Ma'oz, ''Muslim Attitudes to Jews and Israel: The Ambivalences of Rejection, Antagonism, Tolerance and Cooperation'', Sussex University Press, 2010. According to Akiva Eldar [https://www.haaretz.com/news/features/the-more-germans-know-about-the-mideast-the-more-they-root-for-the-palestinians.premium-1.443938 'The more Germans know about the Mideast, the more they root for the Palestinians'] at [[Haaretz]], 26 June 2012, Ma'oz holds that 'most researchers of Islam agree that along with periods of oppression and persecution, the Jewish communities in the Islamic countries enjoyed long eras of coexistence and tolerance. Ma'oz stresses that most of the regimes in the Arab and Muslim world, and most leading Muslim clerics, have adapted pragmatic attitudes toward Israel and the Jews. He pointed out the close connection between the occupation in the territories, the dispute regarding the Jerusalem sites that are sacred to Islam and the strengthening of the anti-Semitic and anti-Israel tendencies in the Muslim world.'</ref>

According to professor [[Robert Wistrich]], director of the [[Vidal Sassoon International Center for the Study of Antisemitism]] (SICSA), the calls for the destruction of Israel by [[Iran]] or by [[Hamas]], [[Hezbollah]], [[Islamic Jihad Movement in Palestine|Islamic Jihad]], or the [[Muslim Brotherhood]], represent a contemporary mode of genocidal antisemitism.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://blogs.timesofisrael.com/holocaust-remembrance-day-a-somber-anniversary/|title=Holocaust Remembrance Day — a somber anniversary}}</ref>

According to the [[Pew Global Attitudes Project]] released on 14 August 2005, high percentages of the populations of six Muslim-majority countries have negative views of Jews. To a questionnaire asking respondents to give their views of members of various religions along a spectrum from "very favorable" to "very unfavorable", 60% of [[Turkey|Turks]], 74% of Pakistanis, 76% of [[Indonesia]]ns, 88% of [[Morocco|Moroccans]], 99% of [[Lebanon|Lebanese]] Muslims and 100% of [[Jordan]]ians checked either "somewhat unfavorable" or "very unfavorable" for Jews.<ref>[http://pewglobal.org/reports/display.php?ReportID=248 PEW Global Attitudes Report] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060706035644/http://pewglobal.org/reports/display.php?ReportID=248 |date=6 July 2006 }} statistics on how the world views different religious groups</ref><ref>{{cite news |first=Meg |last=Bortin |title=Poll Finds Discord Between the Muslim and Western Worlds |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/06/23/world/23pew.html?ei=5090&en=5b361ce4828f5847&ex=1308715200&adxnnl=1&partner=rssuserland&emc=rss&pagewanted=all&adxnnlx=1180479483-EJoZc0Poq7pWF1C9iBvPng |newspaper=The New York Times |date=23 June 2006 |access-date=2007-05-29 }}</ref>

==Islamic antisemitism in Europe==
A 2017 report by the [[University of Oslo]] Center for Research on Extremism tentatively suggests that "individuals of Muslim background stand out among perpetrators of antisemitic violence in Western Europe".<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.hlsenteret.no/publikasjoner/digitale-hefter/antisemittisk-vold-i-europa_engelsk_endelig-versjon.pdf| title=Antisemitic Violence in Europe, 2005-2015 - Exposure and Perpetrators in France, UK, Germany, Sweden, Norway, Denmark and Russia| date=June 2017| author=Johannes Due Enstad| publisher=Department of Literature, Area Studies and European Languages, University of Oslo Center for Research on Extremism (C-REX), University of Oslo| access-date=20 July 2017| archive-date=13 October 2018| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181013210540/https://www.hlsenteret.no/publikasjoner/digitale-hefter/antisemittisk-vold-i-europa_engelsk_endelig-versjon.pdf| url-status=dead}}</ref>

===The Netherlands===
{{Further|Antisemitism in the Netherlands}}
In the [[Netherlands]], antisemitic incidents, from verbal abuse to violence, are reported, allegedly connected with Islamic youth, mostly boys from [[Moroccans in the Netherlands|Moroccan descent]]. A phrase made popular during football matches against the so-called 'Jewish football club' [[AFC Ajax]] has been adopted by Muslim youth and is frequently heard at [[pro-Palestinian]] demonstrations: "[[Hamas]], Hamas, [[Zyklon B|Jews to the gas]]!" According to the Centre for Information and Documentation on Israel, a [[pro-Israel]] group in the Netherlands, in 2009, the number of antisemitic incidents in [[Amsterdam]], a city home to most of the approximately 40,000 [[History of the Jews in the Netherlands|Dutch Jews]], was said to have doubled compared to 2008.<ref name="nrc.nl">Berkhout, Karel. (2010-01-26) [http://www.nrc.nl/international/article2468489.ece/Anti-Semitism_on_the_rise_in_Amsterdam "Anti-Semitism on the rise in Amsterdam"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100302092941/http://www.nrc.nl/international/article2468489.ece/Anti-Semitism_on_the_rise_in_Amsterdam |date=2 March 2010 }}. Nrc.nl. Retrieved on 2012-06-01.</ref> In 2010, [[Raphael Evers]], an [[Orthodox Judaism|Orthodox]] [[rabbi]] in Amsterdam, told the [[Norway|Norwegian]] newspaper ''[[Aftenposten]]'' that Jews can no longer be safe in the city anymore due to the risk of violent assaults. "Jews no longer feel at home in the city. Many are considering ''[[aliyah]]'' to Israel."<ref name="aftenposten.no">[http://www.aftenposten.no/nyheter/uriks/article3584266.ece Hets av jøder er økende i Europa – Aftenposten] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120411225535/http://www.aftenposten.no/nyheter/uriks/article3584266.ece |date=11 April 2012 }}. Aftenposten.no. Retrieved on 2012-06-01.</ref>

===Belgium===
{{Further|Antisemitism in Belgium|1980 Antwerp summer camp attack|Jewish Museum of Belgium shooting}}
There were well over a hundred antisemitic attacks recorded in [[Belgium]] in 2009. This was a 100% increase from the year before. The perpetrators were usually young males of immigrant background from the [[Middle East]]. In 2009, the [[Belgium|Belgian]] city of [[Antwerp]], often referred to as [[Europe]]'s last [[shtetl]], experienced a surge in antisemitic violence. [[Bloeme Evers-Emden]], an Amsterdam resident and [[Auschwitz]] survivor, was quoted in the newspaper ''[[Aftenposten]]'' in 2010: "The antisemitism now is even worse than before [[the Holocaust]]. The antisemitism has become more [[violent]]. Now they are threatening to kill us."<ref name="aftenposten.no"/>

===France===
{{Further|Antisemitism in France}}
In 2004, France experienced rising levels of Islamic antisemitism and acts that were publicized around the world.<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/3880585.stm Chirac vows to fight race attacks] BBC. 9 July 2004.</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/3586543.stm |title=Anti-Semitism 'on rise in Europe' |work=[[BBC News]] |date=31 March 2004 |access-date=10 April 2014}}</ref><ref name=NYT-Smith>{{cite news| url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/03/26/international/26antisemitism.html | work=The New York Times | first=Craig S. | last=Smith | title=Jews in France Feel Sting as Anti-Semitism Surges Among Children of Immigrants | date=26 March 2006 |access-date=10 April 2014}}</ref> In 2006, rising levels of antisemitism were recorded in French schools. Reports related to the tensions between the children of North African Muslim immigrants and North African Jewish children.<ref name=NYT-Smith/> The climax was reached when [[Ilan Halimi]] was tortured to death by the so-called "Barbarians gang", led by Youssouf Fofana. In 2007, over 7,000 members of the community petitioned for asylum in the United States, citing antisemitism in France.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://jta.org/news/article/2007/03/20/100725/Frenchpetition |title=French Jews petition U.S. for asylum |work=[[Jewish Telegraphic Agency]] |date=2007-03-20 |access-date=10 April 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120905044711/http://www.jta.org/news/article/2007/03/20/100725/Frenchpetition |archive-date=5 September 2012 }}</ref>

Between 2001 and 2005, an estimated 12,000 French Jews took [[Aliyah]] to Israel. Several émigrés cited antisemitism and the growing Arab population as reasons for leaving.<ref name=Ford>{{cite news |url=https://www.csmonitor.com/2004/0622/p01s03-woeu.html|title=Anti-Semitism rising, Jews in France ponder leaving |last=Ford |first=Peter |date=2004-06-22 |work=[[The Christian Science Monitor]] |access-date=27 November 2009}}</ref> At a welcoming ceremony for French Jews in the summer of 2004, then [[Prime Minister of Israel|Israeli Prime Minister]] [[Ariel Sharon]] caused controversy when he advised all French Jews to "move immediately" to Israel and escape what he coined "the wildest anti-semitism" in France.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.usatoday.com/news/world/2004-11-22-jews-france_x.htm |title=As attacks rise in France, Jews flock to Israel |work=[[USA Today]] |date=22 November 2004 | first1=Andrea | last1=Stone | access-date=2010-05-04}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/2683783.stm |title=French Jews leave with no regrets |work=[[BBC News]] |date=23 January 2003 |first=James |last=Coomarasamy |access-date=10 April 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/3904943.stm |title=French Jews 'must move to Israel' |work=[[BBC News]] |date=18 July 2004 |access-date=10 April 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2004/jul/20/france.israel1 |title=French Jews caught up in a war of words |work=[[The Guardian]] |date=20 July 2004 | location=London | first=Amelia | last=Gentleman | access-date=2010-05-04}}</ref>

In the first half of 2009, an estimated 631 recorded acts of antisemitism took place in France, more than in the whole of 2008.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20091217075855/http://www.jpost.com/servlet/Satellite?cid=1260447430597&pagename=JPost%2FJPArticle%2FShowFull Anti-semitism is making a loud comeback] Jerusalem Post. 13 December 2009</ref> Speaking to the [[World Jewish Congress]] in December 2009, the French Interior Minister Hortefeux described the acts of antisemitism as "a poison to our republic". He also announced that he would appoint a special coordinator for fighting racism and antisemitism.<ref>[http://www.worldjewishcongress.org/en/main/showNews/id/8718 French interior minister says anti-Semitism at an alarming level] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110607011253/http://www.worldjewishcongress.org/en/main/showNews/id/8718 |date=7 June 2011 }} 14 December 2009</ref>

The rise of antisemitism in modern France has been linked to the intensifying [[Israeli–Palestinian conflict]].<ref name="Reuters French Jews">{{cite news | url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-france-jews-attacks-idUSTRE50T57520090130 | work=Reuters | title=French Jews ask Sarkozy to help curb attacks | date=30 January 2009 | access-date=10 April 2014 | archive-date=16 October 2015 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151016223539/http://www.reuters.com/article/2009/01/30/us-france-jews-attacks-idUSTRE50T57520090130 | url-status=live }}</ref> Since the [[Gaza War (2008–09)|Gaza War]] in 2009, decreases in antisemitism have been reversed. A report compiled by the Coordination Forum for Countering Anti-Semitism singled out France in particular among Western countries for antisemitism.<ref>{{cite news |author=Dr. Ruchama Weiss |author2=Rabbi Levi Brackman |url=http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3661455,00.html |title=Report: Gaza war reverses drop in anti-Semitism |work=[[Ynetnews]] |date=2009-01-25 |access-date=2014-04-10}}</ref> Between the start of the Israeli offensive in Gaza in late December and the end of it in January, an estimated hundred antisemitic acts were recorded in France. This compares with a total of 250 antisemitic acts in the whole of 2007.<ref name="Reuters French Jews"/>
In 2012, Mohammed Merah [[Toulouse and Montauban shootings|killed four Jews]], including three children, at the Ozar HaTorah Jewish school in Toulouse.
Shortly after the [[Charlie Hebdo shooting]] in 2015, [[Amedy Coulibaly]] murdered four Jewish patrons of a Kosher supermarket in Paris and held fifteen people hostage in the [[Porte de Vincennes siege]].
In response to these high-profile attacks, Jewish emigration from France to Israel increased by 20%, to 5,100 per year, between 2014 and 2015.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-4669430,00.html|title=French immigration to Israel surges in summer of 2015|newspaper=Ynetnews|access-date=2016-10-09}}</ref>

===Germany===
According to a 2012 survey, 18% of [[Turks in Germany]] believe that Jews are inferior human beings.<ref>Liljeberg Research International: [https://d171.keyingress.de/multimedia/document/228.pdf ''Deutsch-Türkische Lebens und Wertewelten 2012''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121011112234/https://d171.keyingress.de/multimedia/document/228.pdf |date=11 October 2012 }}, July/August 2012, p. 68</ref><ref>[[Die Welt]]: [https://www.welt.de/politik/deutschland/article108659406/Tuerkische-Migranten-hoffen-auf-muslimische-Mehrheit.html ''Türkische Migranten hoffen auf muslimische Mehrheit''], 17 August 2012, retrieved 23 August 2012</ref> A "non-representative study" by the [[American Jewish Committee|Ramer Institute for Jewish-German Relations]] suggests that antisemitic views were especially prevalent among Germany's native-born Muslim youth and children of immigrants.<ref>{{cite news |title=Israeli flag burning prompts German Foreign Minister Sigmar Gabriel to back outlawing it |url=http://www.dw.com/en/israeli-flag-burning-prompts-german-foreign-minister-sigmar-gabriel-to-back-outlawing-it/a-41806074 |publisher=[[DW News]] |date=15 December 2017 |access-date=17 December 2017 |quote="official statistics attribute most such crimes to right-wing extremists ... A non-representative study by the American Jewish Committee and its Berlin-based program, the Ramer Institute for Jewish-German Relations ... conducted [interviews] with 68 Syrian and Iraqi refugees{{nbsp}}... The study's authors conclude: "{{thin space}}'Anti-Semitic mindsets and stereotypes were prevalent in the interviews...'{{thin space}}"}}</ref>

A 2023 survey found that 26% of German Muslim respondents agreed with the antisemitic statement that "wealthy Jews are the real rulers of the world", compared to the national average of just 4%, and were overall three or four times more likely than the national average to embrace antisemitic ideology.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web |last=Cohen |first=Ben |date=2023-07-25 |title=New Survey Reveals Widespread Antisemitism Among German Muslims Compared With Overall Population |url=https://www.algemeiner.com/2023/07/25/new-survey-reveals-widespread-antisemitism-among-german-muslims-compared-with-overall-population/ |access-date=2024-11-21 |website=[[Algemeiner]] |language=en-US}}</ref> Seven percent of German Muslim respondents agreed that violence against Jews was acceptable, compared to 2% of the national average.<ref name=":3" />
{{image frame
|content={{Chart|definition=Perpetrators of antisemitic verbal harassment and physical assault.chart|data=Perpetrators of antisemitic verbal harassment and physical assault.tab|Width=200}}
|width=378
|caption=Perpetrators of antisemitic verbal harassment and physical assault. Attackers are characterised by the victim. An attacker may belong to more than one group.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://uni-bielefeld.de/ikg/daten/JuPe_Bericht_April2017.pdf|title=Jüdische Perspektiven auf Antisemitismus in Deutschland Ein Studienbericht für den Expertenrat Antisemitismus|last=Andreas Zick, Andreas Hövermann, Silke Jensen, Julia Bernstein|publisher=[[Universität Bielefeld]]|year=2017|location=Bielefeld|pages=25|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180428115221/https://uni-bielefeld.de/ikg/daten/JuPe_Bericht_April2017.pdf|archive-date=28 April 2018}}</ref>
}}
In police statistics, more than 90 percent of incidents are counted as "right-wing extremism". According to the ''[[Washington Post]]'', government officials and Jewish leaders doubt that figure, because cases with unknown perpetrators and some kinds of attacks automatically get classified as "extreme right".<ref name="police">{{cite news|last1=Witte|first1=Griff|last2=Beck|first2=Lusia|title=After a refugee influx, does Germany have an imported anti-Semitism problem? |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/europe/after-a-refugee-influx-does-germany-have-an-imported-anti-semitism-problem/2018/04/27/1c804d54-46ff-11e8-8082-105a446d19b8_story.html?noredirect=on|newspaper=Washington Post|date=28 April 2018}}</ref> A 2017 study of Jewish perspectives on antisemitism in Germany by [[Bielefeld University]] found that individuals and groups which belong to the extreme right and the extreme left were equally represented as perpetrators of antisemitic harassment and assaults, while Muslim assailants committed a large number of the attacks. The study also found that 70% of the participants feared a rise in antisemitism [[Immigration to Germany|due to immigration]], citing potential antisemitism among refugees.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://uni-bielefeld.de/ikg/daten/JuPe_Bericht_April2017.pdf|title=Jüdische Perspektiven auf Antisemitismus in Deutschland Ein Studienbericht für den Expertenrat Antisemitismus|last=Andreas Zick, Andreas Hövermann, Silke Jensen, Julia Bernstein|publisher=[[Universität Bielefeld]]|year=2017|location=Bielefeld|pages=4|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180428115221/https://uni-bielefeld.de/ikg/daten/JuPe_Bericht_April2017.pdf|archive-date=28 April 2018}}</ref>

Following the [[7 October attacks]], dozens of residents of [[Neukölln (locality)|Neukölln]] celebrated on the streets of the neighbourhood, some handing out sweets and candy.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-10-21 |title=Israel-Hamas war cuts deep into Germany's soul |url=https://www.politico.eu/article/israel-hamas-war-germany-germany-berlin/ |access-date=2024-11-21 |website=POLITICO |language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Steinke |first=Ronen |date=2023-10-09 |title=Angriff der Hamas: Der Rechtsstaat darf die Feier von Terror nicht dulden |url=https://www.sueddeutsche.de/meinung/gaza-neukoelln-feier-hamas-kommentar-1.6280592?reduced=true |access-date=2024-11-21 |website=[[Süddeutsche Zeitung]] |language=de}}</ref> Since then, antisemitism and [[Holocaust denial]] among the Muslim population of Germany has surged, with Jew-hatred "becoming mainstream among youths and young adults in some Arab communities".<ref>{{Cite news |last=Pancevski |first=Bjoan |date=2023-10-18 |title=Antisemitism Among Muslim Migrants Unsettles a Germany Haunted by the Holocaust |url=https://www.wsj.com/world/europe/antisemitism-among-muslim-migrants-unsettles-a-germany-haunted-by-the-holocaust-ff359e73 |access-date=2024-11-21 |work=[[The Wall Street Journal]]}}</ref> Neukölln’s integration commissioner, Güner Balci, stated that antisemitism is "widespread in certain Muslim milieus", and criticised the failure of any of Germany’s [[mosque]]s to condemn unequivocally the violence of the 7 October attacks.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Elger |first=Katrin |date=2023-10-11 |title=Muslim Anti-Semitism in Berlin: "Wide Swaths of Arab-Speaking Population Harbor Sympathies for Terrorists" |url=https://www.spiegel.de/international/germany/muslim-anti-semitism-in-berlin-wide-swaths-of-arab-speaking-population-harbor-sympathies-for-terrorists-a-f7c73040-7be1-4509-9150-810266818f49 |access-date=2024-11-21 |work=[[Der Spiegel]] |language=en |issn=2195-1349}}</ref>

In November 2024, [[Berlin]]’s chief of police Barbara Slowik also warned that Jews and gay people should hide their identity in order to protect their safety when entering Arab and Muslim-majority neighbourhoods and that "There are certain neighbourhoods where the majority of people of Arab origin live, who also have sympathies for terrorist groups" and are "openly hostile towards Jews".<ref>{{Cite news |last=Luyken |first=Jörg |date=2024-11-18 |title=Jews and gay people should hide identity in 'Arab neighbourhoods', says Berlin police chief |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/world-news/2024/11/18/jews-gay-people-hide-identity-arab-areas-germany/ |access-date=2024-11-21 |work=The Telegraph |language=en-GB |issn=0307-1235}}</ref> A week earlier, a group of Jewish schoolchildren in a youth soccer team said they were "hunted down" and attacked with knives by pro-Palestinian Arabs.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Luyken |first=Jörg |date=2024-11-11 |title=Jewish youth football team 'attacked by knife-wielding pro-Palestinian mob in Berlin' |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/world-news/2024/11/11/jewish-youth-football-team-attacked-pro-palestinians-berlin/ |access-date=2024-11-21 |work=The Telegraph |language=en-GB |issn=0307-1235}}</ref>

===Sweden===

{{Further|Antisemitism in Sweden}}
A government study in 2006 estimated that 5% of the total adult population and 39% of adult Muslims "harbour systematic antisemitic views".<ref name="GovStudy">Henrik Bachner and Jonas Ring. {{cite web|url=http://intolerans.levandehistoria.se/article/article_docs/antisemitism_english.pdf |title=Antisemitic images and attitudes in Sweden |access-date=2007-02-21 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070221140257/http://intolerans.levandehistoria.se/article/article_docs/antisemitism_english.pdf |archive-date=21 February 2007 }}. levandehistoria.se</ref> The former prime minister [[Göran Persson]] described these results as "surprising and terrifying". However, the rabbi of Stockholm's Orthodox Jewish community, Meir Horden, said, "It's not true to say that the Swedes are antisemitic. Some of them are hostile to Israel because they support the weak side, which they perceive the Palestinians to be."<ref>[https://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/922248.html Anti-Semitism, in Sweden? Depends who you're asking] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090418045705/http://haaretz.com/hasen/spages/922248.html |date=18 April 2009 }}, ''Haaretz'', 9 November 2007.</ref>

In March 2010, Fredrik Sieradzki told ''Die Presse'', an Austrian Internet publication, that Jews are being "harassed and physically attacked" by "people from the Middle East". However, he added that only a small number of Malmö's 40,000 Muslims "exhibit hatred of Jews". Sieradzk also stated that approximately 30 Jewish families have emigrated from Malmö to Israel in the past year, specifically to escape harassment. Also in March, the Swedish newspaper ''Skånska Dagbladet'' reported that attacks on Jews in Malmö totaled 79 in 2009, about twice as many as the previous year, according to police statistics.<ref>[https://www.jta.org/news/article/2010/03/22/1011279/report-anti-semitic-attacks-in-rise-in-scandanavia Report: Anti-Semitic attacks rising in Scandinavia] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100325205944/http://www.jta.org/news/article/2010/03/22/1011279/report-anti-semitic-attacks-in-rise-in-scandanavia |date=25 March 2010 }}, Jewish Telegraphic Agency (JTA), 22 March 2010.</ref>

In early 2010, the Swedish publication ''The Local'' published a series of articles about the growing antisemitism in [[Malmö, Sweden]]. In an interview in January 2010, Fredrik Sieradzki of the Jewish Community of Malmö stated, "Threats against Jews have increased steadily in Malmö in recent years, and many young Jewish families are choosing to leave the city. Many feel that the community and local politicians have shown a lack of understanding for how the city's Jewish residents have been marginalized." He also added, "Right now, many Jews in Malmö are really concerned about the situation here and don't believe they have a future here." ''The Local'' also reported that Jewish cemeteries and synagogues have repeatedly been defaced with antisemitic graffiti, and a chapel at another Jewish burial site in Malmö was firebombed in 2009.<ref>[http://www.thelocal.se/24632/20100127/ Jews flee Malmö as anti-Semitism grows] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121006195736/http://www.thelocal.se/24632/20100127/ |date=6 October 2012}} by David Landes, The Local, 27 January 2010.</ref> In 2009 the Malmö police received reports of 79 antisemitic incidents, double the number of the previous year (2008).<ref name=":1">{{cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/sweden/7278532/Jews-leave-Swedish-city-after-sharp-rise-in-anti-Semitic-hate-crimes.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220112/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/sweden/7278532/Jews-leave-Swedish-city-after-sharp-rise-in-anti-Semitic-hate-crimes.html |archive-date=12 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|location=London|work=The Daily Telegraph|first=Nick|last=Meo|title=Jews leave Swedish city after sharp rise in anti-Semitic hate crimes|date=21 February 2010|access-date=10 April 2014}}{{cbignore}}</ref> Fredrik Sieradzki, spokesman for the Malmö Jewish community, estimated that the already small Jewish population is shrinking by 5% a year. "Malmö is a place to move away from," he said, citing antisemitism as the primary reason.<ref name=":0">[https://forward.com/news/129233/for-jews-swedish-city-is-a-place-to-move-away-f/ For Jews, Swedish City Is a 'Place To Move Away From' –]. Forward.com. Retrieved on 2012-06-01.</ref>

In October 2010, ''The Forward'' reported on the current state of Jews and the level of antisemitism in Sweden. Henrik Bachner, a writer and professor of history at the University of Lund, claimed that members of the Swedish Parliament have attended anti-Israel rallies where the Israeli flag was burned. In contrast, the flags of Hamas and Hezbollah were waved, and the rhetoric was often antisemitic—not just anti-Israel. But such public rhetoric is not branded hateful and denounced. Charles Small, director of the Yale University Initiative for the Study of Antisemitism, stated, "Sweden is a microcosm of contemporary anti-Semitism. It's a form of acquiescence to radical Islam, which is diametrically opposed to everything Sweden stands for." Per Gudmundson, chief editorial writer for ''Svenska Dagbladet'', has sharply criticized politicians who he claims offer "weak excuses" for Muslims accused of antisemitic crimes. "Politicians say these kids are poor and oppressed, and we have made them hate. They are, in effect, saying the behavior of these kids is in some way our fault."<ref name=":0"/> Judith Popinski, an 86-year-old Holocaust survivor, stated that she is no longer invited to schools that have a large Muslim presence to tell her story of surviving the Holocaust. Popinski, who found refuge in Malmö in 1945, stated that, until recently, she told her story in Malmö schools as part of their Holocaust studies program, but that now, many schools no longer ask Holocaust survivors to tell their stories, because Muslim students treat them with such disrespect, either ignoring the speakers or walking out of the class. She further stated, "Malmö reminds me of the anti-Semitism I felt as a child in Poland before the war. "I am not safe as a Jew in Sweden anymore."<ref name=":1"/>

In December 2010, the [[Jews|Jewish]] [[human rights]] organization [[Simon Wiesenthal Center]] issued a travel advisory concerning [[Sweden]], advising Jews to express "extreme caution" when visiting the southern parts of the country due to an increase in verbal and physical harassment of Jewish citizens by Muslims in the city of [[Malmö]].<ref>[http://www.wiesenthal.com/site/apps/nlnet/content2.aspx?c=lsKWLbPJLnF&b=4441467&ct=8971903 Simon Wiesenthal Center to Issue Travel Advisory for Sweden – Officials Confer With Swedish Justice Minister Beatrice Ask | Simon Wiesenthal Center] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101218192040/http://www.wiesenthal.com/site/apps/nlnet/content2.aspx?c=lsKWLbPJLnF&b=4441467&ct=8971903 |date=18 December 2010 }}. Wiesenthal.com (2010-12-14). Retrieved on 2012-06-01.</ref>

===Norway===
{{Further|Antisemitism in Norway}}
In 2010, the [[Norwegian Broadcasting Corporation]], after one year of research, revealed that antisemitism was common among Norwegian Muslims. Teachers at schools with large shares of Muslims revealed that Muslim students often "praise or admire [[Adolf Hitler]] for his killing of Jews", that "Jew-hate is legitimate within vast groups of Muslim students" and that "Muslims laugh or command [teachers] to stop when trying to educate about the Holocaust".<ref name="Jødiske blir hetset"><!-- 400 error-->{{dead link|url=http://www1.nrk.no/nett-tv/indeks/205057|work=NRK Lørdagsrevyen|title=Jødiske blir hetset|date=March 2010|access-date=5 April 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100419230618/http://www1.nrk.no/nett-tv/indeks/205057|archive-date=19 April 2010|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref name="What about Norwegian anti-Semitism">[http://theforeigner.no/pages/columns/what-about-norwegian-anti-semitism/ What about Norwegian anti-Semitism?] by Leif Knutsenm, ''The Foreigner'' (Norwegian News in English), 16 June 2011.</ref><ref name="newsinenglish.no">[http://www.newsinenglish.no/2010/03/16/anti-semitism-report-shocks-officials/ Anti-semitism report shocks officials], Norway International Network, Views and News from Norway, 16 March 2010.</ref> Additionally, while some students might protest when some express support for [[terrorism]], none object when students express hatred of Jews. Most of these students were said to be born and raised in Norway. A Jewish father also reported that after school, his child was taken by a Muslim mob out to the forest to be hanged because he was a Jew, although he managed to escape.<ref name="Jødiske blir hetset"/>

===United Kingdom===
{{Further|Antisemitism in the United Kingdom}}
According to British Muslim journalist [[Mehdi Hasan]], "anti-Semitism isn't just tolerated in some sections of the British Muslim community; it's routine and commonplace".<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.newstatesman.com/politics/uk/2013/03/sorry-truth-virus-anti-semitism-has-infected-british-muslim-community|title=The sorry truth is that the virus of anti-Semitism has infected the British Muslim community|work=The New Statesman|first=Mehdi|last=Hasan|date=21 March 2013}}</ref> A 2016 survey of 5,446 adult Britons, part of a report titled ''Anti-Semitism in contemporary Great Britain'' that was conducted by the London-based [[Institute for Jewish Policy Research]], found that the prevalence of antisemitic views among Muslims was two to four times higher than the rest of the population. Antisemitic views were, on average, twice as high among British Muslims compared to the average British population. Fifty-five percent of British Muslims held at least one antisemitic viewpoint, and the survey found there was a correlation between higher levels of Muslim religiosity and education and their endorsement of antisemitic beliefs.<ref>{{cite news |date=2017-01-12 |title=British Muslims twice as likely to espouse anti-Semitic views, survey suggests |url=https://www.jta.org/2017/09/12/news-opinion/world/british-muslims-twice-likelier-than-others-to-espouse-anti-semitic-views-survey-suggests |access-date=2024-11-21 |work=[[Jewish Telegraphic Agency]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-41241353|title=Over a quarter of British people 'hold anti-Semitic attitudes', study finds|work=BBC News|first=Callum|last=May|date=13 September 2017}}</ref> A 2020 poll found that 45% of British Muslims hold a generally favourable view of British Jews, and 18% hold a negative view.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thetimes.com/uk/society/article/minorities-still-believe-in-tolerant-britain-poll-finds-70m625rt8|title = Minorities still believe in tolerant Britain, poll finds}}</ref>

Following the [[7 October Hamas-led attack on Israel|October 7th massacre]] of Israelis by Palestinians, a UK survey found that 46% of British Muslim respondents said they sympathise with [[Hamas]], a proscribed terrorist organisation in the UK, and the same percentage agreed that "Jews have too much influence over UK government policy".<ref>{{Cite news |last=Turner |first=Camilla |date=2024-04-06 |title=Just one in four British Muslims believe Hamas committed murder and rape in Israel |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2024/04/06/one-in-four-british-muslims-believe-hamas-israel/ |access-date=2024-11-21 |work=[[The Daily Telegraph]] |language=en-GB |issn=0307-1235}}</ref> More than 40% agreed with the statement that "Jews have too much power over UK media"; 39% agreed that "Jews have too much power over the UK financial system"; 33.6% agreed that "Jews have too much control of the global media system"; 33.1% agreed that "Jews have too much control over global political leadership"; and 32% wanted ''[[Sharia]]'' to be implemented in the United Kingdom.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ben-David |first=Daniel |date=2024-04-07 |title=Only 1 in 4 British Muslims believe Hamas carried out rape and murder on October 7, according to survey |url=https://www.thejc.com/news/only-1-in-4-british-muslims-believe-hamas-carried-out-rape-and-murder-on-october-7-according-to-survey-x3svowng |access-date=2024-11-21 |website=[[The Jewish Chronicle]] |language=en}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Islam|Judaism}}
{{div col|content=
*[[Nation of Islam and antisemitism]]
*[[Islamofascism]]
*[[Political Islam]]
}}

==Notes==
{{reflist|group=Note}}
{{reflist}}

==References==
{{refbegin|30em}}
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 | isbn = 978-0-7486-2527-7
 | oclc = 71808248
 | chapter = Antisemitism among Muslims
}}
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}}
* [[Mark R. Cohen|Cohen, Mark]] (1995). ''Under Crescent and Cross: The Jews in the Middle Ages''. Princeton University Press. {{ISBN|0-691-01082-X}}
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* Lewis, Bernard (1999). ''Semites and Anti-Semites: An Inquiry into Conflict and Prejudice''. W. W. Norton & Co. {{ISBN|0-393-31839-7}}
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*Pratt, Douglas [https://books.google.com/books?id=Azo-1-8mm1cC ''The challenge of Islam: encounters in interfaith dialogue''], Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2005 {{ISBN|0754651231}}
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* Schweitzer, Frederick M. and Perry, Marvin ''Anti-Semitism: myth and hate from antiquity to the present'', Palgrave Macmillan, 2002, {{ISBN|0-312-16561-7}}
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* {{cite book | first=Eliz | last=Sanasarian | title=Religious Minorities in Iran | publisher=Cambridge University Press | location=Cambridge | year=2000 | isbn=978-0-521-77073-6 | url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780521770736 }}
* {{cite book | last=Segev | first=Tom |author-link=Tom Segev | title=One Palestine, Complete: Jews and Arabs Under the British Mandate | publisher=Macmillan | publication-place=New York | year=2001 | isbn=978-0-8050-6587-9}}
*[[Norman Stillman|Stillman, Norman]] (1979). ''The Jews of Arab Lands: A History and Source Book''. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America. {{ISBN|0-8276-0198-0}}
* Stillman, N. A. (2006). "Yahūd". ''[[Encyclopaedia of Islam]]''. Eds.: P. J. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C. E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel and W. P. Heinrichs. Brill. Brill Online
* {{cite book | first=Hans | last=Wehr | title=A Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic | editor=J. Milton Cowan| publisher=Spoken Language Services, Inc. | location=Ithaca, New York | year=1976 | isbn=978-0-87950-001-6}}
* [[Alfred Guillaume|Guillaume, A.]] ''The Life of Muhammad: A Translation of Ibn Ishaq's Sirat Rasul Allah''. Oxford University Press, 1955. {{ISBN|0-19-636033-1}}
* [[Norman Stillman|Stillman, Norman]]. ''The Jews of Arab Lands: A History and Source Book''. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America, 1979. {{ISBN|0-8276-0198-0}}
* {{cite book | last=Watt | first=W.M. |author-link=Montgomery Watt | title=Muhammad: Prophet and Statesman | publisher=Oxford University Press | series=A Galaxy book, 409 | year=1961 | isbn=978-0-19-881078-0 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zLN2hNidLw4C}}
* {{cite book | last=Ramadan | first=Tariq |author-link=Tariq Ramadan | title=In the Footsteps of the Prophet | publisher=Oxford University Press | publication-place=Oxford | date=2007 | isbn=978-0-19-530880-8}}
* {{cite book
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{{refend}}

==Further reading==
{{refbegin|30em}}
* Aafreedi, Navras J. (2019). "[https://doi.org/10.3390/rel10070442 Antisemitism in the Muslim Intellectual Discourse in South Asia]". ''Religions'' 10, no. 7: 442. (ISSN 2077-1444)
* Aafreedi, Navras J. (2022). “[https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003200499 Antisemitic Rhetoric in Urdu on YouTube: An Analysis].” In ''Antisemitism on Social Media'', edited by Sabine von Mering and Monika Hubscher (London and New York: Routledge, 2022) [ISBN 9781032059693], pp. 114-128  [Nominated for 2022 Bernard Lewis Memorial Prize]
* Aafreedi, Navras J. (2019).  “[https://muse.jhu.edu/chapter/2617255 Muslim Antisemitism and Anti-Zionism in South Asia: A Case Study of Lucknow].” In ''Anti-Zionism, Antisemitism and the Dynamics of Delegitimization'', edited by Alvin Rosenfeld, 454-480. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. [ISBN: 978-0-253-03869-2 (cloth), 978-0-253-04002 (paperback), 978-0-253-03872-2 (ebook)]
* Aafreedi, Navras J. (2018).  “[https://www.degruyterbrill.com/document/doi/10.1515/9783110537093-009/html Antisemitism and Anti-Zionism among South Asian Muslims].” In ''Antisemitismus im 21. Jahrhundert: Virulenz einer alten Feindschaft in Zeiten von Islamismus und Terror'' (Antisemitism in the 21st Century: The Virulence of an Old Hatred in the Era of Islamism and Terrorism), edited by Marc Grimm and Bodo Kahmann, 179-198. Berlin, Munich and Boston: De Gruyter. (ISBN 978-3-11-053709-3)
* Aafreedi, Navras J. (2023).  "[https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9781003251224-8/hitler-popularity-trivialization-holocaust-india-navras-aafreedi Hitler's Popularity and the Trivialization of the Holocaust in India]." In ''Holocaust vs. Popular Culture: Interrogating Incompatibility and Universalization'', edited by Mahitosh Mandal and Priyanka Das (London and New York: Routledge) [ISBN 9781032169736], pp. 83-100,  https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003251224 
* Aafreedi, Navras J. (2024). "Antisemitism and Jewish Studies in South Asia: An Academic and Personal Journey." In ''[https://www.amazon.com/Religious-Educational-Encounters-Between-Muslims/dp/B0DJ5DMFP2/ref=sw_ttl_d_ci_mcx_mr_huc_d_1?_encoding=UTF8&pd_rd_i=B0DJ5DMFP2&pd_rd_w=Pkeaa&content-id=amzn1.sym.d2cc9390-d1fa-475f-88d9-b678651f3ffc%3Aamzn1.symc.d1771efd-fd48-4c97- Religious, Educational, and Trade Encounters Between Jews and Muslims in South Asia]'', Vol. 3 of the series on Jews and Muslims in South Asia, edited by Kenneth X. Robbins, William Richter, and Sifra Lentin (Maryland, USA: RajaNawab Publishing), [ISBN 979-8340563651], pp. 112-123. 
* Aafreedi, Navras J. (2021).  “[https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9781003146131-15/holocaust-education-india-challenges-navras-aafreedi?context=ubx&refId=7d7f41ef-5b02-463a-80ac-92d3bb3e30af Holocaust Education in India and its Challenges]”, in Navras J. Aafreedi & Priya Singh, eds., ''Conceptualizing Mass Violence: Representations, Recollections, and Reinterpretations'' (London and New York: Routledge) [ISBN 978-0-367-69997-0 (hbk), 978-1-003-14613-1 (ebk), DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003146131], pp. 138-150.
* Aafreedi, Navras J. (2017) “South Asian Muslim Attitudes towards Jews, Israel and Zionism.” In ''[https://www.bloomsbury.com/us/what-is-moderate-islam-9781498537438/ What is Moderate Islam?]'', edited by Richard Benkin, 191-200. London: Lexington Books (ISBN 9781498537414)
* Aafreedi, Navras J. (2020). “The Delusion of the Absence of Antisemitism in India”, in Esther Webman, ed., ''[https://en-humanities.tau.ac.il/sites/humanities_en.tau.ac.il/files/media_server/humanities/kantor/Kantor%20Report%202020_130820.pdf Antisemitism Worldwide 2019 and the Beginning of 2020]'' (Tel Aviv: Kantor Center for the Study of Contemporary European Jewry, Tel Aviv University, 2020), pp. 180-191.
* Aafreedi, Navras J. (2018).  "[https://link.springer.com/rwe/10.1007/978-94-024-1267-3%20911 Jewish-Muslim Relations in South Asia]", in Kassam, Zayn, Yudit K. Greenberg, and Jehan Bagli, eds., ''Islam, Judaism, and Zoroastrianism'', Springer 2018 (ISBN 978-94-024-1266-6) as part of the series edited by Arvid Sharma, Encyclopedia of Indian Religions, Springer, (ISBN 978-94-007-1988-0), pp. 368-381.
*[[Mark A. Gabriel|Gabriel, Mark]] (2003). ''Islam and the Jews: The Unfinished Battle''. Charisma House. {{ISBN|0-88419-956-8}}
* Aafreedi, Navras J. (2022). “[https://isgap.org/flashpoint/the-abuse-of-holocaust-memory-in-india/ The Abuse of Holocaust Memory in India]”, ''Flashpoint'', 85: April 28.
* Aafreedi, Navras J. (2021).  “[https://isgap.org/flashpoint/the-only-urdu-poem-on-the-holocaust-and-its-author/ The Only Urdu Poem on the Holocaust and its Author]”, ''Flashpoint'', 77: March 4. 
* Aafreedi, Navras J. (2014). “[https://www.asianjewishlife.org/pages/articles/AJL%20Issue%2015%20Oct2014/AJL%20Issue15%20Feature%20Jewish-Muslim-Relations-South-Asia.html Jewish-Muslim Relations in South Asia: Where antipathy lives without Jews]”, ''Asian Jewish Life'' (ISSN 2224-3011), Issue 15, October, pp. 13-16.
* Aafreedi, Navras J. (2014).  “[https://cafedissensus.com/2014/04/15/the-attitudes-of-lucknows-muslims-towards-jews-israel-and-zionism/ The Attitudes of Lucknow’s Muslims towards Jews, Israel and Zionism]”, ''Café Dissensus'' (ISSN 2373-177X), Issue 7, April 15.
* [[Carl W. Ernst|Ernst, Carl]] (2004). ''Following Muhammad: Rethinking Islam in the Contemporary World''. University of North Carolina Press. {{ISBN|0-8078-5577-4}}
* {{cite book|last = Herf|first = Jeffrey|author-link = Jeffrey Herf|title = The Jewish Enemy: Nazi Propaganda for the Arab World|year = 2009|publisher = [[Yale University Press]]|location = Ann Arbor, Michigan|isbn = 978-0-300-14579-3}}
* Kressel, Neil J. (2012). ''The Sons of Pigs and Apes: Muslim Antisemitism and the Conspiracy of Silence''. Potomac Books Inc. {{ISBN|1597977020}}
* Lepre, George. ''Himmler's Bosnian Division; The Waffen-SS Handschar Division 1943–1945'' Algen: Shiffer, 1997. {{ISBN|0-7643-0134-9}}
* Viré, F. (2006) "Ḳird". ''[[Encyclopaedia of Islam]]''. Eds.: P. J. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C. E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel and W. P. Heinrichs. Brill. Brill Online
* [[Montgomery Watt|Watt, Montgomery]] (1956). ''Muhammad at Medina''. Oxford: University Press.
{{refend}}

==External links==
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20180331101317/http://www.askmusa.org/site/c.ehLKKZPJLuF/b.3125653/k.7027/The_Jews_and_the_Quran.htm Jews in the Qur'an: An Introduction] by Aisha Y. Musa
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20071201103803/http://arts.monash.edu.au/jewish-civilisation/visiting/kinberg-jews-koran.pdf Jews in the Koran and Early Islamic Traditions] by Dr. Leah Kinberg
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20101228032748/http://en.qantara.de/webcom/show_article.php/_c-476/_nr-1355/i.html "The Arabs and the Holocaust": War of Narratives]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20110726172429/http://www.iibsa.org/Media/proceedings_summer_school.pdf Jikeli, Günther; Stoller, Robin; Thoma, Hanne (2007): Strategies and Effective Practices for Fighting Antisemitism among People with a Muslim or Arab Background in Europe, Berlin]
*[http://sdjewishworld.wordpress.com/2009/12/26/writer-said-quranic-teachings-are-not-anti-semitic Kashif Shahzada (2009): Why Islam is Against Antisemitism?], [[San Diego Jewish World]], December 2009

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