View source for Antilegomena

{{short description|Written texts whose authenticity or value is disputed}}
{{Italic title}}{{Bible-related |CB}}
'''''Antilegomena''''' (from [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] {{lang|grc|ἀντιλεγόμενα}}) are written texts whose authenticity or value is disputed.<ref>{{Citation | last1 = Liddell | last2 = Scott | title = [[A Greek–English Lexicon]]}}.</ref> [[Eusebius]] in his ''[[Church History (Eusebius)|Church History]]'' (c. 325) used the term for those [[Christian scriptures]] that were "disputed", literally "spoken against", in [[Early Christianity]] before the [[development of the New Testament canon|closure of the New Testament canon]]. 

The ''antilegomena'' were widely read in the Early Church and included the [[Epistle of James]], the [[Epistle of Jude]], [[2 Peter]], [[2 John|2]] and [[3 John]], the [[Book of Revelation]], the [[Gospel of the Hebrews]], the [[Epistle to the Hebrews]], the [[Apocalypse of Peter]], the [[Acts of Paul]], the [[Shepherd of Hermas]], the [[Epistle of Barnabas]] and the [[Didache]].{{Sfn | Kalin | 2002}}<ref>{{Citation | first = Glenn | last = Davis | url = http://www.ntcanon.org/Eusebius.shtml | title = The Development of the Canon of the New Testament | year = 2010 | page = 1}}.</ref> There was disagreement in the Early Church on whether or not the respective texts deserved canonical status.

==Eusebius==
{{see also|Christianity in the 4th century|Epistle of Barnabas|Epistle to the Hebrews|Authorship of the Epistle to the Hebrews|Peshitta}}
The first major church historian, [[Eusebius of Caesarea|Eusebius]],{{Sfn|Eusebius|1904|loc=[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf201.iii.viii.xxv.html 3.25.3-5]}}  who wrote his [[Church History (Eusebius)|''Church History'']] c. [[AD]] 325, applied the Greek term "antilegomena" to the disputed writings of the [[Early Christianity|Early Church]]:
{{quote |Among the disputed writings [{{lang |grc|των αντιλεγομένων}}], which are nevertheless recognized by many, are extant the so-called epistle of James and that of Jude, also the second epistle of Peter, and those that are called the second and third of John, whether they belong to the [[John the Evangelist|evangelist]] or to [[John the Presbyter|another person of the same name]]. Among the rejected writings must be reckoned also the Acts of Paul, and the so-called Shepherd, and the Apocalypse of Peter, and in addition to these the extant epistle of Barnabas, and the so-called Teachings of the Apostles; and besides, as I said, the Apocalypse of John, if it seem proper, which some, as I said, reject, but which others class with the accepted books. And among these some have placed also the [[Gospel according to the Hebrews]], with which those of the Hebrews that have accepted Christ are especially delighted. And all these may be reckoned among the disputed books [{{lang |grc|των αντιλεγομένων}}].}}

It is a matter of categorical discussion whether Eusebius divides his books into three groups—''homologoumena'' (from [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] {{lang|grc|ὁμολεγούμενα}}, "accepted"), ''antilegomena'', and 'heretical'—or into four by adding a ''notha'' ("spurious") group.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=The Epistle of Barnabas |url=https://evidenceunseen.com/theology/historical-theology/the-epistle-of-barnabas |access-date=2025-05-30 |website=Evidence Unseen |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Akin |first=Jimmy |title=Omitting Doubted Books |url=https://www.catholic.com/audio/ddp/omitting-doubted-books |access-date=2025-05-30 |website=Catholic Answers}}</ref>

The [[Epistle to the Hebrews]] had earlier been listed:{{Sfn|Eusebius|1904|loc=[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf201.iii.viii.iii.html 3.3.5]}}
{{quote |It is not indeed right to overlook the fact that some have rejected the Epistle to the Hebrews, saying that it is disputed {{lang|grc|[αντιλέγεσθαι]}} by the [[Bishop of Rome|Church of Rome]], on the ground that it was not written by Paul.}}

[[Codex Sinaiticus]], a 4th-century text and possibly one of the [[Fifty Bibles of Constantine]], includes the Shepherd of Hermas and the Epistle of Barnabas.  The original [[Peshitta]] (NT portion is c. 5th century) excluded 2 and 3 John, 2 Peter, Jude, and Revelation.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Biblical Canon of Eusebius – The 4 Marks |url=https://4marksofthechurch.com/biblical-canon-of-eusebius/ |access-date=2025-05-30 |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=CHURCH FATHERS: Church History, Book III (Eusebius) |url=https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/250103.htm |access-date=2025-05-30 |website=www.newadvent.org}}</ref><ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=Luther's Antilegomena |url=https://www.bible-researcher.com/antilegomena.html |access-date=2025-05-30 |website=www.bible-researcher.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Philip Schaff: NPNF2-01. Eusebius Pamphilius: Church History, Life of Constantine, Oration in Praise of Constantine - Christian Classics Ethereal Library |url=https://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf201.iii.viii.xxv.html |access-date=2025-05-30 |website=www.ccel.org}}</ref> Some modern editions, such as the ''Lee Peshitta'' of 1823, include them.

==Reformation==
{{See also|Luther's canon}}
During the [[Protestant Reformation|Reformation]], [[Martin Luther|Luther]] brought up the issue of the antilegomena. Though he included the Letter to the Hebrews, the letters of James and Jude, and Revelation in his [[Luther's canon|Bible translation]], he put them into a separate grouping and questioned their legitimacy.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-11-18 |title=Effects of Luther's New Testament canon being adopted on Protestantism |url=https://www.alternatehistory.com/forum/threads/effects-of-luthers-new-testament-canon-being-adopted-on-protestantism.535492/ |access-date=2025-05-30 |website=alternatehistory.com |language=en-US}}</ref> Hence, these books are sometimes termed "Luther's Antilegomena"<ref>{{Citation | url = http://www.bible-researcher.com/antilegomena.html | title = Luther's Treatment of the 'Disputed Books' of the New Testament | author = Michael D. Marlowe |website=Bible Research}}.</ref> – a terminology that remains in use today.{{efn|{{Citation|publisher=LCMS |url=http://www.lcms.org/ca/www/cyclopedia/02/display.asp?t1=c&word=CANON.BIBLE |title=Lutheran Cyclopedia |contribution=Canon |quote=6. Throughout the Middle Ages there was no doubt as to the divine character of any book of the NT. Luther again pointed to the distinction between homologoumena and antilegomena* (followed by M. Chemnitz* and M. Flacius*). The later dogmaticians let this distinction recede into the background. Instead of antilegomena they use the term deuterocanonical. Rationalists use the word canon in the sense of list. Lutherans in America followed Luther and held that the distinction between homologoumena and antilegomena must not be suppressed. But caution must be exercised not to exaggerate the distinction. |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091020002841/http://www.lcms.org/ca/www/cyclopedia/02/display.asp?t1=C&word=CANON.BIBLE |archive-date=2009-10-20 }}}} Current [[Lutheran]] usage expands this questioning to also include 2 Peter, 2 John, and 3 John.<ref>{{Citation | contribution-url = http://cyclopedia.lcms.org/display.asp?t1=a&word=ANTILEGOMENA | title = Lutheran Cyclopedia | contribution = Antilegomena | publisher = LCMS}}.</ref> 

[[F. C. Baur]] used the term in his classification of the [[Pauline Epistles]], classing Romans, 1–2 Corinthians and Galatians as homologoumena; Ephesians, Philippians, Colossians, 1–2 Thessalonians and Philemon as antilegomena; and the [[Pastoral Epistles]] as ''"notha"'' (spurious writings).{{Sfn | McDonald | Sanders | 2002 |  p = 458}}

==Hebrew Bible==
{{See also|Ketuvim|Epistle of Jude}}
The term is sometimes applied also to certain books in the [[Hebrew Bible]].{{efn|{{Citation|url=http://www.knoxseminary.org/Prospective/Faculty/FacultyForum/JohnRevelationProject/ |publisher=Knox Theological Seminary |quote=Solomon's allegory was relegated to the antilegomena because even the allegorical anthropomorphism of God espousing to Himself a people, once again reflecting the comedic imagination, was regarded as too bold and too bodily. |title=John's Revelation project |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071209202439/http://www.knoxseminary.org/Prospective/Faculty/FacultyForum/JohnRevelationProject/ |archive-date=2007-12-09 }}}}{{efn|{{Citation | contribution-url = http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03267a.htm | title = Catholic Encyclopedia | contribution = Canon of the Old Testament | quote = All the books of the Hebrew Old Testament are cited in the New except those which have been aptly called the Antilegomena of the Old Testament, viz., Esther, Ecclesiastes, and Canticles}}.}}

For instance, the [[Catholic Encyclopedia]] and discussions from institutions like [[Knox Theological Seminary]] have noted that certain [[Hebrew Bible]] books were subject to debate, thus fitting the broader definition of [[Antilegomena]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-07-30 |title=Antilegomena: Their Role in Shaping the Biblical Canon |url=https://divinenarratives.org/antilegomena-their-role-in-shaping-the-biblical-canon/ |access-date=2025-05-30 |website=DivineNarratives |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=HOW WE GOT OUR BIBLE |url=https://www.biblebb.com/files/howbible.htm |access-date=2025-05-30 |website=www.biblebb.com}}</ref>

Books such as [[Ecclesiastes]], [[Esther]], [[Song of Songs]], [[Ezekiel]], and [[Book of Proverbs|Proverbs]] were among those whose inclusion in the canon was questioned at various times. Reasons for these debates ranged from theological concerns to perceived inconsistencies. For example, Ecclesiastes was seen by some as too skeptical, while Esther was noted for not mentioning God explicitly.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2004-09-27 |title=The Apocrypha and the Biblical Canon/Part 5 - JA Show Articles |url=https://jashow.org/articles/the-apocrypha-and-the-biblical-canonpart-5/ |archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20250115031247/https://jashow.org/articles/the-apocrypha-and-the-biblical-canonpart-5/ |archive-date=2025-01-15 |access-date=2025-05-30 |work=JA Show Articles |language=en-US}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Development of the Hebrew Bible canon]]
* [[Development of the Old Testament canon]]
* [[Development of the New Testament canon]]
* [[Luther's canon]]
* [[Religious text]]

==Notes==
{{Notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist |32em}}

==Bibliography==

* {{Citation | author= Eusebius of Cæsarea | date=1904 |orig-year = 325 | url = http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf201.iii.i.html |translator=Arthur Cushman McGiffert | title = Church History |series=[[Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers|The Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, Second Series]] |volume=1 |ref={{harvid|Eusebius|1904}} |editor1=Philip Schaff |editor2=Henry Wace}}.
* {{Citation | last = Kalin | first = Everett R | year = 2002 | title = The Canon Debate | editor1-last = McDonald | editor2-last = Sanders | chapter = 23: The New Testament Canon of Eusebius | pages = 386–404}}.
* {{Citation | editor1-last = McDonald | editor2-last = Sanders | title = The Canon Debate|publisher=Hendrickson|publication-place=Peabody, Mass.|year= 2002}}.

==External links==
* {{Citation | contribution-url = http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03274a.htm | title = Catholic Encyclopedia | contribution = Canon of the New Testament | quote = Even a few Catholic scholars of the Renaissance type, notably [[Erasmus]] and [[Thomas Cajetan|Cajetan]], had thrown some doubts on the canonicity of the above-mentioned Antilegomena.}}
* {{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Antilegomena|volume=2|page=126}}
* {{Citation|url=http://www.wlsessays.net/node/87 |type=presentation of Lutheran position |title=The Canon—What Is The Import of The Distinction Between The Canonical and Deuterocanonical (Antilegomena) Books? |first=Gary P |last=Baumler |publisher=WLS essays |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100707233134/http://www.wlsessays.net/node/87 |archive-date=2010-07-07 }}.
* {{Citation | contribution-url = https://www.angelfire.com/ny4/djw/lutherantheology.pieperwitness.html | title = Lutheran theology | contribution = The Witness of History for Scripture (Homologoumena and Antilegomena) | first = Franz August Otto | last =Pieper | author-link = Franz August Otto Pieper | publisher = Angel fire}}
* {{Citation | chapter-url = http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/hcc7.ii.iv.vii.html | last = Schaff | first = Philip | title = History of the Christian Church | chapter = The Revolution at Wittenberg. Carlstadt and the New Prophets | quote = [[Andreas Carlstadt]] weighed the historic evidence, discriminated between three orders of books as of first, second, and third dignity, putting the Hagiographa of the Old Testament and the seven Antilegomena of the New in the third order, and expressed doubts on the Mosaic authorship of the Pentateuch. He based his objections to the Antilegomena, not on dogmatic grounds, as Luther, but on the want of historical testimony; his opposition to the traditional Canon was itself traditional; he put ante-Nicene against post-Nicene tradition. This book on the Canon, however, was crude and premature, and passed out of sight. | publisher = The Christian Classics Ethereal Library}}

{{Books of the Bible}}
[[Category:Antilegomena| ]]
[[Category:4th-century introductions]]
[[Category:Ancient Christian controversies]]
[[Category:Christian terminology]]
[[Category:Development of the Christian biblical canon]]
[[Category:Eusebius]]
[[Category:Lutheran theology]]