View source for Anti-Serb sentiment

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[[File:Serbien muss sterbien.jpg|thumb|''Serbien muss sterbien!'' ("Serbia must die!"), an [[Austria-Hungary|Austrian]] caricature, drawn after the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria in 1914, depicting Serbia as an [[Untermensch|ape-like]] terrorist.]]
[[File:Pobedata nad syrbia.JPG|thumb|''Serbiens ende'' ("Serbia's end"), propaganda postcard commemorating the victory of the Central Powers over Serbia in 1915.]]
'''Anti-Serb sentiment''' or '''Serbophobia''' ({{lang-sr-Cyrl-Latn|србофобија|srbofobija|separator=" / "}}) is a generally negative view of [[Serbs]] as an ethnic group. Historically it has been a basis for the persecution of ethnic Serbs.

A distinctive form of anti-Serb sentiment is anti-Serbian sentiment, which can be defined as a generally negative view of [[Serbia]] as a [[Nation state|nation-state]] for Serbs. Another form of anti-Serb sentiment is a generally negative view of [[Republika Srpska]], the Serb-majority entity in [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]].

The best known historical proponent of anti-Serb sentiment was the 19th- and 20th-century Croatian [[Party of Rights]]. The most extreme elements of this party became the [[Ustaše]] in the [[Kingdom of Yugoslavia]], a Croatian fascist organization that came to power during [[World War II]] and instituted racial laws that specifically targeted Serbs, [[Jews]], [[Romani people|Roma]] and dissidents. This culminated in the [[Genocide of Serbs in the Independent State of Croatia|genocide of Serbs]] and members of other [[minority group]]s that lived in the [[Independent State of Croatia]].

==History==

=== Before World War I ===
[[File:Ćele-kula, Niš, Srbija, 13.JPG|thumb|The [[Skull Tower]] in [[Niš]]. Following the [[Battle of Čegar]] (1809), it was built from the heads of slain Serbs by the order of the Ottoman general Hurshid Pasha.]]

==== Turks and Albanians in Ottoman Kosovo Vilayet ====
Anti-Serb sentiment in the [[Kosovo Vilayet]] grew as a result of the [[Serbian-Turkish Wars (1876–1878)|Ottoman-Serb]] and [[Greco-Turkish War (1897)|Ottoman-Greek]] conflicts during the period of 1877–1897. With the [[Battle of Vranje]] in 1878, thousands of [[Turco-Albanians|Ottoman-Albanian]] troops and Albanian civilians were expelled into the Eastern part of Ottoman-held Kosovo Vilayet.<ref name=Batakovic1992>{{cite book|last=Bataković|first=Dušan|title=The Kosovo Chronicles|year=1992|publisher=Plato|url=http://www.rastko.rs/kosovo/istorija/kosovo_chronicles/kc_part2b.html}}</ref> These displaced persons known as (Alb. muhaxhirë, Turk. muhacir, Serb. muhadžir) were highly hostile towards the Serbs in the areas they retreated to, given the fact that they were [[Expulsion of the Albanians 1877–1878|expelled]] from the [[Pčinja District|Vranje area]] due to the Ottoman-Serb conflict.<ref name="Frantz460461">{{cite journal|last=Frantz|first=Eva Anne|title=Violence and its Impact on Loyalty and Identity Formation in Late Ottoman Kosovo: Muslims and Christians in a Period of Reform and Transformation|journal=Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs|volume=29|issue=4|year=2009|pages=460–461|doi=10.1080/13602000903411366|s2cid=143499467}}</ref> This animosity fuelled anti-Serb sentiment which resulted in Albanians committing widespread [[Attacks on Serbs during the Serbian–Ottoman War (1876–78)|atrocities]] including killings against Serb civilians across the entire territory, including parts of [[Pristina]] and [[Bujanovac]].{{sfn|Krakov|1990|pp=12–14}}

Atrocities against Serbs in the region also [[1901 massacres of Serbs|peaked in 1901]] after the region was flooded with weapons not handed back to the Ottomans after the Greco-Turkish War of 1897.{{sfn|Skendi|2015|p=293}} In May 1901, Albanians pillaged and partially burned the cities of [[Novi Pazar]], [[Sjenica]] and Pristina, and massacred Serbs in the area of Kolašin.{{sfn|Skendi|2015|p=201}}<ref name=King-Mason-30>{{cite book|author1=Iain King|author2=Whit Mason|title=Peace at Any Price: How the World Failed Kosovo|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9m3Hp2OevdUC&pg=PA30|year=2006|publisher=Cornell University Press|isbn=0-8014-4539-6|page=30}}</ref> David Little suggests that the actions of Albanians at the time constituted [[ethnic cleansing]] as they attempted to create a homogeneous area free of Christian Serbs.{{sfn|Little|2007|p=125}}

==== Bulgarians in Ottoman Macedonia ====
[[File:Dame-Gruev.jpg|thumbnail|left|170px|[[Dame Gruev]] said that "Serbs will be evicted from Macedonia by fire and sword"]]
The [[Society Against Serbs]] was a [[Bulgaria]]n nationalist organization, established in 1897 in [[Thessaloniki]], [[Ottoman Empire]]. The organization's activists were both "Centralists" and "Vrhovnists" of the Bulgarian revolutionary committees (the [[Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization]] and the [[Supreme Macedonian-Adrianople Committee]]), and had by 1902 murdered at least 43 and wounded 52, owners of Serbian schools, teachers, [[Serbian Orthodox]] clergy, and other notable Serbs in the [[Ottoman Empire]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Hadži Vasiljević|first=Jovan|title= Četnička akcija u Staroj Srbiji i Maćedoniji|year=1928|page=14}}
</ref> Bulgarians also used the term "[[Serbomans]]" for people of non-Serbian origin, but with Serbian self-determination in Macedonia.{{cn|date=December 2024}}

====19th and early 20th century in the Habsburg monarchy====

Anti-Serbian sentiment coalesced in 19th-century Croatia when some of the Croatian intelligentsia planned the creation of a Croatian [[nation-state]].<ref name="JonassohnBjörnson1998">{{cite book|author1=Kurt Jonassohn|author2=Karin Solveig Björnson|title=Genocide and Gross Human Rights Violations: In Comparative Perspective|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jIxCUXI38zcC&pg=PA281|date=January 1998|publisher=Transaction Publishers|isbn=978-1-4128-2445-3|page=281|quote= Anti-Serbian sentiment had already been expressed throughout the nineteenth century when Croatian intellectuals began to make plans for their own national state. They viewed the presence of more than one million Serbs in Krajina and Slavonia as intolerable.}}
</ref> [[Kingdom of Croatia (Habsburg)|Croatia]] was at the time a part of the [[Habsburg monarchy]] while since 1804 the [[Austrian Empire]], although remained in personal union with the [[Kingdom of Hungary]]. After the [[Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867]], it was part of [[Lands of the Crown of Saint Stephen|Tranleithania]], while [[Kingdom of Dalmatia|Dalmatia]] and [[Istria]] remained separate [[Cisleithania|Austrian]] crown lands. [[Ante Starčević]], the leader of the [[Party of Rights (1861-1929)|Party of Rights]] between 1851 and 1896, believed Croats should confront their neighbors, including [[Serbs]].{{sfn|Meier|2013|p=120}} He wrote, for example, that Serbs were an "unclean race" and with the co-founder of his party, [[Eugen Kvaternik]], denied the existence of Serbs or Slovenes in Croatia, seeing their political consciousness as a threat.<ref>{{harvnb|Carmichael|2012|p=97}}{{blockquote|For Starčević&nbsp;... Serbs were 'unclean race'&nbsp;... Along with&nbsp;... Eugen Kvaternik believed that 'there could be no Slovene or Serb people in Croatia because their existence could only be expressed in the right to a separate political territory.}}</ref><ref name="AllcockMilivojević1998">{{cite book|author1=John B. Allcock|author2=Marko Milivojević|author3=John Joseph Horton|title=Conflict in the Former Yugoslavia: An Encyclopedia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vqoUAQAAIAAJ|year=1998|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-0-87436-935-9|page=105|quote= Starcevic was extremely anti-Serb, seeing Serb political consciousness as a threat to Croats.}}</ref> During the 1850s Starčević forged the term ''Slavoserb'' ({{langx|la|sclavus, servus}}) to describe people supposedly ready to serve foreign rulers, initially used to refer to some Serbs and his Croat opponent and later applied to all Serbs by his followers.<ref>[[#Tomasevich 2001|Tomasevich (2001)]], p. 3 {{blockquote|In polemics of the 1850s, Starčević also coined a misleading term – "Slavoserb", derived from the Latin word "sclavus" and "servus" to denote persons ready to serve foreign rulers against their own people.}}</ref> The [[Austro-Hungarian occupation of Bosnia and Herzegovina]] in 1878 probably contributed to the development of Starčević's anti-Serb sentiment: He believed that it increased the chances for the creation of [[Greater Croatia]].{{sfn|Carmichael|2012|p=97}} [[David Bruce MacDonald]], has put forward a thesis that Starčević's theories could only justify [[ethnocide]] but not [[genocide]] because Starčević intended to [[assimilation (sociology)|assimilate]] Serbs as "Orthodox Croats", and not to exterminate them.{{sfn|MacDonald|2002|p=87}}

[[File:Ante Starčević portrait.jpg|thumbnail|upright|[[Ante Starčević]] made chauvinistic statements towards Serbs]]

Starčević's ideas formed a basis for the destructive politics of his successor, [[Josip Frank]], a [[Jews in Croatia|Croatian Jewish]] lawyer and politician converted to [[Catholicism]]<ref>{{ cite encyclopedia | author=Gregory C. Ference | title=Frank, Josip | encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Eastern Europe: From the Congress of Vienna to the Fall of Communism | editor=Richard Frucht | publisher=Garland Publishing | location=New York & London | year=2000 | pages=276–277 | url= }}</ref><ref>{{in lang|hr}} "Eugen Dido Kvaternik, Sjećanja i zapažanja 1925–1945, Prilozi za hrvatsku povijest.", Dr. [[Jere Jareb]], Starčević, Zagreb, 1995., {{ISBN|953-96369-0-6}}, str. 267.: ''Josip Frank pokršten je, kad je imao 18 godina.''</ref> who led numerous anti-Serbian incidents.{{sfn|Meier|2013|p=120}} Josip Frank carried on Starčević's ideology, and defined Croat identity 'strictly in terms of Serbophobia'.{{sfn|Trbovich|2008|p=136}} He opposed any cooperation between Croats and Serbs, and Djilas described him as "a leading anti-Serbian demagogue and the instigator of the [[persecution of Serbs]] in Croatia".{{sfn|Trbovich|2008|p=136}} His followers, called ''Frankovci'', would go on to become the most ardent [[Ustashe]] members.{{sfn|Trbovich|2008|p=136}} Under Frank's leadership the Party of Rights became obsessively anti-Serb,<ref name="Kann1980">{{cite book|author=Robert A. Kann|title=A History of the Habsburg Empire, 1526–1918|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cG570mijBF4C&pg=PA447|year=1980|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-04206-3|page=447|quote=in the case of Frank's followers&nbsp;... strongly anti-Serb}}</ref><ref name="Graubard1999">{{cite book|author=Stephen Richards Graubard|title=A New Europe for the Old?|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=omTot25fpkcC&pg=PA59|year=1999|publisher=Transaction Publishers|isbn=978-1-4128-1617-5|page=59|quote=Under Josip Frank, who carried the rightists into a new era, the party became obsessively anti-Serbian.}}</ref> and such sentiments dominated Croatian political life in the 1880s.{{sfn|Jelavich|Jelavich|1986|p=254}} British historian [[Carlile Aylmer Macartney|C. A. Macartney]] stated that because of the "gross intolerance" toward Serbs who lived in [[Slavonia]], they had to seek protection from Count [[Károly Khuen-Héderváry]], the [[Ban of Croatia-Slavonia]], in 1883.{{sfn|MacDonald|2002|p=88}} During his reign in 1883–1903, Hungary stimulated division and hatred between Serbs and Croats to further its [[Magyarization]] policy.{{sfn|MacDonald|2002|p=88}} Carmichael writes that ethnic division between the Croats and the Serbs at the turn of the 20th century was stoked by a nationalist press and was "incubated entirely in the minds of extremists and [[Religious fanaticism|fanatics]], with little evidence that the areas in which Serbs and Croats had lived for many centuries in close proximity, such as [[Military Frontier|Krajina]], were more prone to ''ethnically'' inspired violence."{{sfn|Carmichael|2012|p=97}} In 1902 major anti-Serb riots in Croatia were caused by an article written by Serbian nationalist writer [[Nikola Stojanović (politician, born 1880)|Nikola Stojanović]] (1880–1964) titled ''Do istrage vaše ili naše'' (''Till the destruction of you or us'') which forecasted the result of an "inevitable" Serbian-Croatian conflict, that was reprinted in the [[Serb Independent Party]]'s ''Srbobran'' magazine.<ref>{{cite book|last=Bilandžić|first=Dušan|title=Hrvatska moderna povijest|publisher=Golden marketing|year=1999|isbn=953-6168-50-2|page=31}}</ref>

Between the mid-19th and early 20th century there were two factions in the [[Roman Catholicism in Croatia|Catholic Church in Croatia]]: the progressive faction which preferred uniting Croatia with Serbia in a progressive Slavic country, and the conservative faction that opposed this.<ref name="Ramet1998-155">{{harvnb|Ramet|1998|p=155}} {{blockquote|Thus, from the mid-nineteenth century until the 1920s, the church in Croatia was riven into two factions: the progressives, who favored the incorporation of Croatia into a liberal Slavic state&nbsp;... and the conservatives,&nbsp;... who were loath to bind Catholic Croatia to Orthodox Serbia.&nbsp;... By 1900 the exclusivist orientation seems to have gained the upper hand in Catholic circles and the First Croatian Catholic Congress, held in Zagreb that year, was implicitly anti-Orthodox and anti-Serb.}}</ref> The conservative faction became dominant by the end of the 19th century: The First Croatian Catholic Congress held in [[Zagreb]] in 1900 was unreservedly Serbophobic and anti-Orthodox.<ref name="Ramet1998-155"/>

===World War I===
 {{Tall image|1913 Austro-Hungarian order banning Serb cultural societies in Bosnia.jpg|230|180|alt=|Excerpt from a 1913 Austro-Hungarian order, that banned numerous social-democratic and ethnic Serb cultural societies in Bosnia-Herzegovina.|right}}

[[File:Austria-Hungary WWI propaganda card against Serbs - 005.JPG|thumb|right|250px|[[Austria-Hungary|Austro-Hungarian]] propaganda postcard saying "Serbs, we'll smash you to pieces!"]]

After the [[Balkan Wars]] in 1912–1913, anti-Serb sentiment increased in the Austro-Hungarian administration of [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]].<ref name="Frucht2005">{{cite book|author=Richard C. Frucht|title=Eastern Europe: An Introduction to the People, Lands, and Culture|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lVBB1a0rC70C&pg=PA644|year=2005|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-57607-800-6|page=644|quote=The Balkan Wars left Serbia as the region's strongest power. Serbia's relationship with Austria-Hungary remained antagonistic, and the Habsburg administration in Bosnia-Hercegovina became anti-Serb&nbsp;... the governor of Bosnia declared state of emergency, dissolved the parliament,&nbsp;... and closed down many Serb associations&nbsp;...}}</ref> [[Oskar Potiorek]], governor of Bosnia and Herzegovina, closed many Serb societies and significantly contributed to the anti-Serb mood before the outbreak of [[World War I]].<ref name="Frucht2005"/>
<ref name="Velikonja2003">{{cite book|author=Mitja Velikonja|title=Religious Separation and Political Intolerance in Bosnia-Herzegovina|url=https://archive.org/details/religiousseparat0000veli|url-access=registration|date= 2003|publisher=Texas A&M University Press|isbn=978-1-58544-226-3|page=[https://archive.org/details/religiousseparat0000veli/page/141 141]|quote=The anti-Serb policy and mood that emerged in the months leading up to the First World War were the result of the machinations of Gen. Oskar von Potiorek (1853-1933), Bosnia-Herzegovina's heavy-handed military governor.}}</ref>

The [[assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria]] and [[Sophie, Duchess of Hohenberg]] in 1914 led to the [[Anti-Serb pogrom in Sarajevo]]. [[Ivo Andrić]] refers to this event as the "Sarajevo frenzy of hate."<ref name="Gioseffi1993">{{cite book|author=Daniela Gioseffi|title=On Prejudice: A Global Perspective|url=https://archive.org/details/onprejudicegloba00gios_0|url-access=registration|year=1993|publisher=Anchor Books|isbn=978-0-385-46938-8|page=[https://archive.org/details/onprejudicegloba00gios_0/page/246 246]|quote=Andric describes the "Sarajevo frenzy of hate" that erupted among Muslims, Roman Catholics, and Orthodox believers following the assassination on 28 June 1914, of Archduke Franz Ferdinand in Sarajevo}}</ref> The crowds directed their anger principally at Serb shops, residences of prominent Serbs, the Serbian Orthodox Church, schools, banks, the Serb cultural society [[Prosvjeta]], and the ''[[Srpska riječ]]'' newspaper offices. Two Serbs were killed that day.<ref>{{cite book|title=Sarajevo: A Biography|author=Robert J. Donia|date=29 June 1914|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ACvJHam2_-oC&pg=PA123|page=123|publisher=University of Michigan Press |isbn=978-0472115570}}</ref> That night there were anti-Serb riots in other parts of the Austro-Hungarian Empire<ref name="Swain1933">{{cite book|author=Joseph Ward Swain|title=Beginning the Twentieth Century: A History of the Generation That Made the War|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7tA4AAAAIAAJ|year=1933|publisher=W.W. Norton & Company, Inc.|page=347}}</ref> including [[Zagreb]] and [[Dubrovnik]].
<ref name="Schindler1995">{{cite book|author=John Richard Schindler|title=A Hopeless Struggle: The Austro-Hungarian Army and Total War, 1914–1918|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h4jyAAAAMAAJ|year=1995|publisher=McMaster University|page=50|isbn=978-0612058668|quote=anti-Serbian demonstrations in Sarajevo, Zagreb and Ragusa.}}</ref> In the aftermath of the Sarajevo assassination anti-Serb sentiment ran high throughout the Habsburg Empire.<ref name="Bennett1995">{{cite book|author=Christopher Bennett|title=Yugoslavia's Bloody Collapse: Causes, Course and Consequences|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FeiKg3TuNl0C&pg=PA31+|date=January 1995|publisher=C. Hurst & Co. Publishers|isbn=978-1-85065-232-8|page=31}}</ref> Austria-Hungary imprisoned and extradited around 5,500 prominent Serbs, sentenced 460 to death, and established the predominantly Muslim{{sfn|Tomasevich|2001|p=485}} special militia ''[[Schutzkorps]]'' which carried on the persecution of Serbs.<ref name="Kröll2008">{{cite book|author=Herbert Kröll|title=Austrian-Greek Encounters Over the Centuries: History, Diplomacy, Politics, Arts, Economics |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uJRnAAAAMAAJ |date=2008|publisher=Studienverlag|isbn=978-3-7065-4526-6|page=55|quote=arrested and interned some 5.500 prominent Serbs and sentenced to death some 460 persons, a new Schutzkorps, an auxiliary militia, widened the anti-Serb repression.}}</ref>

The Sarajevo assassination became the [[casus belli]] for World War I.{{sfn|Klajn|2007|p=16}} Taking advantage of an international wave of revulsion against this act of "Serbian nationalist terrorism," Austria-Hungary gave Serbia an ultimatum which led to World War I. Although the Serbs of Austria-Hungary were loyal citizens whose majority participated in its forces during the war, anti-Serb sentiment systematically spread and members of the ethnic group were persecuted all over the country.{{sfn|Pavlowitch|2002|p=94}} Austria-Hungary soon occupied the territory of the [[Kingdom of Serbia]], including [[Kosovo]], boosting already intense anti-Serbian sentiment among Albanians whose volunteer units were established to reduce the number of Serbs in Kosovo.{{sfn|Banac|1988|p=297}} A cultural example is the [[jingle]] "Alle Serben müssen sterben" ("All Serbs Must Die"), which was popular in [[Vienna]] in 1914. (It was also known as "Serbien muß sterbien").<ref name="ReglerSchmidt-Henkel2007">{{cite book|author1=Gustav Regler|author-link1=Gustav Regler|author2=Gerhard Schmidt-Henkel|author3=Ralph Schock|author4=Günter Scholdt|title=Werke|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vcYKAQAAMAAJ|year=2007|publisher=Stroemfeld/Roter Stern|isbn=978-3-87877-442-6|page=46|quote=Mit Kreide war an die Waggons geschrieben: »Jeder Schuß ein Russ', jeder Stoß ein Franzos', jeder Tritt ein Brit', alle Serben müssen sterben.« Die Soldaten lachten, als ich die Inschrift laut las. Es war eine Aufforderung, mitzulachen.}}</ref>

Orders issued on 3 and 13 October 1914 banned the use of [[Serbian Cyrillic]] in the [[Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia]], limiting it to use in religious instruction. A decree was passed on 3 January 1915, that banned Serbian Cyrillic completely from public use. An imperial order on 25 October 1915, banned the use of Serbian Cyrillic in the [[Condominium of Bosnia and Herzegovina]], except "within the scope of Serb Orthodox Church authorities".<ref name=Mitrovic-78>Andrej Mitrović, ''Serbia's Great War, 1914–1918'' [https://books.google.com/books?id=viqqqQ2KT7kC&pg=PA78 pp. 78]–79. Purdue University Press, 2007. {{ISBN|1-55753-477-2}}, {{ISBN|978-1-55753-477-4}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Ana S. Trbovich|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2008|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ojur7dVoxIcC|title=A Legal Geography of Yugoslavia's Disintegration|page=102|isbn=978-0195333435}}</ref>

=== Interwar period ===

====Fascist Italy====
In the 1920s, [[Italian fascism|Italian fascists]] accused Serbs of having "[[Atavism|atavistic]] impulses" and they claimed that the [[Yugoslavs]] were conspiring together on behalf of "Grand Orient [[Freemasonry|masonry]] and its funds". One [[History of antisemitism#World War II|antisemitic]] claim was that Serbs were part of a "[[social-democratic]], [[Judeo-Masonic conspiracy theory|masonic Jewish internationalist plot]]".<ref>[[H. James Burgwyn|Burgwyn, H. James]]. Italian foreign policy in the interwar period, 1918–1940. p. 43. Greenwood Publishing Group, 1997.</ref> [[Benito Mussolini]] viewed not just the Serbs but the whole "[[Slavs|Slavic race]]" as inferior and barbaric.<ref>{{cite book |url=http://www.provincia.lucca.it/scuolapace/uploads/quaderni/ricordo2012.pdf |title=I profugi istriani, dalmati e fiumani a Lucca |language=it |trans-title=The Istrian, Dalmatian and Rijeka Refugees in Lucca |publisher=Instituto storico della Resistenca e dell'Età Contemporanea in Provincia di Lucca |chapter=Il confine orientale: una terra, molti esodi |trans-chapter=The Eastern Border: One Land, Multiple Exoduses |date=10 February 2012 |editor=Sestani, Armando |quote=When dealing with such a race as Slavic – inferior and barbarian – we must not pursue the carrot, but the stick policy. We should not be afraid of new victims. The Italian border should run across the Brenner Pass, Monte Nevoso and the Dinaric Alps. I would say we can easily sacrifice 500,000 barbaric Slavs for 50,000 Italians. |pages=12–13 }}{{Dead link|date=October 2022 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> He identified the Yugoslavs as a threat to Italy and he claimed that the threat rallied Italians together at the end of [[World War I]]: "The danger of seeing the Jugo-Slavians settle along the whole Adriatic shore had caused a bringing together in Rome of the cream of our unhappy regions. Students, professors, workmen, citizens—representative men—were entreating the ministers and the professional politicians".<ref>[[Benito Mussolini|Mussolini, Benito]]; Child, Richard Washburn; [[Max Ascoli|Ascoli, Max]]; & Lamb, Richard (1988) ''My rise and fall''. New York: Da Capo Press. pp. 105–106.</ref>

====Croats in the Kingdom of Yugoslavia====
The relations between Croats and Serbs were stressed at the very beginning of the Yugoslav state.{{sfn|Božić|2010|p=185}} Opponents to the [[Yugoslav unification]] in the Croatian elite portrayed Serbs negatively, as hegemonists and exploiters, introducing Serbophobia into Croatian society.{{sfn|Božić|2010|p=185}} It was reported that in Lika, there was serious tension between Croats and Serbs.{{sfn|Božić|2010|p=187}} In post-war Osijek, the [[Šajkača]] hat was banned by the police but the Austro-Hungarian cap was freely worn, and in the school and judicial system the Orthodox Serbs were termed "Greek-Eastern".{{sfn|Božić|2010|p=188}} There was voluntary segregation in [[Knin]].{{sfn|Božić|2010|pp=203–204}}

A 1993 report of the [[Commission on Security and Cooperation in Europe]] stated that [[Belgrade]]'s centralist policies for the [[Kingdom of Yugoslavia]] led to increased anti-Serbian sentiment in Croatia.<ref name="Europe1993">{{cite book|author=United States. Congress. Commission on Security and Cooperation in Europe|title=Human Rights and Democratization in Croatia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2zmK5YXiP5oC|year=1993|publisher=The Commission|page=3|quote=Increasing centralization by Belgrade, however, encouraged anti-Serbian sentiment in Croatia}}</ref>

=== World War II ===
====Nazi Germany====
[[File:Adolf Hitler meets Ante Pavelić.1941.jpg|thumbnail|left|170px|[[Adolf Hitler]] meets [[Ante Pavelić]] in 1941.]]
Serbs as well as other [[Slavs]] (mainly [[Polish people|Poles]] and [[Russians]]) as well as non-Slavic peoples (such as [[Jews]] and [[Romani people|Roma]]) were not considered [[Aryans]] by [[Nazi Germany]]. Instead, they were considered subhuman, inferior races (''[[Untermenschen]]'') and [[foreign races]] and as a result, they were not considered part of the Aryan [[master race]].<ref>The Holocaust and History The Known, the Unknown, the Disputed, and the Reexamined Edited by Michael Berenbaum and Abraham J. Peck, Indiana University Press p. 59 "Pseudoracial policy of Third Reich&nbsp;... Gypsies, Slavs, blacks, Mischlinge, and Jews are not Aryans."</ref><ref>Modern Genocide: The Definitive Resource and Document Collection Paul R. Bartrop, Steven Leonard Jacobs p. 1160, "This strict dualism between the "racially pure" Aryans and all others—especially Jews and Slavs—led to the radical outlawing of all "non-Aryans" and their eventual enslavement and attempted annihilation"</ref> Serbs, along with the Poles, were at the bottom of the Slavic "racial hierarchy" established by the Nazis.<ref>[[William L. Shirer|Shirer, William L.]] (1960) ''[[The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich]]''. New York: Simon and Schuster. pp. 937, 939. Quotes: "The Jews and the Slavic people were the ''Untermenschen'' – subhumans." (937); "[The] obsession of the Germans with the idea that they were the master race and that Slavic people must be their slaves was especially virulent in regard to Russia. [[Erich Koch]], the roughneck Reich Commissar for ''the Ukraine'', expressed it in a speech at Kyiv on 5 March 1945.<blockquote>We are the Master Race and must govern hard but just&nbsp;... I will draw the very last out of this country. I did not come to spread bliss&nbsp;... The population must work, work, and work again&nbsp;... We are a master race, which must remember that the lowliest German worker is racially and biologically a thousand times more valuable than the population [of the Ukraine]. (emphasis added)</blockquote></ref>
Anti-Serb sentiment increasingly infiltrated German [[Nazism]] after [[Adolf Hitler]]'s appointment as chancellor in 1933. The roots of this sentiment can be found in his early life in Vienna,<ref name="HansonSpohn1995">
{{cite book|author1=Stephen E. Hanson|author2=Willfried Spohn|title=Can Europe Work?: Germany and the Reconstruction of Postcommunist Societies|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LxqTUhQU6OUC&pg=PA156|year=1995|publisher=University of Washington Press|isbn=978-0-295-80188-9|page=156|quote=German anti-Serbian sentiment increased after Hitler's ascent to power in 1933. His Serbophobia, which was rooted in the years of his youth which he spent in Vienna, was virulent. As a result, Nazi ideology became permeated with anti-Serbian sentiment.}}</ref> and when he was informed about the [[Yugoslav coup d'état]] that was conducted by a group of pro-Western Serb officers in March 1941, he decided to punish all Serbs as the main enemies of his new Nazi order.{{sfn|Pavlowitch|2008|p=16}} The propaganda ministry of [[Joseph Goebbels]], with the support of the Bulgarian, Italian, and Hungarian press, was given the task of stimulating anti-Serb sentiment among the [[Croats]], [[Slovenians]] and [[Hungarians]].{{sfn|Klajn|2007|p=17}} The propaganda of the [[Axis powers]] accused the group of persecuting minorities and establishing concentration camps for [[ethnic Germans]] in order to justify an attack on [[Yugoslavia]] and Nazi Germany portrayed itself as a force which would save the Yugoslav people from the threat of Serb nationalism.{{sfn|Klajn|2007|p=17}} In 1941 [[Invasion of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia was invaded]] and occupied by the Axis powers.

==== Independent State of Croatia and Ustashe ====
{{Main|Genocide of Serbs in the Independent State of Croatia}}
[[File:Serb family killed in their home, 1941.jpg|thumb|A Serb family slaughtered in their home in an Ustasha raid, 1941]]
The [[Axis occupation of Serbia]] enabled the [[Ustashe]], a Croatian fascist<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/620426/Ustasa|title=Ustasa (Croatian political movement) – Britannica Online Encyclopedia
|encyclopedia=Britannica.com|access-date=3 September 2012}}</ref> and terrorist organization, to implement its extreme anti-Serbian ideology in the [[Independent State of Croatia]] (NDH).<ref>
[[#Tomasevich 2001|Tomasevich (2001)]], p. 391 {{blockquote|Serbia proper was under strict German occupation, a situation which allowed the Ustasha to pursue its radical anti-Serbian policy}}
</ref> Its anti-Serb sentiment was [[Racism|racist]] and [[Genocide|genocidal]].<ref name="Djilas1991">{{cite book|author=Aleksa Djilas|title=The Contested Country: Yugoslav Unity and Communist Revolution, 1919–1953|url=https://archive.org/details/contestedcountry00djil_0|url-access=registration|access-date=31 August 2013|year=1991|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-16698-1|page=[https://archive.org/details/contestedcountry00djil_0/page/142 142]|quote=It was racist and genocidal hatred of people who merely had different national consciousness}}</ref><ref name="YeomansWeiss-Wendt2013">{{cite book|author1=Rory Yeomans|author2=Anton Weiss-Wendt|title=Racial Science in Hitler's New Europe, 1938–1945|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8WPLZYsMaGEC&pg=PA228|year=2013|publisher=University of Nebraska Press|isbn=978-0-8032-4605-8|page=228|quote=The Ustasha regime&nbsp;... inaugurated the most brutal campaign of mass murder against civilian population that Southern Europe has ever witnessed&nbsp;...  The campaign of mass murder and deportation against the Serb population was initially justified on [[Scientific racism|scientific racist]] principles.}}</ref> The new government adopted racial laws, similar to [[Racial policy of Nazi Germany|those which existed in Nazi Germany]], and it aimed them at [[Jews]], [[Romani people in Central and Eastern Europe|Roma people]] and Serbs, who were all defined as being "aliens outside the national community"<ref name="DeCosteSchwartz2000">{{cite book|author1=Frederick C. DeCoste|author2=Bernard Schwartz|title=The Holocaust's Ghost: Writings on Art, Politics, Law and Education; [includes Papers from the Conference, Held at the University of Alberta, Oct. 1997]|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lLnBSq7YP0gC&pg=PA196|year=2000|publisher=University of Alberta|isbn=978-0-88864-337-7|page=196|quote=The new government quickly adopted Nazi-type racial laws and genocidal tactics to deal with Roma, Serbs and Jews, whom these laws termed "aliens outside the national community".}}</ref> and persecuted throughout the Independent State of Croatia (NDH) during [[World War II]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Resistance to the Persecution of Ethnic Minorities in Croatia and Bosnia During World War II: Lisa M. Adeli: Books|isbn = 978-0773447455|last1 = Adeli|first1 = Lisa Marie|year = 2009| publisher=Edwin Mellen Press }}</ref> Between 200,000 and 500,000 Serbs were killed in the NDH by the Ustaše and their Axis allies.<ref name="Žerjavić">{{Cite book|last=Žerjavić|first=Vladimir|title=Yugoslavia – Manipulations With the Number of Second World War Victims|publisher=Croatian Information Centre|year=1993|isbn= 0-919817-32-7}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Yeomans|first=Rory|author-link=Rory Yeomans|title=Visions of Annihilation: The Ustasha Regime and the Cultural Politics of Fascism, 1941–1945|year=2012|location=Pittsburgh|publisher=University of Pittsburgh Press |isbn=978-0822977933|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Yxv4-iqVe2wC|page=18}}</ref> Overall, the number of Serbs who were killed in Yugoslavia during World War II was about 700,000, the majority of whom were massacred by various fascist forces.<ref name="hic.hr">{{cite news|last=McAdams|first=C. Michael|url=http://www.hic.hr/books/myth-reality/knjiga.pdf|title=Croatia: Myth and Reality|date=16 August 1992|access-date=16 May 2015|archive-date=4 June 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110604122229/http://www.hic.hr/books/myth-reality/knjiga.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1991/05/16/world/the-serbs-and-croats-so-much-in-common-including-hate.html|title=The Serbs and Croats: So Much in Common, Including Hate, May 16, 1991|work=The New York Times|date=16 May 1991|access-date=16 January 2012}}</ref> Many historians and authors describe the Ustaše regime's mass killings of Serbs as meeting the definition of genocide, including [[Raphael Lemkin]] who is known for coining the word ''genocide'' and initiating the [[Genocide Convention]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Lemkin|first=Raphael|author-link=Raphael Lemkin|title=Axis Rule in Occupied Europe|publisher=The Lawbook Exchange|location=Clark, New Jersey|year=2008|isbn=978-1584779018|pages=259–264}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| title = Genocide of the Serbs| url = http://combatgenocide.org/?page_id=86 | publisher = The Combat Genocide Association}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Levy|first=Michele Frucht|title=The Last Bullet for the Last Serb":The Ustaša Genocide against Serbs: 1941–1945|journal=Nationalities Papers|date=November 2009 |volume=37|issue=6|pages=807–837 |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/nationalities-papers/article/last-bullet-for-the-last-serb1-the-ustasa-genocide-against-serbs-194119452/E0FFF7118941E8545FCABBCABD8FB391|doi = 10.1080/00905990903239174|s2cid = 162231741|url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=McCormick|first=Robert B.|title=Croatia Under Ante Pavelić: America, the Ustaše and Croatian Genocide|year=2014|location=London-New York|publisher=I.B. Tauris|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c-t7BAAAQBAJ|isbn=978-1780767123}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| url=http://public.mzos.hr/fgs.axd?id=10921| author=Ivo Goldstein| title=Uspon i pad NDH| publisher=[[Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, University of Zagreb]]| access-date=20 February 2011| url-status=dead| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110717114852/http://public.mzos.hr/fgs.axd?id=10921| archive-date=17 July 2011| author-link=Ivo Goldstein}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TtWycwryensC&pg=PA430 |title=Century of Genocide: Critical Essays and Eyewitness Accounts |isbn=0-203-89043-4 |page=430 |date=1997 |author=Samuel Totten, William S. Parsons |publisher=Taylor & Francis |access-date=28 September 2010}}</ref> [[Sisak children's concentration camp|Sisak concentration camp]] was set up on 3 August 1942 by the Ustaše government following the [[Kozara Offensive]] and it was specially [[Children in the Holocaust|formed for children]].<ref name="JMCSisakCamp">{{cite web|title=SISAK CAMP|url=http://www.jusp-jasenovac.hr/Default.aspx?sid=7375|website=Jasenovac Memorial Cite|access-date=30 January 2018|archive-date=31 January 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180131023148/http://www.jusp-jasenovac.hr/Default.aspx?sid=7375|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>Marija Vuselica: Regionen Kroatien in Der Ort des Terrors: Arbeitserziehungslager, Ghettos, Jugendschutzlager, Polizeihaftlager, Sonderlager, Zigeunerlager, Zwangsarbeiterlager, Volume 9 of Der Ort des Terrors, Publisher C.H. Beck, 2009, {{ISBN|978-3406572388}} pp. 321–323</ref><ref>Anna Maria Grünfelder: Arbeitseinsatz für die Neuordnung Europas: Zivil- und ZwangsarbeiterInnen aus Jugoslawien in der "Ostmark" 1938/41–1945, Publisher Böhlau Verlag Wien, 2010 {{ISBN|978-3205784531}} pp. 101–106</ref>

[[File:Zagrebački zbor - entrance to a concentration camp.jpg|thumb|Entrance to "Zagrebački zbor" in 1942, it served as a transit camp during the existence of the [[Independent State of Croatia]].]]

Some priests in the Croatian Catholic Church participated in these Ustaša massacres and the mass conversion of Serbs to Catholicism.{{sfn|Ramet|2006|p=124}} During the war, about 250,000 people of the Orthodox faith who were living within the territory of the NDH were either forced or coerced into converting to Catholicism by the Ustaša authorities.<ref>[[#Tomasevich 2001|Tomasevich (2001)]], p. 542</ref> One of the reasons for the close cooperation of a part of the Catholic clergy was its anti-Serb position.<ref>[[#Tomasevich 2001|Tomasevich (2001)]], p. 391 {{blockquote|Close collaboration between Ustaša and part of catholic clergy followed&nbsp;... above all anti-Serbian&nbsp;...}}</ref>

====Kosovo====
When [[Kosovo]] became part of Serbia after WWI, the Yugoslav authorities expelled 400,000 Albanians from Kosovo in the interwar period and promoted the settlement of [[Yugoslav colonization of Kosovo|mostly Serb colonists]] in the region.<ref name="Ramet198">{{cite book|last=Ramet|first=Sabrina P.|title=Social currents in Eastern Europe: The sources and consequences of the great transformation|year=1995|publisher=Duke University Press|isbn=978-0822315483|url=https://archive.org/details/socialcurrentsin01rame|page=[https://archive.org/details/socialcurrentsin01rame/page/n217 198]}}</ref> In WWII, western and central Kosovo became part of Albania and Kosovo Albanians enacted brutal reprisals against the colonists.{{sfn|Ramet|2006|p=141}} During the Italian occupation of Albania in WWII, between 70,000 and 100,000 Serbs were expelled and thousands massacred in annexed Kosovo by Albanian paramilitaries, mainly by the [[Vulnetari]] and [[Balli Kombëtar]].<ref name="Ramet198"/><ref name="Yeomans2006" />

[[Xhafer Deva]] recruited Kosovo Albanians to join the ''[[Waffen-SS]]''.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gerolymatos |first1=Andre |title=Castles Made of Sand: A Century of Anglo-American Espionage and Intervention in the Middle East |date=2010 |publisher=Macmillan |isbn=978-1-4299-1372-0 |page=176 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HcJMUx3HCU4C&pg=PT176}}</ref> The [[21st Waffen Mountain Division of the SS Skanderbeg (1st Albanian)|21st ''Waffen'' Mountain Division of the SS ''Skanderbeg'' (1st Albanian)]] was formed on 1 May 1944,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Bartrop |first1=Paul R. |last2=Dickerman |first2=Michael |title=The Holocaust: An Encyclopedia and Document Collection [4 volumes] |date=2017 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-4408-4084-5 |page=16 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=u4I2DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA16}}</ref> composed of ethnic Albanians, named after Albanian national hero [[Skanderbeg]] who fought the Ottomans in the 15th century.<ref name="Hall">{{cite book |last1=Hall |first1=Richard C. |title=War in the Balkans: An Encyclopedic History from the Fall of the Ottoman Empire to the Breakup of Yugoslavia |date=2014 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-6106-9031-7 |page=287 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wy3TBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA287}}</ref> The division was better known for murdering, raping, and looting in predominantly Serbian areas than for participating in combat operations on behalf of the German war effort.<ref>{{cite book |last = Mojzes |first = Paul |year = 2011 |title = Balkan Genocides: Holocaust and Ethnic Cleansing in the 20th Century |publisher = Rowman & Littlefield |location = Lanham, Maryland |isbn = 978-1-4422-0665-6 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=KwW2O7v7CUcC&pg=PA95 |pages = 94–95}}</ref> Deva and his collaborators were anti-Slavic and advocated for an ethnically pure "Greater Albania".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Petersen |first1=Hans-Christian |last2=Salzborn |first2=Samuel |title=Antisemitism in Eastern Europe: History and Present in Comparison |date=2010 |publisher=Peter Lang |isbn=978-3-6315-9828-3 |page=97 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=k6sqlTGHpsAC&pg=PA97}}</ref> By September 1944, with the [[Allies of World War II|Allied]] victory in the Balkans imminent, Deva and his men attempted to purchase weapons from withdrawing German soldiers in order to organize a "final solution" of the Slavic population of Kosovo. Nothing came of this as the powerful [[Yugoslav Partisans]] prevented any large-scale [[ethnic cleansing]] of Slavs from occurring.<ref name="Yeomans2006">{{cite book |last1=Yeomans |first1=Rory |editor1-last=Blamires |editor1-first=Cyprian |editor2-last=Jackson |editor2-first=Paul |title=World Fascism: A–K |date=2006 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-5760-7940-9 |page=31 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nvD2rZSVau4C&pg=PA31 |chapter=Albania}}</ref> These conflicts were however relatively low-level compared with other areas of Yugoslavia during the war years.<ref name="Malcolm">{{Cite book|last=Malcolm|first=Noel|author-link=Noel Malcolm|title=Kosovo: A Short History|publisher=Macmillan|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GGQ_AQAAIAAJ|page=312|year=1998|isbn=978-0333666128}}</ref> 

=== After World War II ===

Nearly four decades later, in the 1986 draft of the [[Memorandum of the Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts]], concern was expressed that Serbophobia, together with other things, could provoke the restoration of Serbian nationalism with dangerous consequences.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.haverford.edu/relg/sells/reports/memorandumSANU.htm |title=SANU |date=16 June 2008 |access-date=20 June 2012 |quote=The present depressing condition of the Serbian nation, with chauvinism and Serbophobia being ever more violently expressed in certain circles, favor of a revival of Serbian nationalism, an increasingly drastic expression of Serbian national sensitivity, and reactions that can be volatile and even dangerous. |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080616095538/http://www.haverford.edu/relg/sells/reports/memorandumSANU.htm |archive-date=16 June 2008 }}</ref> The 1987 Yugoslav economic crisis, and different opinions within Serbia and other republics about what were the best ways to resolve it, exacerbated growing anti-Serbian sentiment among non-Serbs, but also enhanced Serbian support for Serbian nationalism.<ref name="BideleuxTaylor2013">{{cite book|author1=Robert Bideleux|author2=Professor Richard Taylor|title=European Integration and Disintegration: East and West|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bu2S8bXsirIC&pg=PA60|year=2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-134-77522-4|page=60|quote= By 1987 accelerating inflation and rapid depreciation of the dinar were strengthening Slovene and Croatian demands for sweeping economic liberalization, but these were blocked by Serbia. This exacerbated the growing anti-Serbian sentiments among non-Serbs, but also enhanced Serbian support for Milošević's nationalism and his manipulation of the Kosovo issue, culminating in the abolition of the autonomy of that region.}}</ref>

=== Breakup of Yugoslavia ===
{{Multiple image
 | direction = vertical
 | width     =
 | image1    = The ruins of St. Peters church 2 - Ambienture.jpg
 | caption1  = The ruins of the medieval Serbian Orthodox [[Church of St John the Baptist, Samodreža|Church of St John the Baptist]] in Kosovo
 | image2    = Sunja (Croatia).JPG
 | caption2  = Remnants of a formerly Serb-inhabited house in Croatia
}}
During the [[Yugoslav Wars]] of the 1990s, anti-Serb sentiment flooded Croatia, Bosnia and Kosovo,{{sfn|Ramet|2006|p=39}} and because of its independence and its historical association with Serbophobia, the Independent State of Croatia would sometimes serve as a rallying symbol for people who intended to proclaim aversion towards Serbia.<ref name="Ramet2007">{{harvnb|Ramet|2007|p=3}} {{blockquote|Because of its independence from Belgrade (though not from Berlin) and because of its association with anti-Serb and anti-Allied politics, the NDH would later serve as a rallying symbol for those who wanted to declare their antipathy towards Serbia (during the War of Yugoslav secession)}}</ref> It also worked vice versa. And while the Serbian nationalism of the time is well-known, anti-Serb sentiment was present in all non-Serb republics of Yugoslavia during [[Breakup of Yugoslavia|its breakup]].<ref name="Ramet2006-240">{{harvnb|Ramet|2006|p=240}} {{blockquote|Nationalist and Liberal Echoes in Other Republics Every republic and autonomous province was struck by nationalist outbursts in these years, and among all the non-Serbian nationalities, there were strong anti- Serbian feelings.}}</ref> It is estimated that in the 90s up to 2.8 million books in were written off from Croatian public libraries and mostly destroyed under the guise of the regular process of writing off lost and damaged books from the library systems; the targeted books were frequently Serbian or printed in [[Cyrillic]], along with books ideologically associated with the dissolved Yugoslavian state.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.jutarnji.hr/kultura/knjizevnost/lesaja-devedesetih-smo-unistili-28-mil.-%E2%80%98nepocudnih%E2%80%99-knjiga/1540434/|title=Lešaja: Devedesetih smo uništili 2,8 mil. 'nepoćudnih' knjiga – Jutarnji List|website=www.jutarnji.hr|date=13 July 2012|access-date=24 September 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Knjigocid – uništavanje knjiga u Hrvatskoj 1990-ih |last=Lešaja |first=Ante |publisher=Profil / Srpsko narodno vijeće |year=2012 |isbn=978-953-313-086-6 |location=Zagreb |language=hr |url=https://p-portal.net/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/knjigocid.pdf}}</ref>

In 1997 the [[FR Yugoslavia]] submitted claims to the [[International Court of Justice]] in which it charged that Bosnia and Herzegovina was responsible for the acts of genocide which were committed against the Serbs in Bosnia and Herzegovina, acts which were incited by anti-Serb sentiment and rhetoric which was communicated through all forms of the media. For example, The ''Novi Vox'', a Muslim youth paper, published a poem titled "Patriotic Song" with the following verses: "Dear mother, I'm going to plant willows; We'll hang Serbs from them; Dear mother, I'm going to sharpen knives; We'll soon fill pits again."<ref name=ICJ>International Court of Justice 17 December 1997 [https://web.archive.org/web/20040901164052/http://www.icj-cij.org/icjwww/idocket/ibhy/ibhyorders/ibhy_iorder_19971217.html Case Concerning Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide]. Retrieved 26 August 2007.</ref> The paper ''Zmaj od Bosne'' published an article with a sentence saying "Each Muslim must name a Serb and take oath to kill him."<ref name=ICJ/> The radio station ''Hajat'' broadcast "public calls for the execution of Serbs."<ref name=ICJ/>

According to [[Vojislav Koštunica]] and British commentator [[Mary Dejevky]], in the summer of 1995 the [[President of France|French president]], [[Jacques Chirac]] created controversy when he commented on the [[Bosnian War]], he reportedly called Serbs "a nation of [[Robbery|robbers]] and [[Terrorism|terrorists]]".<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/rude-chirac-ruffles-a-few-feathers-1588688.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220507/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/rude-chirac-ruffles-a-few-feathers-1588688.html |archive-date=7 May 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|title='Rude' Chirac ruffles a few feathers|date=28 June 1995|work=The Independent|access-date=20 June 2019|language=en-GB}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://pescanik.net/the-serb-nation-at-the-crossroads/|title=The Serb nation at the crossroads|date=2 April 2009|work=Peščanik|access-date=20 June 2019|language=en}}</ref>

During the war in Croatia, French writer [[Alain Finkielkraut]] insinuated that Serbs were inherently evil, comparing Serb actions to the Nazis during World War II.{{sfn|MacDonald|2002|p=267}}

During the [[NATO bombing of Yugoslavia]], columnist [[Thomas Friedman]] wrote the following in ''[[The New York Times]]'' on 23 April 1999: "Like it or not, we are at war with the Serbian nation (the Serbs certainly think so), and the stakes have to be very clear: Every week you ravage Kosovo is another decade we will set your country back by pulverizing you. You want 1950? We can do 1950. You want [[Battle of Kosovo|1389]]? [referring to the [[Battle of Kosovo]]] We can do 1389 too." Friedman urged the US to destroy "in Belgrade: every power grid, water pipe, bridge [and] road", annex Albania and Macedonia as "U.S. protectorates", "occupy the Balkans for years,"  and "[g]ive war a chance."<ref>{{cite news|author=Thomas Friedman|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1999/04/23/opinion/foreign-affairs-stop-the-music.html |title=Stop the Music| newspaper=The New York Times|date=23 April 1999}}</ref> [[Fairness and Accuracy in Reporting]] (FAIR) labeled Friedman's remarks "war-mongering" and "crude race-hatred and war-crime agitation".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://fair.org/extra/cpj-declares-open-season-on-thomas-friedman/ |title=CPJ Declares Open Season on Thomas Friedman|website= Fair.org|date=September 2000}}</ref>

Outside the Balkans, [[Noam Chomsky]] observed that not just the government of Serbia, but also the people, were reviled and threatened. He described the [[jingoism]] as "a phenomenon I have not seen in my lifetime since the hysteria whipped up about '[[the Japs]]' during World War II".<ref name=mt2000>{{cite news|last1=Gallagher|first1=Tom|title=The Lessons From Kosovo|url=https://www.themoscowtimes.com/archive/the-lessons-from-kosovo|access-date=1 December 2020|work=[[The Moscow Times]]|date=5 August 2000}}</ref> Chomsky made such comments while also [[Genocide denial|denying]] some aspects of the [[Bosnian genocide]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Jones |first1=Adam |title=Chomsky and Genocide |journal=Genocide Studies and Prevention|date=2020 |volume=14 |issue=1 |pages=76–101 |doi=10.5038/1911-9933.14.1.1738 |url=https://digitalcommons.usf.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1738&context=gsp|doi-access=free }}</ref>

====Criticism====
Some criticism of Anti-Serb sentiment or Serbophobia purportedly corresponds to its interplay with perceived historical revisionism and myths practiced by some Serbian nationalist writers and the government of Slobodan Milošević in the 1990s.{{sfn|MacDonald|2002|pp=63-64, 82–83}} According to political scientist [[David Bruce MacDonald]], in the 1980s Serbs increasingly began to compare themselves to Jews as fellow victims in world history, which involved tragedizing historic events, from the 1389 [[Battle of Kosovo]] to the [[1974 Yugoslav Constitution]], as every aspect of history was seen as yet another example of persecution and victimisation of Serbs at the hands of external negative forces.{{sfn|MacDonald|2002|p=7}} Serbophobia was often likened to [[antisemitism]] and expressed itself as a re-analysis of history where every event that had a negative effect on the Serbs was likened to a tragedy, and used to justify territorial expansion into neighbouring regions.{{sfn|MacDonald|2002|pp=82–88}} According to Christopher Bennett, former director of the [[International Crisis Group]] in the Balkans, the idea of historic Serb martyrdom grew out of the thinking and writing of [[Dobrica Ćosić]] who developed a complex and paradoxical theory of Serb national persecution, which evolved over two decades between the late 1960s and the late 1980s into the [[Greater Serbia]]n programme.<ref name="Comment: Serbia's War With History">[http://iwpr.net/report-news/comment-serbias-war-history Comment: Serbia's War With History] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141010040011/http://iwpr.net/report-news/comment-serbias-war-history |date=10 October 2014 }} by C. Bennett, ''[[Institute for War & Peace Reporting]]'', 19 April 1999</ref> Serbian nationalist politicians have made associations to Serbian "martyrdom" in history (from the Battle of Kosovo in 1389 to the genocide during World War II) to justify Serbian politics of the 1980s and 1990s.<ref name="Comment: Serbia's War With History"/> In late 1988, months before the [[Revolutions of 1989]], Milošević accused his critics like the [[Slovenia]]n leader [[Milan Kučan]] of "spreading fear of Serbia" as a political tactic.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20071019033228/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,968740,00.html "Communism O Nationalism!"], ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]'', 24 October 1988</ref>

==Contemporary and recent issues==

At a football game between Kosovo and Croatia played in Albania in October 2016, the fans together chanted murderous slogans against Serbs.<ref>{{cite news|title=Kosovo-Croatia Match Marred by Anti-Serbian Chants|publisher=Balkan Insight|url=http://www.balkaninsight.com/en/article/kovoso-croatia-football-match-emerge-racial-slurs-10-07-2016}}</ref> Both countries face FIFA hearings due to the incident.<ref>{{cite news|title=Kosovo & Croatia face Fifa hearings over anti-Serbian chanting|publisher=BBC|url=https://www.bbc.com/sport/football/37695179}}</ref> Croat and Ukrainian sports fans have put up hate messages towards Serbs and Russians during a match of their national teams in the 2018 World Cup qualifier.<ref>{{cite web|title=Croat and Ukrainian fans' hate message to Serbs and Russians|date=27 March 2017 |publisher=B92|url=http://www.b92.net/eng/news/region.php?yyyy=2017&mm=03&dd=27&nav_id=100865}}</ref>

===Kosovo Albanians===
{{Main|March Pogrom|Destruction of Serbian heritage in Kosovo}}
[[File:Road Sign with Serbian and Turkish Names Painted Out - Prizren - Kosovo.jpg|thumb|Road signs that depict Serbian names of locations across Kosovo are commonly vandalised.]]
The worst ethnic violence in [[Kosovo]] since the end of the 1999 conflict erupted in the partitioned town of [[Mitrovica, Kosovo|Mitrovica]], leaving hundreds wounded and at least 14 people dead. [[UN]] peacekeepers and [[NATO]] troops scrambled to contain a raging gun battle between [[Kosovo Serbs|Serbs]] and ethnic [[Albanians]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Collapse in Kosovo|date=22 April 2004|url=https://www.crisisgroup.org/europe-central-asia/balkans/kosovo/collapse-kosovo|access-date=25 April 2020}}</ref> Within hours the province was immersed in anti-Serb and anti-UN rioting and had regressed to levels of violence not seen since 1999. In [[Serbia]] the events were also called the ''March Pogrom'' ({{langx|sr|Мартовски погром}} / ''Martovski pogrom''). International courts in [[Pristina]] have prosecuted several people who attacked several Serbian Orthodox churches, handing down jail sentences ranging from 21 months to 16 years.<ref>{{cite web|title=Bitter Memories of Kosovo's Deadly March Riots|url=http://www.balkaninsight.com/en/article/bitter-memories-of-kosovo-s-deadly-march-riots|website=balkaninsight.com|date=17 March 2015|access-date=17 March 2018}}</ref> Numerous Serbian cultural sites in Kosovo were destroyed during and after the [[Kosovo War]]. According to the [[International Center for Transitional Justice]], 155 [[Serbian Orthodox Church|Serbian Orthodox]] churches and monasteries were destroyed by Kosovo Albanians between June 1999 and March 2004.<ref>{{cite web|author=Edward Tawil|date=February 2009|title=Property Rights in Kosovo: A Haunting Legacy of a Society in Transition|publisher=International Center for Transitional Justice|location=New York|url=https://www.ictj.org/sites/default/files/ICTJ-FormerYugoslavia-Kosovo-Legacy-2004-English.pdf|page=14}}</ref>

[[Kosovo Albanian]] media depict Serbia and Serbs as a threat to state frame and security, as disrupting institutional order, draining resources, being extremists, tied to criminal activities (in [[North Kosovo]]), and in retrospect as perpetrators of war crimes and violations of humans rights (reminding the public of Serbs as enemies). Serbs are blamed for inducing the Kosovo War, and since the war are negatively characterized as uncooperative, aggressive, extremist while the Serbian crimes in the war are termed "genocide".<ref>{{cite journal|title=Serbs as threat the extreme negative portrayal of the Serb "minority" in Albanian-language newspapers in Kosovo|author=Zdravković-Zonta Helena|journal=Balcanica |year=2011|issue=42 |pages=165–215|url=http://www.doiserbia.nb.rs/ft.aspx?id=0350-76531142165Z |doi=10.2298/BALC1142165Z|doi-access=free}}</ref>

===Croatia===
Croatian nationalist propaganda, especially the [[Catholic Church]] supported groups, often advocates anti-Serb views.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Bjelajac|first1=Branko|title=Review of Radeljić and Topić's "Religion in the Post-Yugoslav Context"  |journal=Serbian Political Thought |year=2015|volume=36|issue=4|pages=76}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Bruce Macdonald |first1=David |title=Balkan Holocausts? Serbian and Croatian Victim-Centred Propaganda and the War in Yugoslavia |publisher=Manchester University Press |doi=10.7228/manchester/9780719064661.001.0001 |isbn=978-1526137258 |year=2002 |jstor=j.ctt155jbrm |page=20}}</ref> In 2015 [[Amnesty International]] reported that [[Serbs of Croatia|Croatian Serbs]] continued to face discrimination in public sector employment and the restitution of tenancy rights to social housing vacated during the war.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.amnesty.org/en/countries/europe-and-central-asia/croatia/report-croatia/|title=Croatia report |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160114095958/https://www.amnesty.org/en/countries/europe-and-central-asia/croatia/report-croatia/ |date=25 February 2015 |archive-date=14 January 2016 |access-date=16 January 2016}}</ref> In 2017 they again pointed Serbs faced significant barriers to employment and obstacles to regain their property. Amnesty International also said that right to use minority languages and scripts continued to be politicized and unimplemented in some towns and that heightened nationalist rhetoric and hate speech contributed to growing ethnic intolerance and insecurity.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.amnesty.org/en/countries/europe-and-central-asia/croatia/report-croatia/|title=Croatia 2016/2017report |access-date=23 February 2017}}</ref> According to the 2018 [[European Commission against Racism and Intolerance]] report, racist and intolerant hate speech in public discourse is escalating; and one of the main targets are Serbs.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://rm.coe.int/fifth-report-on-croatia/16808b57be|title=ECRI Report on Croatia 2018 |access-date=18 June 2019}}</ref>

Croatian usage of the Ustashe salute ''[[Za dom spremni]]'', the equivalent of Nazi salute ''[[Sieg Heil]]'', is not banned.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Kristović|first1=Ivica|title=Pozdrav 'Za dom spremni' ekvivalent je nacističkom 'Sieg Heil!'|url=http://www.vecernji.hr/hrvatska/ustaski-za-dom-spremni-je-ekvivalent-nacistickom-sieg-heil-904408|access-date=19 December 2014|publisher=Večernji list|date=22 November 2013}}</ref> It is deemed unconstitutional but allowed in "exceptional situations".<ref name="Milekic">{{cite web |last1=Milekic |first1=Sven |title=Croatian Fascist Slogan Deemed Unconstitutional but Allowable |url=https://balkaninsight.com/2018/02/28/croatian-fascist-slogan-deemed-unconstitutional-but-permitted-02-28-2018/ |website=Balkan Insight |publisher=BIRN |date=28 February 2018}}</ref> In 2016, this salute was inscribed on a plaque that was installed near the site of Jasenovac, sparking a reaction from the Serb and Jewish community. It has also been chanted during football matches.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Milošević |first1=Ana |title=Europeanisation and Memory Politics in the Western Balkans |date=2020 |publisher=Springer Nature |isbn=978-3-03054-700-4 |page=67 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hmsDEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA67}}</ref> Some Croats, including politicians, have attempted to [[Genocide denial|deny]] and to minimise the magnitude of the genocide perpetrated against Serbs in the [[Independent State of Croatia]].<ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Institute for War and Peace Reporting|IWPR]]|author=Drago Hedl|url=https://iwpr.net/global-voices/croatias-willingness-tolerate-fascist-legacy|title=Croatia's Willingness To Tolerate Fascist Legacy Worries Many|work=BCR Issue 73|date=10 November 2005|access-date=30 November 2010|author-link=Drago Hedl}}</ref> From 2016 to 2019, anti-fascist groups, leaders of Croatia's Serb, Roma and Jewish communities and former top Croat officials boycotted the official state commemoration for the victims of the [[Jasenovac concentration camp]] because, as they said, Croatian authorities refused to denounce the Ustasha legacy explicitly and tolerated the downplaying and revitalization of their crimes, which included the equation of these crimes with the [[1945 Yugoslav pursuit of Nazi collaborators|communist crimes from 1945]].<ref>{{cite news|title=Dokle će se u Jasenovac u tri kolone?|url=http://rs.n1info.com/Vesti/a244146/Dokle-ce-se-u-Jasenovac-u-tri-kolone.html|access-date=28 July 2019|publisher=N1|date=23 April 2017|archive-date=31 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200731230435/http://rs.n1info.com/Vesti/a244146/Dokle-ce-se-u-Jasenovac-u-tri-kolone.html|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Jasenovac Camp Victims Commemorated Separately Again|url=https://balkaninsight.com/2019/04/12/jasenovac-camp-victims-commemorated-separately-again/|access-date=28 July 2019|publisher=balkaninsight.com|date=12 April 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Jewish and Serbian minorities boycott official "Croatian Auschwitz" commemoration|url=https://www.neweurope.eu/article/jewish-serbian-minorities-boycott-official-croatian-auschwitz-commemoration/|access-date=28 July 2019|publisher=neweurope.eu|date=28 March 2017|archive-date=28 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190728221726/https://www.neweurope.eu/article/jewish-serbian-minorities-boycott-official-croatian-auschwitz-commemoration/|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Former top Croat officials join boycott of Jasenovac event|url=https://www.b92.net/eng/news/region.php?yyyy=2016&mm=04&dd=12&nav_id=97667|access-date=28 July 2019|publisher=B92|date=12 April 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Vladisavljevic |first1=Anja |title=Croatia Remembers Victims of WWII Jasenovac Camp |url=https://balkaninsight.com/2020/04/22/croatia-remembers-victims-of-wwii-jasenovac-camp/ |work=Balkan Insight |date=22 April 2020}}</ref>

In 2013 it was reported that a group of right-wing extremists had [[Croatian Wikipedia controversy|taken over the Croatian Wikipedia]], editing mostly articles related to the Ustashe, whitewashing their crimes, and articles targeting Serbs.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.novilist.hr/Vijesti/Hrvatska/Hr.wikipedija-pod-povecalom-zbog-falsificiranja-hrvatske-povijesti|title=Hr.wikipedija pod povećalom zbog falsificiranja hrvatske povijesti|date=15 September 2013 |publisher=[[Novi list]]|language=hr|trans-title=Croatian Wikipedia under a scrutiny for fabricating Croatian history!|access-date=15 September 2013}}</ref><ref name=dailydot>{{cite news|last1=Sampson|first1=Tim|title=How pro-fascist ideologues are rewriting Croatia's history|url=http://www.dailydot.com/politics/croatian-wikipedia-fascist-takeover-controversy-right-wing/|access-date=11 January 2015|work=The Daily Dot|date=1 October 2013}}</ref> In the same year there were [[Anti-Cyrillic protests in Croatia|protests]] in [[Vukovar]] against introducing Serbian language and Cyrillic script signs, because according to one organizer there had to be a "sign of respect for the sacrifice [[Battle of Vukovar|Vukovar]] has made".<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-croatia-protest-idUSBRE91109C20130202|title=Thousands of Vukovar Croats rally against Serb Cyrillic signs|newspaper=Reuters|date=February 2, 2013}}</ref> Later signs with Cyrillic on administrative buildings were destroyed by Croatian veterans.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://balkaninsight.com/2013/09/02/vukovar-bilingualism-introduce-faces-violent-resistance/|title=Croatia War Veterans Trash Cyrillic Signs in Vukovar|date=September 2, 2013}}</ref> In 2019, Ivan Penava, Mayor of Vukovar, presented the conclusion that conditions have not been met to introduce special rights on the equal use of the Serbian minority's language and script in Vukovar.<ref>{{cite news|title=Heated debate on Cyrillic script in Vukovar City Council|url=https://glashrvatske.hrt.hr/en/news/politics/heated-debate-on-cyrillic-script-in-vukovar-city-council/|access-date=21 October 2019|publisher=Glas Hrvatske|date=18 October 2019|archive-date=21 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191021211206/https://glashrvatske.hrt.hr/en/news/politics/heated-debate-on-cyrillic-script-in-vukovar-city-council/|url-status=dead}}</ref>

[[File:Controversial memorial plaque in Jasenovac ( now moved elsewhere ).jpg|thumb|left|170px|Controversial memorial plaque in [[Jasenovac, Sisak-Moslavina County|Jasenovac]] with Croatian Ustashe salute ''[[Za dom spremni]]'']]

Serbian politicians have recently accused Croatian politicians of anti-Serbian sentiment.<ref>{{cite web|title=Dacic: "The EU offered no real answer to the anti-Serbian policy in the region"|publisher=MFA|url=http://www.mfa.gov.rs/en/press-service/statements/15645-dacic-the-eu-offered-no-real-answer-to-the-anti-serbian-policy-in-the-region}}</ref> In its 2016 report on human rights in Croatia, the US State Department warned about pro-Ustashe and anti-Serb sentiment in Croatia.<ref>{{cite news|title=Slap for Croats: New report of Americans is warning on praising of Ustasha and Anti-Serb Feelings in Croatia|newspaper=Telegraf|url=http://www.telegraf.rs/english/2888251-slap-for-croats-new-report-of-americans-is-warning-on-praising-of-ustasha-and-anti-serb-feelings-in-croatia}}</ref> According to the [[Serbian National Council (Croatia)|Serbian National Council]], hate speech, threats and violence against Serbs rose by 57% in 2016.<ref>{{cite web|title=Intolerance Towards Serbs 'Escalates in Croatia': Report|date=7 March 2017|publisher=Balkan Insight|url=http://www.balkaninsight.com/en/article/intolerance-towards-serbs-grows-dramatically-in-croatia-03-07-2017-2}}</ref> On 12 February 2018, when Serbian president [[Aleksandar Vučić|Vučić]] was to meet with Croatian government representatives in Zagreb, hundreds of demonstrators chanted the salute ''Za dom spremni!'' at the city square.<ref>{{cite web|title=Prve Haos U Zagrebu Ustaše skandiraju: "Za dom spremni"|publisher=Alo!|url=http://www.alo.rs/ustase-skandiraju-za-dom-spremni/145913}}</ref>

[[Marko Perković]] and band ''[[Thompson (band)|Thompson]]'' created controversy by performing songs that openly glorifies the [[Ustasha]] regime and the Genocide of Serbs.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ft.com/content/73b55b52-8b6d-11e8-bf9e-8771d5404543|title=Croatia scores own goal after World Cup success|work=[[Financial Times]]|date=21 July 2018|access-date=28 July 2019}}</ref> The band performed ''[[Jasenovac i Gradiška Stara]]'', which celebrate the massacres at the [[Jasenovac concentration camp|Jasenovac]] and [[Stara Gradiška concentration camp|Stara Gradiška]], which were among the largest [[extermination camps]] in Europe.<ref name = Zuroff>{{cite news|url=http://www.jpost.com/Opinion/Op-EdContributors/Article.aspx?id=66223|title=Ustasa rock n' roll|newspaper=[[The Jerusalem Post]]|date=25 June 2007|last=Zuroff|first=Efraim|author-link=Efraim Zuroff|access-date=28 July 2019}}</ref>

In 2019, there were several alleged hate-motivated incidents targeting Serbs in Croatia, including an attack on three [[VK Crvena zvezda]] players in the coastal city of [[Split, Croatia|Split]], an attack on four seasonal workers in the town of [[Supetar]], two of whom were Serbs, singled out by the attackers due to the dialect they were using, and an attack on Serbs who were watching a [[Red Star Belgrade]] match.<ref name="Vladisavljevic">{{cite web |last1=Vladisavljevic |first1=Anja |title=Croatia: 2019 Blighted by Anti-Serb Hatred |url=https://balkaninsight.com/2019/12/23/croatia-2019-blighted-by-anti-serb-hatred/ |website=BalkanInsight |publisher=Balkan Investigative Reporting Network |date=23 December 2019}}</ref> The latter which resulted in injuries to five people, including a minor, resulted in the indictment of 15 men for committing a hate crime.<ref name="Vladisavljevic" />

===Montenegro under Milo Đukanović===
Some observers have described [[Milo Đukanović]], the longtime ruler of [[Montenegro]], as a Serbophobe.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Bieber |first1=Florian |title=Montenegro in Transition Problems of Identity and Statehood |date=2003 |publisher=Nomos Verlagsgesellschaft |isbn=978-3-832-90072-4 |page=12 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/242513839}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.slobodnaevropa.org/a/1045341.html|title=Milo Đukanović: Potcijenio sam opasnost od manipulacije narodom|newspaper=Radio Slobodna Evropa |date=29 February 2008 |publisher=[[Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty]]|access-date=20 June 2019|last1=Štavljanin |first1=Dragan }}</ref> [[Serbs of Montenegro]] have supposedly been pressured to declare themselves [[Montenegrins]], following the [[2006 Montenegrin independence referendum|2006 referendum]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://moderndiplomacy.eu/2018/11/09/serbian-question-in-montenegro/|title=Serbian question in Montenegro|last=Milacic|first=Slavisha Batko|date=9 November 2018|website=Modern Diplomacy|language=en-US|access-date=18 January 2019}}</ref> {{Better source needed|date=January 2019}} The acquisition of Montenegro's independence has renewed the [[Controversy over ethnic and linguistic identity in Montenegro|dispute over the ethnic and linguistic identity]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Huszka|first=Beata|title=Secessionist Movements and Ethnic Conflict: Debate-Framing and Rhetoric in Independence Campaigns|chapter=The Montenegrin independence movement|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uTlnAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA113|year=2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-134-68784-8|pages=111–113}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Džankić|first1=Jelena |title=Reconstructing the Meaning of Being "Montenegrin" |journal=Slavic Review|date=2014|volume=73|issue=2|pages=347–371|doi=10.5612/slavicreview.73.2.347|hdl=1814/31495|s2cid=145292451 |hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Vuković|first1=Ivan |title=Population Censuses in Montenegro – A Century of National Identity "Repacking"|journal=Contemporary Southeastern Europe|date=2015|volume=2|issue=2|pages=126–141}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Imeri|first1=Shkelzen |title=Evolution of National Identity in Montenegro |journal=Slavic Review|date=2016|volume=5|issue=3|page=141|doi=10.5901/ajis.2016.v5n3p141|doi-access=free}}</ref> Although the majority of citizens in Montenegro declare themselves to speak Serbian language, it is not recognized as an official language.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://balkaninsight.com/2014/10/20/montenegrin-serbs-call-for-language-discrimination-to-stop/|title=Montenegrin Serbs Allege Language Discriminatio|website=Balkan Insight|date=20 October 2014|access-date=20 February 2020}}</ref> A number of Serbian writers have recently been removed from the school curriculum in Montenegro, which was described as creation of an "anti-Serb atmosphere" by a Serbian MP.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://lat.rtrs.tv/vijesti/vijest.php?id=315455|title=CG: U školskoj lektiri nema mjesta za srpske pisce|publisher=RTRS, Radio Televizija Republike Srpske, Radio Television of Republic of Srpska|website=Region – RTRS|access-date=18 January 2019}}</ref>

[[File:Protest in Kotor, Jan 2020.jpg|thumbnail|right|[[2019–2020 clerical protests in Montenegro|Protests]] in [[Kotor]] (2020) against religious discrimination and the controversial [[Freedom of religion in Montenegro|law on religious freedoms]]]]
According to the 2017 survey conducted by the [[Council of Europe]] in cooperation with the Office of the state [[ombudsman]], 45% of respondents reported experiences of [[religious discrimination]] and perception of discrimination were highest by a significant margin among [[Eastern Orthodoxy in Montenegro|Serbian Orthodox Church]] members, while Serbs were facing discrimination considerably more than other ethnic communities.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://rm.coe.int/analytical-report-human-rights-survey-discrimination-patterns-in-monte/168071b1c8|title=Discrimination Patterns in Montenegro|website=Council of Europe|language=en|access-date=3 September 2020|archive-date=11 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200911145945/https://rm.coe.int/analytical-report-human-rights-survey-discrimination-patterns-in-monte/168071b1c8|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2017-report-on-international-religious-freedom/montenegro/|title=2017 Report on International Religious Freedom: Montenegro|website=United States Department of State|language=en-US|access-date=2 September 2020|archive-date=10 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200910102235/https://www.state.gov/reports/2017-report-on-international-religious-freedom/montenegro/|url-status=live}}</ref> In June 2019, Mirna Nikčević, first adviser to the [[Montenegro–Turkey relations|Embassy of Montenegro in Turkey]], commented on protests in front of the [[Cathedral of the Resurrection of Christ, Podgorica|Cathedral of the Resurrection of Christ]] in [[Podgorica]] against the announced controversial religious law: "Honestly, I would burn the temple and all the cattle there".<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.rtcg.me/vijesti/politika/243920/stavovi-savjetnice-nijesu-stavovi-drzave-cg.html|title=Stavovi savjetnice nijesu stavovi države CG|website=[[RTCG]]|access-date=18 June 2019}}</ref> A few days later, Zoran Vujović, an actor of the [[Montenegrin National Theatre]], has posted a lot of insults against the Serbs on his Facebook profile, saying that they were "nothingness, ignorant, degenerate, poisonous".<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.politika.rs/sr/clanak/432164/Glumac-vredao-Srbe-Prava-Crna-Gora-trazi-proces-i-otkaz|title=Glumac Crnogorskog narodnog pozorišta vređa Srbe za koje kaže da su "ništavila, neznalice, izrodi, smećari"&nbsp;... |website=[[Politika]]|access-date=20 June 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.radiosarajevo.ba/vijesti/regija/crnogorski-glumac-prvo-izvrijedao-pa-se-izvinio-srbima/341345|title=Crnogorski glumac prvo izvrijeđao pa se izvinio Srbima|last=Radiosarajevo.ba|website=Radio Sarajevo|date=21 June 2019 |access-date=21 June 2019}}</ref> According to some reporters, pro-Serbian media have faced discrimination.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.politika.rs/scc/clanak/445886/Diskriminacija-srpskih-medija-u-Crnoj-Gori|title=Дискриминација српских медија у Црној Гори|last=Ђурић|first=Новица|website=Politika Online|access-date=22 January 2020}}</ref>

As of late December 2019, the newly proclaimed religion law or officially ''Law on Freedom of Religion or Belief and the Legal Status of Religious Communities'', which ''[[de jure]]'' transfers the ownership of church buildings and estates from the Serbian Orthodox Church to the Montenegrin state,<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/reuters/2019/12/26/world/europe/26reuters-montenegro-protest.html|title=Serbs Protest in Montenegro Ahead of Vote on Religious Law|agency=Reuters|date=2019-12-26|work=The New York Times|access-date=2020-01-05|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://balkaninsight.com/2019/06/14/montenegros-attack-on-church-property-will-create-lawless-society/|title=Montenegro's Attack on Church Property Will Create Lawless Society|date=2019-06-14|website=Balkan Insight|language=en-US|access-date=2020-01-05}}</ref> sparked a series of [[2019–2020 clerical protests in Montenegro|peaceful nationwide protests]] which continued to February 2020.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/aponline/2020/01/01/world/europe/ap-eu-montenegro-church.html|title=Several Thousand Protest Church Bill in Montenegro|agency=[[Associated Press]]|date=2020-01-01|work=The New York Times|access-date=2020-01-05|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200102030703/https://www.nytimes.com/aponline/2020/01/01/world/europe/ap-eu-montenegro-church.html|archive-date=2020-01-02}}</ref> The [[Freedom House]] described the adoption of the law, which is widely seen to target the Serbian Orthodox Church, as "questionable decision".<ref name=freedom_house>{{Cite web|url=https://freedomhouse.org/country/montenegro/nations-transit/2020|title=Nation in Transit 2020: Montenegro|website=Freedom House|language=en-US|access-date=2020-05-10}}</ref> Eighteen opposition MPs, mostly Serbs, were arrested prior to the voting, under the charge for violently disrupting the vote.<ref name=freedom_house /><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-50923647|title=Montenegro's parliament approves religion law despite protests|date=2019-12-27|work=BBC|access-date=2020-01-05|language=en}}</ref> Some church officials were attacked by the police<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.politika.rs/sr/clanak/444908/Episkop-Metodije-posle-prebijanja-u-Crnoj-Gori-hospitalizovan-na-VMA|title=Episkop Metodije, posle prebijanja u Crnoj Gori, hospitalizovan na VMA|website=Politika Online|access-date=2020-01-20}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://slobodnahercegovina.com/saopstenje-co-niksic-fizicki-napadnut-svestenik-mirko-vukotic/|title=Саопштење ЦО Никшић: Физички нападнут свештеник Мирко Вукотић|website=slobodnahercegovina.com|access-date=2020-01-05}}</ref> and a number of journalists, opposition activists and protesting citizens were arrested.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://rs.n1info.com/Region/a556617/Bivsi-predsednik-opstine-Danilovgrad-uhapsen-na-protestu.html|title=Bivši predsednik opštine Danilovgrad uhapšen na protestu|website=N1 Srbija|date=29 December 2019|language=sr-Latn|access-date=2020-01-05|archive-date=16 January 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200116020118/http://rs.n1info.com/Region/a556617/Bivsi-predsednik-opstine-Danilovgrad-uhapsen-na-protestu.html|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/reuters/2019/12/30/world/europe/30reuters-montenegro-protests.html|title=Montenegrin Protesters Clash With Police Over Religion Law|agency=Reuters|date=2019-12-30|work=The New York Times|access-date=2020-01-05|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.rtv.rs/sr_lat/region/marko-milacic-uhapsen-zbog-jucerasnjeg-protesta-carevic-pozvao-gradjane-budve-veceras-na-protest_1080409.html|title=Marko Milačić uhapšen zbog jučerašnjeg protesta, Carević pozvao građane Budve večeras na protest|website=Javna medijska ustanova JMU Radio-televizija Vojvodine|access-date=2020-01-05}}</ref> [[President of Montenegro|President]] Milo Đukanović called the protesting citizens "a lunatic movement".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ibna.rs/dukanovic-to-je-ludacki-pokret-df-mi-smo-deo-tog-pokreta/|title=Đukanović: "To je ludački pokret", DF: "Mi smo deo tog pokreta"|date=2020-01-28|website=Independent Balkan News Agency|language=en-US|access-date=2020-02-13|archive-date=13 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200213131227/https://ibna.rs/dukanovic-to-je-ludacki-pokret-df-mi-smo-deo-tog-pokreta/|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://sveosrpskoj.com/svijet/djukanovic-mirne-litije-za-odbranu-svetinja-nazvao-ludackim-pokretom-koji-rusi-crnu-goru/|title=Đukanović mirne litije za odbranu svetinja nazvao "ludačkim pokretom koji ruši Crnu Goru"|date=2020-01-28|website=Sve o Srpskoj|language=sr-RS|access-date=2020-02-13}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.novosti.rs/vesti/planeta.300.html:844071-Milo-Djukanovic-nazvao-LUDACIMA-narod-u-litijama-po-Crnoj-Gori|title=Milo Đukanović nazvao LUDACIMA narod u litijama po Crnoj Gori|website=www.novosti.rs|language=sr-Latn|access-date=2020-02-13}}</ref>

===Hate speech and derogatory terms===

Among derogatory terms for Serbs are "[[Vlachs]]" (Власи / ''Vlasi'') which was used mainly in [[Hrvatsko Zagorje]] during rebellion in the early 20th century.{{sfn|Banac|1988|pp=255–257}} and "[[Chetniks]]" (четници / ''četnici'') used by Croats and Bosniaks;<ref name="Kolstø2009">{{cite book|author=Pål Kolstø|title=Media Discourse and the Yugoslav Conflicts: Representations of Self and Other|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jGNWORa2QccC&pg=PA73|year=2009|publisher=Ashgate Publishing, Ltd.|isbn=978-1-4094-9164-4|page=73|quote=The hostile 'them' were labelled either as the abstract but omnipresent 'aggressor' or as the stereotypical 'Chetniks' and 'Serbo-communists'. Other derogatory references in Večernji list,&nbsp;...}}</ref> ''[[Shkije]]'' by Albanians;<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cdhrf.org/English/Minorities/CDHRF+report+on+minority+communities,March2006.pdf |title=Civil Rights Defense Minority Communities, March 2006 |date=28 September 2007 |access-date=20 June 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080828123559/http://www.cdhrf.org/English/Minorities/CDHRF%20report%20on%20minority%20communities%2CMarch2006.pdf |archive-date=28 August 2008 |url-status=dead  }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=NIN. nedeljne informativne novine|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p-3lAAAAMAAJ|year=2005|publisher=Politika.|page=6|quote=Албанци Србе зову Шкије, и то им је сасвим у реду, иако је то исто увредљиво као српски погрдни назив за Албанце}}</ref> while ''Čefurji'' is used in Slovenia for immigrants from other former Yugoslav republics.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.fran.si/131/snb-slovar-novejsega-besedja/3620104/T4MVC_System_Web_Mvc_ActionResult|title=Fran/SNB|website=Fran}}</ref> In Montenegro, a widely used derogatory term for Serbs is ''Posrbice'' (посрбице), and it denotes "Montenegrins who identify as Serbs".<ref>{{Cite web|last=Ђурић|first=Новица|title=Прогон "посрбица" на "Фејсбуку" у Црној Гори|url=http://www.politika.rs/scc/clanak/292334/Progon-posrbica-na-Fejsbuku-u-Crnoj-Gori|access-date=2021-05-04|website=Politika Online}}</ref>

====Anti-Serb slogans====
[[File:Virulent Serbophobia in Split.JPG|thumbnail|right|250px|Graffiti calling for murder of Serbs, in front of the Archbishopric bookshop in [[Split, Croatia|Split]], [[Croatia]].]]

The slogan ''Srbe na vrbe!'' (Србе на врбе), meaning "Hang Serbs from the willow trees!" ({{Literal translation|Serbs onto willows!}}) originates from a poem, and was first used by the [[Slovenes|Slovene]] politician [[Marko Natlačen]] in 1914, at the beginning of the Austro-Hungarian [[Serbian Campaign of World War I|war against Serbia]].<ref>
{{cite web |url=http://www.ff.uni-lj.si/oddelki/zgodovin/DANIJELA/HISTORY/_private/20th/bozorepe.pdf |title=Slovene History – 20th century, selected articles |author=Božo Repe |publisher=Department of History of the University of Ljubljana |year=2005 |access-date=6 August 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110608082051/http://www.ff.uni-lj.si/oddelki/zgodovin/DANIJELA/HISTORY/_private/20th/bozorepe.pdf |archive-date=8 June 2011}}</ref><ref>
{{cite web | url = http://www.index.hr/clanak.aspx?id=218775 | title = O Mili Budaku, opet: Deset činjenica i deset pitanja – s jednim apelom u zaključku | publisher = [[Index.hr]]  | language = hr | access-date =6 August 2010}}</ref> It was popularized before [[World War II]] by [[Mile Budak]],<ref name="Nikolić1990">{{cite book |author=Vinko Nikolić |title=Mile Budak, pjesnik i mučenik Hrvatske: spomen-zbornik o stotoj godišnjici rođenja 1899–1989 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FZFiAAAAMAAJ |year=1990 |publisher=Hrvatska revija |isbn=978-84-599-4619-3 |page=55 |quote=''gdje je Budak, izgleda po prvi puta, upotrijebio krilaticu «Srbe na vrbe»''}}</ref> the chief architect of Ustaše ideology against Serbs. During World War II there were mass hangings of Serbs in the [[Independent State of Croatia]] as part of the Ustaše persecution of the Serbs.

In present-day [[Croatian nationalists]] and people who oppose the return of Serb refugees often use the slogan. [[Graffiti]] with the phrase is common, and was noted in the press when it was found painted on a church in 2004,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.spc.rs/Vesti-2004/04/28-4-04-e01.html#usta |title=Ominous Ustashe graffiti on churchyard wall of Church of the Dormition of the Most Holy Mother of God in Imotski |publisher=Information Service of the [[Serbian Orthodox Church]] |date=28 April 2004}}{{dead link|date=January 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}{{clarify|date=January 2016}}</ref> 2006,<ref>{{cite web |url = https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2006/country-chapters/croatia |publisher = Human Rights Watch |title = World Report 2006 – Croatia |date = January 2006}}</ref> and on another church in 2008.<ref>{{cite web |url = https://dnevnik.hr/vijesti/crna-kronika/uvredljivi-grafiti-na-pravoslavnoj-crkvi-u-splitu.html |language = hr |title = Uvredljivi grafiti na Pravoslavnoj crkvi u Splitu (Offensive graffiti on the Serbian Orthodox church in Split) |publisher = [[Nova TV (Croatia)|Nova TV]]/Dnevnik.hr |date = 18 January 2008 |access-date = 6 August 2010}}</ref> In 2010, a banner displaying the slogan appeared in the midst of tourist season at the entrance to [[Split, Croatia|Split]], a major tourist hub in Croatia, during a [[Davis Cup]] tennis match between the two countries. It was removed by the police within hours,<ref>{{cite news |url = https://www.jutarnji.hr/vijesti/hrvatska/na-ulazu-u-split-osvanuo-sramotni-transparent/2113239/ |title = Na ulazu u Split osvanuo sramotni transparent (Shameful banner appears at the entrance to Split) |language = hr |newspaper = [[Jutarnji list]] |date = 9 July 2010 |access-date = 6 August 2010}}</ref> and the banner's creator was later apprehended and charged.<ref>{{cite news |url = http://www.vecernji.hr/vijesti/antonio-v-23-osmislio-transparent-srbe-vrbe-clanak-171159 |language = hr |newspaper = [[Večernji list]] |title = Otkriven idejni začetnik izrade rasističkog transparenta – Antonio V. (23) osmislio transparent "Srbe na vrbe" |date = 23 July 2010 |access-date =6 August 2010 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20100726072439/http://www.vecernji.hr/vijesti/antonio-v-23-osmislio-transparent-srbe-vrbe-clanak-171159 |archive-date= 26 July 2010 |url-status= live
}}</ref> A Serbian Orthodox church in Geelong, Australia, was spray-painted with the slogan, along with other neo-Nazi symbols, in 2016.<ref>{{cite news|title=Geelong church community horrified by anti-Serbian graffiti|date=16 February 2016|publisher=SBS|url=https://www.sbs.com.au/news/geelong-church-community-horrified-by-anti-serbian-graffiti}}</ref>

== Gallery ==
<gallery class="center" widths="180" heights="180px" perrow="5" style="border-radius: 0.5em;">
File:Devastated and robbed shops owned by Serbs in Sarajevo 1914.jpg|Devastated and robbed shops owned by Serbs in [[Sarajevo]] during the Anti-Serb pogrom in Sarajevo.
File:Hromadná poprava Srbů.jpg|Austro-Hungarian soldiers executing Serb civilians during World War I.
File:Ostatky Srbů povražděných Bulhary.jpg|The remains of Serbs executed by [[Kingdom of Bulgaria|Bulgarian]] soldiers in the [[Surdulica massacre]] during World War I. An estimated 2,000–3,000 Serbian men were killed in the town during the first months of the Bulgarian occupation of southern Serbia.{{sfn|Mitrović|2007|p=223}}
File:Ustaše order for Jews and Serbs to leave-1941.jpg|Order for Serbs and Jews to move out of their home in Zagreb, in the Nazi puppet state during World War II. Also, a warning of forcible expulsion for Serbs and Jews who fail to comply.
File:Church of the Holy Saviour - Prizren.jpg|Ruins of the [[Church of Holy Salvation, Prizren]] which was built circa 1330 and destroyed during the [[2004 unrest in Kosovo]].
File:Ljeviska007b.jpg|14th-century icon from [[Our Lady of Ljeviš]] in [[Prizren]], which was damaged in 2004 by rioters.
</gallery>

==See also==
{{Portal|Serbia}}
* [[Serbian Question]]
* [[Persecution of Eastern Orthodox Christians]]
* [[Anti-Serb riots in Sarajevo]]
* [[1991 anti-Serb riot in Zadar]]
* [[Panda Bar incident]]
* [[Podujevo bus bombing]]
* [[Goraždevac murders]]
* [[Anti-Slavic sentiment]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Sources==
{{refbegin|2}}
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* {{cite book|last=Carmichael|first=Cathie|title=Ethnic Cleansing in the Balkans: Nationalism and the Destruction of Tradition|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ybORI4KWwdIC&pg=PT96|year=2012|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-134-47953-5}}
* {{cite book|last=Ćirković|first=Sima|author-link=Sima Ćirković|year=2004|title=The Serbs|location=Malden|publisher=Blackwell Publishing|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2Wc-DWRzoeIC|isbn=978-1405142915}}
* {{cite book|last=Ekmečić|first=Milorad|author-link=Milorad Ekmečić|title=Srbofobija i antisemitizam|publisher=Beli anđeo|year=2000}}
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* {{cite book|last=Korb|first=Alexander|chapter=A Multipronged Attack: Ustaša Persecution of Serbs, Jews, and Roma in Wartime Croatia|title=Eradicating Differences: The Treatment of Minorities in Nazi-Dominated Europe|year=2010|location=Newcastle upon Tyne|publisher=Cambridge Scholars Publishing|pages=145–163|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wGknBwAAQBAJ|isbn=978-1443824491}}
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* {{cite book|last1=Little|first1=David|title=Peacemakers in Action: Profiles of Religion in Conflict Resolution|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WTuZJxwYltEC&pg=PA125|year=2007|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-85358-3}}
* {{cite book|last=MacDonald|first=David Bruce|title=Balkan Holocausts?: Serbian and Croatian Victim Centred Propaganda and the War in Yugoslavia|publisher=Manchester University Press|year=2002|isbn=0-7190-6466-X}}
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* {{cite book|last=Meier|first=Viktor|title=Yugoslavia: A History of Its Demise|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lRCDR464ut0C|year=2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-134-66511-2}}
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* {{cite book|last=Pavlowitch|first=Stevan K.|title=Hitler's New Disorder: The Second World War in Yugoslavia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=R8d2409V9tEC|year=2008|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=978-0-231-70050-4}}
* {{cite book|last=Ramet|first=Sabrina P.|title=Nihil Obstat: Religion, Politics, and Social Change in East-Central Europe and Russia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZvMi6paTOlcC|year=1998|publisher=Duke University Press|isbn=978-0-8223-2070-8}}
* {{cite book|last=Ramet|first=Sabrina P.|title=The Three Yugoslavias: State-building and Legitimation, 1918-2005|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FTw3lEqi2-oC|year=2006|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=978-0-253-34656-8}}
* {{cite book|last=Ramet|first=Sabrina P.|title=The Independent State of Croatia 1941-45|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6p1pAAAAMAAJ|year=2007|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-415-44055-4}}
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* {{cite book|last=Štrbac|first=Savo|author-link=Savo Štrbac|title=Gone with the Storm: A Chronicle of Ethnic Cleansing of Serbs from Croatia|year=2015|location=Knin-Banja Luka-Beograd|publisher=Grafid, DIC Veritas|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uSqBnQAACAAJ|isbn=978-9995589806}}
* {{cite book|last=Tomasevich|first=Jozo|title=War and Revolution in Yugoslavia, 1941–1945: Occupation and Collaboration|volume=2|publisher=Stanford University Press|year=2001|location=San Francisco|isbn=0-8047-3615-4|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fqUSGevFe5MC}}
* {{cite book|last=Trbovich|first=Ana S.|title=A Legal Geography of Yugoslavia's Disintegration|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ojur7dVoxIcC|year=2008|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-533343-5}}
* {{cite book|editor-last=Wingfield|editor-first=Nancy M.|editor-link=Nancy M. Wingfield|title=Creating the Other: Ethnic Conflict & Nationalism in Habsburg Central Europe|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fkUEDAAAQBAJ|publisher=Berghahn Books|year=2003|isbn=978-1782388524}}

;Journals
* {{cite journal|last=Božić|first=Sofija|title=Serbs in Croatia (1918–1929): Between the myth of "Greater-Serbian Hegemony" and social reality|journal=Balcanica|year=2010|issue=41|pages=185–208|doi=10.2298/BALC1041185B|url=http://www.doiserbia.nb.rs/ft.aspx?id=0350-76531041185B|doi-access=free}}

{{refend}}

==Further reading==
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book|script-title=sr:Антисрпство у уџбеницима историје у Црној Гори|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FUCxJgAACAAJ|year=2007|publisher=Српско народно вијеће|isbn=978-9940-9009-1-5|language=sr}}
* {{cite book|last=Mitrović|first=Jeremija D.|title=Srbofobija i njeni izvori|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XcBpAAAAMAAJ|year=2005|publisher=Službeni glasnik|isbn=978-8675494232}}
* {{cite book|last=Ћосић|first=Добрица|script-title=sr:Српско питање|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1odpAAAAMAAJ|year=2004|publisher=Филип Вишњић|language=sr}}
* {{cite book|last=Popović|first=Vasilj|title=Европа и српско питање у периоду ослобођења (1804–1918)|url=https://www.rastko.rs/rastko/delo/12286|date=1940|publisher=Geca Kon}}
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Anti-Serb sentiment}}
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite journal | journal = [[Cambridge Papers]] | title = Victim Chic? The Rhetoric of victimhood | first = Michael | last = Ovey | url = http://www.jubilee-centre.org/document.php?id=50 | access-date = 18 February 2014 | archive-date = 22 February 2014 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140222020139/http://www.jubilee-centre.org/document.php?id=50 | url-status = dead }}
* [http://epress.lib.uts.edu.au/ojs/index.php/portal/article/viewFile/90/58 Globalizing the Holocaust: A Jewish "useable past" in Serbian nationalism] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220109204501/https://epress.lib.uts.edu.au/ojs/index.php/portal/article/viewFile/90/58 |date=9 January 2022 }}, by David McDonald, [[University of Otago]], New Zealand
* [http://www.jungewelt.de/2000/10-14/003.shtml ''Neue Serbophilie und alte Serbophobie''], "New Serbophilia and Old Serbophobia", a 2000 ''[[Junge Welt]]'' article by Werner Pirker {{in lang|de}}
* {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/*/http://www.lire.fr/entretien.asp?idC=33688&idR=201&idTC=4&idG= |date=* |title=''Marc Fumaroli'' }}, a 1999 article by Catherine Argand from ''[[Lire (magazine)|Lire]]'', a French literary magazine {{in lang|fr}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20050103063740/http://www.comune.torino.it/cultura/intercultura/8/8c3.html ''Europa e nuovi nazionalismi''], a 2001 article by Luca Rastello {{in lang|it}}
* {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/*/http://www.7days.ru/w3s.nsf/Archive/2000_218_polit_text_makarkin1.html |date=* |title=''Бомбы или гражданская война'' }}, a 2000 [[Sevodnya]] article by Alexei Makarkin {{in lang|ru}}
* [http://www.aimpress.ch/dyn/alba/archive/data/200010/01026-001-alba-lju.htm ''Ku është antimillosheviqi?''], a 2000 AIM article by Igor Mekina {{in lang|sq}}
{{refend}}{{Anti-Slavic sentiment}}

{{Discrimination}}

[[Category:Anti-Serbian sentiment| ]]
[[Category:Persecution of Serbs]]
[[Category:Foreign relations of Serbia]]
[[Category:Anti-Slavic sentiment]]
[[Category:Anti-national sentiment|Serbian]]