View source for Anti-Turkish sentiment

{{Short description|Hostility, fear or intolerance against Turkish peoples}}
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[[File:Saint Jean de Capistran Cathédrale Vienne.jpg|alt=The dying, half-naked 'Turk' slips down along with his weapons. The body of the vanquished serves as a stepping stone for the transfigured Christian to ascend toward heaven. The baroque apotheosis (1738) above the Capistrano pulpit on the north side of St Stephen's Cathedral in Vienna shows John of Capistrano, canonized in 1690, as the vanquisher of the 'Turks'. Moreover, until after 1945 the inscription '1683 -schau Mahomet, du Hunt' (1683 -Look Muhammad, You Dog) hung resplendent above the main entrance of the cathedral. It was only removed by order of Cardinal Franz König.|thumb|349x349px|"The dying, half-naked 'Turk' slips down along with his weapons. The body of the vanquished serves as a stepping stone for the transfigured Christian to ascending toward heaven. The [[baroque]] apotheosis (1738) above the Capistrano pulpit on the north side of [[St. Stephen's Cathedral, Vienna|St Stephen's Cathedral]] in Vienna shows [[John of Capistrano]], canonized in 1690, as the vanquisher of the 'Turks'. Moreover, until after 1945 the inscription ''"1683 -schau Mahomet, du Hunt"'' (1683 -Look Muhammad, You Dog) hung resplendent above the main entrance of the cathedral. It was only removed by order of [[Franz König|Cardinal Franz König]]."<ref>{{Cite web|last=Andre|first=Gingrich|date=April 2015|title=The Nearby Frontier: Structural Analyses of Myths of Orientalism|url=https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Photo-Humiliation-and-triumph-forever-and-ever-The-dying-half-naked-Turk-slips-down_fig1_275239710|website=Researchgate}}</ref>]]

'''Anti-Turkish sentiment''', also known as '''Anti-Turkism''' ({{langx|tr|Türk karşıtlığı}}), or '''Turkophobia''' ({{Langx|tr|Türkofobi}}) is hostility, intolerance, or xenophobia against [[Turkish people]], [[Culture of Turkey|Turkish culture]], and the [[Turkish language]].<ref>{{Cite book |title=Modern Armenia: people, nation, state |last=Libaridian |first=Gerard J. |year=2004 |publisher=Transaction Publishers |isbn=978-0-7658-0205-7 |page=[https://archive.org/details/modernarmeniapeo00liba/page/193 193] |url=https://archive.org/details/modernarmeniapeo00liba |url-access=registration |quote=One consequence of the shift from anti-communism to anti-Turkism was that an important segment of the Diaspora lived through moments&nbsp;...}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=The origins of Arab nationalism |last=Khalidi |first=Rashid |year=1991 |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0-231-07435-3 |page=[https://archive.org/details/originsofarabnat00khal/page/18 18] |url=https://archive.org/details/originsofarabnat00khal |url-access=registration |quote=In the first place, Arabist ideology, including a bitter anti-Turkism, was fully formulated long before the Young Turk revolution}}</ref>

The term refers to not only against [[Turkish people|Turks]] across all regions, but also against the subjects of the [[Ottoman Empire]], as well as descendants of ethnic Turks such as [[Syrian Turkmen]] and [[Iraqi Turkmen]]. It is also applied to groups who developed in part under the influence of Turkish culture and traditions while converting to Islam, especially during the time of the Ottoman Empire, such as [[Albanians]], [[Bosniaks]] and other smaller ethnic groups around [[Balkans]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=|first=|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mD0wAAAAYAAJ&q=anti-turkish|title=The Muslim World League Journal|publisher=Press and Publications Department, Muslim World League|year=1995|isbn=|volume=23|location=the University of Virginia|page=36|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NK4TAQAAIAAJ|title=From Eastern Europe to Western China|isbn=978-0-8330-1374-3|last1=Fuller|first1=Graham E.|last2=Air Force|first2=United States|last3=Army|first3=United States|publisher=Rand Corporation|date=1993-04-01}}</ref>{{Page needed|date=December 2020}}
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== Early modern period ==
In the [[early modern period]], the [[fall of Constantinople]] and the [[Ottoman wars in Europe]]—part of [[Christianity in Europe|European Christians]]' effort to stem the expansion of the [[Ottoman Empire]], the predecessor to Turkey—helped fuel the development of anti-Turkism. By the middle of the 15th century, special [[Mass (liturgy)|masses]] called ''missa contra Turcos'' ([[Latin]] for "mass against Turks") were held in various places in Europe<ref name="books.google.com">{{Cite book|last1=Jensen|first1=Janus Møller|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6mWY_r7C2VsC&pg=PA117|title=Denmark and the Crusades|publisher=BRILL|year=2007|isbn=978-9004155794|location=|page=117}}</ref><ref name="sieps">{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=April 2006|title=Turkey, Sweden and the EU: Experiences and Expectations|url=http://www.sieps.se/publ/rapporter/bilagor/2006_turkiet.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090306021813/http://www.sieps.se/publ/rapporter/bilagor/2006_turkiet.pdf|archive-date=2009-03-06|access-date=2015-09-06|website=|publisher=Swedish Institute for European Policy Studies|pages=6–8}}</ref> to spread the message that victory over the Ottomans was only possible with the help of God and that a Christian community was therefore necessary to withstand the Turks.<ref name="books.google.com" /><ref>{{Cite book|last1=Kirkman|first1=Andrew|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=skIG-CEe24cC&pg=PA121|title=The Cultural Life of the Early Polyphonic Mass|date=2010-04-22|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-11412-7|location=|page=121|access-date=2015-09-06}}</ref>

=== 16th century ===
As the Ottomans expanded their empire west, [[Western Europe]] came into more frequent contact with the Turks, often militarily.

During the [[Ottoman–Venetian War (1570–1573)|Fourth Ottoman–Venetian War]], the Ottomans conquered [[Ottoman conquest of Cyprus|Cyprus]].

In the 16th century, around 2,500 publications about the Turks—including more than 1,000 in [[German language|German]]—were released in Europe, spreading the image of the "bloodthirsty Turk". From 1480 to 1610, twice as many books were published about the Turkish threat to Europe than about the discovery of the [[New World]]. Bishop [[Johann Faber]] of [[Vienna]] claimed, "There are no crueler and more audacious villains under the heavens than the Turks, who spare no age or sex and mercilessly cut down young and old alike and pluck unripe fruit from the wombs of mothers."<ref name="sieps" />
[[File:Die Osmanen in Europa.JPG|left|thumb|Original prints from the 16th century at the [[Hungarian National Museum]] depict a Turkish warrior butchering infants.]]
During this time, the Ottoman Empire also invaded the Balkans and [[Siege of Vienna (1529)|besieged Vienna]], sparking widespread fear in Europe, and especially in [[Holy Roman Empire|Germany]].<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zIR7U1a_6A0C&pg=PA185 |title=Harvesting Martin Luther's Reflections on Theology, Ethics, and the Church – Timothy J. Wengert |date= 2004-01-04|access-date=2015-09-06|isbn=978-0-8028-2486-8 |last1=Wengert |first1=Timothy J. |publisher=Eerdmans Publishing Company }}</ref> [[Martin Luther]], the German leader of the [[Reformation|Protestant Reformation]], took advantage of these fears by asserting that the Turks were "the agents of the Devil who, along with the Antichrist located in the heart of the Catholic Church, Rome, would usher in the Last Days and the Apocalypse".<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Foley |first1=Sean |title=Muslims and Social Change in the Atlantic Basin |journal=Journal of World History |date=2009 |volume=20 |issue=3 |pages=377–398 |id={{Project MUSE|316491}} |doi=10.1353/jwh.0.0064 |s2cid=145391152 }}</ref>

Luther believed that the Ottoman invasion was God's punishment of Christians for allowing corruption in the [[Holy See]] and the [[Catholic Church]].<ref>[http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0MDO/is_5_34/ai_n21053788/?tag=content;col1 Smith, R. O. (2007). Luther, the Turks, and Islam. Currents in Theology and Mission, 34(5), 351–365]: "Luther's statement of explanation created yet more contention. Indeed, it was singled out for condemnation in Exsurge Domine, the papal bull of ex-communication directed at Luther by Pope Leo X on 15 June 1520. Among the "destructive, pernicious, scandalous, and seductive" errors enumerated in the bull is an essentialized version of Luther's position: "To go to war against the Turks is to resist God who punishes our iniquities through them." (11) But even before Exsurge Domine, Luther tied his struggles with Rome to the war against the Turk. Prior to the beginning of the Leipzig Debate with Johannes Eck in June 1519, Luther wrote to his friend Wencenlaus Linck, "I think I can demonstrate that today Rome is worse than the Turk."</ref> In 1518, when he defended his [[Ninety-five Theses|95 Theses]], Luther claimed that God had sent the Turks to punish Christians just as he had sent war, [[Plague (disease)|plague]], and [[earthquake]]s. (In response, [[Pope Leo X]] issued [[Exsurge Domine|a papal bull]] in which he threatened Luther with [[excommunication]] and portrayed him as a troublemaker who advocated capitulation to the Turks.)<ref name="sieps" /> In his writings ''On War Against the Turk'' and ''Military Sermon Against the Turks'', Luther was "consistent in his theological conception of the Turks as a manifestation of God's chastising rod". He and his followers also espoused the view that the [[Ottoman–Habsburg wars|Ottoman–Habsburg Wars]] were a conflict "between Christ and Antichrist" or "between God and the devil".<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zIR7U1a_6A0C&pg=PA185 |title=Harvesting Martin Luther's Reflections on Theology, Ethics, and the Church – Timothy J. Wengert |page=185 |date= 2004-01-04|access-date=2015-09-06|isbn=978-0-8028-2486-8 |last1=Wengert |first1=Timothy J. |publisher=Eerdmans Publishing Company }}</ref>

Spurred by this argument, the [[Portuguese Empire]], seeking to capture more land in [[East Africa]] and other parts of the world, used any encounter with the "Terrible Turk" as "a prime opportunity to establish credentials as champions of the faith on par with other Europeans".<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Casale |first1=Giancarlo. |title=Global Politics in the 1580s: One Canal, Twenty Thousand Cannibals, and an Ottoman Plot to Rule the World |journal=Journal of World History |date=2007 |volume=18 |issue=3 |pages=267–296 |id={{Project MUSE|223606}} |doi=10.1353/jwh.2007.0020 |s2cid=144507249 }}</ref>

Stories of the "dog-Turk" reinforced the negative image. The dog-Turk was claimed to be a man-eating being, half-animal and half-human, with a  [[dog]]'s head and tail. After the [[Battle of Vienna]] in 1683, the image of the dog-Turk became a figure used to ridicule Turks in carnival processions and masquerades, where "dog-Turk" characters began to appear alongside witches and clowns.<ref name="sieps" />

=== 17th–18th centuries ===
In [[Sweden]], the Turks were portrayed as the archenemies of Christianity. A book by the parish priest [[Erland Dryselius]] of [[Jönköping]], published in 1694, was titled ''Luna Turcica eller Turkeske måne, anwissjandes lika som uti en spegel det mahometiske vanskelige regementet, fördelter uti fyra qvarter eller böcker'' ("Turkish moon showing as in a mirror the dangerous Mohammedan rule, divided into four quarters or books"). In sermons, the Swedish clergy preached about the Turks' cruelty and bloodthirstiness, and how they systematically burned and plundered the areas they conquered. In a Swedish schoolbook published in 1795, [[Islam]] was described as "the false religion that had been fabricated by the great deceiver Muhammad, to which the Turks to this day universally confess"''.''<ref name="sieps" />

In 1718, [[James Puckle]] demonstrated two versions of his new invention, the [[Puckle gun]]: a tripod-mounted, single-barreled [[flintlock]] weapon fitted with a revolving cylinder, designed to prevent intruders from boarding a ship. The first version, intended for use against Christian enemies, fired conventional round bullets. The second, intended for use against the Muslim Ottomans, fired square bullets, designed by Kyle Tunis, which were believed to be more damaging and would, according to Puckle's [[patent]], convince the Turks of the "benefits of Christian civilization".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A876855|title=h2g2 – The Machine Gun 1718–1914 – Edited Entry|date=2003-01-27|website=bbc.co.uk|access-date=2015-09-06}}</ref>

[[Voltaire]] and other European writers described the Turks as tyrants who destroyed Europe's heritage; with Voltaire characterizing Turks as "tyrants of the women and enemies of arts" and "barbarian usurpers who must be chased out of Europe."<ref name="sieps" /> In his book ''[[Orientalism (book)|Orientalism]]'', [[Edward Said]] noted, "Until the end of the seventeenth century the 'Ottoman peril' lurked alongside Europe to represent for the whole of Christian civilization a constant danger, and in time European civilization incorporated that peril and its lore, its great events, figures, virtues, and vices, as something woven into the fabric of life."<ref>Edward Said. "[[Orientalism (book)|Orientalism]]", (1978), p.&nbsp;59–60</ref>

=== Anti-Turkism by Ottomans ===
{{see also|Turkish nationalism}}
Within the ruling class, Ottomans, called themselves "''Osmanlı''", to note a person of higher intellect and education with proficiency in Persian and Arabic literature, while the word "Turk" was used to discriminate against the nomad Turkomans of [[the steppes]] and [[Khurasan]], and the illiterate [[Anatolia]]n peasantry, and ethnic slurs such as ''Eşek Türk'' (donkey Turk) and ''Kaba Türk'' (rude Turk) were used to describe them. Other expressions included were "Turk-head" and "Turk-person".<ref>{{Cite book|last=Moosa|first=Matti|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WYO1BqdvX9EC&q=donkey+turk|title=Extremist Shiites: The Ghulat Sects|date=February 1, 1988|publisher=Syracuse University Press|isbn=978-0-8156-2411-0|location=|page=430|via=Google Books}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Stavrianos|first=Leften Stavros|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xcp7OXQE0FMC&q=donkey+turk|title=The Balkans Since 1453|date=July 24, 2000|publisher=Hurst|isbn=978-1-85065-551-0|location=|page=93|via=Google Books}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Vucinich|first=Wayne S.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UIMqAQAAMAAJ&q=donkey+turk|title=The Ottoman Empire, its record and legacy|date=June 1, 1979|publisher=R. E. Krieger Pub. Co.|isbn=978-0-88275-785-8|location=|page=63|via=Google Books}}</ref> Within the Ottoman Empire, the term of "''Etrak-i bi-idrak''" was sometimes used to denote the [[Yörüks|Yörük]]''' '''[[wikt:backwoodsmen|backwoodsmen]], [[bumpkins]], and [[nomad]] Turkomans in [[Anatolia]]. "''Etrak-i bi-idrak''", an Ottoman play on words, meant "the ignorant Turk". Another similar phrase was "''Türk-i-bed-lika''" which meant "the ugly-faced Turk".<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Miller|first1=Aleksei I.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_8niIYSTqToC&q=Imperial+Rule,+Central+European+University+Press|title=Imperial Rule|last2=Rieber|first2=Alfred J.|date=2004-01-01|publisher=Central European University Press|isbn=978-963-9241-98-5|location=|page=33|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last1=Fijnaut|first1=Cyrille|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-XtKAAAAQBAJ&q=%22Etrak-i+bi-idrak%22&pg=PA206|title=Organised Crime in Europe: Concepts, Patterns and Control Policies in the European Union and Beyond|last2=Paoli|first2=Letizia|date=2007-01-21|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-1-4020-2765-9|location=|page=206|language=en}}</ref>

[[Ozay Mehmet|Özay Mehmet]], an academic of [[Turkish Cypriots|Turkish Cypriot]] descent, wrote in his book ''Islamic Identity and Development: Studies of the Islamic Periphery'':<ref>Ozay Mehmet, Islamic Identity and Development: Studies of the Islamic Periphery, Routledge, 1990. pg 115</ref>

{{cquote|The ordinary Turks [Turkmen, or Yörüks] did not have a sense of belonging to a ruling ethnic group. In particular, they had a confused sense of self-image. Who were they: Turks, Muslims or Ottomans? Their literature was sometimes Persian, sometimes Arabic, but always courtly and elitist. There was always a huge social and cultural distance between the Imperial centre and the Anatolian periphery. As Bernard Lewis expressed it: "In the Imperial society of the Ottomans the ethnic term Turk was little used, and then chiefly in a rather derogatory sense, to designate the Turcoman nomads or, later, the ignorant and uncouth Turkish-speaking peasants of the Anatolian villages." (Lewis 1968: 1)

In the words of a [[British people|British]] observer of the Ottoman values and institutions at the start of the twentieth century: "The surest way to insult an Ottoman gentleman is to call him a 'Turk'. His face will straightway wear the expression a Londoner's assumes, when he hears himself frankly styled a [[Cockney]]. He is no Turk, no savage, he will assure you, but an Ottoman subject of the Sultan, by no means to be confounded with certain barbarians styled Turcomans, and from whom indeed, on the male side, he may possibly be descended." (Davey 1907: 209)
}}

== Modern history ==
{{See also|Turkish minorities in the former Ottoman Empire|World War I}}

Before the 1960s, Turkey had a relatively low rate of emigration.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Schwartz, J. M.|date=1977|title=Review of the book ''Turkish workers in Europe, 1960–1975: A socio-economic reappraisal'', by Nermin Abadan-Unat|journal=Contemporary Sociology|volume=6 |issue=5|pages=559–560|jstor=2065344|doi=10.2307/2065344}}</ref> However, after the adoption of a [[Turkish Constitution of 1961|new constitution]] in 1961, Turkish citizens began to migrate elsewhere.<ref name="Unat, N. A. 1995 p. 279">Unat, N. A. (1995). Turkish migration to Europe. In R. Cohen (Ed.), ''The Cambridge survey of world migration'' (p. 279). Cambridge University Press.</ref> Gradually, Turks became a "prominent ethnic minority group" in some Western countries.<ref>Hübner, E., & Rohlfs, H. H. (1992). ''Jahrbuch der Bundesrepublik Deutschland: 1992/93''. München: Beck. {{OCLC|28132828}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Micallef | first1 = R | year = 2004 | title = Turkish Americans: Performing identities in a transnational setting | journal = Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs | volume = 24 | issue = 2| pages = 233–241 | doi = 10.1080/1360200042000296636 | s2cid = 144573280 }}</ref> But from the beginning, they were subject to discrimination. At times, when host countries adopted more immigrant-friendly policies, "only the Turkish workers were excluded" from them.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Hahamovitch | first1 = C. | year = 2003 | title = Creating perfect immigrants: Guest workers of the world in historical perspective 1 | journal = Labor History | volume = 44 | issue = 1| pages = 69–94 | doi=10.1080/0023656032000057010| s2cid = 143191894 }}</ref>

In various European languages, the word "Turk" has acquired a meaning similar to "[[barbarian]]" or "heathen",<ref name="sieps" /><ref name="aen">{{Cite web|url=http://www.aen.org.nz/journal/1/1/fernando.html|title=AENJ 1.1: Stigma, racism and power|work=aen.org.nz|access-date=2007-06-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120312225500/http://www.aen.org.nz/journal/1/1/fernando.html|archive-date=2012-03-12|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="telegraaf1">{{Cite web|url=http://krant.telegraaf.nl/krant/archief/20011115/teksten/bin.dale.turk.officier.vrijuit.html |title=De Telegraaf-i [] Binnenland – Van Dale vrijuit |publisher=Krant.telegraaf.nl |date=2001-11-15 |access-date=2015-09-06}}</ref> or is used as a slur or curse.<ref name="sieps" /><ref name="informatia">{{Cite web|url=http://htdig.informatia.ro/jurnalul/afisez.php?sid=145486&date=2009-03-03&afisez=local |access-date=May 18, 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110818025845/http://htdig.informatia.ro/jurnalul/afisez.php?sid=145486&date=2009-03-03&afisez=local|title=REACTII LA PROPUNEREA JURNALULUI NATIONAL/De la rom la referendum  |archive-date=August 18, 2011 }}</ref> As a result, the word also has some negative connotations in the [[United States]].<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W2QiAQAAMAAJ&q=turk|title=The Turk in America|isbn=978-1-60781-013-1|last1=McCarthy|first1=Justin|date=2010-08-15|publisher=University of Utah Press }}</ref>

=== Arab World ===
The [[Arab World]] has a long history of mixed relations with the Turks back from the [[Ottoman Empire]]. In the past, the Ottoman conquest had absorbed a large number of Arab countries into its map, ultimately opened a chapter of a complicated relationship between Turks and Arabs. While both are Muslim majority, subsequent conflict of interests and the growing [[Turkification]] and [[Turkish nationalism|nationalist movement]] had led to growing [[anti-Arabism]] among Turks, especially following the [[Arab Revolt]] during the [[World War I|First World War]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.meforum.org/7162/arabs-are-just-not-that-into-turkey|title=Turkey, the Arab World Is Just Not That into You|first=Burak|last=Bekdil|website=Middle East Forum|date=14 January 2018 }}</ref>

==== Iraq ====
{{See also|Iraqi Turkmen|1924 Kirkuk massacre|Gavurbağı massacre|1959 Kirkuk massacre|1991 Altun Kupri massacre|1996 Erbil massacre|Iraqi Turkmen genocide|Persecution of Iraqi Turkmen in Ba'athist Iraq}}

The fear of Turkish influence has always dominated Iraq and as such, relationship between Iraq and Turkey has always been tense.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Iraq|first=Joe Parkinson in Istanbul and Sam Dagher in Erbil|date=January 17, 2012|title=Iraq Lashes Out at Turkey as Sunni-Shiite Rift Grows|newspaper=Wall Street Journal|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052970203735304577165140234013650|via=www.wsj.com}}</ref>

The position of the Iraqi Turkmen has changed from being administrative and business classes of the [[Ottoman Empire]] to an increasingly discriminated against minority.<ref name="Stansfield 2007 loc=72">{{Harvnb|Stansfield|2007|loc=72}}.</ref> Since the demise of the Ottoman Empire, the Iraqi Turkmen have been victims of several massacres, such as the [[Kirkuk Massacre of 1959]]. Furthermore, under the [[Ba'ath Party]], the [[Persecution of Iraqi Turkmen in Ba'athist Iraq|persecution of Iraqi Turkmen increased]], with several leaders being executed in 1979<ref name="Stansfield 2007 loc=72" /> as well as the Iraqi Turkmen community being victims of [[Arabization]] policies by the state, and [[Kurdification]] by Kurds seeking to push them forcibly out of their homeland.<ref name="Anderson & Stansfield 2009 loc=62">{{Harvnb|Anderson|Stansfield|2009|loc=62}}.</ref> Thus, they have suffered from various degrees of suppression and assimilation that ranged from political persecution and exile to terror and [[ethnic cleansing]]. Despite being recognized in the 1925 constitution as a constitutive entity, the Iraqi Turkmen were later denied this status; hence, cultural rights were gradually taken away and activists were sent to exile.<ref name="Stansfield 2007 loc=72" />

In 1924, the Iraqi Turkmen were seen as a disloyal remnant of the [[Ottoman Empire]], with a natural tie to [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]]'s new Turkish nationalist ideology emerging in the [[Republic of Turkey]].<ref name="Anderson & Stansfield 2009 loc=63">{{Harvnb|Anderson|Stansfield|2009|loc=63}}.</ref> The Iraqi Turkmen living in the region of [[Kirkuk]] were perceived as posing a threat to the stability of Iraq, particularly as they did not support the ascendancy of [[King Faisal I]] to the Iraqi throne.<ref name="Anderson & Stansfield 2009 loc=63" /> On May 4, these tensions boiled over into violence when soldiers from the [[Iraq Levies]]- a levied force raised by the [[Government of the United Kingdom|British government]] after the [[World War I|First World War]] and consisting primarily of [[Assyrian people|Assyrians]]- clashed with Turkmen in a Kirkuk market square after a dispute between an Assyrian soldier and a Turkmen shopkeeper. In the ensuing fracas, [[1924 Kirkuk massacre|200 Turkmen were killed]] by Assyrian soldiers.<ref name="Anderson & Stansfield 2009 loc=63" />

Around 20 [[Gavurbağı massacre|Iraqi Turkmen civilians were killed]] by the Iraqi police including women and children on 12 July 1946 in Gavurbağı, [[Kirkuk]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=BARDAKÇI|first=Murat|title=Kerkük katliamlarını 'Irak'a ayıp olur' diye eskiden sansür ederdik|url=https://www.hurriyet.com.tr/kerkuk-katliamlarini-irak-a-ayip-olur-diye-eskiden-sansur-ederdik-292618|access-date=2020-11-29|website=www.hurriyet.com.tr|date=30 January 2005 |language=tr}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Gâvurbağı Katliamı (12 Temmuz 1946) – Türkmen Basın Ajansı|url=https://www.tbajansi.com/gavurbagi-katliami-12-temmuz-1946/|access-date=2020-11-29|website=www.tbajansi.com|archive-date=2022-01-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120125806/https://www.tbajansi.com/gavurbagi-katliami-12-temmuz-1946/|url-status=dead}}</ref>

[[Kirkuk Massacre of 1959|The Kirkuk massacre of 1959]] came about due to the Iraqi government allowing the [[Iraqi Communist Party]], which in Kirkuk was largely Kurdish, to target the Iraqi Turkmen.<ref name="Stansfield 2007 loc=72" /><ref name="Anderson & Stansfield 2009 loc=64">{{Harvnb|Anderson|Stansfield|2009|loc=64}}.</ref> With the appointment of Maarouf Barzinji, a Kurd, as the mayor of Kirkuk in July 1959, tensions rose following the 14 July revolution celebrations, with animosity in the city polarizing rapidly between the Kurds and Iraqi Turkmen. On 14 July 1959, fights broke out between the Iraqi Turkmen and Kurds, leaving some 20 Iraqi Turkmen dead.<ref name="Anderson & Stansfield 2009 loc=34">{{Harvnb|Anderson|Stansfield|2009|loc=34}}.</ref> Furthermore, on 15 July 1959, Kurdish soldiers of the Fourth Brigade of the Iraqi army mortared Iraqi Turkmen residential areas, destroying 120 houses.<ref name="Anderson & Stansfield 2009 loc=34" /><ref>{{Citation|last=Ghanim|first=David|title=Iraq's Dysfunctional Democracy|page=380|year=2011|publisher=ABC-CLIO}}</ref> Order was restored on 17 July by military units from [[Baghdad]]. The Iraqi government referred to the incident as a "massacre"<ref>{{Citation|last=Entessar|first=Nader|title=Kurdish Politics in the Middle East|page=79|year=2010|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield}}</ref> and stated that between 31 and 79 Iraqi Turkmen were killed and some 130 injured.<ref name="Anderson & Stansfield 2009 loc=34" />

[[File:Iraqi Turkmen protest in Amsterdam.jpg|right|thumb|250x250px|Turks protesting in [[Amsterdam]], the banner reads: 'Kirkuk is an Iraqi city with Turkmen characteristics'.]]

In 1980, [[Saddam Hussein]]'s government adopted a policy of [[Cultural assimilation|assimilation]] of its minorities. Due to government relocation programs, thousands of Iraqi Turkmen were relocated from their traditional homelands in northern Iraq and replaced by Arabs, in an effort to Arabize the region.<ref name="Jenkins 2008 loc=15">{{Harvnb|Jenkins|2008|loc=15}}.</ref> Furthermore, Iraqi Turkmen villages and towns were destroyed to make way for Arab migrants, who were promised free land and financial incentives. For example, the Ba'ath regime recognized that the city of [[Kirkuk]] was historically an Iraqi Arab city and remained firmly in its cultural orientation.<ref name="Anderson & Stansfield 2009 loc=64" /> Thus, the first wave of Arabization saw Arab families move from the center and south of Iraq into Kirkuk to work in the expanding oil industry. Although the Iraqi Turkmen were not actively forced out, new Arab quarters were established in the city and the overall demographic balance of the city changed as the Arab migrations continued.<ref name="Anderson & Stansfield 2009 loc=64" />

Several presidential decrees and directives from state security and intelligence organizations indicate that the Iraqi Turkmen were a particular focus of attention during the [[Ba'athist Arabization campaigns in northern Iraq]]. For example, the Iraqi Military Intelligence issued directive 1559 on 6 May 1980 ordering the deportation of Iraqi Turkmen officials from Kirkuk, issuing the following instructions: "identify the places where Turkmen officials are working in governmental offices [in order] to deport them to other governorates in order to disperse them and prevent them from concentrating in this governorate [Kirkuk]".<ref name="Anderson & Stansfield 2009 loc=65">{{Harvnb|Anderson|Stansfield|2009|loc=65}}.</ref> In addition, on 30 October 1981, the Revolution's Command Council issued decree 1391, which authorized the deportation of Iraqi Turkmen from Kirkuk with paragraph 13 noting that "this directive is specially aimed at Turkmen and Kurdish officials and workers who are living in Kirkuk".<ref name="Anderson & Stansfield 2009 loc=65" />

As primary victims of these Arabization policies, the Iraqi Turkmen suffered from land expropriation and job discrimination, and therefore would register themselves as "Arabs" in order to avoid discrimination.<ref name="International Crisis Group 2006 loc=5">{{Harvnb|International Crisis Group|2006|loc=5}}</ref> Thus, [[ethnic cleansing]] was an element of the Ba'thist policy aimed at reducing the influence of the Iraqi Turkmen in northern Iraq's Kirkuk.<ref name="Anderson & Stansfield 2009 loc=66">{{Harvnb|Anderson|Stansfield|2009|loc=66}}.</ref> Those Iraqi Turkmen who remained in cities such as Kirkuk were subject to continued assimilation policies;<ref name="Anderson & Stansfield 2009 loc=66" /> school names, neighborhoods, villages, streets, markets and even mosques with names of Turkic origin were changed to names that emanated from the Ba'th Party or from Arab heroes.<ref name="Anderson & Stansfield 2009 loc=66" /> Moreover, many Iraqi Turkmen villages and neighborhoods in Kirkuk were simply demolished, particularly in the 1990s.<ref name="Anderson & Stansfield 2009 loc=66" />

Over [[1991 Altun Kupri massacre|135 Turkmens were massacred]] in 1991 during the [[Gulf War]] by the [[Iraqi Army]].<ref>[http://www.turkmen.nl/1A_Others/ms3.11.pdf Altunköprü the ancient name of Türkmen Township]</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=27 March 2019|title=Al-Haddad offers condolences to Turkmen people on anniversary of Kirkuk, Altun Kupri, Tuzhurmatu and Taza massacres|url=https://en.parliament.iq/2019/03/27/al-haddad-offers-condolences-to-turkmen-people-on-anniversary-of-kirkuk-altun-kupri-tuzhurmatu-and-taza-massacres|access-date=|website=}}</ref>
[[File:Iraqi Turkmen woman holding a placard.jpg|left|thumb|266x266px|Iraqi Turkmen woman holding a placard written in [[Turkish language|Turkish]]: Kerkük'ü hiçbir güç Kürtleştiremez ("No power can Kurdify Kirkuk").]]
The Kurds claimed ''[[de facto]]'' [[sovereignty]] over land that Iraqi Turkmen regards as theirs. For the Iraqi Turkmen, their identity is deeply inculcated as the rightful inheritors of the region as a legacy of the Ottoman Empire.<ref name="Anderson & Stansfield 2009 loc=67">{{Harvnb|Anderson|Stansfield|2009|loc=67}}.</ref> Thus, it is claimed that the [[Kurdistan Region]] and Iraqi government has constituted a threat to the survival of the Iraqi Turkmen through strategies aimed at eradicating or assimilating them.<ref name="Anderson & Stansfield 2009 loc=67" /> The largest concentration of Iraqi Turkmen tended to be in [[Tal Afar]]. The formation of the Kurdistan Region in 1991 created high animosity between the Kurds and Iraqi Turkmen, resulting in some Iraqi Turkmen being victims of [[Kurdification]], according to the Liam Anderson. The largest concentration of Iraqi Turkmen tended to be in the de facto capital of [[Erbil]], a city in which they had assumed prominent administrative and economic positions. Thus, they increasingly came into dispute and often conflict with the ruling powers of the city, which after 1996 was the [[Kurdistan Democratic Party]] of [[Massoud Barzani]].<ref name="Anderson & Stansfield 2009 loc=68">{{Harvnb|Anderson|Stansfield|2009|loc=68}}.</ref>

According to Anderson and Stansfield, in the 1990s, tension between the Kurds and Iraqi Turkmen inflamed as the KDP and the [[Patriotic Union of Kurdistan]] (PUK) were institutionalized as the political hegemons of the region and, from the perspective of the Iraqi Turkmen, sought to marginalize them from the positions of authority and to subsume their culture with an all-pervading Kurdistani identity. With the support of [[Ankara]], a new political front of Turkmen parties, the [[Iraqi Turkmen Front]] (ITF), was formed on 24 April 1995.<ref name="Anderson & Stansfield 2009 loc=68" /> The relationship between the Iraqi Turkmen Front and the KDP was tense and deteriorated as the decade went on. Iraqi Turkmen associated with the Iraqi Turkmen Front complained about harassment by Kurdish security forces.<ref name="Anderson & Stansfield 2009 loc=68" /> In March 2000, the [[Human Rights Watch]] reported that the KDP's security attacked the offices of the ITF in Erbil, killing two guards, following a lengthy period of disputes between the two parties.<ref name="Anderson & Stansfield 2009 loc=68" /> In 2002, the KDP created an Iraqi Turkmen political organization, the Turkmen National Association, that supported the further institutionalization of the Kurdistan Region. This was viewed by pro-ITF Iraqi Turkmen as a deliberate attempt to "buy off" Iraqi Turkmen opposition and break their bonds with [[Ankara]].<ref name="Anderson & Stansfield 2009 loc=69">{{Harvnb|Anderson|Stansfield|2009|loc=69}}.</ref> Promoted by the KDP as the "true voice" of the Iraqi Turkmen, the Turkmen National Association has a pro-Kurdistani stance and has effectively weakened the ITF as the sole representative voice of the Iraqi Turkmen.<ref name="Anderson & Stansfield 2009 loc=69" /> Beginning in 2003, there were riots between Kurds and Turkmen in Kirkuk, a city that Turkmen view as historically theirs.<ref name="ReferenceA">The Legacy of Iraq by Benjamin Isakhan Edinburgh University Press.</ref> According to United Nations reports, the KRG and [[Peshmerga]] were "illegally policing Kirkurk, abducting Turkmen and Arabs and subjecting them to torture". In Tal Afar, between 2003 and 2006, 1,350 Turkmens died and thousands of houses were damaged or demolished, resulting in 4,685 displaced families, largely stemming from sectarian tensions. Later, the [[Islamic State]] committed the [[Iraqi Turkmen genocide]].<ref name="ReferenceA" />

==== Libya ====
{{See also|Libyan civil war (2014–2020)}}

As for the result of the current Libyan conflict since 2014, Libya was divided into two, where the [[Government of National Accord]] in Tripoli enjoys military support from Turkey. This has fueled tensions between Ankara and [[House of Representatives (Libya)|the Tobruk-based government]], and anti-Turkish policies have been pursued by them, {{Example needed|date=February 2021}} In 2019, the Tobruk-based army had arrested Turkish nationals, accusing them of sponsoring terrorism.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Haftar's forces down Turkish drone, arrest Turkish nationals|url=https://iranpress.com/content/12073|access-date=Oct 28, 2020|website=iranpress.com}}</ref> In 2020, over 15 Turkish nationals have been taken into custody for the same reason.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://nordicmonitor.com/2020/04/15-turks-being-held-by-haftar-forces-in-libya-since-the-beginning-of-february/|title=15 Turks held by Haftar forces in Libya since February – Nordic Monitor|website=nordicmonitor.com|date=8 April 2020 }}</ref> Haftar had also ordered shooting down any Turkish ships and interests, banning flights to Turkey.<ref>{{Cite web|date=Jun 29, 2019|title=Libya's Haftar orders forces to attack Turkish ships, bans flights to Turkey|url=https://english.alarabiya.net/en/News/north-africa/2019/06/29/Libya-s-Haftar-orders-forces-to-attack-Turkish-ships-interests|access-date=Oct 28, 2020|website=Al Arabiya English}}</ref>

==== Saudi Arabia ====
{{See also|Wahhabi War}}

Saudi Arabia has a very tense relationship with Turkey, owing it to [[Ottoman-Saudi War]] when the Saudis were defeated by the Ottomans, which contributed to the Turkish rule for another century before the collapse of the Ottoman Empire, and its alliance with the [[Rashidi dynasty|Al-Rashid]] family against the [[House of Saud|Al-Saud]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Çiçek|first=M. Talha|date=May 24, 2017|title=The tribal partners of empire in Arabia: the Ottomans and the Rashidis of Najd, 1880–1918|journal=New Perspectives on Turkey|volume=56|pages=105–130|doi=10.1017/npt.2017.7|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Koru|first=Selim|date=July 24, 2015|title=Turkey's 200-Year War against 'ISIS'|url=https://nationalinterest.org/feature/turkeys-200-year-war-against-isis-13412|website=The National Interest}}</ref> The tensions rekindled in the 21st century with Erdoğan's desire to "revive the Ottoman Empire", which draws Saudi Arabia to be more antagonistic to Turkey.<ref>{{Cite web|date=May 29, 2020|title=The Nonsense of "Neo-Ottomanism"|url=http://warontherocks.com/2020/05/the-nonsense-of-neo-ottomanism/|website=War on the Rocks}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Turkey's Dangerous New Exports: Pan-Islamist, Neo-Ottoman Visions and Regional Instability|url=https://www.mei.edu/publications/turkeys-dangerous-new-exports-pan-islamist-neo-ottoman-visions-and-regional|website=Middle East Institute}}</ref> Saudi Arabia has since then made numerous policies, such as labeling the Ottoman Empire as the occupants of Arabia, financing movies that are deemed anti-Turkish,<ref>{{Cite web|last=Wafy|first=Muhammed Nafih|title=Why Saudi Arabia's revisionist erasure of its Ottoman history will backfire|url=https://english.alaraby.co.uk/english/comment/2020/6/24/saudi-arabias-erasure-of-its-ottoman-history-will-backfire|website=alaraby|date=24 June 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title='Kingdoms of Fire' sheds light on dark Ottoman rule|url=https://gulfnews.com/world/mena/kingdoms-of-fire-sheds-light-on-dark-ottoman-rule-1.68368684|website=gulfnews.com|date=9 December 2019 }}</ref> and recently, banning Turkish websites and leading boycotts against Turkey.<ref>{{Cite web|date=December 17, 2018|title=Saudis call for boycott of Turkish products in protest against 'Ankara's plots'|url=https://english.alarabiya.net/en/News/gulf/2018/12/17/Saudis-call-for-boycott-of-Turkish-products-in-protest-against-Ankara-s-plots-.html|website=Al Arabiya English}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Saudi Arabia blocks websites of two Turkish media|url=https://atalayar.com/en/content/saudi-arabia-blocks-websites-two-turkish-media|website=Atalayar|date=14 April 2020 }}</ref>

==== Syria ====
From the [[French mandate]] era to the Assad regime, the Turkish culture and language have perished for a section of the [[Syrian Turkmen]] community.<ref name="EnabBaladi2019">{{Citation|title=Turkmen: A Minority Influential in Syrian Culture|url=https://english.enabbaladi.net/archives/2019/05/turkmen-a-minority-influential-in-syrian-culture/|year=2019|publisher=[[Enab Baladi]]}}</ref> Many Syrian Turkmen have become Arabized and assimilated in areas where they form a minority. Consequently, Arabization is mainly an exception in areas where the Syrian Turkmen live in areas where they form a significant population, where they have continued to maintain their Turkish identity and language despite discriminative state policies.<ref name="EnabBaladi2019" />

Since the Turkish annexation of [[Sanjak of Alexandretta]], there is a strong anti-Turkish sentiment among the Syrian population.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Syria's "Lost Province": The Hatay Question Returns|url=https://carnegie-mec.org/diwan/54340|website=Carnegie Middle East Center}}</ref> For the Syrians, the annexation of Alexandretta became a national wound and a symbol of increasing Turkish meddling of Syrian affairs. This had led to the beginning of anti-Turkish discrimination, intensified under the government of Hafez al-Assad and the Arabization process. Syrian Turkmen, suffered discrimination over employment and education and were forbidden from writing and publishing in their native Turkish dialect.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Syrian Turkmen: Fighting to Survive|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/programmes/aljazeeraworld/2017/08/syrian-turkmen-fighting-survive-170806082405511.html|website=www.aljazeera.com}}</ref>

Syrian Turkmen occupied a low rung on the societal ladder, as reported by ''[[Al Bawaba]]'', it was stated that Assad always sought to benefit his politically dominant Shiite religious minority. The report quoted [[Bayırbucak]] Turkmen as highlighting, "They would take Alawites first no matter what, even if they had degrees, Turkmen couldn't find jobs".<ref>{{Cite news|date=25 February 2016|title=Syria's Turkmen exception|publisher=[[Al Bawaba]] (English)|url=http://www.albawaba.com/news/syria%E2%80%99s-turkmen-exception-810054|url-status=live|access-date=14 November 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161115190426/http://www.albawaba.com/news/syria%E2%80%99s-turkmen-exception-810054|archive-date=15 November 2016}}</ref>

With the beginning of the [[Syrian Civil War]], Syrian Turkmen had sided with the [[Syrian opposition]],<ref>{{Cite web|last=al-Khateb|first=Khaled|date=August 6, 2019|title=Syrian Turkmen groups return from Turkey to support opposition|url=https://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2019/07/syria-turkmen-assembly-move-turkey-aleppo.html|website=Al-Monitor}}</ref>  which fed the growth of anti-Turkism in Syria. The [[Syrian Armed Forces]], with Russian support, often bombed Syrian Turkmen positions as well as increased xenophobic attacks against Turkmen, accusing them of being Ankara's stooge.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Welle (www.dw.com)|first=Deutsche|title=Turkmens: an ethnic group at the center of the Syrian conflict {{pipe}} DW {{pipe}} 25.11.2015|url=https://www.dw.com/en/turkmens-an-ethnic-group-at-the-center-of-the-syrian-conflict/a-18876277|website=DW.COM}}</ref>

==== United Arab Emirates ====
In December 2017, the UAE's foreign minister, [[Abdullah bin Zayed Al Nahyan]], shared a tweet that claimed an Ottoman general had robbed [[Medina]] during Ottoman rule. Emirati diplomat [[Anwar Gargash]] then added, "The sectarian and partisan view is not an acceptable alternative, and the Arab world will not be led by Tehran or Ankara."<ref>{{Cite news|date=December 27, 2017|title=In first remarks since retweet feud, UAE diplomat says Arabs won't be led by Turkey|newspaper=Reuters|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-turkey-emirates-idUSKBN1EL139|via=www.reuters.com}}</ref>

=== Kurds ===
{{Further|Kurdish–Turkish conflict (1978–present)|label 1=Kurdish-Turkish conflict}}
{{See also|Human rights of Kurdish people in Turkey}}
A 2013 study showed that 13.2% of the [[Kurds in Turkey]] had a negative view of Turks. Other numbers include 22.3% who would not accept a Turkish son/daughter-in-law and 5% who would not want to live next to a Turk. The study also showed that left-oriented Kurds were less likely to show tolerance towards Turks, while religious affiliation did not play any significance.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Sarigil|first1=Zeki|last2=Karakoc|first2=Ekrem|date=2017|title=Inter-ethnic (In)tolerance between Turks and Kurds: Implications for Turkish Democratisation|journal=[[South European Society & Politics]]|publisher=[[Routledge]]|volume=22|issue=2|at=pages 207 & 209|doi=10.1080/13608746.2016.1164846|hdl=11693/37189|s2cid=155156303|hdl-access=free}}</ref>

== Europe ==
According to [[Fatma Müge Göçek]] the main reasons for anti-Turkish sentiment in Western Europe are [[Armenian genocide denial]] and the role of Turkish migrant workers in the economy.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Göçek|first=Fatma Müge|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/870211367|title=Denial of violence : Ottoman past, Turkish present, and collective violence against the Armenians, 1789–2009|year=2015|isbn=978-0-19-933420-9|page=32|publisher=Oxford University Press |oclc=870211367|author-link=Fatma Müge Göçek}}</ref>

=== Albania ===
In the [[People's Socialist Republic of Albania]], [[Islamic culture]] and life was destroyed through state policies and a group of Albanian historians, often with [[Nationalism|nationalist]] perspectives promoted in their literature "the Turkish savagery" and Albanian Christian resistance toward the Ottoman Empire. Scholars who opposed anti-Turkish and anti-Muslim narratives were subjected to ostracism and penalties.<ref name="Kopanski192">{{Cite journal|last=Kopanski|first=Atuallah Bogdan|title=Islamization of Albanians in the Middle Ages: The primary sources and the predicament of the modern historiography|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w1DrAAAAMAAJ&q=%22Albanian+nationalist+historians+like+Ramadan+Marmallaku,+Kristo+Frasheri+Skender+Anamali,+Stefanaq+Polio,+Skender+Rizaj+and+Arben+Puto+%22|journal=Islamic Studies|volume=36|issue=2/3|year=1997|page=192}}</ref>

In the 2010s, opposition to Turkey building mosques in Albania or exerting its political influence exists among part of the population. They view Turkey as an interfering or autocratic power and Islam as a negative imposed Ottoman legacy.<ref name="ColbEdwa">{{Cite news|last1=Colborne|first1=Michael|last2=Edwards|first2=Maxim|title=In Albania, new Turkish mosque stirs old resentments|url=https://www.csmonitor.com/World/Europe/2018/0912/In-Albania-new-Turkish-mosque-stirs-old-resentments|agency=The Christian Science Monitor|date=12 September 2018|access-date=10 January 2021|df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref name="Albsus">{{Cite web|title=Albania Suspended Between Gulen and Erdogan – Inside Over|date=18 September 2019 |url=https://www.insideover.com/reportage/politics/the-roots-of-the-albanian-crisis/disputed-albania-erdogans-pain-in-the-neck.html|access-date=Oct 28, 2020}}</ref>

=== Bulgaria ===
{{See also|Harmanli massacre|Razgrad incident|Exodus of Turks from Bulgaria (1950–1951)|Revival Process|1989 expulsion of Turks from Bulgaria|Banya Bashi Mosque clashes}}
[[File:Turkish Refugees from the district of Tirnova coming into Shumla.png|thumb|225x225px|Turkish refugees from the [[Veliko Tarnovo]] district coming into [[Shumen]] (1877).]]
[[File:Konstantin Makovsky - The Bulgarian martyresses.jpg|200px|thumb|''The Bulgarian Martyresses'', by [[Konstantin Makovsky]] (1877). A painting from the [[April Uprising]], it sparked outrage in the West against [[April Uprising#Outbreak and suppression|Turkish atrocities in Bulgaria]].]]

Before 1878, Turks accounted for an estimated one-third of the population of Bulgaria.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Crampton|first1=R. J.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ylz4fe7757cC&q=%22a+third%22&pg=PA111|title=A Concise History of Bulgaria – R. J. Crampton|date=2005-11-24|isbn=978-0-521-61637-9|page=111|publisher=Cambridge University Press |access-date=2015-09-06}}</ref> In 1876, approximately 70% of the country's [[arable land]] belonged to Turks. This number declined from 1923 to 1949, when an estimated 220,000 Turks moved from Bulgaria to Turkey, a migration encouraged by the Turkish government. [[Exodus of Turks from Bulgaria (1950-1951)|Another wave of about 155,000 left Bulgaria]] from 1949 to 1951, many of them forcibly expelled.<ref name="Minahan 2002 loc=1613">{{Harvnb|Minahan|2002|loc=1613}}.</ref><ref>R. J. Crampton, 2007, Bulgaria, pp.&nbsp;431–433</ref>

In 1984, the government implemented [[Bulgarisation]] policies to culturally assimilate Bulgarian Turks. Approximately 800,000 Turks were forced to adopt Bulgarian names. Furthermore, Bulgarian Turks were not allowed to use their Muslim names, speak [[Turkish language|Turkish]] in public places, or attend Muslim ceremonies.<ref>{{Harvnb|Katsikas|2010|loc=65}}.</ref> This assimilation campaign was labelled as an attempt for [[national revival]] and was called "The Revival Process".<ref name="pdc.ceu.hu">Dr. Dainov, Evgenii: "Transition, Violence and the Role of NGOs: the Case of Bulgaria" [http://pdc.ceu.hu/archive/00002060/01/transition,_violence.pdf]</ref>

On 24 December 1984, in the village of [[Mlechino]], Bulgarian police and security forces shot at Turkish protesters when some 200 Turkish villagers from nearby smaller towns gathered to protest for the return of their passports and reinstatement of their Turkish names.

In many Turkish populated areas in Bulgaria, People from smaller towns and villages attempted to gather in larger towns with a government official with greater jurisdiction, to protest against the assimilation policies. These towns were often barricaded by Bulgarian security forces.<ref name="segabg.com">{{Cite web|date=4 August 2011|title=СЕГА – Технология на злото|url=http://www.segabg.com/online/article.asp?sid=2001020700010050003|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090415163925/http://www.segabg.com/online/article.asp?sid=2001020700010050003|archive-date=15 April 2009|access-date=27 September 2015|publisher=Segabg.com}}</ref>

On 25 December 1984, close to the town of [[Benkovski, Kardzhali Province|Benkovski]], some 3,000 Turkish protesters from the nearby smaller villages confronted Bulgarian security forces and demanded to have their original identification papers back. The Bulgarian security forces managed to disperse the crowd and urged them to go back to their villages and inquire from the local mayors. After returning to their towns and discovering that the local municipality didn't have their passports and ID documentation the crowd marched back towards the town of Benkovski on the next day (26 December 1984). About 500 armed personnel from Bulgarian security forces were in position. The police presence in the area was previously increased under the guise of "exercise manoeuvres". When the crowd of 2,000 Turkish villagers approached the Bulgarian security forces opened fire with automatic weapons, wounding 8 people and killing 4. One of the killed was a 17-month-old Turkish baby.<ref>{{Cite web|date=26 December 2001|title=България {{pipe}} ДПС и НДСВ почетоха жертвите на преименуването|url=http://www.dnevnik.bg/bulgaria/2001/12/26/123224_dps_i_ndsv_pochetoha_jertvite_na_preimenuvaneto|access-date=27 September 2015|publisher=Dnevnik.bg}}</ref> The victims were from the villages of [[Kayaloba]], [[Kitna]] and Mogiljane. The [[gunshot wounds]] suggest that the security force had been aiming at the midsection of the bodies. The captured demonstrators were faced down on the snow for 2 hours and blasted with cold water coming from the fire fighting trucks. In a report by Atanas Kadirev the head of the Ministry of Interior Forces in [[Kardzhali]] stated ''"It was interesting how they endured the entire water from the fire fighters' cisterns''". The temperature that day was minus 15 degrees Celsius.<ref name="segabg.com" /><ref name="e-vestnik.bg">{{Cite web|date=2008-05-14|title=Кръвта от 1984 г. или защо в Момчилград има шведски граждани|url=https://e-vestnik.bg/3848/%25d0%25ba%25d1%2580%25d1%258a%25d0%25b2%25d1%2582%25d0%25b0-%25d0%25be%25d1%2582-1984-%25d0%25b3-%25d0%25b8%25d0%25bb%25d0%25b8-%25d0%25b7%25d0%25b0%25d1%2589%25d0%25be-%25d0%25b2-%25d0%25bc%25d0%25be%25d0%25bc%25d1%2587%25d0%25b8%25d0%25bb%25d0%25b3%25d1%2580%25d0%25b0%25d0%25b4-%25d0%25b8%25d0%25bc%25d0%25b0-%25d1%2588/|access-date=2022-11-20|website=e-vestnik.bg|language=bg-BG}}</ref>

On the same day, 26 December 1984, in the village of [[Gruevo]], situated in [[Momchilgrad]] county, the Turkish community temporarily resisted the entry of security forces vehicles into the village by burning truck tires on the main road, but the security forces returned at night with reinforcements. The electricity to the village was cut. The villagers organized at the village entrance but were blasted with water from [[fire trucks]]. The security forces opened fire at the villagers and several civilians were wounded and killed. The wounded were refused medical treatment. There are reports of incarcerated Turks allegedly committing suicide while held for police questioning.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Bulgaristan Türkü'nün 26 Aralık damgalı acı öyküsü|url=https://bnr.bg/tr/post/100180614/bulgaristan-trknn-26-aralik-damgali-aci-yks|access-date=2021-01-31|website=bnr.bg|language=tr}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Bulgaristan Türklerinin 32 yıl önce yaşadığı acının yıl dönümü|url=https://www.trthaber.com/haber/dunya/bulgaristan-turklerinin-32-yil-once-yasadigi-acinin-yil-donumu-290312.html|access-date=2021-01-31|website=www.trthaber.com|date=26 December 2016 |language=tr}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Welle (www.dw.com)|first=Deutsche|title=Bulgaristan Türkleri'nin acı yıldönümü {{!}} DW {{!}} 24.12.2014|url=https://www.dw.com/tr/bulgaristan-t%C3%BCrklerinin-ac%C4%B1-y%C4%B1ld%C3%B6n%C3%BCm%C3%BC/a-18149760|access-date=2021-01-31|website=DW.COM|language=tr-TR}}</ref> In demonstrations in Momchilgrad at least one 16-year-old was shot and killed and there are reports of casualties also in [[Dzhebel]].

The [[Ministry of Interior (Bulgaria)|Bulgarian Ministry of Interior]] stated "during these few Christmas days there have been some 11 demonstrations in which approximately 11,000 Turks participated." A large number of the arrested protesters were later sent to the [[Belene labour camp]] at the gates of which it is written "''All Bulgarian citizens are equal under the laws of the People's Republic of Bulgaria"''<ref name="segabg.com" />

One of the most notable confrontations between the ethnic Turk population and the Bulgarian State Security apparatus and army was in the village of Yablanovo during January 1985 where the Turkish population resisted the tanks of the 3rd Bulgarian Army for 3 days. When the village was overrun the town hall was made into a temporary Command Centre where imprisoned Turks were tortured. The torture and violation was later continued in the underground cellars of the Ministry of Interior in the city of [[Sliven]].<ref>ХАЛИФ, Омар, ЦАНКОВА, Диана: "Апокрифната Ябланска епопея: Българи и турци заедно се възправиха срещу диктатурата на Тодор Живков II" www.sedembg.com {{Cite web|title=Апокрифната Ябланска епопея|url=http://www.sedembg.com/101/page16.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090416083208/http://www.sedembg.com/101/page16.htm|archive-date=16 April 2009|access-date=17 October 2008}}</ref> Over 30 people are reported killed during the events in Yablanovo.<ref>{{Cite web|title=StackPath|url=http://www.imir-bg.org/imir/books/malcinstvena%2520politika.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070926235751/http://www.imir-bg.org/imir/books/malcinstvena%2520politika.pdf |archive-date=2007-09-26 |access-date=2022-11-20 |website=www.imir-bg.org}}</ref>

These events led to the beginning of the revival of the Turkish minority identity in Bulgaria and protests took place in some of the bigger settlements in the southern and northern Turk enclaves. Moreover, the Turkish community received the solidarity of Bulgarian intellectuals and opponents of the regime.<ref name="pdc.ceu.hu" />

This led, a few years later, to the biggest exodus in Europe since [[World War II]]: After the Bulgaria–Turkey border was opened in June 1989, approximately 350,000 Turks left Bulgaria on tourist visas in the span of three months.<ref>{{Harvnb|Neuburger|2004|loc=82}}.</ref> Eventually, more than 150,000 Turks returned to Bulgaria—especially after the removal of [[Todor Zhivkov]] from power—but more than 200,000 chose to remain in Turkey permanently.<ref>{{Harvnb|Eminov|1997|loc=97}}.</ref>

Former Bulgarian prime minister, [[Boyko Borisov]], has been accused of having anti-Turkish tendencies.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Doran|first=Peter B|date=July 18, 2009|title=Bulgarian election raises red flags|newspaper=[[guardian.co.uk]]|publisher=[[Guardian News and Media Limited]]|location=[[United Kingdom]]|url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2009/jul/18/bulgaria-election-europe-far-right|access-date=January 12, 2010}}</ref> In December 2009, he backed a referendum, proposed by the nationalist party [[Attack (political party)|Attack]] ([[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]]: Атака), on whether to allow daily Turkish-language news broadcasts on [[Bulgarian National Television]], although he later withdrew his support.<ref name="Ivan">{{Cite news|last=Dikov|first=Ivan|date=December 30, 2009|title=The Bulgaria 2009 Review: Domestic Politics|publisher=Novinite Ltd.|agency=[[Sofia News Agency]]|location=[[Sofia]], [[Bulgaria]]|url=http://www.novinite.com/view_news.php?id=111462|access-date=January 12, 2010}}</ref> Recep Tayyip Erdoğan, then the Turkish prime minister, "expressed his concern of rising anti-Turkish sentiments in Bulgaria"<ref>{{Cite news|date=December 18, 2009|title=Erdogan to Borisov: Radical Statements Target Turkish Minority in Bulgaria|publisher=Novinite Ltd.|agency=[[Sofia News Agency]]|location=[[Sofia]], [[Bulgaria]]|url=http://www.novinite.com/view_news.php?id=111228|access-date=January 12, 2010}}</ref> to the Bulgarian prime minister. The [[Turkish Foreign Ministry]] also "expressed its concern over the rising heated rhetoric in Bulgaria".<ref>{{Cite news|last=Dikov|first=Ivan|date=December 30, 2009|title=The Bulgaria 2009 Review: Diplomacy|publisher=Novinite Ltd.|agency=[[Sofia News Agency]]|location=[[Sofia]], [[Bulgaria]]|url=http://www.novinite.com/view_news.php?id=111464|access-date=January 12, 2010}}</ref> According to a report by Ivan Dikov, "not just Атака but a large number of Bulgarians have resented the news in Turkish".<ref name="Ivan" />

Borisov also referred to Turks (and [[Romani people|Romani]]) as "bad human material" in 2009.<ref>{{Cite news|date=2009-02-06|title=Mayor of Sofia brands Roma, Turks and retirees 'bad human material'|publisher=Telegraph|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/bulgaria/4531391/Mayor-of-Sofia-brands-Roma-Turks-and-retirees-bad-human-material.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220112/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/bulgaria/4531391/Mayor-of-Sofia-brands-Roma-Turks-and-retirees-bad-human-material.html |archive-date=2022-01-12 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|access-date=2015-09-06}}{{cbignore}}</ref> The vice president of the [[Party of European Socialists]], [[Jan Marinus Wiersma]], said Borisov had "crossed the invisible line between right wing populism and extremism".<ref>{{Cite web|date=6 February 2009|title=Challenge to EPP over leader's statement on bad human material|url=http://www.socialistgroup.eu/gpes/public/detail.htm?id=116844&section=NER&category=NEWS|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120323050511/http://www.socialistgroup.eu/gpes/public/detail.htm?id=116844&section=NER&category=NEWS|archive-date=23 March 2012|publisher=Socialistgroup.eu}}</ref>

Some Bulgarian historians consider [[Bulgars]], a semi-nomadic Turkic people, as Iranian. According to [[Raymond Detrez]], [[Fringe theory|the Iranian theory]] is rooted in the periods of anti-Turkish sentiment in Bulgaria and is ideologically motivated.<ref name="Detrez">{{Cite book| first=Raymond| last=Detrez |author-link=Raymond Detrez |title=Developing Cultural Identity in the Balkans: Convergence Vs. Divergence |publisher=Peter Lang |year=2005 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TRttHdXjP14C |page=29| isbn=9789052012971 }}</ref> Since 1989, anti-Turkish rhetoric is now reflected in the theories that challenge the thesis of the proto-Bulgars' Turkic origin. Alongside the Iranian or Aryan theory, there appeared arguments favoring an autochthonous origin.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Dobre|first1=Claudia-Florentina|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mp5JDwAAQBAJ&q=Quest+for+a+Suitable+Past%3A+Myths+and+Memory+in+Central+and+Eastern+Europe|title=Quest for a Suitable Past: Myths and Memory in Central and Eastern Europe|last2=Ghita|first2=Cristian Emilian|date=2018-01-29|publisher=Central European University Press|isbn=978-963-386-136-3|page=142|language=en}}</ref>

Example for recent confrontation between the Turkish population of Bulgaria and Bulgarian politicians is [[Banya Bashi Mosque clashes]]

=== Belgium ===
{{See also|Turks in Belgium|}}

There are approximately 290,000 [[Turks in Belgium|Turkish citizens living in Belgium]], The majority of whom left to Belgium in the 1950s. In the past several years, many right and left wings Belgian political parties criticized domestic Turkish politics and called for banning or deporting Turkish immigrants.<ref>{{Cite web|title=infosheet|url=http://www.kbs-frb.be/uploadedFiles/KBS-FRB/05)_Pictures,_documents_and_external_sites/09)_Publications/%20KBS%E2%80%A2Belgian-Turks%20GB_All%20in(1).pdf|archive-url=https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20081218035921/http://www.kbs-frb.be/uploadedFiles/KBS-FRB/05)_Pictures,_documents_and_external_sites/09)_Publications/%20KBS%E2%80%A2Belgian-Turks%20GB_All%20in(1).pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=2008-12-18}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://soc.kuleuven.be/ceso/ispo/downloads/ISPO%202009-11%20Ongelijke%20kansen%20en%20ervaren%20discriminatie.pdf|title=Belgian Turks discrimination}}</ref>

In 2015, a female employee shouted "''Dirty Turk"'' (''in [[Dutch language|Dutch]]: 'Vuile Turk')'' at a Supervisor of Turkish origin in the [[Volvo Car Gent|Volvo car factory in Ghent]], which led to a [[Strike action]] by Turkish workers at the factory.<ref>{{Cite web|title='Vuile Turk' kost Volvo Gent 600 auto's|url=https://www.nieuwsblad.be/cnt/dmf20150501_01659696|access-date=2020-12-23|website=Het Nieuwsblad|date=2 May 2015 |language=nl-BE}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Racisme-incident bij toeleverancier verlamt Volvo|url=https://www.standaard.be/cnt/dmf20150501_01658997|access-date=2020-12-23|website=De Standaard|date=2 May 2015 |language=nl-BE}}</ref>

[[Filip Dewinter]] a right-wing Flemish [[Nationalism|nationalist]] party member said in May 2017 at [[TV-program]] De Zevende Dag,<ref>{{Cite web|last=Peeters|first=Nick|date=2017-04-23|title=Dewinter: "Probleem niet bij Erdogan maar met gefaald multiculturalisme"|url=https://skeptr.eu/2017/04/dewinter-probleem-erdogan-gefaald-multiculturalisme/|access-date=2020-12-23|website=SCEPTR|language=nl}}{{Dead link|date=February 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>
{{Blockquote|text=The solution is for Turkish minorities in Flemish region, another method should be applied not only integrate Turks into Flemish culture but assimilate Turks. Leave identity behind leaving culture behind and fully assimilate in our society, if not so return to the country of origin is the only solution.|author=|title=|source=}}

=== Cyprus ===
{{See also|Bloody Christmas (1963)|1964 Famagusta incident|Alaminos massacre|Maratha, Santalaris and Aloda massacre|Tochni massacre|Turkish Cypriot enclaves}}
{{See also|Cyprus problem|List of massacres in Cyprus}}
The island of [[Cyprus]] became an independent state in 1960, with power shared between [[Greek Cypriots]] and [[Turkish Cypriots]] under the [[London-Zürich Agreements|London–Zürich Agreements]]. But in December 1963, in events that became known as [[Bloody Christmas (1963)|Bloody Christmas]] in which 364 Turks were killed,<ref>{{Harvnb|Papadakis|2005|loc=82}}.</ref> Turkish Cypriots were ousted from the republic and Greek Cypriots began a military campaign against them, leading to 11 years of ethnic clashes.<ref>{{Harvnb|Demirtaş-Coşkun|2010|loc=39}}.</ref> Turkish Cypriots bore the heavier cost in terms of casualties, and some 25,000—about a fifth of the population of Turkish Cypriots—were [[Internally displaced person|internally displaced]].<ref name="Kliot 2007 loc=59">{{Harvnb|Kliot|2007|loc=59}}.</ref> Thousands of Turkish Cypriot houses left behind were ransacked or completely destroyed. They lived as refugees for at least ten years, until the 1974 Turkish invasion.<ref name="Kliot 2007 loc=59" /> By the late 1960s, approximately 60,000 Turkish Cypriots had left their homes and [[Turkish Cypriot enclaves|moved into enclaves]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Tocci|2004|loc=53}}.</ref> This resulted in an exodus of Turkish Cypriots, with the majority migrating to the [[United Kingdom]] and others to Turkey, [[North America]], and [[Australia]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Hüssein|2007|loc=18}}.</ref>

On 13 February 1963 Greeks and Greek Cypriots attacked the Turkish Cypriot quarter of [[Limassol]] with tanks killing 16 and injuring 35 Turks.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Stephen|first=Michael|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NJy6AAAAIAAJ&q=+Limassol|title=The Cyprus Question|date=1997|publisher=British-Northern Cyprus Parliamentary Group|language=en}}</ref> Between 11 and 13 May 1964, Cypriot Police executed much as 28 Turkish Cypriot civilians in [[Famagusta]] and [[Akrotiri and Dhekelia]].<ref name="cnn">{{Cite web|title=Katliam emrini Rum Genelkurmay'ı vermiş|url=https://www.cnnturk.com/dunya/katliam-emrini-rum-genelkurmayi-vermis|access-date=2020-03-24|website=CNN Türk|date=9 August 2018 |language=tr}}</ref><ref name=":02">{{Cite web|last=sabah|first=daily|date=2018-08-08|title='Kill 10 Turks for each slain Greek,' Greek Cypriot forces told amid pre-division violence|url=https://www.dailysabah.com/europe/2018/08/08/kill-10-turks-for-each-slain-greek-greek-cypriot-forces-told-amid-pre-division-violence|access-date=2020-06-05|website=Daily Sabah|language=en}}</ref> On 14 and 15 November 1967, Greek Cypriots murdered 26 Turkish Cypriots during their retreat from [[Kofinou]].<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|last=Stephen|first=Michael|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NJy6AAAAIAAJ|title=The Cyprus Question|date=1997|publisher=British-Northern Cyprus Parliamentary Group|language=en}}</ref>{{page needed|date=August 2024}}

Numerous atrocities against the Turkish Cypriot community were committed in response to the [[Turkish invasion of Cyprus]]. In the [[Maratha, Santalaris and Aloda massacre]] by EOKA B, 126 people were killed on 14 August 1974.<ref name="Oberling1">{{Cite book|last=Oberling|first=Pierre|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jakLAAAAIAAJ&q=massacre|title=The Road to Bellapais: The Turkish Cypriot Exodus to Northern Cyprus|date=1982|publisher=Social Science Monographs|isbn=978-0-88033-000-8|language=en}}</ref><ref name="Cassia1">{{Cite book|last=Cassia|first=Paul Sant|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EBFvRMO7_DkC&q=Aloa&pg=PA69|title=Bodies of Evidence: Burial, Memory and the Recovery of Missing Persons in Cyprus|date=2005|publisher=Berghahn Books|isbn=978-1-57181-646-7|language=en}}</ref> The [[United Nations]] described the massacre as a [[crime against humanity]], by saying "constituting a further crime against humanity committed by the Greek and Greek Cypriot gunmen."<ref>{{Cite book|last=Information|first=United Nations Office of Public|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zichAAAAMAAJ&q=Maratha|title=UN Monthly Chronicle|date=July 1974|publisher=United Nations, Office of Public Information.|language=en}}</ref> In the [[Tochni massacre]], 85 Turkish Cypriot inhabitants were massacred.<ref name="Cassia2">{{Cite book|last=Cassia|first=Paul Sant|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EBFvRMO7_DkC&q=Tochni&pg=PA237|title=Bodies of Evidence: Burial, Memory and the Recovery of Missing Persons in Cyprus|date=2005|publisher=Berghahn Books|isbn=978-1-57181-646-7|language=en}}</ref> During the [[Alaminos massacre]], 13 or 15 Turkish men were executed.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2019-11-28 |title=Greek Cypriot investigation admits war crimes committed against Turkish Cypriots in 1974 |url=https://pio.mfa.gov.ct.tr/en/greek-cypriot-investigation-admits-war-crimes-committed-against-turkish-cypriots-in-1974/ |access-date=2025-04-02 |language=en-US}}</ref>

''The Washington Post'' covered another atrocity in which it is written that: "In a Greek raid on a small Turkish village near Limassol, 36 people out of a population of 200 were killed. The Greeks said that they had been given orders to kill the inhabitants of the Turkish villages before the Turkish forces arrived."<ref>[[The Washington Post]], 23 July 1974</ref>

In Limassol, upon the fall of the Turkish Cypriot enclave to the Cypriot National Guard on 20 July 1974, the Turkish Cypriot quarter was burned, women raped and children shot according to Turkish Cypriot and Greek Cypriot eyewitness accounts.<ref name="fof">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZLghm1Ot0moC&q=Limassol+quarter|title=Facts on File Yearbook 1974|date=1975|publisher=Facts on File|isbn=978-0-87196-033-7|page=590}}</ref><ref name="oberlinglim">{{Cite book|last1=Oberling|first1=Pierre|title=The Road to Bellapais: The Turkish Cypriot Exodus to Northern Cyprus|date=1982|publisher=Boulder: Social Science Monographs|isbn=978-0-88033-000-8|pages=164–5|quote=[...] children were shot in the street and the Turkish quarter of Limassol was burnt out by the National Guard.}}</ref> 1300 people were then led to a prison camp.<ref name="ros1">{{Cite book|last1=Higgins|first1=Rosalyn|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kNELAQAAIAAJ&q=Limassol+camp|title=United Nations Peacekeeping: Europe, 1946–1979|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1969|isbn=978-0-19-218322-4|page=375}}</ref>

On 12 July 2020, The primate of the Church of Cyprus, [[Archbishop Chrysostomos II]] has expressed his opinions regarding the reversion of the [[Hagia Sophia]] museum to a mosque stating that "The Turks have remained uncivilized, they are rude, and they will remain [this way]." He added that "Turkey has learned to destroy, it has learned to appropriate the cultures of others and sometimes, when it does not benefit it, it destroys them and falsely presents cultures as its own."<ref name="Greek City Times">{{Cite news|last1=Antonopoulos|first1=Paul|date=13 July 2020|title=Cypriot Archbishop: Turks remain uncivilized who only destroy and appropriate the cultures of others|publisher=Greek City Times|url=https://greekcitytimes.com/2020/07/13/cypriot-archbishop-turks-remain-uncivilized-who-only-destroy-and-appropriate-the-cultures-of-others/|access-date=9 August 2020}}</ref>

=== France ===
{{See also|1984 Châteaubriant shooting}}

=== Germany ===
{{See also|Turks in Germany|1984 Duisburg arson attack|1992 Mölln arson attack|1993 Solingen arson attack|National Socialist Underground murders}}
[[File:Brandanschlag solingen 1993.jpg|thumb|250px|The [[Solingen arson attack of 1993]], in which [[neo-Nazi]]s set fire to a Turkish family's home, was one of the most severe instances of [[Xenophobia|xenophobic]] violence in modern Germany.]]

Turks are "the most prominent ethnic minority group in contemporary Germany",<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Klink | first1 = A. | last2 = Wagner | first2 = U. | year = 1999 | title = Discrimination against ethnic minorities in Germany: Going back to the field | journal = Journal of Applied Social Psychology | volume = 29 | issue = 2| pages = 402–423 | doi = 10.1111/j.1559-1816.1999.tb01394.x }}</ref> and discrimination and violence against them are common.<ref name="psycontent.com">{{Cite journal | last1 = Shohat | first1 = M. | last2 = Musch | first2 = J. | year = 2003 | title = Online auctions as a research tool: A field experiment on ethnic discrimination | journal = [[Swiss Journal of Psychology]] | volume = 62 | issue = 2| pages = 139–145| doi =}} {{doi|10.1024//1421-0185.62.2.139}}</ref><ref>R. Cohen. (1995). Labour migration to western Europe after 1945. In R. Cohen (Ed.), ''The Cambridge survey of world migration''. (p. 279). Cambridge University Press.</ref> In public discourse and popular jokes, they are often portrayed as "ludicrously different in their food tastes, dress, names, and even in their ability to develop survival techniques".<ref>[[Toelken, B.]] (1985). "Turkenrein" and "Turken, Rausl"—Images of fear and aggression in German Gastarbeitterwitze. In N. Furniss & I. Basgoz (Eds.), ''Turkish workers in Europe: An interdisciplinary study''. (p. 155). Indiana: Indiana University Turkish Studies.</ref>

The number of violent acts by [[Far-right politics|right-wing extremists]] in Germany increased dramatically between 1990 and 1992.<ref>{{Harvnb|Ramet|1999|loc=72}}.</ref> On November 25, 1992, three Turkish residents were killed in a [[firebombing]] in [[Mölln]], a town in northern Germany.<ref>{{Harvnb|Solsten|1999|loc=406}}.</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Staab|1998|loc=144}}.</ref> And on May 29, 1993, in an [[1993 Solingen arson attack|arson attack in Solingen]], five members of a Turkish family that had resided in Germany for 23 years were burnt to death.<ref>{{Harvnb|Dummett|2001|loc=142}}.</ref> Several neighbors heard someone shout "[[Heil Hitler]]!" before dousing the front porch and door with gasoline and setting fire to the home.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lee|1999|loc=331}}.</ref> Most Germans condemned these attacks, and many marched in candlelight processions.<ref>{{Harvnb|Cornelius|Martin|Hollifield|1994|loc=213}}</ref>

According to Greg Nees, "because Turks are both darker-skinned and Muslim, conservative Germans are largely against granting them citizenship".<ref>{{Harvnb|Nees|2000|loc=155}}.</ref>

=== Greece ===
{{See also|Turks of the Dodecanese|Cretan Turks|Turks in Western Thrace|1990 Komotini events|Navarino massacre|Massacre of Tripoli|Greco-Turkish War (1919–22)#Greek massacres of Turks|Greco-Turkish War (1919–22)#Greek scorched-earth policy|Yalova Peninsula massacres|Menemen massacre|Fire of Manisa}}

A member of the European parliament from the Greek far-right [[Golden Dawn (Greece)|Golden Dawn]] party, former army lieutenant general [[Eleftherios Synadinos]] has been expelled from a European Parliament plenary session after a racist remark, stating that "As it has been expressed in scientific literature, the Turks are dirty and polluted. Turks are like wild dogs when they play but when they have to fight against their enemies they run away. The only effective way to deal with the Turks is with decisive and resolute attitudes."<ref>{{Cite news|date=10 March 2016|title=Schulz expels Golden Dawn MEP from EU Parliament|publisher=Neos Kosmos|url=https://neoskosmos.com/en/35192/golden-dawn-mep-eleftherios-synadinos-expelled-by-eu-parliament-by-martin-schulz/|website=europarl.europa.eu |access-date=9 August 2020}}</ref>

[[Ioannis Lagos]], who has been a Greek lawmaker serving as a Member of the [[European Parliament]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=MEPs European Parliament – Ioannis LAGOS |url=https://www.europarl.europa.eu/meps/en/197737/IOANNIS_LAGOS/home |access-date=20 June 2021}}</ref> has tore a Turkish flag made of paper into pieces in January 2020 during a session of debate for the humanitarian situation on the Greek islands due to illegal immigrations.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Neo-Nazi MEP penalized for tearing up Turkish flag |url=https://www.ekathimerini.com/news/249452/neo-nazi-mep-penalized-for-tearing-up-turkish-flag/ |website=ekathimerini.com |access-date=20 June 2021}}</ref>

The former Greek [[Minister for Foreign Affairs (Greece)|Minister for Foreign Affairs]] [[Theodoros Pangalos (politician)|Theodoros Pangalos]] stated in 2002 that Turks have been being allowed "to drag their bloodstained boots across the carpet" in the [[European Union]] capitals and has labelled Turks as "bandits, murderers, and rapists".<ref>{{Cite news |title=Island of troubles |url=https://www.economist.com/news/2002/12/19/island-of-troubles |newspaper=The Economist |access-date=22 June 2021}}</ref>

=== Netherlands ===
{{See also|Turks in the Netherlands|Afrikaanderwijk riots|Schiedam riots}}

Turks are the largest ethnic minority group in the Netherlands.<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://opendata.cbs.nl/statline/#/CBS/nl/dataset/37325/table?fromstatweb | title=CBS Statline }}</ref> The first recorded attack on Turks in the Netherlands were the [[Afrikaanderwijk riots]].<ref>{{Cite web |title="Safety cannot improve with just the law and a baton" {{!}} Erasmus School of Law {{!}} Erasmus University Rotterdam |url=https://www.eur.nl/en/esl/news/safety-cannot-improve-just-law-and-baton |access-date=2024-02-25 |website=www.eur.nl |language=en}}</ref> Although policies toward Turks in the Netherlands are more progressive than those in many other European countries, such as Germany,<ref>Mendes, H. F. (1994). ''Managing the multicultural society: The policy making process''. Paper presented at the Conference on Today's Youth and Xenophobia: Breaking the Cycle. Wassenaar, Netherlands: Netherlands Institute for Advanced Study.</ref> in a report on the Netherlands in 2008, the [[European Commission against Racism and Intolerance]] wrote that the Turkish minority had been particularly affected by "stigmatization of and discrimination against members of minority groups".<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|publisher=ECRI|date=2008|title=''Third report on the Netherlands''. Strasbourg, FRANCE: The European Commission against Racism and Intolerance|url=http://hudoc.ecri.coe.int/XMLEcri/ENGLISH/Cycle_03/03_CbC_eng/NLD-CbC-III-2008-3-ENG.pdf|access-date=2015-09-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090214011219/http://hudoc.ecri.coe.int/XMLEcri/ENGLISH/Cycle_03/03_CbC_eng/NLD-CbC-III-2008-3-ENG.pdf|archive-date=2009-02-14|url-status=dead}}</ref> The report also noted that "the tone of Dutch political and public debate around integration and other issues relevant to ethnic minorities has experienced a dramatic deterioration".<ref name=":1" />

According to the [[European Network Against Racism]], an international organization supported by the [[European Commission]], half of all Turks in the Netherlands report having experienced racial discrimination.<ref>{{Cite web|author1=Dinsbach, W.|author2=Walz, G.|author3=Boog, I.|date=2009|title=''ENAR shadow report 2008: Racism in the Netherlands''. Brussels, Netherlands: ENAR Netherlands|url=http://cms.horus.be/files/99935/MediaArchive/national/Netherlands%20-%20SR%202008.pdf|publisher=Cms.horus.be|access-date=2015-09-06|archive-date=2011-10-07|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111007040153/http://cms.horus.be/files/99935/MediaArchive/national/Netherlands%20-%20SR%202008.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> The network also noted "dramatic growth" of [[Islamophobia]]. In 2001, another international organization, the [[Fundamental Rights Agency|European Monitoring Centre on Racism and Xenophobia]], highlighted a negative trend in Dutch attitudes towards minorities, compared with average [[European Union]] results.<ref>Thalhammer, E., Zucha, V., Enzenhofer, E., Salfinger, B., & Ogris, G. (2001). ''Attitudes towards minority groups in the European Union: A special analysis of the Eurobarometer 2000 survey on behalf of the European Monitoring Centre on racism and xenophobia''. Vienna, Austria: EUMC Sora. {{Cite web|url=http://www3.northamptonshire.gov.uk/NR/rdonlyres/B83E8576-C738-4B93-8191-F36EF740A051/0/europeanunion.pdf |title=Attitudes towards minority groups in the European Union |access-date=2010-01-10 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071110071706/http://www.northamptonshire.gov.uk/NR/rdonlyres/B83E8576-C738-4B93-8191-F36EF740A051/0/europeanunion.pdf |archive-date=2007-11-10 }}</ref> That analysis also noted that, compared to other Europeans, the Dutch were "more in favor of cultural assimilation of minorities" rather than "cultural enrichment by minority groups".

=== Malta ===
The [[Malta|Maltese]] have a colourful vocabulary stemming from their fight against the Ottoman Empire during the [[Great Siege of Malta]] in 1565. For example, the expression ''tgħammed tork'' is used when the sun is visible during rainfall; it means "a Turk has been baptised", which was considered a rare event. The phrase ''twieled tork'' ("a Turk was born") is also used. Another expression is ''ħaqq għat-torok'' ("curse on the Turks"), used when something goes wrong.<ref name="Maltaturks">{{Cite web|title=Introduction|url=http://www.thinksite.eu/userfiles/file/Content%20-%20PDFs/Introduction.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150426194826/http://www.thinksite.eu/userfiles/file/Content%20-%20PDFs/Introduction.pdf|archive-date=2015-04-26|access-date=2015-09-06|publisher=Thinksite.eu}}</ref>

== Former Soviet Union ==
{{See also|Turks in the former Soviet Union|Deportation of the Meskhetian Turks|Deportation of the Crimean Tatars}}

=== Armenia ===
{{See also|Armenian genocide|Armenian genocide denial|Hamidian massacres|Armenian–Tatar massacres of 1905–07|Adana massacre|Armenian Secret Army for the Liberation of Armenia|Armenia–Turkey relations|Late Ottoman genocides|List of Turkish diplomats assassinated by Armenian militant organisations}}

According to a survey conducted in 2007, 78% of [[Armenians]] see Turkey as a threat.<ref name="2008-01-21:IRI:Armenia-Survey">{{Cite web|url=https://www.iri.org/sites/default/files/2008%20January%2022%20Survey%20of%20Armenian%20Public%20Opinion,%20October%2027-November%203,%202007.pdf|title=Survey of Armenia Public Opinion|publisher=International Republican Institute|date=January 21, 2008}}</ref>

=== Georgia ===
{{See also|Meskhetian Turks}}

[[Georgians]] look with a wary eye to Turkey's growing [[Neo-Ottomanism]] and the rise in popularity of [[Irredentism|irredentist]] maps showing Turkey with borders expanded into the former [[Ottoman Empire]], usually including [[Adjara]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=eurasianet.org – Georgians Wary of Turkey's Rising Influence in Batumi|url=https://eurasianet.org/s/georgians-wary-of-turkeys-rising-influence-in-batumi|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180521104247/https://eurasianet.org/s/georgians-wary-of-turkeys-rising-influence-in-batumi|archive-date=2018-05-21|access-date=2018-05-20}}</ref>

Although some Turks have since come back to Meskheti (which is near the Turkish-Georgian border), the Georgians and Armenians who settled in their homes have vowed to take up arms against any who return. Many Georgians have also argued that the [[Meskhetian Turks]] should be sent to Turkey, ''"where they belong"''.<ref name="Cornell 2001 loc=183">{{Harvnb|Cornell|2001|loc=183}}.</ref>

=== Russia ===
{{See also|Tatarophobia}}
[[File:Russian poster.JPG|thumb|300px|A [[World War I]] Russian [[propaganda]] poster depicting a Turk running away from a Russian]]

According to [[Stanford University]] history professor Robert D. Crews, Russia has been historically more tolerant towards Turkic people than any other European administrations, and many Turkic people ([[Volga Tatars]], [[Bashkirs]], [[Karachays]], [[Nogai people|Nogais]], [[Kazakhs]], [[Chuvash people|Chuvash]], for example), most of them Muslims, were fairly treated under [[Russian Empire|Tsarist Russia]]. However, not all Turkic peoples received such generous treatment, for instance, [[Crimean Tatars]] under Russian Tsarist administration were forced to leave their houses for Turkey due to Russian colonial politics in the [[Crimean peninsula]].

In the [[Soviet Union]], the [[NKVD]] and the [[Red Army]] carried out [[ethnic cleansing]] during World War II through [[Deportation|mass deportations]] of Turks.<ref>{{Harvnb|Ther|Siljak|2001|loc=4}}.</ref> In June 1945, [[Vyacheslav Molotov]], the Soviet minister of foreign affairs, formally demanded that Turkey surrender three provinces ([[Kars Province|Kars]], [[Ardahan Province|Ardahan]], and [[Artvin Province|Artvin]]), and Moscow was also preparing to support Armenian claims to several other provinces. War against Turkey seemed possible, and [[Joseph Stalin]] wanted to drive out Turks (especially in [[Meskheti]]) who were likely to be hostile to Soviet intentions.<ref>{{Harvnb|Bennigsen|Broxup|1983|loc=30}}.</ref> The campaign is relatively poorly documented, but Soviet sources suggest that 115,000 Turks were deported, mainly to [[Central Asia]]. Most of them settled in [[Uzbekistan]],<ref>{{Harvnb|Cohen|Deng|1998|loc=263}}.</ref> but many others died along the way.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Meskhetian Genocide by Russia|url=http://www.topix.com/forum/world/russia/TCPIR4NKRT7T1ADGF|work=Topix}}</ref>

More recently, some Turks in Russia, especially Meskhetian Turks in [[Krasnodar Krai|Krasnodar]], have faced human rights violations, including deprivation of citizenship and prohibitions on employment and owning property.<ref>{{Harvnb|Barton|Heffernan|Armstrong|2002|loc=9}}</ref> Since 2004, many Turks have left the Krasnodar region for the United States as refugees. They are still barred from full repatriation to Georgia.<ref>{{Harvnb|Coşkun|2009|loc=5}}.</ref>

[[Vladimir Zhirinovsky]] claimed that "nothing will happen to the world even if the entire Turkic nation perishes".<ref>Radical Right in Central and Eastern Europe Since 1989, 2010, {{ISBN|9780271043791}}, pp. 272</ref>

=== Uzbekistan ===
{{See also|Meskhetian Turks#1989 deportation from Uzbekistan to other Soviet countries|Fergana massacre}}

While Turkey and [[Uzbekistan]] have a fair relationship for being commonly [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]], some tensions were witnessed.

In 1989, 103 people died and more than 1,000 were wounded in ethnic clashes between Turks and [[Uzbeks]]. Some 700 houses were destroyed, and more than 90,000 Meskhetian Turks were driven out of Uzbekistan.<ref>{{Harvnb|Schnabel|Carment|2004|loc=63}}.</ref> Many Turks see these events as their "second deportation". Those who remained in Uzbekistan complained of ethnic discrimination.<ref>{{Harvnb|Drobizheva|Gottemoeller|Kelleher|1998|loc=296}}</ref>

== Former Yugoslavia ==
{{See also|Turks in Bosnia and Herzegovina|Turks in Croatia|Turks in Kosovo|Turks in North Macedonia|Turks in Montenegro|Turks in Serbia|Turk (term for Muslims)}}
[[File:Ottoman figures, Iconostasis in the Church of Sveti Spas, Northern Macedonia.jpg|thumb|right|425px|[[Iconostasis]] in the [[Church of the Ascension of Jesus, Skopje]] from 1867, [[North Macedonia]]. The [[Beheading of John the Baptist]] is carried out by figures stylized like Ottoman Turks.]]

After the [[Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire|Ottoman Empire fell]] in the early 20th century, many Turks fled as [[Muhacir]]s (refugees). Others intermarried or simply identified themselves as [[Yugoslavs]] or [[Albanians]] to avoid stigma and persecution.<ref name="Knowlton 2005 loc=66">{{Harvnb|Knowlton|2005|loc=66}}.</ref>

Historically, from the Ottoman conquest through the 19th century, many ethnically non-Turkish groups—especially the Muslim Slavs of the [[Balkans]]—were referred to in local languages as [[Turks (term for Muslims)|Turks]]. This usage is common in literature, including in the works of [[Ivan Mažuranić]] and [[Petar II Petrović-Njegoš]]. The religious ideology of [[Christoslavism]], coined by [[Michael Sells]], holds that "[[Slavs]] are [[Christianity|Christian]] by nature and that any conversion from Christianity is a betrayal of the Slavic race".<ref name="Jacobs2009">{{Cite book|author=Steven L. Jacobs|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1gwunFdWfNsC&pg=PA82|title=Confronting Genocide: Judaism, Christianity, Islam|publisher=Lexington Books|year=2009|isbn=978-0-7391-3589-1|pages=82–}}</ref> Under this ideology, as seen in [[Croatian nationalism|Croatian]] and [[Serbian nationalism]], South Slavic Muslims are not regarded as part of their ethnic kin; by virtue of their [[Islam|Muslim faith]], they become "Turks".<ref name="BartovMack2001">{{Cite book|author1=Omer Bartov|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fnpPf_AxWEgC&pg=PA183|title=In God's Name: Genocide and Religion in the Twentieth Century|author2=Phyllis Mack|date=1 January 2001|publisher=Berghahn Books|isbn=978-1-57181-302-2|pages=183–}}</ref>

=== North Macedonia ===
When North Macedonia [[Independence Day (North Macedonia)|proclaimed its independence]] in 1991, the Macedonian state implemented [[Macedonian nationalism|nationalist]] politics, which aimed to assimilate [[Islam in North Macedonia|Macedonian Muslims]] into a broader category of "[[Macedonians (ethnic group)|Macedonians]]". The government banned education in [[Turkish language|Turkish]] in all regions to "prevent [[Turkification]]". This, however, was met with resistance by Muslims who did not support the association and wanted to learn Turkish and continue their education in Turkish. The protests failed, although one person applied to the [[European Court of Human Rights]]. The case revolved around rights to education in the mother tongue.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Zadrożna|first=Anna|date=2017|title=Reconstructing the past in a post-Ottoman village: Turkishness in a transnational context|journal=Nationalities Papers|language=en|volume=45|issue=4|pages=524–539|doi=10.1080/00905992.2017.1287690|issn=0090-5992|doi-access=free}}</ref>

=== Serbia ===
During the [[Great Eastern Crisis]] more than [[Exodus of Muslims from Serbia (1862)|10,000 Muslims, including Turks]], were forced to left the territory of the [[Principality of Serbia|Serbian Principality]] in 1862.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Özkan |first=Ayşe |title=Kanlıca Konferansı Sonrasında Müslümanların Sırbistan'dan Çıkarılmaları ve Osmanlı Devleti'nin Sırbistan'dan Çekilişi (1862-1867) |url=https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/download/article-file/73930 |journal=Akademik Bakış |volume=5 |issue=11}}</ref>

=== Bosnian War ===
[[Ratko Mladić]], [[Radovan Karadžić]]'s military chief and fellow convicted criminal of [[Bosnian genocide|genocide]], crimes against humanity and war crimes,<ref>''Daily report: East Europe, Issues&nbsp;191-210''. Front Cover United States. Foreign Broadcast Information Service. p.&nbsp;38.</ref> described the conquest of Srebrenica and the [[Srebrenica massacre|ensuing massacre]] as an opportunity for "the [[Serbs of Bosnia and Herzegovina|Serbs]] to avenge themselves on the Turks".<ref>{{Cite web |title=Karadzic predicted Muslim bloodbath, Bosnian war crimes trial hears |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2009/oct/27/un-prosecutors-open-case-karadzic |website=The Guardian |date=27 October 2009 |access-date=1 July 2021}}</ref>

On July 11, 1995, the town of [[Srebrenica]] fell to the [[Bosnian Serb Army]]. Its commander Ratko Mladić made his infamous statement at the same day, which has been used against him during [[International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia]], while he and his entourage posing for cameras with the town in the background:<ref>{{Cite web |title=Survivors recount Bosnia's Srebrenica genocide, 25 years on |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2020/7/11/survivors-recount-bosnias-srebrenica-genocide-25-years-on |website=The Aljazeera |access-date=1 July 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last1=Suljagic |first1=Emir |title=How the Bosnian Serb Assembly Redefined Bosniaks as Enemy 'Turks' |url=https://balkaninsight.com/2020/10/19/how-the-bosnian-serb-assembly-redefined-bosniaks-as-enemy-turks/ |website=The Balkan Transitional Justice programme |date=19 October 2020 |publisher=Balkan Investigate Reporting Network |access-date=1 July 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last1=Boghani |first1=Priyanka |title=Timeline: Ratko Mladić and His Role in War Crimes During the Bosnian War |url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/frontline/article/timeline-ratko-mladic-and-his-role-in-war-crimes-during-the-bosnian-war/ |website=FRONTLINE |publisher=PBS |access-date=1 July 2021}}</ref>

{{blockquote | Here we are, on July 11, 1995, in Serb Srebrenica. On the eve of yet another great Serb holiday, we give this town to the Serb people as a gift. Finally, after the [[First Serbian Uprising|Rebellion]] against the [[Dahije|Dahis]], the time has come to take revenge on the Turks in this region.}}

== Other countries ==

=== United States ===
Anti-Turkism first appeared in the United States during [[World War I]], when the [[Armenian genocide]] began and was reported by American newspapers.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Kifner|first=John|title=Armenian Genocide of 1915: An Overview – New York Times|url=https://archive.nytimes.com/www.nytimes.com/ref/timestopics/topics_armeniangenocide.html?mcubz=1|access-date=Oct 28, 2020|website=archive.nytimes.com}}</ref> These reports had reinforced a sense of solidarity to Armenians and increasingly anti-Turkish rhetorics in the United States, with the Turks being equally seen as a barbaric people.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Payaslian|first1=Simon|year=2005|title=The US and the Armenian Genocide: Review Article|journal=Middle East Journal|volume=59|issue=1|pages=132–140|jstor=4330101}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=STATISTICS OF TURKEY'S GENOCIDE AND MASS MURDER|url=https://www.hawaii.edu/powerkills/SOD.CHAP5.HTM|access-date=Oct 28, 2020|website=www.hawaii.edu}}</ref>

=== Israel ===
{{See also|Antisemitism in Turkey}}

As a result of the increasing [[Anti-Zionism|Anti-Zionist]] and antisemitic sentiment by Turkish President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan, and growing Israeli assertiveness, in particular toward the issue over the [[Armenian genocide]], [[Turkish-Israeli relations]] have been greatly damaged.<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Erdogan's Anti-Semitism Has Done Great Harm to Turkey|url=https://www.israelhayom.com/2020/06/16/erdogans-anti-semitism-has-done-great-harm-to-turkey/|access-date=2021-02-03|website=Israelhayom}}</ref> However, Israelis have generally reserved criticism for only the Turkish government, partly due to their [[Azerbaijan–Israel relations|tie with fellow Turkic Azerbaijan]].{{Citation needed|date=February 2021}}

After the [[Gaza flotilla raid]] in 2010, where 10 Turks were killed, and the subsequent diplomatic crisis between Israel and Turkey, the number of Israeli tourists to Turkey shrunk to 100,000 as Israelis preferred to "refrain from visiting the country that was seen to be hostile to them".

In 2019, [[Benjamin Netanyahu]]'s son, [[Yair Netanyahu]], published a tweet remarking that [[Istanbul]] was once called [[Constantinople]], a centre of [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Orthodox Christianity]] before "Turkish occupation" of the city, sparking a political crisis between Turkey and Israel.<ref>{{Cite web|date=Mar 19, 2019|title=Erdogan slams Israel PM and son over anti-Turkey tweets|url=https://www.middleeastmonitor.com/20190319-erdogan-slams-israel-pm-and-son-over-anti-turkey-tweets/|access-date=Oct 28, 2020|website=Middle East Monitor}}</ref>

On 12 July 2020, a group of nine Israelis made up of Christians and Jews burned the Turkish flag at the Turkish embassy in Tel Aviv in response to Erdoğan's decision to convert [[Hagia Sophia]] back into a mosque. They were later detained by Israeli police.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Firat|first=Esat|date=13 July 2020|title=Israeli group burns Turkish flag over Hagia Sophia move|url=https://www.aa.com.tr/en/middle-east/israeli-group-burns-turkish-flag-over-hagia-sophia-move/1909334|access-date=|website=}}</ref>

On 10 February 2023, Israeli top rabbi [[Shmuel Eliyahu]] claimed that the earthquake that devastated Turkey was "a divine punishment" because the Turkish government had "defamed" Israel.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.timesofisrael.com/top-national-religious-rabbi-says-deadly-quake-in-turkey-syria-is-divine-justice/ | title=Top national religious rabbi says deadly quake in Turkey, Syria is divine justice | website=[[The Times of Israel]] }}</ref>

=== New Zealand ===
{{See also|Christchurch mosque shootings|New Zealand–Turkey relations}}

The guns and [[Magazine (firearms)|magazines]] used by Brenton Tarrant, the perpetrator of the [[Christchurch mosque shootings]], were covered in white writing naming historical events, people, and motifs related to historical conflicts, wars, and battles between Muslims and European Christians,<ref name=":3">{{Cite news|last=|first=|date=15 March 2019|title=New Zealand mosque shooter names his 'idols' on weapons he used in massacre|newspaper=[[Daily Sabah]]|location=Istanbul|url=https://www.dailysabah.com/asia/2019/03/15/new-zealand-mosque-shooter-names-his-idols-on-weapons-he-used-in-massacre|url-status=live|access-date=11 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190315161334/https://www.dailysabah.com/asia/2019/03/15/new-zealand-mosque-shooter-names-his-idols-on-weapons-he-used-in-massacre|archive-date=15 March 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Coalson|first=Robert|title=Christchurch Attacks: Suspect Took Inspiration From Former Yugoslavia's Ethnically Fueled Wars|url=https://www.rferl.org/a/christchurch-attacks-yugoslavia-tarrant-inspiration-suspect-new-zealand/29823655.html|access-date=15 March 2019|newspaper=Radiofreeeurope/Radioliberty|publisher=Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Zivanovic|first=Maja|title=New Zealand Mosque Gunman 'Inspired by Balkan Nationalists'|url=https://balkaninsight.com/2019/03/15/new-zealand-mosque-gunman-inspired-by-balkan-nationalists/|access-date=15 March 2019|website=Balkaninsight.com|date=15 March 2019|publisher=Balkaninsight}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Mosque shooter brandished material glorifying Serb nationalism|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/03/zealand-mosque-gunman-inspired-serb-nationalism-190315141305756.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190315215856/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/03/zealand-mosque-gunman-inspired-serb-nationalism-190315141305756.html|archive-date=15 March 2019|access-date=16 March 2019|website=www.aljazeera.com|publisher=Al Jazeera}}</ref> as well as the names of recent Islamic terrorist attack victims and the names of far-right attackers.<ref>{{Cite web|date=15 March 2019|title=New Zealand terror suspect wrote Italian shooter's name on his gun|url=https://www.thelocal.it/20190315/new-zealand-shooting-brenton-tarrant-luca-traini-italy-shooter-macerate|access-date=17 March 2019|website=www.thelocal.it}}</ref> Notable references from Ottoman history included [[Skanderbeg]] (an Albanian nobleman who led an uprising against the Ottoman Empire), [[Marco Antonio Bragadin|Antonio Bragadin]] (a [[Venice|Venetian]] officer who broke an agreement and killed Turkish captives), 1683 (which is the date of the [[Second Siege of Vienna]]), [[Miloš Obilić]] (who is said to have killed the Ottoman Emperor [[Murad I|Murat I]] in [[Battle of Kosovo]] in 1389), [[János Hunyadi]] (who had blocked Ottoman attempts to take [[Belgrade]]), [[Ernst Rüdiger von Starhemberg]] (who defeated the Ottomans in 1683), the [[Battle of Kahlenberg]] (which marked the beginning of the Ottoman withdrawal from the Siege of Vienna) and "Turkofagos" (Turk eater), the nickname of [[Greek War of Independence]] revolutionary [[Nikitaras]],<ref name=":3" /> which he used to shoot 91 people with, 51 fatal (one Turkish<ref>{{Cite web|title=Turkish man wounded in Christchurch mosque attack dies|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/5/3/turkish-man-wounded-in-christchurch-mosque-attack-dies|access-date=2020-10-18|website=www.aljazeera.com|language=en}}</ref>) and 40 wounded.<ref name=":4">{{Cite web|title=Why is Turkey at the heart of the Christchurch terrorist's anger?|url=https://www.trtworld.com/turkey/why-is-turkey-at-the-heart-of-the-christchurch-terrorist-s-anger-25120|access-date=2020-10-18|website=Why is Turkey at the heart of the Christchurch terrorist's anger?|language=en}}</ref>

His 'manifesto' specifically refers to Turks and utters threats against Turkey, that [[Istanbul]]'s mosques will be destroyed and [[Hagia Sophia]] will be [[Christianization|Christianized]].<ref name=":4" />

He also identifies himself as a "kebab removalist", referencing to the [[Islamophobia|anti-Muslim]] '[[Remove Kebab|remove kebab]]' meme often used by the far-right [[Ultra nationalist|ultra-nationalists]] and [[Islamophobia|Islamophobes]], that originated from [[Serbia]] and the [[Fourteen Words]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=Purtill|first=James|date=2019-03-15|title=Fuelled by a toxic, alt-right echo chamber, Christchurch shooter's views were celebrated online|url=https://www.abc.net.au/triplej/programs/hack/christchurch-shooters-views-were-celebrated-online/10907056|access-date=2020-10-18|website=triple j|language=en}}</ref> He was also playing an associated propaganda song in his car before the shooting.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Mosque shooter brandished material glorifying Serb nationalism|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/3/15/mosque-shooter-brandished-material-glorifying-serb-nationalism|access-date=2020-10-18|website=www.aljazeera.com|language=en}}</ref>

== In contemporary media ==

=== Movies ===

==== ''Dracula Untold'' ====
{{See also|Dracula Untold}}

The film has been accused of Islamophobia for the vilification of [[Mehmed the Conqueror|Mehmed II]] and for portraying the figure of [[Vlad the Impaler]] as a hero even though, according to Turkish journalist Elest Ali Korkmaz, he "indiscriminately killed Turks and [[Bulgarians]]" in real history.<ref>{{Cite magazine|last=Ali|first=Elest|date=2014-10-24|title=Is 'Dracula Untold' An Islamophobic Movie?|magazine=The New Republic|url=https://newrepublic.com/article/119991/dracula-untold-islamophobic|access-date=2020-10-18|issn=0028-6583}}</ref>

==== ''Midnight Express'' ====
{{See also|Midnight Express (film)}}

''Midnight Express'' is criticized for its unfavorable portrayal of Turkish people.

In her 1991 book ''Turkish Reflections: A Biography of Place'', [[Mary Lee Settle]] wrote: 'The Turks I saw in ''[[Lawrence of Arabia (film)|Lawrence of Arabia]]'' and ''Midnight Express'' were like cartoon caricatures, compared to the people I had known and lived among for three of the happiest years of my life.'<ref>{{Cite book|last=Settle |first=Mary Lee|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/23357619|title=Turkish reflections : a biography of a place|date=1991|publisher=Prentice Hall Press|isbn=0-13-917675-6|edition=1st|oclc=23357619}}</ref>

[[Pauline Kael]], in reviewing the film for ''[[The New Yorker]]'', commented, 'This story could have happened in almost any country, but if Billy Hayes had planned to be arrested to get the maximum commercial benefit from it, where else could he get the advantages of a Turkish jail? Who wants to defend Turks? (They don't even constitute enough of a movie market for [[Columbia Pictures]] to be concerned about how they are represented.)'<ref>{{Cite book|last=Kael |first=Pauline|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/5286142|title=When the Lights Go Down|date=1980|publisher=Holt, Rinehart and Winston |isbn=0-03-042511-5|edition=1st|oclc=5286142}}</ref>

One reviewer, writing for ''World Film Directors'', wrote: "''Midnight Express'' is 'more violent, as a national hate-film than anything I can remember', 'a cultural form that narrows horizons, confirming the audience's meanest fears and prejudices and resentments'."<ref name="fer22">{{Cite book|editor-last=Wakeman|editor-first=John|title=World Film Directors|publisher=T.H. W. Wilson Co|year=1988|location=New York}}</ref>

[[David Denby (film critic)|David Denby]] of ''[[New York (magazine)|New York]]'' criticized ''Midnight Express'' as 'merely anti-Turkish, and hardly a defense of prisoners' rights or a protest against prison conditions'.<ref>{{Citation|title=Author's preface|date=1978-12-31|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/9783110801057-002|work=Mishpokhe|pages=11–16|place=Berlin, Boston|publisher=De Gruyter|doi=10.1515/9783110801057-002|isbn=978-3-11-080105-7|access-date=2020-10-18|url-access=subscription}}</ref> Denby said also that all Turks in the movie — guardian or prisoner — were portrayed as 'losers' and 'swine', and that 'without exception [all the Turks] are presented as degenerate, stupid slobs'.

[[Turkish Cypriots|Turkish Cypriot]] film director [[Derviş Zaim]] wrote a thesis at the [[University of Warwick]] on the representation of Turks in the film, in which he concluded that the one-dimensional portrayal of the Turks as 'terrifying' and 'brutal' served merely to reinforce the sensational outcome, and was likely influenced by such factors as [[Orientalism]] and capitalism.<ref>{{Citation|title=APPENDIX A – CORRECTIVE TURKISH VIEWER COMMENT (IMDb)|date=2010-12-31|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.31826/9781463225735-009|work=The Midnight Express Phenomenon|publisher=Gorgias Press|pages=143–144|doi=10.31826/9781463225735-009|isbn=978-1-4632-2573-5|access-date=2020-10-18|url-access=subscription}}</ref>

==== ''Saturday Night Live'' ====
{{See also|Saturday Night Live}}

Greek actress [[Nia Vardalos]], participated in a ''Saturday Night Live'' episode where Turks were portrayed as dirty, smoking, ragtag, nose picking and anti-Armenian characters, which was heavily criticized by the Turkish Forum, a network of expat Turks which protested NBC and asked for a public apology, and the show received heavy criticism by the Turks on the internet.<ref>{{Cite web|title=ABD Televizyonu NBC'de Türkiye'ye ağır hakaret|url=https://www.hurriyet.com.tr/gundem/abd-televizyonu-nbc-de-turkiye-ye-agir-hakaret-38429798|access-date=2020-10-19|website=www.hurriyet.com.tr|date=12 November 2002 |language=tr}}</ref>

== Expressions containing the word "Turk" in various languages ==
* {{FRA}}: In old French, terms such as "''C'est un vrai Turc"'' ("A true Turk") were used to refer to brutish and cruel individuals.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Arşivlenmiş kopya|url=http://portail.atilf.fr/cgi-bin/getobject_?a.15%3A74.%2Fvar%2Fartfla%2Fdicos%2FACAD_1694%2FIMAGE%2F|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303221814/http://portail.atilf.fr/cgi-bin/getobject_?a.15%3A74.%2Fvar%2Fartfla%2Fdicos%2FACAD_1694%2FIMAGE%2F|archive-date=3 March 2016|access-date=25 March 2020}}</ref>
* {{ITA}}: In contemporary Italian, phrases such as "''bestemmia come un Turco''" ("Cursing like a Turk") and "''puzza come un Turco''" ("Stinking like a Turk") were used. The phrase "fumare come un turco" ("Smoking like a Turk") is used to indicate excessive consumption of tobacco.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Perché si dice fumare come un turco? |url=https://www.focus.it/cultura/storia/perche-si-dice-fumare-come-un-turco |access-date=2022-07-26 |website=Focus.it |language=it}}</ref>
* {{NLD}}: Some offensive expressions are ''"Eruit zien als een Turk"'' ("to look like a Turk"), which means to "seem filthy", "repulsive", or ''"Rijden als een Turk"'' ("to drive like a Turk"), meaning "to drive recklessly".<ref>{{Cite news|title=Van Dale vrijuit.|url=https://krant.telegraaf.nl/krant/archief/20011115/teksten/bin.dale.turk.officier.vrijuit.html|access-date=19 October 2021|date=15 November 2001|newspaper=[[De Telegraaf]]|language=nl}}</ref>
* {{GER}}: The common German expression ''"etwas türken"'' ("to turk something") is used to describe the act of faking something.<ref name="m641">{{cite web | title=Türken im Sinne von "fälschen, verfälschen" im Deutschen | website=GRA | date=20 June 2024 | url=https://www.gra.ch/bildung/glossar/tuerken/ | language=de | access-date=7 July 2024}}</ref>
* {{NOR}}: In Norwegian is used the expression ''"Sint som en tyrker"'' which means "angry as a Turk".<ref>{{Cite book|title=Fra hav og strand: en tylt fortællinger|author=Just W. Flood|page=24|language=no|year=1884}}</ref>
* {{ROU}}: In Romanian language it is common to call "a Turk" somebody who is stubborn and not able to understand.<ref>{{Cite web|title=turc – definiție și paradigmă|url=https://dexonline.ro/definitie/turc|access-date=19 October 2021|website=Dexonline|publisher=[[Dicționarul explicativ al limbii române]]|language=ro}}</ref>
* {{ESP}}: Spanish people used to say ''"turco"'' when they wanted to insult another person.<ref name="sieps" />
* {{GBR}}: In English, phrases such as "[[wikt:Johnny Turk|Johnny Turk]]", "[[:wikt:out-paramour the Turk|out-paramour the Turk]]", "[[:wikt:turn Turk|turn Turk]]" and "[[:wikt:young Turk|young Turk]]" were historically used.{{citation needed|date=November 2024}}
* {{SWE}}: In Swedish there is a racist ryhme phrase "turk på burk smakar urk" (literally "canned Turk tastes bleh"), which has been associated with anti-Turkish sentiment.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Priftis |first1=Marcus |title=Turk på burk och svensk rasism |url=https://www.svd.se/a/b974dd8d-2bec-3bb9-9fa2-6456b745b97f/turk-pa-burk-och-svensk-rasism |website=Svenska Dagbladet |date=31 August 2012 |access-date=2023-12-03}}</ref>
* {{IRN}}: In persian, saying "Torkeh Khaar" is a racist slur against turkish people in Iran and translates to "Turkish Donkey"{{citation needed|date=November 2024}}
* {{COL}}, {{VEN}}: In Colombia and Venezuela, people used to say "turco" to refer to tricksters, usurers and descendants of Arabs who migrated during the Ottoman Empire.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.asale.org/damer/turco | title=Turco, turca &#124; Diccionario de americanismos }}</ref>

== See also ==
{{Portal|Turkey}}
*[[Xenophobia and discrimination in Turkey]]
*[[List of massacres in Turkey]]
*[[Human rights in Turkey]]
*[[Anti-Azerbaijani sentiment]]
*[[Anti-Hungarian sentiment]]
*[[Anti–Middle Eastern sentiment]]
*[[Anti-Mongolianism]]
*[[Index of racism-related articles]]
*[[Insulting Turkishness]]
*[[Islamophobia]]
*[[List of massacres of Turkish people]]
*[[Persecution of Iraqi Turkmen in Ba'athist Iraq]]
*[[Persecution of Muslims]]
*[[Persecution of Muslims during the Ottoman contraction]]
*[[Racism against Asians]]
*[[Red Jews]]
*[[Remove Kebab]]
*[[Tatarophobia]]

== References ==
{{Reflist|30em}}

== Bibliography ==
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{{refend}}

== External links ==
* {{Commons category-inline}}
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20070606230704/http://www.hum.au.dk/cek/kontur/pdf/kontur_10/sinan.yasar.pdf Turkey in the Eye of the Beholder:Tracking Perceptions on Turkey through Political Cartoons by Sinan Erensü and Yaşar Adanalı]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20050217213603/http://www.hetq.am/eng/society/h-0203-vharutiunyan.html Patriotism versus Patria by Vartan Harutiunyan]
*[http://www.brown.edu/Students/Turkish/old/Gelenler/Turkishness_in_Hollywood.pdf Representation of Turkishness in Hollywood by Aslihan Tokgoz]
*[http://tatar.yuldash.com/eng_098.html TURKOPHOBIA:Its Social and Historical Roots By Sabirzyan BADRETDIN]
*[https://www.gutenberg.org/files/30678/30678-h/30678-h.htm The Unspeakable Turk political cartoons]
*{{in lang|tr}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20090501120701/http://www.haberturk.com/haber.asp?id=61182&cat=180&dt=2008%2F03%2F14 Marco Türklere ders vermek istemiş!]
{{Racism}}
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{{Turkey topics}}
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[[Category:Anti-Turkish sentiment| ]]
[[Category:Anti-national sentiment|Turkish]]