View source for Aniconism in Islam

{{short description|Avoidance of images of sentient beings in some forms of Islamic art}}
{{more footnotes|date=November 2011}}
{{Islam}}
[[File:Sheikh-Lotf-Allah mosque wall and ceiling 2.jpg|thumb|Interior of [[Sheikh Lotfollah Mosque]] in [[Isfahan, Iran]]]]
In some forms of [[Islamic art]], [[aniconism]] (the avoidance of images of [[sentient being]]s) stems in part from the prohibition of [[idolatry]] and in part from the belief that the creation of living forms is [[God in Islam|God]]'s prerogative.

The [[Quran]] itself does not prohibit visual representation of any living being. The ''[[hadith]]'' collection of [[Sahih Bukhari]] explicitly prohibits the making of images of living beings, challenging painters who "breathe life" into their images and threatening them with punishment on the [[Day of Judgment]].<ref name=esposito>{{cite book |author=Esposito, John L. |title=What Everyone Needs to Know about Islam |edition=2nd |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2011 |pages=14–15}}</ref><ref name=met>{{cite web |url=https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/figs/hd_figs.htm |website=The Metropolitan Museum of Art |title=Figural Representation in Islamic Art}}</ref>{{efn|This hadith may have reflected an aniconistic atmosphere at the time in the Middle East: a few decades prior to its publication, Christian authorities of Byzant opposed depictions of figurative arts, as statues and images were believed to be inhabited by devils. This sentiment might have been adapted by Muslim authors at that time, explaining the different attitudes towards images throughout Islamic history.<ref>Brend, Barbara. "Figurative Art in Medieval Islam and the Riddle of Bihzād of Herāt (1465–1535). By Michael Barry. p. 231-233. Paris, Flammarion, 2004." Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 17.1 (2007): 231-233.</ref>}} Muslims have interpreted these prohibitions in different ways in different times and places. Religious Islamic art has been typically characterized by the absence of figures and extensive use of [[Islamic calligraphy|calligraphic]], [[Islamic geometric patterns|geometric]] and [[Arabesque (Islamic art)|abstract floral]] patterns.

However, representations of Muhammad (in some cases, with his face concealed) and other religious figures are found in some manuscripts from lands to the east of [[Anatolia]], such as [[Persia]] and [[India]]. Other forms of figurative arts existed since the formative stage of Islam.<ref>Brend, Barbara. "Figurative Art in Medieval Islam and the Riddle of Bihzād of Herāt (1465–1535). By Michael Barry. p. 49. Paris, Flammarion, 2004." Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 17.1 (2007): 49</ref> These pictures were meant to illustrate the story and not to infringe on the Islamic prohibition of idolatry, but many Muslims regard such images as forbidden.<ref name=esposito/> In secular art of the Muslim world, representations of human and animal forms historically flourished in nearly all Islamic cultures, although, partly because of opposing religious sentiments, figures in paintings were often stylized, giving rise to a variety of decorative figural designs. There were episodes of [[iconoclastic]] destruction of figurative art, such as the temporary decree by the [[Umayyad]] caliph [[Yazid II]] in 721 CE ordering the destruction of all representational images in his realm.<ref name=met/><ref>{{cite book |chapter=Jewish or Islamic Influence? The Iconoclastic Controversy Dispute |author=Wolfram Drews |title=Cultural Transfers in Dispute. Representations in Asia, Europe and the Arab World since the Middle Ages |publisher=Germany: Campus Verlag |year=2011 |page=42}}</ref> A number of historians have seen an Islamic influence on the [[Byzantine Iconoclasm|Byzantine iconoclastic movement]] of the 8th century, though others regard this is as a legend that arose in later times in the Byzantine empire.<ref>{{cite book |chapter=Jewish or Islamic Influence? The Iconoclastic Controversy Dispute |author=Wolfram Drews |title=Cultural Transfers in Dispute. Representations in Asia, Europe and the Arab World since the Middle Ages |publisher=Germany: Campus Verlag |year=2011 |pages=55–60}}</ref>

==Theological views==
The [[Quran]], the [[Islamic holy books|Islamic holy book]], does not prohibit the depiction of human figures; it merely condemns [[idolatry]].<ref name=Esposito>{{cite book|last=Esposito|first=John L.|title=What Everyone Needs to Know about Islam |year=2011 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=9780199794133|pages=14–15|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xnN6wvw8zVQC&pg=PA14}}</ref><ref>{{Cite quran|5|87|end=92|s=ns}}, {{Cite quran|21|51|end=52|s=ns|expand=no}}</ref> Interdictions of figurative representation are present in the hadith, among a dozen of the hadith recorded during the [[History of Islam|latter part of the period]] when they were being written down. Because these hadith are tied to particular events in the life of the Islamic prophet [[Muhammad]], they need to be interpreted in order to be applied in any general manner.

Sunni [[Exegesis|exegetes]] of {{transliteration|ar|[[tafsir]]}}, from the 9th century onward, increasingly saw in them categorical prohibitions against producing and using any representation of living beings. There are variations between religious [[Madhhab|maḏāhib]] (schools) and marked differences between different [[Islamic schools and branches|branches of Islam]]. Aniconism is common among [[Islamic fundamentalism|fundamentalist]] Sunni sects such as [[Salafi]]s and [[Wahhabi]]s (which are also often [[Iconoclasm|iconoclastic]]), and less prevalent among [[liberal movements within Islam]]. [[Shia Islam|Shia]] and [[Sufism|mystical orders]] also have less stringent views on aniconism. On the individual level, whether or not specific Muslims believe in aniconism will depend on how hadiths related to the topic are interpreted.

Aniconism in Islam not only deals with the material image, but touches upon mental representations as well. It is a problematic issue, discussed by early [[Theology|theologians]], as to how to describe [[God]], Muhammad and other prophets, and, indeed, if it is permissible at all to do so. God is usually represented by immaterial attributes, such as "holy" or "merciful", commonly known from his "[[Names of God in Islam|Ninety-nine beautiful names]]". Muhammad's physical appearance, however, is amply described, particularly in the traditions on his life and deeds recorded in the biographies known as {{transliteration|ar|[[Prophetic biography|Sirah Rasul Allah]]}}. Of no less interest is the validity of sightings of holy personages made during dreams.

[[Titus Burckhardt]] sums up the role of aniconism in Islamic aesthetics as follows:

{{quote|The absence of icons in Islam has not merely a negative but a positive role. By excluding all [[Anthropomorphism|anthropomorphic]] images, at least within the religious realm, Islamic art aids man to be entirely himself. Instead of projecting his soul outside himself, he can remain in his ontological centre where he is both the viceregent ({{transliteration|ar|khalîfa}}) and slave ({{transliteration|ar|'abd}}) of God. Islamic art as a whole aims at creating an ambience which helps man to realize his primordial dignity; it therefore avoids everything that could be an 'idol', even in a relative and provisional manner. Nothing must stand between man and the invisible presence of God. Thus Islamic art creates a void; it eliminates in fact all the turmoil and passionate suggestions of the world, and in their stead creates an order that expresses equilibrium, serenity and peace.<ref name="Burckhardt1987">{{cite book|author=Titus Burckhardt|title=Mirror of the intellect: essays on traditional science & sacred art|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1K9ELNioz18C|access-date=12 December 2011|date=1 October 1987|publisher=SUNY Press|isbn=978-0-88706-684-9|page=223}}</ref>}}

==In practice==
[[File:MosqueOfOmar1914.jpg|thumb|Interior of the [[Dome of the Rock]], [[Jerusalem]]]]

=== Religious core ===
In practice, the core of normative religion in Islam is consistently aniconic. Spaces such as the mosque and objects like the Quran are devoid of figurative images. Other spheres of religion, for example mysticism, popular piety, or private devotion exhibit significant variability in this regard. Aniconism in secular contexts is even more variable and there are many examples of figural representation in secular art throughout history. Generally speaking, aniconism in Islamic societies is restricted in modern times to specific religious contexts. In the past, it was enforced only in some times and places.<ref>Gruber, Christiane J., 1976-. ''[[The Praiseworthy One|The Praiseworthy One : the Prophet Muhammad in Islamic texts and images]]''. Bloomington, Indiana, USA. {{ISBN|978-0-253-02526-5}}. {{OCLC|1083783078}}.</ref>

===Past===
The representation of living beings in Islamic art is not just a modern phenomenon and examples are found from the earliest periods of Islamic history. [[Fresco]]s and [[relief]]s of humans and animals adorned palaces of the [[Umayyad caliphate|Umayyad]] era, as on the famous [[Mshatta Facade]] now in [[Berlin]].<ref>[http://www.sonic.net/~tallen/palmtree/fe2.htm Allen, Terry, "Aniconism and Figural Representation in Islamic Art", Palm Tree Books] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303165946/http://www.sonic.net/~tallen/palmtree/fe2.htm |date=March 3, 2016 }}</ref><ref>[http://www.usc.edu/dept/LAS/wsrp/educational_site/arch_sites/qamra.shtml Educational Site: Archaeological Sites: Qusayr `Amra] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160826041708/http://www.usc.edu/dept/LAS/wsrp/educational_site/arch_sites/qamra.shtml |date=August 26, 2016}}</ref> The [[Abbasid Caliphate|‘Abbasid]] Palaces at [[Samarra]] also contained figurative imagery. Ceramics, metalware, and objects in ivory, rock crystal, and other media also bore figural imagery in the medieval era.<ref>Hoffman, Eva R. (2008-03-22). "Between East and West: The Wall Paintings of Samarra and the Construction of Abbasid Princely Culture". ''Muqarnas Online''. '''25''' (1): 107–132. {{doi|10.1163/22118993_02501005}}. {{ISSN|0732-2992}}.</ref> Figurative miniatures in books occur later in most [[Muslim world|Islamic countries]] but somewhat less in Arabic-speaking areas. The human figure is central to the [[Persian miniature]] and other traditions such as the [[Ottoman miniature]] and [[Mughal painting]].<ref>[http://www.rezaabbasimuseum.ir/ Reza Abbasi Museum] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160927103634/http://www.rezaabbasimuseum.ir/ |date=September 27, 2016}}</ref><ref>[http://www.ee.bilkent.edu.tr/~history/portraits.html "Portraits of the Sultans," Topkapi Palace Museum] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081120154526/http://www.ee.bilkent.edu.tr/~history/portraits.html |date=November 20, 2008 }}</ref> The Persian miniature tradition began when Persian courts were dominated by Sunnis, but continued after the Shia [[Safavid dynasty]] took power. The Safavid ruler [[Shah]] [[Tahmasp I]] of Persia began his reign as a keen patron and amateur artist himself, but turned against painting and other forbidden activities after a religious midlife crisis.<ref>Dickson, Martin (1958). Sháh Tahmásb and the Úzbeks (the duel for Khurásán with ʻUbayd Khán; 930-946/1524-1540). Ph.D. dissertation, Princeton University. p. 190.</ref>

[[File:Grifo-museo-opera-duomo (cropped) (cropped).jpg|thumb|left|The [[Pisa Griffin]], probably created in the 11th century in [[Al-Andalus]], is the largest Islamic figurative sculpture to survive.]]
The avoidance of idolatry is the main concern of the restrictions on images, and as a result, the traditional form for the religious cult image, the free-standing sculpture, is extremely rare, though examples of freestanding human sculpture do occur in Umayyad Syria and in Seljuk Iran.<ref>Canby, Sheila R, Deniz Beyazit, Martina Rugiadi, A. C. S Peacock, and N.Y.) Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York. Court and Cosmos: The Great Age of the Seljuqs, 2016, p. 40-47</ref> The [[Pisa Griffin]], of a [[Legendary creature|mythical beast]] and designed to spout water for a fountain, is the largest example, at three feet tall in bronze, and probably only survives because it was taken as booty by the city of [[Pisa]] in the [[Middle Ages]].<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=09sA4SNG2dYC&dq=Pisa+Griffin&pg=PA3 Mack, p. 3] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160610125727/https://books.google.com/books?id=09sA4SNG2dYC&pg=PA3&dq=Pisa+Griffin&hl=en&ei=D-KxTZvfO4TD8QO4_4CWDA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CDIQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=Pisa%20Griffin&f=false |date=June 10, 2016 }}</ref> Like the famous lions supporting a fountain in the [[Alhambra]], it probably came from [[Al-Andalus]]. The [[griffin]] and lions cannot easily be regarded as potential idols, given their submissive position (and the lack of religions worshipping lions or griffins), and the same is true of small decorative figures in relief on objects in metalwork, or figures painted on [[Islamic pottery]], both of which are relatively common.<ref>Canby, Sheila R, Deniz Beyazit, Martina Rugiadi, A. C. S Peacock, and N.Y.) Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York. Court and Cosmos: The Great Age of the Seljuqs, 2016, p. 121</ref> In particular [[hunting]] scenes of humans and animals were popular, and presumably regarded as clearly having no religious function. The figures in miniatures were, until the late 16th century, always numerous in each image, small (typically only an inch or two high), and showing the central figures at roughly the same size as the attendants and servants who are usually also shown, thus deflecting potential accusations of idolatry. The books illustrated were most often the classics of [[Persian literature|Persian poetry]] and historical [[chronicle]]s.

The hadith show some concessions for context, as with the dolls, and condemn most strongly the makers rather than the owners of images.<ref>''The image debate : figural representation in Islam and across the world''. Gruber, Christiane J., 1976-. London. {{ISBN|978-1-909942-34-9}}. {{OCLC|1061820255}}.</ref> A long tradition of prefaces to [[muraqqa]]s sought to justify the creation of images without getting involved in discussions of the specific texts, using arguments such as comparing God to an artist.<ref>Roxburgh, David J. Prefacing the Image: The Writing of Art History in Sixteenth-Century Iran. Studies and Sources in Islamic Art and Architecture, v. 9. Leiden ; Brill, 2001.</ref>

Miniature painting was mostly patronized by the court circle and is a private form of art; the owner chooses whom to show a book or ''muraqqa'' (album). But wall-paintings with large figures were found in early Islam, and in Safavid and later Persia, especially from the 17th century, but were always rare in the Arabic-speaking world. Such paintings are also mainly found in private palaces; examples in public buildings are rare though not unknown, in [[Iran]] there are even some in mosques.
[[File:Mezquita Shah, Isfahán, Irán, 2016-09-20, DD 64 (cropped).jpg|thumb|[[Muqarnas]], as seen from below, in the [[iwan]] entrance to the [[Shah Mosque (Isfahan)|Shah Mosque]], Isfahan, Iran]]
Eschewing figural representation, ornamentation in Islamic sacred architecture relies chiefly on arabesque and [[Geometry|geometrical]] patterns.

Early examples of non-figural representation in Islamic sacred architecture are found in the Umayyad Mosque of Damascus and the Dome of the Rock. The murals of the Dome of the Rock use crowns and jewels to symbolize earthly rulership and "otherworldly" plants as an invocation of the Quranic description of heaven.<ref name=":0">George, Alain. Paradise or Empire?: On a Paradox of Umayyad Art. Power, Patronage, and Memory in Early Islam (2018). Oxford University Press.</ref> Similarly, the murals in the Umayyad Mosque of Damascus, which depict an idyllic cityscape are also meant to be an evocation of paradise without figural representation.<ref name=":0" />

The issue of aniconism has posed problems in the modern world, especially as technologies like television developed in the 20th century. For many years, Wahhabi clerics opposed the establishment of a [[Television in Saudi Arabia|television service in Saudi Arabia]], as they believed it immoral to produce images of humans.<ref>Boyd, Douglas A. (Winter 1970–71). "Saudi Arabian Television". ''Journal of Broadcasting''. '''15''' (1).</ref> The introduction of television in 1965 offended some Saudis, and one of [[Faisal of Saudi Arabia|King Faisal]]'s nephews, Prince Khalid ibn Musa'id ibn 'Abd al-'Aziz,<ref>R. Hrair Dekmejian (1995). ''Islam in Revolution: Fundamentalism in the Arab World''. Syracuse University Press. p. 133. {{ISBN|978-0-8156-2635-0}}. Retrieved 2013-02-13.</ref> was killed in a police shootout in August 1965 after he led an assault on one of the new television stations.<ref>"Saudi Time Bomb?". Frontline PBS.</ref>

===Present===
Depending on which segment of Islamic societies are referred to, the application of aniconism is characterized by noteworthy differences.<ref>See '[[Sura]]' and 'Taswir' in ''[[Encyclopaedia of Islam]]''</ref> Factors are the epoch considered, the country, the religious orientation, the political intent, the popular beliefs, the private benefit or the dichotomy between reality and discourse.

Today, the concept of an aniconic Islam coexists with a daily life for Muslims awash with images. TV stations and newspapers (which do present still and moving representations of living beings) have an exceptional impact on public opinion, sometimes, as in the case of [[Al Jazeera Media Network|Al Jazeera]], with a global reach, beyond the Arabic speaking and Muslim audience. Portraits of secular and religious leaders are omnipresent on banknotes<ref>[http://geoinfo.nmt.edu/staff/scholle/graphics/banknotes/SaudiNote22a.html Petroleum-related banknotes: Saudi Arabia: Oil Refinery] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720014731/http://geoinfo.nmt.edu/staff/scholle/graphics/banknotes/SaudiNote22a.html |date=July 20, 2011 }}</ref><ref>[http://geoinfo.nmt.edu/staff/scholle/graphics/banknotes/IranNote91c.html Petroleum-related banknotes: Iran: Abadan Refinery, Iahanshahi-Amouzegar] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720015444/http://geoinfo.nmt.edu/staff/scholle/graphics/banknotes/IranNote91c.html |date=July 20, 2011 }}</ref> and coins, in streets and offices (e.g. presidents like [[Gamal Abdel Nasser|Nasser]] and [[Hosni Mubarak|Mubarak]], [[Yasser Arafat|Arafat]], [[Hafez al-Assad|al-Assad]], kings like [[House of Saud]] or [[Hezbollah]]'s [[Hassan Nasrallah|Nasrallah]] and [[Ayatollah]] [[Ruhollah Khomeini|Khomeini]]). Anthropomorphic statues in public places are to be found in most Muslim countries ([[Saddam Hussein]]'s are infamous<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://the.honoluluadvertiser.com/article/2004/Jul/05/mn/mn03a.html|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303192226/http://the.honoluluadvertiser.com/article/2004/Jul/05/mn/mn03a.html|url-status=dead|title=U.S. military, not Iraqis, behind toppling of statue &#124; The Honolulu Advertiser &#124; Hawaii's Newspaper|archivedate=March 3, 2016|website=the.honoluluadvertiser.com}}</ref>), as well as art schools training sculptors and painters. In the [[Egypt]]ian countryside, it is fashionable to celebrate and advertise the returning of pilgrims from Mecca on the walls of their houses.

The [[Taliban]] movement in [[Afghanistan]] banned photography and destroyed non-Muslim artifacts, especially carvings and statues such as the [[Buddhas of Bamiyan]], generally tolerated by other Muslims, on the grounds that the artifacts are idolatrous or ''[[shirk (Islam)|shirk]]''. However, sometimes those who profess aniconism will practice figurative representation (cf. portraits of Talibans from the [[Kandahar]] photographic studios during their imposed ban on photography<ref>[[Jon Lee Anderson]], [[Thomas Dworzak]], ''Taliban'', London (UK), Trolley, 2003, {{ISBN|0-9542648-5-1}}.</ref>).

For Shia communities, portraits of the major figures of Shiite history are important elements of religious devotion. In Iran, portraits of Muhammad and of [[Ali]], printed on pieces of cloth or woven into carpets, are called ''temsal'' ("likenesses") and can be bought around shrines and in the streets, to be hung in homes or carried with oneself.<ref>{{cite book|last=Dabashi|first=Hamid|title=Shi'ism - A Religion of Protest|year=2011|publisher=The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press|location=Cambridge, MA |pages=29–30}}</ref> In [[Pakistan]], [[India]] and [[Bangladesh]] portraits of Ali can be found on notoriously ornate trucks,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://archive.aramcoworld.com/issue/200502/masterpieces.to.go.the.trucks.of.pakistan.htm|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141008035126/http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/200502/masterpieces.to.go.the.trucks.of.pakistan.htm|url-status=dead|title=Saudi Aramco World : Masterpieces to Go: The Trucks of Pakistan|archivedate=October 8, 2014|website=archive.aramcoworld.com}}</ref> buses and rickshaws.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.webpak.net/~ricksha/|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20091021211125/http://www.webpak.net/~ricksha/|url-status=dead|title=The Rickshaw Arts of Bangladesh|archivedate=October 21, 2009}}</ref> Contrary to the Sunni tradition, a photographic picture of the deceased can be placed on the Shiite tombs.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.traveladventures.org/continents/asia/golestaneshohada2.shtml|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20121018075410/http://www.traveladventures.org/continents/asia/golestaneshohada2.shtml|url-status=dead|title=Picture of Golestan e Shohoda cemetery Esfahan -Esfahan, Iran|archivedate=October 18, 2012}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.bestirantravel.com/sights/mashad/martyrscemetry.html|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150407170105/http://www.bestirantravel.com/sights/mashad/martyrscemetry.html|url-status=dead|title=Mashad Martyrs Cemetery at Best Iran Travel.com|archivedate=April 7, 2015}}</ref> A curiosity in Iran is an [[Orientalism|Orientalist]] photography supposed to represent Muhammad as a young boy.<ref>Photography by Lehnert & Landrock, titled "Mohamed", Tunis, c. 1906. Nicole Canet, ''Lehnert & Landrock. Photographies orientatlistes 1905-1930.'' (Paris: Galerie Au Bonheur du Jour, 2004): cover, p. 9. [http://www.curiositel.com/aubonheurdujour/les-catalogues/lehnert-et-landrock/p-couverture300x412.jpg dead link] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060518024504/http://www.curiositel.com/aubonheurdujour/les-catalogues/lehnert-et-landrock/p-couverture300x412.jpg |date=May 18, 2006 }} . Historical context described in {{in lang|fr}} Patricia Briel, ''[[Le Temps|letemps.ch]]'', 22 February 2006. [http://www.letemps.ch/Page/Uuid/0694cca6-ad7e-11dd-bf59-ad3d6140ad87/Ces_%C3%A9tranges_portraits_de_Mahomet_jeune Ces étranges portraits de Mahomet jeune]{{dead link|date=August 2017|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref> The [[Ali al-Sistani|Grand Ayatollah Sistani]] of [[Najaf]] in [[Iraq]] has given a ''[[fatwā]]'' declaring the depiction of Muhammad, the prophets and other holy characters, permissible if it is made with the utmost respect.<ref>Grand Ayatollah Uzma Sistani, ''Fiqh & Beliefs: Istifa answers'', personal website. (accessed 17 February 2006) [http://www.sistani.org/istifta_/view_s.php?lang=ara&page=1&subject=التصوير%20(الصور)&num=413& {{in lang|ar}}]{{dead link|date=October 2016 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}, {{cite web
 |url=http://www.sistani.org/local.php?modules%3Dmain 
 |title=WWW.SISTANI.ORG : الصفحة الرئيسية 
 |access-date=2009-04-29 
 |url-status=dead 
 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090523215909/http://www.sistani.org/local.php?modules=main 
 |archive-date=2009-05-23 
}}
</ref>

===Circumvention methods===
Medieval Muslim artists found various ways to represent especially sensitive figures such as Muhammad. He is sometimes shown with a fiery [[Halo (religious iconography)|halo]] hiding his face, head, or whole body, and from about 1500 is often shown with a veiled face.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gruber |first1=Christiane |chapter=Between Logos (Kalima) And Light (Nūr): Representations Of The Prophet Muhammad In Islamic Painting |title=Muqarnas |date=2009 |volume=26 |pages=229–262 |publisher=Brill |doi=10.1163/ej.9789004175891.i-386.66 |jstor=27811142 |isbn=978-90-04-17589-1 |s2cid=194020568 }}</ref> Members of his immediate family and other prophets may be treated in the same way. At the material level, prophets in manuscripts can have their face covered by a veil or all humans have a stroke drawn over their neck, symbolizing the severing of the soul, and clarifying the fact that it is not something alive and imbued with a soul that is depicted: a purposeful flaw to make what is depicted impossible to live in reality (as merely impossible in reality is still often frowned upon or banned, such as representations of comic book characters or unicorns, although exceptions do exist). Few portraits were attempted, and the ability to create recognizable portraits was rare in Islamic art until the [[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] tradition began in the late 15th century, although in both Mughal India and [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] Turkey portraits of the ruler then became very popular in court circles.<ref>Fetvacı, Emine. Picturing History at the Ottoman Court / Emine Fetvacı. Indiana University Press, 2014. p.254</ref>
[[File:Hilye-i serif 2.jpg|thumb|right|A [[hilya]] or description in calligraphy of the appearance of [[Muhammad]] by the Ottoman calligrapher [[Hâfiz Osman]] (d. 1698)]]
Islamic calligraphy has also displayed figurative themes. Examples of this are anthropomorphic and [[Zoomorphism|zoomorphic]] [[Islamic calligraphy#Calligrams|calligrams]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Robinson |first1=Francis |title=Review of Calligraphy and Islamic Culture |journal=Journal of Islamic Studies |date=1992 |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=100–103 |doi=10.1093/jis/3.1.100 |jstor=26196535 }}</ref> Islamic calligraphy forms evolved, especially in the Ottoman period, to fulfill a function similar to figurative art.<ref name=":1">{{cite journal |last1=FETVACI |first1=EMINE |title=The Album of Ahmed I |journal=Ars Orientalis |date=2012 |volume=42 |pages=127–138 |jstor=43489770 }}</ref> When on paper, Islamic calligraphy is often seen with elaborate frames of [[Ottoman illumination]].<ref name=":1" /> Examples of Islamic calligraphy using this technique include the name of Muhammad, the [[Hilya]] (a tablet that embodies the description of Muhammad’s physical appearance), multiple names of God in Islam, and the [[tughra]] (a calligraphic version of the name of an Ottoman [[sultan]]).<ref>{{cite web |title=Hilya (Votive Tablet) |url=https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/447313 |website=The Met }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Grabar |first1=Oleg |title=An Exhibition of High Ottoman Art |journal=Muqarnas |date=1989 |volume=6 |pages=1–11 |doi=10.2307/1602275 |jstor=1602275 }}</ref>

==Scriptural basis==

===Hadith and exegesis examples===
All hadith presented in this section are Sunni, not Shia.

====Pro-art====

{{Quote|Narrated Aisha:<br>Upon the Prophet’s arrival from a military expedition, a curtain covering Aisha’s store-room was raised by the blowing wind, uncovering her dolls. Among them, the Prophet saw a horse with two wings made of rags and asked his wife what was on the horse. Aisha responded that it was two wings. He asked: A horse with two wings? Aisha then asked if the Prophet had not heard that Solomon had horses with wings. The Hadith reports that the Prophet laughed heartily where his molar teeth were seen.|[[Abu Dawood]]|''[[Sunan Abu Dawood]]''<ref>{{Hadith-usc|abudawud|usc=yes|41|4914}}</ref>|source=<br>Reference (English Book) Book 42, Hadith 4914<br>
Reference (Arabic Book) Book 43, Hadith 160}}

{{Quote|Narrated Busr bin Sa`id:<br>That Zaid bin Khalid Al-Juhani narrated to him something in the presence of Sa`id bin 'Ubaidullah Al- Khaulani who was brought up in the house of Maimuna the wife of the Prophet. Zaid narrated to them that Abu Talha said that the Prophet (ﷺ) said, "The Angels (of Mercy) do not enter a house wherein there is a picture." Busr said, "Later on Zaid bin Khalid fell ill and we called on him. To our surprise we saw a curtain decorated with pictures in his house. I said to Ubaidullah Al-Khaulani, "Didn't he (i.e. Zaid) tell us about the (prohibition of) pictures?" He said, "But he excepted the embroidery on garments. Didn't you hear him?" I said, "No." He said, "Yes, he did."|Muhammad al-Bukhari|''Sahih al-Bukhari''<ref>[Sahih al Bukhari, 3226 https://sunnah.com/bukhari:3226]</ref>}}

====Middle ground between pro- and anti-====

{{Quote|A'isha reported: The Prophet’s wife describes owning a curtain with bird portraits. The Prophet asked for the curtain to be changed, for when he entered the room it brought to him pleasures of worldly life. Aisha describes also having worn sheets with silk badges, which the Prophet did not command to be torn.|Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj|''Sahih Muslim''<ref>{{hadith-usc|usc=yes|Muslim|24|5255}}</ref>|source=<br>Reference (English Book) Book 24, Hadith 5255<br>
Reference (Arabic Book) Book 38, Hadith 5643}}

{{Quote|Narrated Ali ibn Abu Talib:<br>Safinah AbuAbdurRahman, Ali ibn Abu Talib, and Fatimah invited the Prophet to eat with them. Upon the Prophet’s arrival, he turned away after seeing figural curtains hanging at the end of the house. Ali followed the Prophet to ask what had turned him back. The Prophet stated that it is unfitting for him or any Prophet to enter a home decorated [with figural imagery].|Abu Dawood|''Sunan Abu Dawood''<ref>{{Hadith-usc|abudawud|usc=yes|27|3746}}</ref>|source=<br>Reference (English Book) Book 27, Hadith 3746<br>
Reference (Arabic Book) Book 28, Hadith 20}}

To show the superiority of the [[Monotheism|monotheist]] faith, Muhammad smashed the idols at the [[Kaaba]]. He also removed paintings that were [[Islam and blasphemy|blasphemous to Islam]], while protecting others (the images of [[Mary in Islam|Mary]] and [[Jesus in Islam|Jesus]]) inside the building.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Life of Muhammad. A translation of Ishaq's "Sirat Rasul Allah" |publisher=Oxford University Press |last=Guillaume |first=Alfred |author-link=Alfred Guillaume |year=1955 |page=552 |isbn=978-0-19-636033-1 |url=https://archive.org/details/IbnIshaq-SiratRasulAllah-translatorA.Guillaume |access-date=2011-12-08}}</ref> The hadith below emphasizes that aniconism depends not only on ''what'', but also on ''how'' things are depicted.

{{Quote|Narrated [[`Abd Allah ibn `Abbas|Ibn Abbas]]:<br>The Prophet refused to enter the Kaaba with idols in it and ordered they be removed. Pictures of Abraham and Ishmael holding arrows of divination were carried out and the Prophet stated, “May Allah ruin the infidels for the false portrayal of the acts of Abraham and Ishmael. The Hadith reports that the Prophet said "Allahu Akbar" inside all directions of the Kaaba and left without prayer therein.|Muhammad al-Bukhari|''Sahih al-Bukhari''<ref>{{Hadith-usc|Bukhari|usc=yes|5|59|584}}</ref>|source=<br>Reference (English Book) Vol. 5, Book 59, Hadith 584<br>
Reference (Arabic Book) Book 64, Hadith 4333}}

{{Quote| Narrated 'Aisha:<br>When the Prophet became ill, amongst his wives there was talk of a church in Ethiopia with descriptions of its beauty and pictures it contained. The Hadith reports the Prophet saying the creators are the worst creatures in the sight of Allah for they are the people who, upon the death of a pious man amongst them, make a place of worship at his grave and create pictures in it.|Muhammad al-Bukhari|''Sahih al-Bukhari''<ref>{{Hadith-usc|Bukhari|usc=yes|2|23|425}}</ref>|source=<br>Reference (English Book) Vol. 2, Book 23, Hadith 425
<br>Reference (Arabic Book) Book 23, Hadith 425}}

====Anti-art====

{{Quote|Narrated [[Aisha]]:<br>The wife of the Prophet purchased a cushion with pictures of animals on it for the Prophet to sit on and recline on. The Prophet disapproved of the making of such pictures, saying the makers would be punished on the Day of Resurrection when God would ask them to bring their creations to life. The Hadith also reports that the Prophet said that the [[angel]]s would not enter a house where there are pictures. |[[Muhammad al-Bukhari]]|''[[Sahih al-Bukhari]]''<ref>{{Hadith-usc|Bukhari|usc=yes|3|34|318}}, {{Hadith-usc|Bukhari|usc=yes-usc|7|62|110}}</ref> |source=<br>Reference (English Book) Vol. 7, Book 62, Hadith 110<br>
Reference (Arabic Book) Book 67, Hadith 5181}}

{{Quote|Narrated 'Aisha:<br>Upon the arrival of the Prophet from a journey, he saw and tore a curtain with pictures his wife had placed over the door of a chamber. The Prophet disapproved of the making of such pictures, saying those who try to make the like of Allah's creations will receive the severest punishment on the Day of Resurrection.|Muhammad al-Bukhari|''Sahih al-Bukhari''<ref>{{Hadith-usc|Bukhari|usc=yes|7|72|838}}</ref>|source=<br>Reference (English Book) Vol. 7, Book 72, Hadith 838<br>
Reference (Arabic Book) Book 77, Hadith 6019}}

{{Quote|Aisha describes the Prophet tearing a curtain with portraits on it as soon as he saw it. The Hadith reports that the Prophet said the most grievous torment from the Hand of Allah on the Day of Resurrection would be for those who imitate (Allah) in the act of His creation. The torn pieces were made into cushions.|Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj|''Sahih Muslim''<ref>{{hadith-usc|usc=yes|Muslim|24|5261}}</ref>|source=<br>Reference (English Book) Book 24, Hadith 5261<br>
Reference (Arabic Book) Book 38, Hadith 5650}}

{{Quote|Narrated Salim's father:<br>Upon Gabriel’s delay to visit the Prophet, he stated that they do not enter a place in which there is a picture or a dog|Muhammad al-Bukhari|''Sahih al-Bukhari''<ref>{{Hadith-usc|Bukhari|usc=yes|7|72|843}}</ref>|source=<br>Reference (English Book) Vol. 7, Book 72, Hadith 843<br>
Reference (Arabic Book) Book 77, Hadith 6026}}

{{Quote|Muslim b. Subaih reported being in a house with Masriuq which had portrayals of Mary. Masriuq had heard Abdullah b, Mas'ud stating that the Prophet had said the most grievously tormented people on the Day of Resurrection would be the painters of pictures. After this message was read before Nasr b. 'Ali al-Jahdhami and other narrators, the last one being Ibn Sa'id b Abl at Hasan, one person asked for a religious verdict for one like himself who paints pictures. [[Ibn Abbas|Ibn 'Abbas]] narrated to the person the Prophet’s sayings in which painters who make pictures would be punished in the fire of Hell and the soul will be breathed in every picture prepared by him. Only pictures of paintings of trees and lifeless things should be allowed.|[[Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj]]|''[[Sahih Muslim]]''<ref>{{hadith-usc|usc=yes|Muslim|24|5272}}</ref>|source=<br>Reference (English Book) Book 24, Hadith 5272<br>
Reference (Arabic Book) Book 38, Hadith 5661}}

==See also==
{{Portal|Islam}}
* [[Aniconism in Christianity]]
* [[Aniconism in Judaism]]
* [[Arabic miniature]] 
* [[Censorship by religion]]
* [[Censorship in Islamic societies]]
* [[Depictions of Muhammad]]
* [[Destruction of cultural heritage by ISIL]]
* [[Destruction of early Islamic heritage sites in Saudi Arabia]]
* [[Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy]]
* [[Criticism of Twelver Shia Islam#Image veneration|Image veneration in Shia Islam]]
* [[Taghut]]

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

===General===
*[[Jack Goody]], ''Representations and Contradictions: Ambivalence Towards Images, Theatre, Fiction, Relics and Sexuality'', London, Blackwell Publishers, 1997. {{ISBN|0-631-20526-8}}.

===Islam===
*[[Oleg Grabar]], "Postscriptum", ''The Formation of Islamic Art'', Yale University, 1987 (p209). {{ISBN|0-300-03969-7}}
*Terry Allen, "Aniconism and Figural Representation in Islamic Art", ''Five Essays on Islamic Art'', Occidental (CA), Solipsist, 1988. {{ISBN|0-944940-00-5}} [http://www.sonic.net/~tallen/palmtree/fe2.htm Aniconism and Figural Representation in Islamic Art, by Terry Allen]
* Gilbert Beaugé & Jean-François Clément, ''L'image dans le monde arabe [The image in the Arab world]'', Paris, CNRS Éditions, 1995, {{ISBN|2-271-05305-6}} {{in lang|fr}}
* Rudi Paret, Das islamische Bilderverbot und die Schia [The Islamic prohibition of images and the Shi'a], Erwin Gräf (ed.), ''Festschrift Werner Caskel'', Leiden, 1968, 224-32. {{in lang|de}}

{{Depictions of Muhammad}}
{{Islamic art}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Aniconism In Islam}}
[[Category:Aniconism|Islam]]
[[Category:Censorship in Islam]]
[[Category:Iconoclasm]]
[[Category:Islamic art]]