View source for Antelope

{{Short description|Group of even-toed ruminants}}
{{about|the herbivorous mammals}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2025}}
{{Paraphyletic group
| name = 
| image = Blackbuck male female.jpg
| image_alt = Blackbuck antelope of India
| image_caption = [[Blackbuck]] antelope of [[India]]
| auto = yes
| parent = Bovidae
| includes = 
* [[Aepycerotini]]
* [[Alcelaphini]]
* [[Antilopini]]
* [[Boselaphini]]
* [[Cephalophini]]
* [[Hippotragini]]
* [[Nesotragus|Nesotragini]]
* [[Oreotragini]]
* [[Pantholopini]]
* [[Reduncini]]
* [[Tragelaphini]]
| excludes = * [[Bovini]]
* [[Caprini]]
* [[Ovibovini]]
| parent 2 = Bovinae and Antilopinae
}}
[[File:Sable bull.jpg|thumb|A bull [[sable antelope]] among the trees in the African [[savanna]]]]
An '''antelope''' is any of the extant or recently extinct species of the [[ruminant]] [[artiodactyls|artiodactyl]] family [[Bovidae]], which are [[indigenous (ecology)|indigenous]] to most of [[Africa]], [[India]], the [[Middle East]], [[Central Asia]], and a small area of [[Russia]]. Antelopes do not form a [[monophyletic]] group, as some antelopes are more closely related to other bovid groups, such as [[Bovini|bovines]], [[goat]]s, and [[sheep]], than to other antelopes.

A stricter grouping, known as the '''true antelopes''', includes only the [[genus|genera]] ''[[gazelle|Gazella]]'', ''[[Nanger]]'', ''[[Eudorcas]]'', and ''[[Antilope]]''.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2019-10-01|title=Multilocus nuclear markers provide new insights into the origin and evolution of the blackbuck (''Antilope cervicapra'', Bovidae)|url=http://eprints.iisc.ac.in/63675/2/1-s2.0-S1055790319302866-mmc2.pdf |journal=Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution |language=en |volume=139 |article-number=106560 |doi=10.1016/j.ympev.2019.106560 |issn=1055-7903 |last1=Jana |first1=Ananya |last2=Karanth |first2=Praveen |pmid=31323336 |bibcode=2019MolPE.13906560J |s2cid=198135421}}</ref> One [[North America]]n mammal, the [[pronghorn]] or "pronghorn antelope", is colloquially referred to as the "American antelope", despite the fact that it belongs to a different family ([[Antilocapridae]]) than the true Old-World antelopes; pronghorn are the sole extant member of a lineage that once included many species which went extinct in the prehistoric period.

Although antelopes are sometimes misidentified as "deer" ([[cervids]]), the groups are only distantly related. While antelopes are found in abundance in Africa, there is only one living African deer species: the [[Barbary stag]] of North Africa. By comparison, numerous deer species are found in regions of the world with few or no antelope species present, such as throughout [[Southeast Asia]], [[Europe]] and all of [[the Americas]]. This is likely due to competition over shared resources, as deer and antelope fill a virtually identical [[ecological niche]] in their respective habitats. Countries like India, however, have large populations of endemic deer and antelope, with the different species generally keeping to their own "niches" with minimal overlap.

Unlike deer, in which males of most species sport bone [[antler]]s that are shed and regrown annually, antelope horns are bone encased in keratin and grow steadily, never falling off. If a horn is broken, it will either remain broken or take years to partially regenerate, depending on the species.<ref>{{cite book |title=Book_Whitetail Savvy: New Research and Observations about America's Most Popular ... Section - Horns v/s Antlers |isbn = 978-1-62636-531-5| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HnKCDwAAQBAJ&q=Unlike+deer+antlers%2C+which+are+shed+and+grown+annually%2C+antelope+horns+grow+continuously.&pg=PT185 |last1 = Rue|first1 = Leonard Lee|date = 3 September 2013| publisher=Simon and Schuster }}</ref>

==Etymology==
[[File:Topsell-5.jpg|thumb|right|Illustration from ''[[Edward Topsell|The History of Four-footed Beasts]]'' (1607)]]
The English word "antelope" first appeared in 1417 and is derived from the [[Old French]] ''antelop'', itself derived from [[Medieval Latin]] ''ant(h)alopus'', which in turn comes from the [[Byzantine Greek]] word ἀνθόλοψ, ''anthólops'', first attested in [[Eustathius of Antioch]] ({{circa|336}}), according to whom it was a [[fabulous animal]] "haunting the banks of the Euphrates, very savage, hard to catch and having long, saw-like horns capable of cutting down trees".<ref>[http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/antelope "Antelope".] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418222556/http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/Antelope |date=2014-04-18 }} ''Dictionary.com''. ''Online Etymology Dictionary''. Douglas Harper, Historian. Accessed 1 September 2008.</ref> It perhaps derives from Greek ἀνθος, ''anthos'' (flower) and ώψ, ''ops'' (eye), perhaps meaning "beautiful eye" or alluding to the animals' long eyelashes. This, however, may be a [[folk etymology]] in Greek based on some earlier root. The word ''talopus'' and ''calopus'', from Latin, came to be used in [[heraldry]]. In 1607, it was first used for living, [[Deer|cervine]] animals.

==Species==
{{See also|List of even-toed ungulates by population}}
There are 91 antelope species, most of which are native to Africa, in about 30 genera. The classification of tribes or subfamilies within [[Bovoidea]] is still a matter of debate, with several alternative systems proposed.

Antelope are not a [[cladistic]] or taxonomically defined group.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=antelope {{!}} mammal |url=https://www.britannica.com/animal/antelope-mammal |access-date=2022-06-30 |website=Encyclopedia Britannica |language=en}}</ref> The term is used to describe all members of the family Bovidae that do not fall under the category of [[sheep]], [[cattle]], or [[goat]]s. Usually, all species of the [[Antilopinae]], [[Hippotraginae]], [[Reduncinae]], [[Cephalophinae]], many [[Bovinae]], the [[grey rhebok]], and the [[impala]] are called antelope.

==Distribution and habitat==
More species of antelope are native to [[Africa]] than to any other continent, almost exclusively in [[savannah]]s, with 25-40 species co-occurring over much of East Africa.<ref name="Bro16">{{cite book|last1=Bro-Jorgensen|first1=Jakob|last2=Mallon|first2=David P.|title=Antelope Conservation: From Diagnosis to Action|date=2016|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-118-40963-3|pages=163–164|edition=1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Vt5QDAAAQBAJ|access-date=9 July 2016|language=en|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171125020843/https://books.google.com/books?id=Vt5QDAAAQBAJ|archive-date=25 November 2017}}</ref> Because savannah habitat in Africa has expanded and contracted five times over the last three million years, and the fossil record indicates this is when most extant species evolved, it is believed that isolation in refugia during contractions was a major driver of this diversification.<ref name="Vrba95">{{cite book|last1=Vrba|first1=Elisabeth S.|title=Paleoclimate and Evolution, with Emphasis on Human Origins|date=1995|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=978-0-300-06348-6|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1A8MmMaN4VwC|access-date=9 July 2016|language=en|page=104|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161222073651/https://books.google.com/books?id=1A8MmMaN4VwC|archive-date=22 December 2016}}</ref> Other species occur in Asia: the [[Arabian Peninsula]] is home to the [[Arabian oryx]] and [[Dorcas gazelle]]. South Asia is home to the [[nilgai]], [[chinkara]], [[blackbuck]], [[Tibetan antelope]], and [[four-horned antelope]], while Russia and Central Asia have the Tibetan antelope and [[Saiga antelope|saiga]].
[[File:Blue Duiker skeleton.jpg|thumb|Blue duiker (''[[Blue duiker|Philantomba monticola]])'' skeleton on display at the [[Museum of Osteology]]]]
No antelope species is native to [[Australasia]] or [[Antarctica]], nor do any extant species occur in the [[Americas]], though the nominate saiga subspecies occurred in North America during the Pleistocene. North America is currently home to the native [[pronghorn]], which taxonomists do not consider a member of the antelope group, but which is often locally referred to as such (e.g., "American antelope"). In [[Europe]], several extinct species occur in the fossil record, and the saiga was found widely during the [[Pleistocene]] but did not persist into the later [[Holocene]],<ref>Yalden, Derek (1999) ''The History of British Mammals'' Academic Press. {{ISBN|0856611107}}</ref> except in Russian [[Kalmykia]]  and [[Astrakhan Oblast]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.kalmykia.eu/nature/saiga/ |title=Republic of Kalmykia » Saiga |access-date=2016-12-21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161222090820/http://www.kalmykia.eu/nature/saiga/ |archive-date=2016-12-22 }}</ref>

Many species of antelope have been imported to other parts of the world, especially the United States, for exotic game hunting. With some species possessing spectacular leaping and evasive skills, individuals may escape. [[Texas]] in particular has many game ranches, as well as habitats and climates that are very hospitable to African and Asian plains antelope species. Accordingly, wild populations of blackbuck antelope, [[gemsbok]], and [[nilgai]] may be found in Texas.<ref>Mungall, Elizabeth Cary (2007) ''Exotic Animal Field Guide''. A&M University Press. College Station. {{ISBN|158544555X}}</ref>

Antelope live in a wide range of habitats. Most live in the African [[savannah]]s. However, many species are more secluded, such as the forest antelope, as well as the extreme cold-living saiga, the desert-adapted [[Arabian oryx]], the rocky [[koppie]]-living [[klipspringer]], and semiaquatic [[sitatunga]].<ref>Spinage, C. A. (1986). ''The Natural History of Antelopes''. Facts on File Publications. New York. {{ISBN|0709944411}}</ref>

Species living in forests, woodland, or bush tend to be sedentary, but many of the plains species undertake long migrations. These enable grass-eating species to follow the rains and thereby their food supply. The [[Wildebeest|gnus]] and [[gazelle]]s of [[East Africa]] perform some of the most impressive mass migratory circuits of all mammals.<ref>Estes, Richard D. (1992). ''The Behavior Guide to African Mammals''. University of California Press. {{ISBN|0520080858}}</ref>

==Morphology==
{{Unreferenced section|date=August 2019}}
[[File:Antilope girafe debout.jpg|thumb|[[Gerenuk]]s can stand erect on their hind legs to browse on high foliage]]

===Body and covering===
Antelope vary greatly in size. For example, a male [[common eland]] can measure {{convert|178|cm|ftin|frac=2|abbr=on}} at the shoulder and weigh almost {{convert|950|kg|lb|sigfig=2|abbr=on}}, whereas an adult [[royal antelope]] may stand only {{convert|24|cm|in|frac=2|abbr=on}} at the shoulder and weigh a mere {{convert|1.5|kg|lb|frac=4|abbr=on}}.

Antelope have a wide variety of coverings, though most have a dense coat of short fur. In most species, the coat (pelage) is some variation of a brown colour (or several shades of brown), often with white or pale underbodies. Exceptions include the zebra-marked [[zebra duiker]], the grey, black, and white [[Jentink's duiker]], and the [[black lechwe]]. Most of the "spiral-horned" antelope have pale, vertical stripes on their backs. Many desert and semidesert species are particularly pale, some almost silvery or whitish (e.g. Arabian oryx); the [[Beisa oryx|beisa]] and [[Southern Oryx|southern oryxes]] have gray and black pelages with vivid black-and-white faces. Common features of various [[gazelle]]s are white rumps, which flash a warning to others when they run from danger, and dark stripes midbody (the latter feature is also shared by the springbok and beira). The springbok also has a pouch of white, brushlike hairs running along its back, which opens up when the animal senses danger, causing the dorsal hairs to stand on end.

Many antelope are sexually dimorphic. In most species, both sexes have horns, but those of males tend to be larger. Males tend to be larger than the females, but exceptions in which the females tend to be heavier than the males include the [[bush duiker]], [[Neotragini|dwarf antelope]], [[Cape grysbok]], and [[oribi]], all rather small species. A number of species have hornless females (e.g., [[sitatunga]], [[red lechwe]], and [[suni]]). In some species, the males and females have differently coloured pelages (e.g. [[blackbuck]] and [[nyala]]).

Many wild antelopes are characterized by high running and jumping abilities. Their main defence against predators is to try to escape.

Species such as [[black wildebeest]], [[springbok]], [[blesbok]], [[mountain reedbuck]], [[greater kudu]] as well the [[European fallow deer]] have high concentrations of [[Glycolysis|glycolitic]] [[Fast twitch fiber|fast twitch]] type IIx muscle fibers; smaller species naturally have higher concentrations of type IIx fibers than larger species.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last=Kohn |first=T. A. |date=2014 |title=Insights into the skeletal muscle characteristics of three southern African antelope species |journal=Biology Open |volume=3 |issue=11 |pages=1037–1044 |doi=10.1242/bio.20149241 |issn=2046-6390 |pmc=4232761 |pmid=25326514}}</ref><ref name=":9">{{Cite journal |last1=Kohn |first1=T. A. |last2=Curry |first2=J. W. |last3=Noakes |first3=T. D. |date=2011 |title=Black wildebeest skeletal muscle exhibits high oxidative capacity and a high proportion of type IIx fibres |url=https://journals.biologists.com/jeb/article/214/23/4041/10618/Black-wildebeest-skeletal-muscle-exhibits-high |journal=Journal of Experimental Biology |volume=214 |issue=23 |pages=4041–4047 |doi=10.1242/jeb.061572 |pmid=22071196 |bibcode=2011JExpB.214.4041K |issn=0022-0949|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Curry |first1=J. W. |last2=Hohl |first2=R. |last3=Noakes |first3=T. D. |last4=Kohn |first4=T. A. |date=2012 |title=High oxidative capacity and type IIx fibre content in springbok and fallow deer skeletal muscle suggest fast sprinters with a resistance to fatigue |journal=Journal of Experimental Biology |volume=215 |issue=22 |pages=3997–4005 |doi=10.1242/jeb.073684 |issn=0022-0949 |pmc=3597281 |pmid=22899533}}</ref> Although their concentration of type IIx fibers is still lower than that of the wild [[cheetah]], other running-adapted mammal; wild cheetah [[vastus lateralis muscle]] have a concentration of 76% of type IIx fibers,<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last1=Williams |first1=T. M. |last2=Dobson |first2=G. P. |last3=Mathieu-Costello |first3=O. |last4=Morsbach |first4=D. |last5=Worley |first5=M. B. |last6=Phillips |first6=J. A. |date=1997 |title=Skeletal muscle histology and biochemistry of an elite sprinter, the African cheetah |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/13826213 |journal=Journal of Comparative Physiology B |language=en |volume=167 |issue=8 |pages=527–535 |doi=10.1007/s003600050105 |issn=1432-136X |pmid=9404014}}</ref> compared to 58% of springbok, 57% of mountain reedbuck, 55% of blesbok, 48% of European fallow deer, 43% of greater kudu and 30% black wildebeest.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":9" /><ref name=":3" /> The concentration of type IIx muscle fibers in human vastus lateralis muscle is 7%.<ref name=":10">{{Cite journal |last1=Kohn |first1=T. A. |last2=Knobel |first2=S. |last3=Donaldson |first3=B. |last4=van Boom |first4=K. M. |last5=Blackhurst |first5=D. M. |last6=Peart |first6=J. M. |last7=Jensen |first7=J. |last8=Tordiffe |first8=A. S. W. |date=2024 |title=Does sex matter in the cheetah? Insights into the skeletal muscle of the fastest land animal |url= |journal=Journal of Experimental Biology |language=en |volume=227 |issue=15 |article-number=jeb247284 |doi=10.1242/jeb.247284 |issn=0022-0949 |pmc=11418166 |pmid=39023116}}</ref>

The activity of the anaerobic enzyme [[Lactate dehydrogenase|LDH]], an indicator of a principally anaerobic muscle metabolism, is around 4 times more higher than that of humans, a level of activity comparable to that of the [[lion]], but lower than that of the wild [[caracal]] and especially that of the wild cheetah; LDH activity is 6 times higher than that of the humans in caracal and 9 times higher in the wild cheetah.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kohn |first1=T. A. |last2=Burroughs |first2=R. |last3=Hartman |first3=M. J. |last4=Noakes |first4=T. D. |date=2011 |title=Fiber type and metabolic characteristics of lion (Panthera leo), caracal (Caracal caracal) and human skeletal muscle |url=https://repository.up.ac.za/bitstream/handle/2263/19598/Kohn_Fiber(2011).pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y |journal=Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part A: Molecular & Integrative Physiology |volume=159 |issue=2 |pages=125–133 |doi=10.1016/j.cbpa.2011.02.006 |pmid=21320626 |issn=1095-6433}}</ref><ref name=":1" />

Activity of aerobic enzymes [[Citrate synthase|CS]] and [[3-hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydrogenase|3HAD]] is higher than that of the felids in general and is comparable to that of human endurance runners. This indicates muscles capable of both high speed and high endurance.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" />

[[Impala]] muscles, on the other hand, have a high concentrations of oxidative-glycolitic fast twitch type IIa muscle fibers.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Kohn |first1=T. A. |last2=Kritzinger |first2=B. |last3=Hoffman |first3=L. C. |last4=Myburgh |first4=K. H. |date=2005 |title=Characteristics of impala (Aepyceros melampus) skeletal muscles |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S030917400400186X |journal=Meat Science |volume=69 |issue=2 |pages=277–282 |doi=10.1016/j.meatsci.2004.07.007 |pmid=22062819 |issn=0309-1740|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

Both impala and [[reindeer]] have a CS level activity comparable to that of the human endurance runners and their muscle metabolism appears to be principally aerobic, indicating muscles capable of high endurance.<ref name=":5" />

In the impala, hindlimbs muscles form 17.5% of their body mass while forelimbs muscles form 11.3%.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Wilson |first1=A. M. |last2=Hubel |first2=T. Y. |last3=Wilshin |first3=S. D. |last4=Lowe |first4=J. C. |last5=Lorenc |first5=M. |last6=Dewhirst |first6=O. P. |last7=Bartlam-Brooks |first7=H. L. A. |last8=Diack |first8=R. |last9=Bennitt |first9=E. |last10=Golabek |first10=K. A. |last11=Woledge |first11=R. C. |last12=McNutt |first12=J. W. |last13=Curtin |first13=N. A. |last14=West |first14=T. G. |date=2018 |title=Biomechanics of predator–prey arms race in lion, zebra, cheetah and impala |url=https://rvc-repository.worktribe.com/js/pdfjs/web/viewer.html?file=https://rvc-repository.worktribe.com/previewfile/1388812/11143.pdf |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=554 |issue=7691 |pages=183–188 |bibcode=2018Natur.554..183W |doi=10.1038/nature25479 |issn=1476-4687 |pmid=29364874}}</ref> Compared to the reindeer in which hind and forelimb muscles form 14.8% and 10.9% of their body mass, respectively.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wareing |first1=K. |last2=Tickle |first2=P. G. |last3=Stokkan |first3=K. |last4=Codd |first4=J. R. |last5=Sellers |first5=W. I. |date=2011 |title=The musculoskeletal anatomy of the reindeer (Rangifer tarandus): fore- and hindlimb |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/225608444 |journal=Polar Biology |language=en |volume=34 |issue=10 |pages=1571–1578 |doi=10.1007/s00300-011-1017-y |bibcode=2011PoBio..34.1571W |issn=1432-2056}}</ref>

Antelopes tend to have very long limbs for their body masses; a 60 kg [[Grant's gazelle|Peter's gazelle]] have a shoulder height of 90 cm, whereas a cheetah and a [[leopard]] of the same body mass have a shoulder height of 79 cm and 64 cm, respectively.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Alexander |first=R. McNeill |url=https://archive.org/details/mammalsaspredato0000unse/mode/1up |title=Mammals as predators: the proceedings of a symposium held by the Zoological Society of London and the Mammal Society, London, 22nd and 23rd November 1991 |date=1993 |publisher=Oxford: Published for the Zoological Society of London by Clarendon Press; New York : Oxford University Press |others=Internet Archive |isbn=978-0-19-854067-0 |editor-last=Dunstone |editor-first=N. |pages=1–13 |chapter=Legs and Locomotion of Carnivora |doi=10.1093/oso/9780198540670.003.0001 |editor-last2=Gorman |editor-first2=M. L. |chapter-url=}}</ref> [[Pronghorn|Pronghorns]] and Old World antelopes have greater elongation and weight reduction in the distal parts of their limbs (Forearms, shins, front and hind feet), than the cheetah, the fastest land animal, indicating that longer limbs with more elongated and lighter distal parts are not as necessary for reaching the highest speeds for short periods of time, but are more necessary for maintaining higher speeds for longer periods of time.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last1=Hildebrand |first1=M. |last2=Hurley |first2=J. P. |date=1985 |title=Energy of the oscillating legs of a fast-moving cheetah, pronghorn, jackrabbit, and elephant |url=https://www.originalwisdom.com/wp-content/uploads/bsk-pdf-manager/2019/10/Hildebrand-and-Hurley_1985_Energy-of-the-oscillating-legs-of-a-fast%E2%80%90moving-cheetah-etc.pdf |journal=Journal of Morphology |language=en |volume=184 |issue=1 |pages=23–31 |doi=10.1002/jmor.1051840103 |pmid=3989863 |issn=1097-4687}}</ref>

A maximum running speed of 63.7&nbsp;km/h for the impala and 54&nbsp;km/h for the [[blue wildebeest]] has been estimated by GPS-[[Inertial measurement unit|IMU]] collars.<ref name=":4" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Curtin |first1=N. A. |last2=Bartlam-Brooks |first2=H. L. A. |last3=Hubel |first3=T. Y. |last4=Lowe |first4=J. C. |last5=Gardner-Medwin |first5=A. R. |last6=Bennitt |first6=E. |last7=Amos |first7=S. J. |last8=Lorenc |first8=M. |last9=West |first9=T. G. |last10=Wilson |first10=A. M. |date=2018 |title=Remarkable muscles, remarkable locomotion in desert-dwelling wildebeest |url=https://rvc-repository.worktribe.com/js/pdfjs/web/viewer.html?file=https://rvc-repository.worktribe.com/previewfile/1385428/11790.pdf |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=563 |issue=7731 |pages=393–396 |doi=10.1038/s41586-018-0602-4 |pmid=30356212 |bibcode=2018Natur.563..393C |issn=1476-4687}}</ref> A top speed of 65.2&nbsp;km/h is obtained by calculating the distance and time it takes a [[Thomson's gazelle]] to escape from an approaching human.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Holmern |first1=T. |last2=Setsaas |first2=T. H. |last3=Melis |first3=C. |last4=Tufto |first4=J. |last5=Røskaft |first5=E. |date=2016 |title=Effects of experimental human approaches on escape behavior in Thomson's gazelle (Eudorcas thomsonii) |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/301601541 |journal=Behavioral Ecology |volume=27 |issue=5 |pages=1432–1440 |doi=10.1093/beheco/arw052 |issn=1045-2249}}</ref> Film analysis of lion hunts gives maximum speeds of 90–97&nbsp;km/h for the Thomson's gazelle.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Sorkin |first=B. |date=2008 |title=Limb bone stresses during fast locomotion in the African lion and its bovid prey |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/230025975 |journal=Journal of Zoology |language=en |volume=276 |issue=2 |pages=213–218 |doi=10.1111/j.1469-7998.2008.00477.x |issn=1469-7998}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Alexander |first=R. M. |url=https://www.originalwisdom.com/wp-content/uploads/bsk-pdf-manager/2020/04/Alexander_2013_Principles-of-Animal-Locomotion.pdf |title=Principles of animal locomotion |date=2003 |publisher=Princeton University Press |page=3}}</ref> By speedometer reading when an animal runs alongside a car on a straight course, a maximum speed of up to 70&nbsp;km/h has been estimated for the [[Common eland|eland]] and the [[topi]], and up to 80&nbsp;km/h for the [[hartebeest]], blue wildebeest, [[Grant's gazelle]] and Thomson's gazelle.<ref name=":6">{{Cite book |last=Schaller |first=G. |url=https://archive.org/details/serengetilion00geor/mode/1up |title=The Serengeti lion: A study of predator-prey relations |date=1972 |publisher=Chicago : University of Chicago Press |others=Internet Archive |isbn=978-0-226-73640-2 |pages=233, 317, 393}}</ref> The [[saiga antelope]] has been clocked at 80 km/h when running alongside a motorcycle.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gambaryan |first=P. P. |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/390421119 |title=How mammals run: Anatomical adaptations |date=1974 |publisher=J. Wiley and Sons |isbn=0-7065-1483-1 |pages=101, 102}}</ref> Pronghorns are capable of running as fast as Old World antelopes,<ref name=":8" /> reaching speeds of 80 km/h commonly, and 97 km/h in favourable conditions such as running on flat dry lake beds.<ref name=":7">{{Cite book |last=Einarsen |first=A. S. |url=https://archive.org/details/pronghornantelop00eina/mode/1up |title=Pronghorn antelope: and its management. |date=1948 |publisher=Wildlife Management Institute |location=Washington |pages=45, 48, 49}}</ref> The speeds of the pronghorn were determined by reading the speedometer when the animals ran parallel to a moving vehicle.<ref name=":7" />

[[Red forest duiker]]s can jump cleanly over fences 1.6 m high, an impressive feat considering their shoulder height of 30&nbsp;cm.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=de Vos |first=V. |date=1979 |title=Extraordinary jumping ability of the Red Forest Duiker Cephalophus Natalensis |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/47296278 |journal=Koedoe |language=en |volume=22 |issue=1 |page=217 |doi=10.4102/koedoe.v22i1.662 |issn=2071-0771|doi-access=free }}</ref> Impalas can jump highs of 2.4&nbsp;m (8&nbsp;ft).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hildebrand |first=M. |url=https://archive.org/details/analysisofverteb0000hild_e4d0 |title=Analysis of vertebrate structure |date=1980 |publisher=New York: J. Wiley |others=Internet Archive |isbn=978-0-471-30823-2 |page=458}}</ref> [[Common eland|Common elands]] can jump cleanly over 2.7 m fences.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Buys |first=D. |date=1987 |title=The ecology of eland (Taurotragus oryx) in the western Transvaal highveld |url=https://repository.up.ac.za/items/adeff931-5317-4629-b544-8419608c04ef |journal=(PHD Thesis) |language= |hdl=2263/83191}}</ref>

Female Thomson's gazelles have been reported to be faster and more agile than males.<ref name=":6" /> This is in line with the fact that female springboks, another antilopine, have higher concentrations of type IIx fibres and thus probably a higher amount of muscle [[glycogen]] than males.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=North |first1=M. K. |last2=Hoffman |first2=L. C. |date=2017 |title=Effect of Sex and Muscle on the Fiber-Type Composition and Cross-Sectional Area of Springbok (Antidorcas marsupialis) Muscle |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/318859269 |journal=Meat and Muscle Biology |volume=1 |issue=1 |doi=10.22175/mmb2017.01.0001 |issn=2575-985X|doi-access=free }}</ref> Meanwhile, the concentration of muscle glycogen in cheetahs is very similar between males and females.<ref name=":10" /> 

Even if they don't have horns, antelopes can be dangerous prey due to its sharp hooves. An incident has been reported in which a female cheetah sustained a serious injury to her abdomen reaching its femoral artery, from the sharp hooves of a hornless female [[common duiker]], despite having killed the latter. The cheetah died of blood loss and peritonitis despite receiving veterinary treatment.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kerley |first=G. I. H. |date=2018 |title=Dying for Dinner: A Cheetah Killed by a Common Duiker Illustrates the Risk of Small Prey to Predators |url=https://journals.co.za/doi/10.3957/056.048.024001 |journal=African Journal of Wildlife Research |language=en |volume=48 |issue=2 |article-number=024001 |doi=10.3957/056.048.024001 |issn=2410-7220|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

===Sensory and digestive systems===
Antelope are [[ruminant]]s, so they have well-developed [[molar teeth]], which grind [[cud]] (food balls stored in the stomach) into a pulp for further digestion. They have no upper incisors, but rather a hard upper gum pad, against which their lower incisors bite to tear grass stems and leaves.

Like many other [[herbivore]]s, antelope rely on keen senses to avoid predators. Their eyes are placed on the sides of their heads, giving them a broad radius of vision with minimal binocular vision. Their horizontally elongated pupils also help in this respect. Acute senses of smell and hearing give antelope the ability to perceive danger at night out in the open (when predators are often on the prowl). These same senses play an important role in contact between individuals of the same species; markings on their heads, ears, legs, and rumps are used in such communication. Many species "flash" such markings, as well as their tails; vocal communications include loud barks, whistles, "moos", and trumpeting; many species also use [[scent marking]] to define their [[territory (animal)|territories]] or simply to maintain contact with their relatives and neighbors.

===Antelope horns===
{{Redirect|Antelope horns|the milkweed commonly known as antelope horns|Asclepias asperula}}
[[File:Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary b2 844-2.jpg|thumb|Antelope horns]]
The size and shape of antelope horns varies greatly. Those of the duikers and dwarf antelope tend to be simple "spikes", but differ in the angle to the head from backward curved and backward pointing (e.g. [[yellow-backed duiker]]) to straight and upright (e.g. [[steenbok]]). Other groups have twisted (e.g. [[common eland]]), spiral (e.g. [[greater kudu]]), "recurved" (e.g. the [[reedbuck]]s), lyrate (e.g. [[impala]]), or long, curved (e.g. the [[oryx]]es) horns. Horns are not shed and their bony cores are covered with a thick, persistent sheath of [[Keratin|horny material]], both of which distinguish them from antlers.<ref>Prothero, D. R. and Schoch, R. M. (2002) ''Horns, Tusks, and Flippers: The Evolution of Hoofed Mammals''. JHU Press. {{ISBN|0801871352}}</ref>

Antelope horns are effective stabbing weapons against predators (Although there is a risk that the long horns getting stuck in the predator's body),<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Eloff |first=F. C. |date=1964 |title=On the predatory habits of Lions and Hyaenas |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/47296404_On_the_predatory_habits_of_Lions_and_Hyaenas |journal=Koedoe |language=en |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=105–112 |doi=10.4102/koedoe.v7i1.805 |issn=2071-0771|doi-access=free }}</ref> and tend to be better developed in those species where males fight over females (large herd antelope) than in solitary or [[Lek (biology)|lekking]] species. With male-male competition for mates, horns are clashed in combat. Males more commonly use their horns against each other than against another species. The boss of the horns is typically arranged in such a way that two antelope striking at each other's horns cannot crack each other's skulls, making a fight via horn more ritualized than dangerous. Many species have ridges in their horns for at least two-thirds the length of their horns, but these ridges are not a direct indicator of age.

==Behavior==

===Mating strategies===
[[File:Tragelaphus scriptus (pair).jpg|thumb|Forest-dwelling [[Harnessed bushbuck|bushbuck]]]]
Antelope are often classified by their reproductive behavior.

Small antelope, such as [[dik-dik]]s, tend to be monogamous. They live in a forest environment with patchy resources, and a male is unable to monopolize more than one female due to this sparse distribution. Larger forest species often form very small herds of two to four females and one male.

Some species, such as [[lechwe]]s, pursue a lek breeding system, where the males gather on a lekking ground and compete for a small territory, while the females appraise males and choose one with which to mate.

Large grazing antelope, such as [[impala]] or [[wildebeest]], form large herds made up of many females and a single breeding male, which excludes all other males, often by combat.

===Defense===
[[File:Grant's-gazelle.jpg|thumb|right|Fast-running [[gazelle]]s prefer open grassland habitat]]
Antelope pursue a number of defense strategies, often dictated by their morphology.

Large antelope that gather in large herds, such as wildebeest, rely on numbers and running speed for protection. In some species, adults will encircle the offspring, protecting them from predators when threatened. Many forest antelope rely on [[crypsis|cryptic]] coloring and good hearing to avoid predators. Forest antelope often have very large ears and dark or striped colorations. Small antelope, especially [[duiker]]s, evade predation by jumping into dense bush where the predator cannot pursue.<ref>Bere, Rennie (1970) ''The World of Animals: Antelopes''. Arco Publishing Company, New York.</ref> Springboks use a behavior known as [[stotting]] to confuse predators.

Open grassland species have nowhere to hide from predators, so they tend to be fast runners. They are [[Agility|agile]] and have good [[endurance]]—these are advantages when pursued by sprint-dependent predators such as [[cheetah]]s, which are the fastest of land animals, but tire quickly. Reaction distances vary with predator species and behaviour. For example, gazelles may not flee from a [[lion]] until it is closer than 200&nbsp;m (650&nbsp;ft)—lions hunt as a pride or by surprise, usually by stalking; one that can be seen clearly is unlikely to attack. However, sprint-dependent cheetahs will cause gazelles to flee at a range of over {{convert|800|m|mi|frac=2|abbr=off}}.<ref>Kingdon, Jonathan. (1997). ''The Kingdon Field Guide to African Mammals''. Academic Press, San Diego & London. {{ISBN|0124083552}}</ref>

If escape is not an option, antelope are capable of fighting back. [[Oryx]]es in particular have been known to stand sideways like many unrelated bovids to appear larger than they are, and may charge at a predator as a last resort.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://animals.sandiegozoo.org/animals/oryx | title=Oryx |publisher=San Diego Zoo}}</ref>

==Status==
About 25 species are rated by the [[IUCN]] as [[endangered]],<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110125055127/http://www.iucn.org/media/materials/releases/?2758%2FQuarter-of-antelope-species-in-danger-of-extinction Quarter of antelope species in danger of extinction]. IUCN. 4 March 2009</ref> such as the [[dama gazelle]] and [[mountain nyala]]. A number of subspecies are also endangered, including the [[giant sable antelope]] and the [[mhorr gazelle]]. The main causes for concern for these species are habitat loss, competition with cattle for grazing, and trophy hunting.

The chiru or [[Tibetan antelope]] is hunted for its pelt, which is used in making ''[[shahtoosh]]'' wool, used in shawls. Since the fur can only be removed from dead animals, and each animal yields very little of the [[downy fur]], several antelope must be killed to make a single shawl. This unsustainable demand has led to enormous declines in the chiru population.<ref name=iucn>{{cite iucn |author=IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group |date=2016 |title=''Pantholops hodgsonii'' |volume=2016 |article-number=e.T15967A50192544 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-2.RLTS.T15967A50192544.en |access-date=13 November 2021}} Database entry includes a brief justification of why this species is considered endangered.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://iucnworldconservationcongress.org/news/20160904/article/four-out-six-great-apes-one-step-away-extinction-iucn-red-list|title=Four out of six great apes one step away from extinction – IUCN Red List|date=4 September 2016|website=iucnworldconservationcongress.org|access-date=20 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160908130936/http://www.iucnworldconservationcongress.org/news/20160904/article/four-out-six-great-apes-one-step-away-extinction-iucn-red-list|archive-date=8 September 2016}}</ref>

The saiga is hunted for its horns, which are considered an [[aphrodisiac]] by some cultures. Only the males have horns, and have been so heavily hunted that some herds contain up to 800 females to one male. The species showed a steep decline and was formerly classified as critically endangered.<ref>{{cite web| title=Welcome to the Saiga Conservation Alliance |url=http://www.saiga-conservation.com/home.html| publisher=Saiga Conservation Alliance| access-date=19 December 2012| archive-date=22 May 2013| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130522130845/http://www.saiga-conservation.com/home.html}}</ref> However, the saigas have experienced a massive regrowth<ref>{{cite web |url=https://phys.org/news/2022-05-rare-saiga-antelope-population-million.html |title=Rare saiga antelope population now over a million in Kazakhstan }}</ref> and are now classified as near threatened.<ref name=iucnsaiga>{{cite iucn |author=IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group. |year=2023 |title=''Saiga tatarica'' |article-number=e.T19832A233712210 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2023-1.RLTS.T19832A233712210.en}}</ref>

==Lifespan==
It is difficult to determine how long antelope live in the wild. With the preference of predators towards old and infirm individuals, which can no longer sustain peak speeds, few wild prey-animals live as long as their biological potential. In captivity, wildebeest have lived beyond 20 years old, and impalas have reached their late teens.<!-- repetitive. In the wild, few individuals of prey species live to old age, as the old and weak are easier prey for predators; antelope are no exception to this rule.--><ref name="Elizabeth Cary Mungall 1994">Mungall, Elizabeth Cary and Sheffield, William J. (1994). ''Exotics on the Range: The Texas Example''. Texas A & M Univ Press. {{ISBN|0890963991}}</ref>

==Relationship with humans==
===Culture===
[[File:Jemenittisk sjofar av kuduhorn.jpg|thumb|right|[[Greater kudu]] horn ''[[shofar]]'']]

The antelope's horn is prized for supposed medicinal and magical powers in many places. The horn of the male saiga, in Eastern practice, is ground as an aphrodisiac, for which it has been hunted nearly to extinction.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2003/mar/13/highereducation.science1 |title=Antelope stampeding to extinction |date=13 March 2003 |newspaper=Guardian |first=Tim |last=Radford |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161230155054/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2003/mar/13/highereducation.science1 |archive-date=30 December 2016 }}</ref> In the [[Republic of the Congo|Congo]], it is thought to confine spirits.  The antelope's ability to run swiftly has also led to their association with the [[wind]], such as in the ''[[Rig Veda]]'', as the steeds of the [[Maruts]] and the wind god [[Vayu]]. There is, however, no scientific evidence that the horns of any antelope have any effect on human physiology or characteristics.

In Mali, antelope were believed to have brought the skills of agriculture to mankind.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Tresidder|first1=Jack|title=The Hutchinson Dictionary of Symbols|date=1997|publisher=Helicon|location=London|isbn=978-1-85986-059-5|page=14}}</ref>

===Domestication===
[[Domestication]] of animals requires certain traits in the animal that antelope do not typically display. Most species are difficult to contain in any density, due to the territoriality of the males, or in the case of [[oryx]]es (which have a relatively hierarchical social structure), an aggressive disposition; they can easily kill a human. Because many have extremely good jumping abilities, providing adequate fencing is a challenge. Also, antelope will consistently display a fear response to perceived predators, such as humans, making them very difficult to herd or handle. Although antelope have diets and rapid growth rates highly suitable for domestication, this tendency to [[panic]] and their non-[[hierarchical]] social structure explains why farm-raised antelope are uncommon. Ancient Egyptians kept herds of gazelles and [[addax]] for meat, and occasionally pets. It is unknown whether they were truly domesticated, but it seems unlikely, as no domesticated gazelles exist today.

However, humans have had success taming certain species, such as the [[Taurotragus|elands]]. These antelope sometimes jump over each other's backs when alarmed, but this incongruous talent seems to be exploited only by wild members of the species; tame elands do not take advantage of it and can be enclosed within a very low fence. Their meat, milk, and hides are all of excellent quality, and experimental eland husbandry has been going on for some years in both [[Ukraine]] and Zimbabwe. In both locations, the animal has proved wholly amenable to domestication.<ref>Carr, Archie (1964) ''The Land and Wildlife of Africa'', part of the LIFE Nature Library series.</ref> Similarly, European visitors to Arabia reported "tame gazelles are very common in the Asiatic countries of which the species is a native; and the poetry of these countries abounds in allusions both to the beauty and the gentleness of the gazelle."<ref>''The International Cyclopedia: A Compendium of Human Knowledge''. Rev. with Large Additions, Volume 6. Dodd, Mead, 1898.</ref> Other antelope that have been tamed successfully include the [[gemsbok]],<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20130301200635/http://you.co.za/bokka-the-tame-gemsbok/ Bokka the tame gemsbok]. you.co.za. 28 December 2012</ref> the [[kudu]],<ref name="safarinow.com">[https://www.safarinow.com/destinations/kirkwood/Reviews Kirkwood Reviews] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402145538/https://www.safarinow.com/destinations/kirkwood/Reviews |date=2015-04-02 }}. safarinow.com</ref> and the [[springbok]].<ref name="safarinow.com"/>

===Hybrid antelope===
A wide variety of antelope [[Hybrid (biology)|hybrids]] have been recorded in zoos, game parks, and wildlife ranches, due to either a lack of more appropriate mates in enclosures shared with other species or a misidentification of species. The ease of hybridization shows how closely related some antelope species are. With few exceptions, most hybrid antelope occur only in captivity.

Most hybrids occur between species within the same genus. All reported examples occur within the same subfamily. As with most mammal hybrids, the less closely related the parents, the more likely the offspring will be sterile.<ref name="Elizabeth Cary Mungall 1994"/>

===Heraldry===
[[File:Arms of James Hamilton, 5th Duke of Abercorn.svg|thumb|upright|Arms of the [[Duke of Abercorn]] in Scotland, featuring two silver antelope]]

Antelope are a common symbol in [[heraldry]], though they occur in a highly distorted form from nature. The heraldic antelope has the body of a [[stag]] and the tail of a [[lion]], with serrated horns, and a small tusk at the end of its snout. This bizarre and inaccurate form was invented by European heralds in the Middle Ages, who knew little of foreign animals and made up the rest. The antelope was mistakenly imagined to be a monstrous beast of prey; the 16th century poet [[Edmund Spenser]] referred to it as being "as fierce and fell as a [[wolf]]."<ref>{{cite book|title=Fictitious and Symbolic Creatures in Heraldry|last=Vinycomb|first=John|date=1906|page=213|url=http://www.gutenberg.org/files/40825/40825-h/40825-h.htm#Page_213|publisher=Chapman & Hall, Ltd.|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150727000557/http://www.gutenberg.org/files/40825/40825-h/40825-h.htm#Page_213|archive-date=2015-07-27}}</ref>

Antelope can all also occur in their natural form, in which case they are termed "natural antelope" to distinguish them from the more usual heraldic antelope.<ref>{{cite book|title=A Complete Guide to Heraldry|last=Fox-Davies|first=Arthur|date=1909|publisher=T.C. & E.C. Jack|url=http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41617/41617-h/41617-h.htm#page210|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924222738/http://www.gutenberg.org/files/41617/41617-h/41617-h.htm#page210|archive-date=2015-09-24}}</ref> The arms previously used by the [[Republic of South Africa]] featured a natural antelope, along with an [[oryx]].

==See also==
* [[Great Nile Migration Landscape]]
* [[Megafauna]]

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

==External links==
{{NIE Poster|Antelope}}
* {{cite EB9 |wstitle= Antelope |volume= II |pages=100-102 |short= 1}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070202174629/http://www.ultimateungulate.com/ Ultimate Ungulate]
* [https://www.sandiegozoo.org/animalbytes/t-antelope.html San Diego Zoo Antelope]

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[[Category:Antelopes| ]]
[[Category:Bovidae]]
[[Category:Paraphyletic groups]]
[[Category:Mammal common names]]