View source for Anglo-Iraqi War

{{Short description|1941 campaign during World War II}}
{{For|the conflict from 2003 until 2011|Iraq War}}
{{Use British English|date=December 2012}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2021}}
{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict          = Anglo-Iraqi War
| partof            = the [[Mediterranean and Middle East theatre of World War II|Mediterranean and Middle East theatre]] of [[World War II]]
| image             = BritsLookingOnBaghdad1941.jpg
| caption           = British soldiers at [[Baghdad]], 11 June 1941
| alt               = Men in pith helmets
| date              = 2 May – 31 May 1941<ref name="Playfair182-3" />{{refn|On 30 May Rashid Ali and his supporters fled to Iran. At 4&nbsp;am on 31 May, the Mayor of Baghdad signed an armistice on a bridge across the Washash Canal.<ref>Playfair 1956, pp. 192, 332.</ref> ''[[Mercol]]'', ''[[Gocol]]'', and ''[[Harcol]]'' operations against guerrillas continued into June.|group=nb}}<br />({{Age in years, months, weeks and days|month1=5|day1=2|year1=1941|month2=5|day2=31|year2=1941}})
| place             = [[Kingdom of Iraq]]
| result            = Allied victory
* Rebellion suppressed
| combatant1        = {{flag|United Kingdom}}
* {{flagcountry|British Raj}}
* {{flagicon|Assyria}} [[Assyrian levies]]
* {{flag|Mandatory Palestine|maritime|name=Mandatory Palestine}}
* {{flagcountry|Emirate of Transjordan}}
{{nowrap|{{flagdeco|Iraq|1924}} Iraq ([[Abd al-Ilah|Abd Al-Ilah]] loyalists)}}
'''Air and naval support:'''<br />{{flagcountry|Australia}}{{refn|HMAS ''Yarra'', representing Australia, participated at sea.<ref name="Wavell4094">Wavell, p. 4094.</ref>|group=nb}}<br />{{flagcountry|Dominion of New Zealand}}{{refn|HMNZS ''Leander'', representing New Zealand, participated at sea.<ref>Waters, p. 24.</ref>|group=nb}}<br />{{flagdeco|Kingdom of Greece|state}} [[Greek government-in-exile|Greece]]{{refn|[[Greek Armed Forces in the Middle East|Greek airmen]] undergoing training at Habbaniya flew sorties against the Iraqis.<ref name="Carr" />|group=nb}}
| combatant2        = {{flagcountry|Kingdom of Iraq}} ([[Golden Square (Iraq)|Golden Square]])
'''Military support:'''<br />{{flagcountry|Nazi Germany}}<ref name="Playfair195" /><br />{{flagcountry|Fascist Italy (1922–1943)}}<ref name="Playfair196" /><br />{{flagcountry|Vichy France}}<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Sutherland |first1=Jon |title=Vichy Air Force at War: The French Air Force that Fought the Allies in World War II |last2=Canwell |first2=Diane |date=2011 |publisher=Pen & Sword Aviation |isbn=978-1-84884-336-3 |location=Barnsley |pages=38–43}}</ref></p>
| commander1        = {{nowrap|{{flagd|UK}} [[Claude Auchinleck]]<br />{{flagd|UK}} [[Archibald Wavell]]<ref name="Playfair186">Playfair 1956, p. 186.</ref><br />{{flagd|UK}} [[Edward Quinan]]<ref name="Playfair179" /><br />{{flagd|UK}} [[William Archibald Kenneth Fraser|William Fraser]]<ref name="Playfair186" /><br />{{flagd|UK}} [[William Slim]]<br />{{flagd|UK}} [[Harry George Smart|H. G. Smart]]<ref name="Playfair183" /><br />{{flagd|UK}} [[Ouvry Lindfield Roberts|Ouvry Roberts]]<br />{{flagd|UK}} [[John D'Albiac]]}}
| commander2        = {{nowrap|{{flagd|Iraq|1924}} [[Rashid Ali al-Gaylani]]<br />{{flagd|Iraq|1924}} [[Salah al-Sabbagh]]{{Executed}}<br />{{flagd|Iraq|1924}} [[Kamil Shabib]]{{Executed}}<br />{{flagd|Iraq|1924}} [[Fahmi Said]]{{Executed}}<br />{{flagd|Iraq|1924}} [[Mahmud Salman]]{{Executed}}<br />{{flagd|Iraq|1924}} [[Fawzi al-Qawuqji]]<br />{{flagicon image|Palestinian flag 1938.svg|link=}} [[Amin al-Husseini]]<ref name="patterson">{{Cite book |last=Patterson |first=David |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lMLmK-fmf8kC&pg=PA114 |title=A Genealogy of Evil: Anti-Semitism from Nazism to Islamic Jihad |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-521-13261-9 |page=114}}</ref><br />(foreign air support)<br />{{flagd|Nazi Germany}} [[Werner Junck]]}}
| strength1         = 1 infantry division<ref name="Mackenzie, p. 101">Mackenzie, p. 101.</ref><br />2 [[brigade group]]s{{refn|See ''[[Iraqforce]]''; ''[[Habforce]]'' constituted one reinforced Brigade group while the force based at RAF Habbaniya constituted the other.|group=nb}}<br />100+ aircraft{{refn|85 aircraft based at RAF Habbaniya.<ref name="Playfair182" /><ref name="Jackson50">Jackson, p. 159.</ref> 18 bombers were flown into RAF Shaibah as reinforcements<ref name="Playfair183" /> while No. 244 Squadron RAF was already based there equipped with [[Vickers Vildebeest|Vicker Vincents]].<ref name="Jackson50" /> [[No. 84 Squadron RAF]] was rebased to [[RAF Aqir]], in Palestine, to support British ground forces during the rebellion.<ref name="Jackson50" /> Four [[Bristol Blenheim]]s of [[No. 203 Squadron RAF]] were flown to [[RAF Lydda]], also in Palestine, to fly combat missions over Iraq.<ref name="Jackson50" />|group=nb}}
| strength2         = 4 divisions<ref>"https://resources.saylor.org/wwwresources/archived/site/wp-content/uploads/2011/08/HIST351-10.2.2-Anglo-Iraqi-War.pdf"</ref><br />30,000 troops<ref>Lyman, ''Iraq 1941'', p. 25.</ref><br />116 Iraqi aircraft<ref name="Lyman2526" /> (50–60 serviceable)<ref name="Playfair179" /><br />21–29 German aircraft<ref name="Playfair195" /><ref name="Mack100" /><br />12 Italian aircraft<ref name="Playfair196" />
| casualties1       = Casualties slight<ref name="Wavell, p. 3439">Wavell, p. 3439.</ref><br />At least 200 killed<ref>{{Cite web |title=Resources.saylor.org |url=https://resources.saylor.org/wwwresources/archived/site/wp-content/uploads/2011/08/HIST351-10.2.2-Anglo-Iraqi-War.pdf |access-date=12 August 2010 |publisher=Commonwealth War Graves Commission}}</ref><br />28 aircraft<ref>Playfair 1956, p. 193.</ref>
| casualties2       = 500 killed<ref name="Wavell, p. 3439" /><br />Most of the serviceable Iraqi aircraft<ref>Lyman, p. 48.</ref><br />19 German aircraft<ref name="Playfair196" /><br />3 Italian aircraft<ref name="Playfair196" />
| campaignbox       = {{WWIITheatre}}{{Campaignbox Mediterranean and Middle East Theatre}}
| casualties3       = 200 Jewish civilians were killed. <ref>{{cite book
 | last=Petros
 | first=Agha
 | title=Memoirs of Agha Petros
 | publisher=Self-published
 | year=1933
 | url=https://utoronto.scholaris.ca/server/api/core/bitstreams/b6c02ccd-3d77-495b-9ce1-f862bd5fe8ca/content
 | access-date=2025-06-29
}}</ref>
}}
The '''Anglo-Iraqi War''' was a British-led [[Allies of World War II|Allied]] military campaign during the [[Second World War]] against the [[Kingdom of Iraq]], then ruled by [[Rashid Ali al-Gaylani]] who had seized power in the [[1941 Iraqi coup d'état]] with assistance from Germany and Italy. The campaign resulted in the downfall of Gaylani's government, the re-occupation of Iraq by the British, and the return to power of the [[Regent of Iraq]], Prince [['Abd al-Ilah]], a British ally.

[[Mandatory Iraq]] had been governed by the British since 1921. Prior to Iraq's nominal independence in 1932, Britain concluded the [[Anglo-Iraqi Treaty of 1930]], which was opposed by [[Iraqi nationalism|Iraqi nationalists]], including Rashid Ali al-Gaylani. Although Iraq was considered a [[Neutral powers during World War II|neutral power]] under [[Regent of Iraq|Regent]] Abd al-Ilah, it had a pro-British government. In April 1941, Iraqi nationalists organized the Golden Square coup, with assistance from [[Nazi Germany]] and [[Fascist Italy (1922–1943)|Fascist Italy]]. The coup ousted Abd al-Ilah and installed al-Gaylani as [[Prime Minister of Iraq|Prime Minister]]. He officially established cordial relations with the [[Axis powers]], prompting the Allies to respond. For the Allies, Iraq represented an important land bridge between British forces in [[Kingdom of Egypt|Egypt]] and [[British Raj|India]].

Following a series of skirmishes, Allied airstrikes were launched against Iraq on 2 May. The campaign resulted in the collapse of al-Gaylani's short-lived government, and re-installed Abd al-Ilah as the Regent. This increased the influence of the Allies in the [[Middle East|Middle Eastern theatre]].

==Background==
===Mandatory Iraq===
{{See also|Mandatory Iraq|Relations between Nazi Germany and the Arab world}}
The [[Kingdom of Iraq]] (also referred to as [[Mesopotamia]]) was governed by Great Britain under a [[League of Nations mandate]], the [[British Mandate of Mesopotamia]], until 1932, when Iraq became nominally independent.<ref>Peretz, p. 107.</ref> Before granting independence, Britain concluded the [[Anglo-Iraqi Treaty (1930)|Anglo-Iraqi Treaty of 1930]], which included permission to establish [[Royal Air Force station|military bases]] for British use, and allowed unrestricted movement of British forces through the country upon request to the Iraqi government.<ref>Peretz, p. 441.</ref><ref>Playfair 1954, p. 14.</ref> The conditions of the treaty were imposed by the British to ensure control of Iraqi [[petroleum]]. Many Iraqis resented these conditions which left Iraq still under the control of the British Government.<ref>Peretz, p. 443.</ref>

After 1937, no British troops were left in Iraq and the government had become solely responsible for internal security.<ref name="Playfair177">Playfair 1956, p. 177.</ref> The [[Royal Air Force]] (RAF) had been allowed to retain two bases: [[RAF Shaibah]], near [[Basra]] and [[RAF Habbaniya]] (Air Vice-Marshal [[Harry George Smart]], also air officer commanding [[RAF Iraq Command]]), between [[Ramadi]] and [[Fallujah]].<ref name="Playfair15" /><ref name="Lyman, p. 18">Lyman, p. 18.</ref> The bases protected British petroleum interests and were a link in the air route between [[Kingdom of Egypt|Egypt]] and [[British Raj|India]].<ref name="Playfair15">Playfair 1954, p. 15.</ref> At the beginning of the [[World War II|Second World War]], RAF Habbaniya became a training base, protected by [[No. 1 Armoured Car Company RAF]] and locally raised mainly [[Assyrian people|Assyrian]] troops, the [[Iraq Levies|RAF Iraq Levies]], sometimes known as [[Assyrian levies]].<ref>Lake 1999, p. 106.</ref><ref>Lunt 1981, p. 42.</ref>

In September 1939, the Iraqi Government broke off diplomatic relations with [[Nazi Germany]].<ref name="Playfair177" /> In March 1940, the nationalist and anti-British [[Rashid Ali]] replaced [[Nuri as-Said]] as Prime Minister of Iraq. Rashid Ali made covert contacts with German representatives in Ankara and Berlin, though he was not yet an openly pro-Axis supporter.<ref>Youssef Aboul-Enein, Basil Aboul-Enein. ''The Secret War for the Middle East: The Influence of Axis and Allied Intelligence operations During WW2''. pp. 51–54. Naval Institute Press, 2013.</ref> In June 1940, when Fascist Italy joined the war on the side of Germany, the Iraqi government did not break off diplomatic relations.<ref name="Playfair177" /> The Italian Legation in Baghdad became the chief centre for Axis propaganda and for fomenting anti-British feeling. The Italians were aided in their propaganda efforts by [[Amin al-Husseini]], the [[Grand Mufti of Jerusalem]], who had been installed by the British in 1921. The Grand Mufti had fled from the [[Mandatory Palestine|British Mandate of Palestine]] shortly before the war, and later received asylum in Baghdad.<ref name="Churchill p. 224">Churchill, p. 224.</ref> In January 1941, Rashid Ali resigned as prime minister and was replaced by [[Taha al-Hashimi]] amidst a political crisis and a possible civil war.<ref name="Playfair178">Playfair 1956, p. 178.</ref>

===''Coup d'état''===
{{Main|1941 Iraqi coup d'état}}
[[File:HMS Cockchafer WWII IWM FL 022629.jpg|thumb|{{HMS|Cockchafer|1915|6}}]]

On 31 March, the [[Regent]] of Iraq, Prince [['Abd al-Ilah]], learned of a plot to arrest him and fled [[Baghdad]] for RAF Habbaniya. From Habbaniya he was flown to Basra and given refuge on the gunboat {{HMS|Cockchafer|1915|6}}.<ref name="Playfair178" /> On 1 April, Rashid Ali and the [[Golden Square (Iraq)|Golden Square]] (four senior military commanders) [[Iraq coup (1941)|seized power in a ''coup d'état'']]. Rashid Ali proclaimed himself "Chief of the National Defence Government".<ref name="Playfair178" /> The Golden Square deposed Prime Minister Taha al-Hashimi<ref>Lyman, p. 12.</ref> and Rashid Ali again became Prime Minister of Iraq. Ali did not overthrow the monarchy and named a new Regent to [[Faisal II of Iraq|King Faisal II]], [[Sharaf bin Rajeh]]. Faisal and his family took refuge in the home of [[Mulla Effendi]]. The Golden Square also arrested pro-British citizens and politicians, but many managed to escape through [[Emirate of Transjordan|Transjordan]].

The Golden Square intended to refuse further concessions to Britain, retain diplomatic links with [[Fascist Italy (1922–1943)|Fascist Italy]], and exile prominent pro-British politicians. They thought Britain was weak and would negotiate with them.<ref>Lyman, p. 13.</ref> On 17 April, Ali asked Germany for military assistance in the event of war with Britain.<ref name="Lyman, p. 16">Lyman, p. 16.</ref> Ali also tried to restrict British rights under Article 5 of the [[Anglo-Iraqi Treaty (1930)|1930 treaty]] when he insisted that newly arrived British troops be quickly transported through Iraq and to Palestine.<ref name="Lyman, p. 31">Lyman, p. 31.</ref>

===Iraqi forces===
[[File:IraqWWII en.svg|thumb|Iraq during the Second World War]]
Before the war, the United Kingdom provided support to the [[Royal Iraqi Army]], to the [[Iraqi Navy#Kingdom of Iraq|Royal Iraqi Navy]], and to the [[Royal Iraqi Air Force#The first 10 years: 1931-1941|Royal Iraqi Air Force]] through a small military mission based in Baghdad, commanded from 1938 by Major-General [[George Guy Waterhouse|G. G. Waterhouse]].<ref name="Lyman, p. 25">Lyman, p. 25.</ref><ref>Ammentorp, Major-General George Guy Waterhouse</ref> The Iraqi Army was composed of approximately 60,000 men, most in four infantry divisions and one mechanised brigade.<ref name="Playfair182" /> The [[1st Division (Iraq)|1st]] and [[3rd Division (Iraq)|3rd]] Divisions were stationed near Baghdad.<ref name="Lyman, p. 25" /><ref name="Playfair182" /> Also based within Baghdad was the Independent Mechanised Brigade, composed of a [[light tank|light-tank]] company made up of [[L3/35]] [[tankette]]s, an armoured-car company composed of Crossley armoured cars,<ref>[http://www.crossley-motors.org.uk/history/military/IGA3-armoured-car/IGA3.html The Crossley "IGA3" armoured car]</ref> two battalions of [[motorised infantry|motorised]] infantry, machine-gunners and an artillery brigade. Unlike the contemporary use of the term "mechanised", it meant "motorised" in 1941 (moving in lorries, fighting on foot).<ref name="Lyman2526" /> The Iraqi [[2nd Division (Iraq)|2nd Division]] was stationed in [[Kirkuk]] and the [[4th Division (Iraq)|4th Division]] in [[Al Diwaniyah]], on the main rail line from Baghdad to Basra.<ref name="Lyman2526">Lyman, pp. 25–26.</ref> The Iraqis fielded police units and about 500 [[Irregular military|irregulars]] under Arab guerrilla leader [[Fawzi al-Qawuqji]], a ruthless fighter who did not hesitate to murder or mutilate prisoners. For the most part, Fawzi operated in the area between [[Rutbah]] and Ramadi, before being chased back into Syria.<ref name="Lyman, p. 88">Lyman, p. 88.</ref><ref>Lyman, p.21.</ref>

The air force had 116 aircraft in seven squadrons, of which 50 to 60 were serviceable, and a training school.<ref name="Lyman2526" /><ref name="Playfair179" /> Most Iraqi fighter and bomber aircraft were at "Rashid Airfield" in Baghdad (formerly [[RAF Hinaidi]]) or in [[Mosul]]. Four squadrons and the Flying Training School were based in Baghdad. Two squadrons with close co-operation and general-purpose aircraft were based in Mosul. The Iraqis flew an assortment of aircraft types including [[Gloster Gladiator]] biplane fighters, [[Breda 65]] fighter bombers, [[Savoia-Marchetti SM.79|Savoia SM 79]] medium bombers, [[Northrop A-17|Northrop/Douglas 8A]] fighter bombers, [[Hawker Hart]] (Hawker Nisr) biplane close co-operation aircraft, [[Vickers Vincent]] biplane light bombers, [[de Havilland Dragon]] biplane general purpose aircraft, [[de Havilland Dragonfly]] biplane general purpose aircraft and [[Tiger Moth]] biplane trainers. The air force had another nine aircraft not allocated to squadrons and 19 aircraft in reserve.<ref name="Lyman2526" />

The [[Iraqi Navy#History|Royal Iraqi Navy]] had four {{convert|100|LT|t|abbr=on}} [[John I. Thornycroft & Company|Thornycroft]] gunboats, a [[pilot vessel]] and a [[Minesweeper (ship)|minesweeper]]. All were armed and were based in the [[Shatt al-Arab]] waterways.<ref>Lyman, p. 26.</ref>

===British force===
{{Further|Iraqforce}}

On 1 April 1941, the British forces in Iraq were small. Air Vice Marshal Harry Smart commanded British Forces in Iraq, a multi-service headquarters. Ground forces included [[Number 1 Armoured Car Company RAF]] and six companies of [[Assyrian Levies]], composed of indigenous [[Eastern Aramaic]] speaking Christian Assyrians about 2,000 officers and other ranks strong, under the command of about twenty British officers.<ref>Lyman, pp. 23–24.</ref> The armoured-car company had 18 old [[Rolls-Royce Armoured Car|Rolls-Royce armoured cars]], built for the RAF in 1921 on converted chassis of World War I design.<ref>Warwick, ''In Every Place'', p. 9.</ref> The armoured car company had two large tanks (HMT 'Walrus' & 'Seal', based on [[Vickers Medium Dragon]] Mk 1 artillery tractors with Rolls-Royce turrets<ref>{{Cite web |last=Legate |first=Bryan |date=8 September 2014 |title=Two Dragons, or a Seal and a Walrus |url=https://www.rafmuseum.org.uk/blog/two-dragons-or-a-seal-and-a-walrus/ |access-date=8 April 2020 |website=Royal Air Force Museum}}</ref>) and a [[Carden Loyd tankette|Carden-Lloyd Mk VI tankette]].<ref>Warwick, ''In Every Place'', p. 281.</ref>

At RAF Habbaniya, [[No. 4 Flying Training School RAF]] (4FTS) had a miscellany of obsolescent bombers, fighters and trainers. Many of the 84 aircraft were unfit for offensive use. At the start of hostilities, there were about 1,000 RAF personnel but only 39 pilots.<ref name="Wavell, p. 3438">Wavell, p. 3438.</ref> On 1 April, the British had three Gloster Gladiator biplane fighters used as officers' runabouts, thirty [[Hawker Audax]] biplane close co-operation aircraft, seven [[Fairey Gordon]] biplane bombers, 27 twin-engine [[Airspeed Oxford]] trainers, 28 Hawker Hart biplane light bombers (the bomber version of the Hawker Audax), twenty Hart trainers and a [[Bristol Blenheim]] Mk1 bomber. Audaxes could carry eight {{convert|20|lb|kg|adj=mid| bombs}} and twelve were modified to carry two {{cvt|250|lb}} bombs. The Gordons could each carry two 250&nbsp;lb bombs and the Oxfords were converted from carrying smoke bombs to carrying eight 20&nbsp;lb bombs. The Hawker Harts could carry two 250&nbsp;lb bombs. The Hawker trainers were unarmed and the Blenheim departed on 3 May. There was also an RAF Iraq Communications Flight at Habbaniya with three [[Vickers Valentia]] biplane flying boats.<ref name="Lyman, p. 22">Lyman, p. 22.</ref> At RAF Shaibah there was [[No. 244 Squadron RAF|244 Squadron]] with some Vickers Vincent bombers.<ref>Lyman, p. 23.</ref> The naval forces available to support British actions in Iraq were part of the [[East Indies Station]] and included vessels from the [[Royal Navy]] (RN), the [[Royal Australian Navy]] (RAN), the [[Royal New Zealand Navy]] (RNZN) and the [[Royal Indian Navy]] (RIN).

===British response===
The British perspective was that relations with Rashid Ali's "National Defence Government" had become increasingly unsatisfactory. Under the terms of the 1931 treaty, Iraq was bound to provide assistance to the United Kingdom during times of war; these obligations included permitting the passage of British troops through its territory. There was a British Military Mission with the Royal Iraqi Army, and the RAF had stations at Habbaniya and at Shaibah.<ref name="Wavell, p. 3437">Wavell, p. 3437.</ref> From the outset, British Prime Minister [[Winston Churchill]] refused recognition of Rashid Ali's "National Defence Government", labeling it illegal.<ref>Lyman, p. 15.</ref>

On 2 April 1941, Sir [[Kinahan Cornwallis]], the new [[List of Ambassadors from the United Kingdom to Iraq|British Ambassador]] to Iraq, arrived in Baghdad.<ref name="Lyman, p. 16" /><ref name="Wavell, p. 3437" /> He had much experience in Mesopotamia and had spent twenty years in the country as the advisor to King [[Faisal I of Iraq|Faisal I]]. Cornwallis was highly regarded, and was sent to Iraq expected to be able to take a more forceful line with the new Iraqi government, but he arrived in Iraq too late to prevent the outbreak of war.<ref name="Lyman, p. 18" />

On 6 April, AVM Smart requested reinforcements, but his request was rejected by the [[Air Officer Commanding]], [[RAF Middle East Command|Middle East]], Sir [[Arthur Longmore]].<ref name="Lyman, p. 16" /> At this point in the Second World War, the situation developing in Iraq did not figure highly in British priorities. Churchill wrote, "[[Western Desert Campaign|Libya counts first]], withdrawal of [[Battle of Greece|troops from Greece]] second. [[Siege of Tobruk|Tobruk]] shipping, unless indispensable to victory, must be fitted in as convenient. Iraq can be ignored and [[Battle of Crete|Crete worked up]] later."<ref>Thomas, p. 127.</ref>

The British [[Chiefs of Staff Committee|Chiefs-of-Staff]] and the [[Commander-in-Chief, India]], General [[Claude Auchinleck]], were in favour of armed intervention, but the three local commanders (of [[British Troops in Egypt]]; in the Sudan, and in [[Palestine Command|Palestine/Transjordan]]) were already burdened by the ongoing Western Desert Campaign, [[East African Campaign (World War II)|East African Campaign]] and the Battle of Greece. They suggested that the only force available was an infantry battalion in Palestine and the aircraft already in Iraq.<ref>Playfair 1956, pp. 31, 178–179.</ref> The Government of India had a long-standing commitment to prepare an infantry division to protect the Anglo-Iranian oilfields, and in July 1940 the leading brigade of the [[5th Infantry Division (India)|5th Indian Infantry Division]] was ordered to Iraq.<ref name="Jackson">Jackson, p. 148.</ref> In August, the division was placed under the control of [[Middle East Command]] and diverted to the [[Sudan]].<ref>Playfair 1956, pp. 177–178.</ref> Since then, [[GHQ India]] had been investigating the move of troops by air from India to RAF Shaibah.

====Operation Sabine====
[[File:Legionnaires guards gladiators.jpg|thumb|Gloster Gladiators of [[No. 94 Squadron RAF]] Detachment, guarded by [[Arab Legion]]naires, refuel during their journey from Ismailia, Egypt, to reinforce Habbaniya]]

On 8 April, Winston Churchill contacted [[Leo Amery]], [[Secretary of State for India]], and asked him what force could be quickly sent from India to Iraq. Amery contacted General Auchinleck and [[Victor Hope, 2nd Marquess of Linlithgow|Lord Linlithgow]], [[Governor-General of India|Viceroy and Governor-General of India]], the same day.<ref>Churchill, p. 225.</ref> The response from India was that most of a [[brigade group]] due to set sail for [[British Malaya|Malaya]] on 10 April, could be diverted to Basra and the rest sent ten days later; 390 British infantry could be flown from India into RAF Shaibah, and when shipping was available the force could quickly be built up to a division.<ref name="Playfair179">Playfair 1956, p. 179.</ref> On 10 April this offer was accepted by London, and the move of these forces was codenamed.<ref name="Jackson" /> On the same day General [[Archibald Wavell, 1st Earl Wavell|Archibald Wavell]], Commander-in-Chief of Middle East Command, informed London that he could no longer spare the battalion in Palestine and urged diplomacy and possibly a demonstration of air strength, rather than military intervention.<ref name="Playfair179" />

On 10 April, Major-General [[William Archibald Kenneth Fraser|William Fraser]] assumed control over ''[[Iraqforce]]'', the land forces from India headed for Basra with orders to occupy the Basra-Shaibah area to ensure the safe disembarkation of further reinforcements and to enable a base to be established in that area.<ref name="Playfair179" />{{refn|Wavell indicates that Fraser commanded the forces being landed at Basra.<ref name="Wavell4093" />|group=nb}} The attitude of the Iraqi Army and local authorities was still uncertain and attempts might be made to oppose disembarkation. Fraser was closely to co-operate with the navy commander. If the landing was opposed, Fraser was to defeat the Iraqi forces and establish a base, but Fraser was not to infringe [[Imperial State of Iran|Iranian]] neutrality.<ref name="Wavell4093" /> In early April, preparation for hostilities began at Habbaniya: aircraft were modified to carry bombs, and light bombers such as the Audaxes were modified to carry larger bombs.<ref name="Playfair181" />

On 12 April, [[List of World War II convoys|Convoy BP7]] left [[Karachi]].<ref name="Lyman, p. 28">Lyman, p. 28.</ref> The convoy was composed of eight transports escorted by the {{sclass|Grimsby|sloop|1}} {{HMAS|Yarra|U77|6}}. The forces transported by the convoy were under the command of Major-General Fraser, the commanding officer of the [[Indian 10th Infantry Division|10th Indian Infantry Division]]. The forces being transported consisted of two senior staff officers from the 10th Indian Division headquarters, the [[20th Indian Infantry Brigade]], the personnel of the Royal Artillery's 3rd Field Regiment<ref name="Playfair179" />—without their guns<ref>Mackenzie, p. 92.</ref>—and certain ancillary troops.<ref name="Wavell4093">Wavell, p. 4093.</ref>

[[File:HMS Hermes - Spithead - 1937.jpg|thumb|{{HMS|Hermes|95|6}} aircraft carrier]]

On 13 April, the Royal Navy force of four ships in the [[Persian Gulf]] was reinforced by the [[aircraft carrier]] {{HMS|Hermes|95|6}} and two [[light cruiser]]s, {{HMS|Emerald|D66|6}} and {{HMNZS|Leander}}. HMS ''Hermes'' carried the [[Fairey Swordfish]] torpedo bombers of [[814 Naval Air Squadron|814 Squadron]].<ref name="Lyman, p. 28" /> The naval vessels which covered the disembarkation at Basra consisted of the aircraft carrier HMS ''Hermes'', the light cruiser HMS ''Emerald'', the light cruiser HMNZS ''Leander'', the [[Sloop-of-war|sloop]] {{HMS|Falmouth|U34|6}}, the gunboat HMS ''Cockchafer'', the sloop HMS ''Seabelle'', the [[minesweeper]] sloop {{ship|HMIS|Lawrence|L83|6}}, and the sloop HMAS ''Yarra''. On the morning of 15 April, Convoy BP7 was met at sea by HMS ''Seabelle'' from Basra. Later in the day the escort was reinforced by HMS ''Falmouth''. On 17 April, the convoy was joined by HMIS ''Lawrence'' and then proceeded towards the entrance of the Shatt al-Arab. On 18 April, the convoy moved up the Shatt al-Arab and arrived at Basra at 0930 hrs. HMS ''Emerald'' was already in Basra.<ref name="Wavell4094" /> On the same day, HMNZS ''Leander'' was released from support duties in the Persian Gulf. On 16 April, the Iraqi Government was informed that the British were going to invoke the Anglo-Iraq treaty to move troops through the country to Palestine. Rashid Ali raised no objection.

====First arrivals in Basra====
On 17 April, the 1st Battalion [[King's Own Royal Regiment (Lancaster)|King's Own Royal Regiment]] (1st KORR) was flown into RAF Shaibah from Karachi in India.<ref name="Churchill p. 224" /> Colonel [[Ouvry Lindfield Roberts|Ouvry Roberts]], the [[Staff (military)|Chief Staff Officer]] of the 10th Indian Infantry Division, arrived with the 1st KORR.<ref name="Compton Mackenzie, p. 96">Mackenzie, p. 96.</ref><ref name="Lyman, p. 20">Lyman, p. 20.</ref> By 18 April, the [[airlift]] of the 1st KORR to Shaibah was completed. The [[Military transport aircraft|troop-carrying aircraft]] used for this airlift were 7 [[Vickers Type 264 Valentia|Valentias]] and 4 [[Armstrong Whitworth Atalanta|Atalantas]] supplemented by 4 [[Douglas DC-2|DC-2s]] which had recently arrived in India.<ref name="Wavell4094" />

On 18 April, the 20th Indian Infantry Brigade landed at Basra,<ref name="Playfair179" /> commanded by Brigadier [[Donald Powell]]. The 20th Indian Infantry Brigade included the 2nd battalion [[8 Gorkha Rifles|8th Gurkha Rifles]], 2nd battalion [[7th Duke of Edinburgh's Own Gurkha Rifles|7th Gurkha Rifles]], and the 3rd battalion [[11th Sikh Regiment]]. The landing of the force transported by Convoy BP7 was covered by infantry of the 1st KORR<ref name="Martin42">Martin, p. 42.</ref> which had arrived the previous day by air.<ref name="Churchill p. 224" /> The landing was unopposed.<ref name="Lyman, p. 31" />

By 19 April, the disembarkation of the force transported by Convoy BP7 at Basra was completed.<ref name="Wavell4094" /> On the same day, seven aircraft{{refn|Six [[Gloster Gladiator]]s fighters and one [[Vickers Wellington]] bomber, carrying spare parts.<ref name="Playfair182" />|group=nb}} were flown into RAF Habbaniya to bolster the air force there.<ref name="Playfair182" /> Following the landing of the 20th Indian Infantry Brigade, Rashid Ali requested that the brigade be moved quickly through the country and that no more troops should arrive until the previous force had left.<ref>Playfair 1956, pp. 179–180.</ref> Sir Kinahan Cornwallis, the British Ambassador to Iraq, referred the issue to London and London replied that they had no interest in moving the troops out of the country and wanted to establish them within Iraq. Cornwallis was also instructed not to inform Rashid Ali who, as he had taken control of the country via a ''coup d'état'', had no right to be informed about British troop movements.<ref name="Playfair181">Playfair 1956, p. 181.</ref>

On 20 April, Churchill had written to [[Anthony Eden]], the [[Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs|Foreign Secretary]], and indicated that it should be made clear to Ambassador Cornwallis that the chief interest in sending troops to Iraq was the covering and establishment of a great assembly base near Basra. It was to be understood that what happened "up country", with the exception of Habbaniya, was at that time on an "altogether lower priority." Churchill went on to indicate that the treaty rights were invoked to cover the disembarkation, but that force would have been used if it had been required. Cornwallis was directed not to make agreements with an Iraqi government which had usurped its power. In addition, he was directed to avoid entangling himself with explanations to the Iraqis.<ref>Churchill, pp. 225–226.</ref>

====Additional arrivals====
On 29 April, having sailed from [[Bombay]], the remaining elements of the 20th Infantry Brigade arrived at Basra on the three transports of Convoy BN1.<ref name="Lyman, p. 31" /><ref>Mackenzie, pp. 92–93.</ref> On 30 April, when Rashid Ali was informed that ships containing additional British forces had arrived, he refused permission for troops to disembark from them and began organising for an armed demonstration at RAF Habbaniya,<ref name="Playfair181" /> fully expecting that German aircraft and airborne troops would be coming to his assistance.<ref name="Martin42" /> Rashid Ali decided against opposing the landings at Basra.<ref name="Lyman, p. 31" />

Also on 29 April,<ref name="Playfair182" /> the British Ambassador, Sir Kinahan Cornwallis,<ref name="Playfair178" /> advised that all British women and children should leave Baghdad; 230 civilians were escorted by road to Habbaniya and during the following days, were gradually airlifted to Shaibah.<ref name="Playfair182" /> A further 350 civilians took refuge in the British Embassy and 150 British civilians in the American Legation.<ref name="Jackson149">Jackson, p. 149.</ref>

By the end of the month, Colonel Roberts and 300 of the 1st KORR had been flown from RAF Shaibah to reinforce RAF Habbaniya.<ref name="Playfair182">Playfair 1956, p. 182.</ref> Other than the 1st KORR, there were no trained British troops at Habbaniya bar the Number 1 Armoured Car Company RAF.<ref name="Lyman, p. 22" />

===Iraqi moves and escalation to war===
At 03:00 hours on 30 April, RAF Habbaniya was warned by the British Embassy that Iraqi forces had left their bases at Baghdad, and were heading west.<ref name="Playfair182" /> The Iraqi force was composed of between 6,000<ref name="Mack93" /> and 9,000<ref>{{Cite web |title=RAF Museum British Military Aviation in 1941 – Part 2 entry for 30 April |url=http://www.rafmuseum.org.uk/milestones-of-flight/british_military/1941_2.cfm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090210210704/http://www.rafmuseum.org.uk/milestones-of-flight/british_military/1941_2.cfm |archive-date=10 February 2009 |access-date=13 December 2008 |publisher=RAF Museum}}</ref> troops with up to 30 artillery pieces.<ref name="Mack93">Mackenzie, p. 93.</ref> A few hours after RAF Habbaniya was warned, Iraqi forces occupied the [[plateau]] to the south of the base. Reconnaissance aircraft were launched before dawn from RAF Habbaniya, and reported that at least two battalions, with artillery, had taken up position on the plateau.{{refn|Lyman states that on the first day the Iraqi force had in fact deployed three infantry battalions and an artillery brigade on the escarpment.<ref name="Lyman, p. 39">Lyman, p. 39.</ref> Wavell indicates that, on 30 April, two brigades and some armoured cars took up positions on the escarpment.<ref name="Wavell4094" />|group=nb}}

By 1 May, the Iraqi forces surrounding Habbaniya had swelled to an infantry brigade, two mechanised battalions, a mechanised artillery brigade with 12 [[QF 3.7-inch mountain howitzer|3.7-inch mountain howitzers]], a field artillery brigade with 12 [[QF 18-pounder gun|18-pounder field guns]] and four [[QF 4.5-inch howitzer|4.5-inch howitzers]], 12 [[Crossley Motors|Crossley]] six-wheeled armoured cars, a number of Fiat light tanks, a mechanised machine gun company, a mechanised signal company, and a mixed battery of anti-aircraft and anti-tank guns. This totalled 9,000 regular troops, an undetermined number of tribal irregulars, and about 50 [[field gun]]s.<ref name="Lyman, p. 39" />

====Iraqi demands====
[[File:IWM-KID-6259-Crossley-Armoured-Car.jpg|thumb|Crossley six-wheeled armoured car]]

At 06:00 hours on 30 April, an Iraqi envoy presented a message to Smart, stating that the plateau had been occupied for a training exercise.<ref name="Mack94">Mackenzie, p. 94.</ref> The envoy also informed Smart that all flying should cease immediately<ref name="Playfair182" /> and demanded that no movements, either ground or air, take place from the base.<ref name="Mack94" /> Smart replied that any interference with the normal training carried out at the base would be treated as an act of war.<ref name="Playfair182" /> Sir Kinahan Cornwallis, the British Ambassador located at the British Embassy in Baghdad and in contact with RAF Habbaniya via [[wireless]], fully supported this action.<ref name="Playfair182" />

British reconnaissance aircraft, already in the air, continued to relay information to the base; they reported that the Iraqi positions on the plateau were being steadily reinforced and that Iraqi troops had occupied the town of Fallujah.<ref name="Playfair182" />

At 11:30 hours, the Iraqi envoy again made contact with Smart and accused the British of violating the Anglo-Iraqi treaty. Smart replied that this was a political matter and he would have to refer the accusation to Cornwallis.<ref name="Playfair182" /> Meanwhile, Iraqi forces had now occupied vital bridges over the [[Tigris]] and [[Euphrates]] rivers and reinforced their garrison at Ramadi, cutting off land links to RAF Habbaniya.<ref name="Playfair183">Playfair 1956, p. 183.</ref>

====Situation at RAF Habbaniya====
During the morning, Smart and Roberts surveyed the situation, they determined that they were exposed to attack on two sides and dominated by Iraqi artillery; a single hit from an Iraqi gun might destroy the water tower or power station and, as a result, cripple resistance at Habbaniya in one blow – the base seemed at the mercy of the Iraqi rebels. The garrison did not have enough small arms, and the only artillery support available was a few mortars.<ref>Richards, pp. 314–316.</ref>

Smart controlled a base with a population of around 9,000 civilians<ref name="Playfair181" /> that was indefensible with the force of roughly 2,500 men currently available.<ref>Playfair 1956, pp. 181–182.</ref> The 2,500 men included air crew and Assyrian Levies, who were prized by the British for their loyalty, discipline and fighting qualities.<ref>Len Deighton (1993), Blood, Tears and Folly</ref> There was also the possibility that the Iraqi rebels were waiting for dark before attacking. Air Vice-Marshal Smart decided to accept the tactical risks and stick to Middle East Command's policy of avoiding aggravation in Iraq by, for the moment, not launching a pre-emptive strike.<ref name="Playfair182-3">Playfair 1956, pp. 182–183.</ref>

====Further exchanges====
Further exchanges of messages took place between the British and Iraqi forces, but did not defuse the situation. Air Vice-Marshal Smart again requested reinforcements, and this time Air Officer Commanding<ref name="Playfair183" /> Sir Arthur Longmore<ref>Playfair 1956, p. 367.</ref> ordered 18{{Refn|Eight bombers from [[No. 70 Squadron RAF]] were initially dispatched and were later followed by 10 bombers from [[No. 37 Squadron RAF]].<ref name="Playfair183" />|group=nb}} [[Vickers Wellington]] bombers to RAF Shaibah. The British Ambassador signalled the [[Foreign and Commonwealth Office|Foreign Office]] that he regarded the Iraqi actions as an act of war, which required an immediate air response. He also informed them that he intended to demand the withdrawal of the Iraqi forces and asked for permission to launch air strikes to restore control; even if the Iraqi troops overlooking Habbaniya did withdraw it would only postpone aerial attacks.<ref name="Playfair183" />

====Decision to launch air strikes made====
Also on 1 May, Ambassador Cornwallis received a response giving him full authority to take any steps needed to ensure the withdrawal of the Iraqi armed forces.<ref name="Playfair183" /> Churchill also sent a personal reply, stating: "If you have to strike, strike hard. Use all necessary force."<ref name="Mack94" /> In the event that contact broke down between the British Embassy in Baghdad and the air base in Habbaniya, Air Vice-Marshal Smart was given permission to act on his own authority.<ref name="Playfair183" />

Still in contact with the British Embassy and with the approval of Ambassador Cornwallis, Air Vice-Marshal Smart decided to launch air strikes against the plateau the following morning without issuing an [[ultimatum]], as with foreknowledge the Iraqi force might start to shell the airbase and halt any attempt to launch aircraft.<ref name="Playfair183" />

==Campaign==
===2 May===
Most combat operations of the Anglo-Iraqi War centred on the Habbaniya area. Starting early on 2 May, British [[airstrike]]s were launched against the Iraqis from RAF Habbaniya.<ref name="Playfair183" /> While the largest number of British troops were ultimately assembled in the Basra area, an advance from Basra was not immediately practicable and did not get under way until after Rashid Ali's government was already collapsing. Initially, the Iraqi siege of RAF Habbaniya and the ability of the [[Siege|besieged]] British force there to withstand the siege was the primary focus of the conflict. Air Vice-Marshal Smart's decision to strike at the Iraqi positions with [[Aerial warfare|air power]] not only allowed his force to withstand the siege, but to neutralise much of Iraq's air power. While the relief force from Palestine arrived in Habbaniya after the siege was over, it did allow an immediate change over to the offensive.

===Siege of Habbaniya===
Air Vice-Marshal Smart's tactics to defend Habbaniya was to mount continuous [[bombing]] and [[strafing]] attacks with as many aircraft as possible.<ref name="Jackson151">Jackson, p. 151.</ref> At 05:00 on 2 May 33 aircraft from Habbaniya,<ref name="Playfair183" /> out of the 56 operational aircraft based there,<ref name="CM95">Mackenzie, p. 95.</ref> and eight Wellington bombers from Shaibah began their attack.<ref name="Playfair183" /> A few of the Greek pilots being trained at Habbaniya also joined in the RAF attack.<ref name="Carr">{{Cite book |last=Carr |first=John |title=On Spartan Wings – The Royal Hellenic Air Force in World War Two |publisher=Pen & Sword Aviation |year=2012 |isbn=978-1-84884-798-9}}</ref> Within minutes the Iraqis on the escarpment replied by shelling the base, damaging some planes on the ground. The Royal Iraqi Air Force (RIAF) also joined in the fray over Habbaniya.<ref name="Playfair183" /> RAF attacks were also made against Iraqi air fields near Baghdad, which destroyed 22 aircraft on the ground;<ref name="Jackson151" /> further attacks were made against the railway and Iraqi positions near Shaibah, with the loss of two planes.<ref name="Playfair183" /> Throughout the day, the pilots from Habbaniya flew 193 [[sortie]]s<ref name="Playfair183" /> and claimed direct hits on Iraqi transports, armoured cars and artillery pieces;<ref name="RAF">{{Cite web |title=RAF Valley No 4 Flying Training School |url=http://www.raf.mod.uk/rafvalley/aboutus/4ftshist.cfm |publisher=Royal Air Force |access-date=21 December 2008 |archive-date=28 June 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130628045156/http://www.raf.mod.uk/rafvalley/aboutus/4ftshist.cfm }}</ref> however five aircraft had been destroyed and several others put out of service. On the base 13 people were killed and 29 wounded, including nine civilians.<ref name="Playfair183" />

By the end of the day, the Iraqi force outside Habbaniya had grown to roughly a [[brigade]].<ref name="Playfair184">Playfair 1956, p. 184.</ref>

====Iraqi forces, 2 May====
[[File:Vickers Wellington.jpg|thumb|right|[[Vickers Wellington]] bomber]]
[[File:Gloster Gladiator 3 ExCC.jpg|thumb|right|Three [[Gloster Gladiator]]s]]

The British attack on 2 May took the Iraqis completely by surprise. While the Iraqis on the escarpment carried live ammunition, many Iraqi soldiers were under the impression that they were on a training exercise. Rashid Ali and the members of the Golden Square were shocked by the British defenders at RAF Habbaniya being prepared to fight rather than surrender. To compound the surprise and shock, many members of the [[Muslim]] Iraqi army were preparing for morning prayers when the attack was launched. When the news reached the [[Grand Mufti]] in Baghdad, he immediately declared a ''[[jihad]]'' against the United Kingdom. In addition, the flow of [[Iraq Petroleum Company]] oil through the [[Kirkuk-Haifa oil pipeline|pipeline to Haifa]] was severed.<ref>Lyman, p. 43.</ref>

On 3 May, the British bombing of the Iraqis continued; troop and gun positions on the plateau were targeted as well as the supply line to Baghdad. The Iraqi air base at [[Rasheed Air Base|Rashid]] was also attacked<ref name="Playfair184" /> and an Iraqi Savoia SM 79 bomber heading for Habbaniya was intercepted and shot down.<ref name="RAF" /> The following day further air attacks were carried out on Iraqi troop positions and the Iraqi air force. A bombing raid conducted by eight Wellington bombers on Rashid was briefly engaged by Iraqi fighters, but no losses were suffered. Bristol Blenheims escorted by [[Hawker Hurricane|Hurricanes]] also conducted strafing attacks against airfields at Baghdad, Rashid and Mosul.<ref name="Playfair184" />

On 5 May, due to a car accident, Air Vice-Marshal Smart was evacuated to Basra and then to India. Colonel Roberts assumed ''[[de facto]]'' command of the land operations at RAF Habbaniya after the departure of Smart.<ref>Lyman, p. 19.</ref> Air Vice-Marshal [[John D'Albiac]], from Greece, was to take command over aerial forces at Habbaniya<ref name="Playfair 1956, p. 188">Playfair 1956, p. 188.</ref> and of all RAF forces in Iraq. Further aerial attacks were conducted against the plateau during the day, and following nightfall<ref name="Playfair184" /> Colonel Roberts ordered a sortie by the King's Own Royal Regiment (1st KORR) against the Iraqi positions on the plateau. The attack was supported by the Assyrian levies, some RAF armoured cars, and two First World War-era [[QF 4.5-inch howitzer|4.5-inch howitzers]] which had had previously been decorating the entrance of the base's officers' mess. The guns were put in working order by some British gunners.<ref name="Compton Mackenzie, p. 96" /><ref>{{Cite web |last=Kiwarkis |title=Assyrian R.A.F. Levies: 1941 Habbanyia, Battle for Habbaniya – 1941 War Diary |url=http://assyrianlevies.com/gpage8.html |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081220222048/http://assyrianlevies.com/gpage8.html |archive-date=20 December 2008}}</ref>

====Iraqis abandon escarpment====
[[File:Royal Air Force Operations in the Middle East and North Africa, 1939-1943. CM812.jpg|thumb|An RAF officer investigates wrecked artillery on the plateau above Habbaniya]]

Late on 6 May, the Iraqis besieging Habbaniya withdrew. By dawn on Wednesday 7 May, RAF armoured cars reconnoitred the top of the [[escarpment]] and reported it to be deserted. The Iraqi force had abandoned substantial quantities of arms and equipment; the British garrison gained six Czechoslovakian-built 3.7&nbsp;inch howitzers along with 2,400 shells, one [[Ordnance QF 18 pounder|18-pounder gun]], one Italian tank, ten Crossley armoured cars, 79 trucks, three 20&nbsp;mm anti-aircraft guns with 2,500 shells, 45 [[Bren light machine gun|Bren light machine-guns]], eleven [[Vickers machine gun]]s, and 340 rifles with 500,000 rounds of ammunition.<ref name="Lyman, p. 51">Lyman, p. 51.</ref>

The investment of Habbaniya, by Iraqi forces, had come to an end. The British garrison had suffered 13 men killed, 21 badly wounded, and four men suffering [[Combat stress reaction|battle fatigue]]. The garrison had inflicted between 500 and 1000 casualties on the besieging force, and taken many prisoners. On 6 May alone, 408 Iraqi troops were captured.<ref name="Lyman, p. 51" /> The Chiefs-of-Staff now ordered that it was essential to continue to hit the Iraqi armed forces hard by every means available while avoiding direct attacks on the civilian population. The British objective was to safeguard British interests from Axis intervention in Iraq, to defeat the rebels, and to discredit Rashid's government.<ref name="Playfair186">Playfair 1956, p. 186.</ref>

====Iraqi reinforcements attacked====
Meanwhile, Iraqi reinforcements were approaching Habbaniya. RAF armoured cars, reconnoitring ahead, soon found that the village of Sin el Dhibban, on the Fallujah road, was occupied by Iraqi troops. The 1st KORR and the Assyrian levies, supported by the RAF armoured cars, assaulted the position, driving the Iraqis out and taking over 300 prisoners. The Iraqi force retreating from Habbaniya met with an Iraqi column moving towards Habbaniya from Fallujah in the afternoon. The two Iraqi forces met around {{convert|5|mi|km}} east of Habbaniya on the Fallujah road. The reinforcing Iraqi column was soon spotted and 40 aircraft from RAF Habbaniya arrived to attack; the two Iraqi columns were paralysed, and within two hours more than 1,000 Iraqi casualties were inflicted and further prisoners were taken.<ref name="Compton Mackenzie, p. 96" /><ref name="Playfair184" /> Later in the afternoon Iraqi aircraft carried out three raids on the airbase and inflicted some damage.<ref name="Playfair184" />

====Churchill praises Smart====
Also on 7 May, apparently unaware of Smart's injury, Churchill sent the following message to Smart:

<blockquote>Your vigorous and splendid action has largely restored the situation. We are all watching the grand fight you are making. All possible aid will be sent. Keep it up!<ref>Churchill, p. 230.</ref></blockquote>

Over the course of the next few days the RAF, from Habbaniya and Shaibah, effectively eliminated the Iraqi air force. However, from 11 May, German Air Force (''Luftwaffe'') aircraft took the place of the Iraqi aircraft.<ref name="Playfair 1956, p. 188" />{{refn|The Wellington bombers, based at Shaibah, only took part in these aerial attacks up to 10 May and returned to Egypt two days later.<ref name="Playfair 1956, p. 188" />|group=nb}}

===Axis intervention===
{{Further|Führer Directive No. 30}}

During the time leading up to the coup d'état, Rashid Ali's supporters had been informed that Germany was willing to recognise the independence of Iraq from the British Empire. There had also been discussions on war material being sent to support the Iraqis and other Arab factions in fighting the British.{{Citation needed|date=October 2009}}

On 3 May, German Foreign Minister [[Joachim von Ribbentrop]] persuaded German dictator [[Adolf Hitler]] to secretly return Dr. [[Fritz Grobba]] to Iraq to head up a diplomatic mission to channel support to the Rashid Ali regime. The British quickly learned of the German arrangements through intercepted Italian diplomatic transmissions.<ref name="Lyman63">Lyman, p. 63.</ref>

[[Vichy France]], which controlled the neighbouring [[Mandatory Syrian Republic]], became keen to facilitate any agreement between Iraq, Italy and Germany.<ref name="Sutherland & Canwell, p. 34">Sutherland & Canwell, p. 34.</ref> Key Vichy figure [[Admiral Darlan]] was fully supportive of agreements with the Germans in order to promote long-term French aims, and had become increasingly incensed by British naval attacks on Vichy shipping, which sometimes brought the Royal Navy into direct confrontation with Vichy military forces.<ref name="Sutherland & Canwell, p. 34"/> It was therefore proposed that Axis access to Iraq would be facilitated via French-held Syria.<ref name="Sutherland & Canwell, p. 34"/>

On 6 May, in accordance with the [[Paris Protocols]], Germany concluded a deal with the Vichy French government to release war materials, including aircraft, from sealed stockpiles in Syria and transport them to the Iraqis. The French also agreed to allow passage of other weapons and material as well as loaning several airbases in northern Syria, to Germany, for the transport of German aircraft to Iraq.<ref>Playfair 1956, pp. 194–195.</ref> Between 9 May and the end of the month, about one-hundred German and about twenty Italian aircraft landed on Syrian airfields.<ref>Churchill, p. 288.</ref> Darlan had actually ensured that the Protocols included a proposal that the French would launch an offensive against the British-held Iraqi oilfields, and the oil would be made available to the Germans.<ref>Sutherland & Canwell, p. 35.</ref>

====''Fliegerführer Irak''====
[[File:Roundel of Iraq.svg|thumb|upright|Iraqi aircraft marking, 1941]]

On 6 May, the ''[[Luftwaffe]]'' ordered Colonel [[Werner Junck]] to take a small force to Iraq, to operate out of Mosul. Between 10 and 15 May the aircraft arrived in Mosul via Vichy French airbases in Syria, and then commenced regular aerial attacks on British forces. The arrival of these aircraft was the direct result of fevered consultations between Baghdad and Berlin in the days following RAF strikes on the Iraqi forces above Habbaniya. The ''Luftwaffe'' force, under the direction of Lieutenant General [[Hans Jeschonnek]], was named "[[Fliegerführer Irak|Flyer Command Iraq]]" (''Fliegerführer Irak''){{refn|Some sources indicate that this unit was named "Special Force Junck" (''Sonderkommando Junck'')<ref>Weal, p. 102.</ref>|group=nb}} and was under the tactical command of Colonel Junck. On 11 May, the first three ''Luftwaffe'' planes arrived at Mosul via Syria. At least 20 bombers were initially promised; ultimately Junck's unit consisted of between 21 and 29 aircraft, all painted with Royal Iraqi Air Force markings.<ref name="Playfair195">Playfair 1956, p. 195.</ref><ref name="Mack100">Mackenzie, p. 100.</ref><ref name="Lyman63" />{{refn|Playfair states this force was made up initially of 14 [[Messerschmitt Bf 110]] and seven [[Heinkel He 111]]s.<ref name="Playfair195" /> Lyman states it was 12 Heinkel He 111s and 12 Messerschmitt Bf 110s,<ref name="Lyman63" /> while Mackenzie states the force consisted of 15 Heinkel 111s and 14 Messerschmitt Bf 110s.<ref name="Mack100" />|group=nb}}

Major [[Axel von Blomberg]] was sent to Iraq with ''Sonderstab F'' ("[[Special Staff F]]"), the German military mission commanded by General [[Hellmuth Felmy]]. He was to command a [[Brandenburgers|Brandenburgers Commando]] reconnaissance group in Iraq that was to precede ''Fliegerführer Irak''.<ref>Kurowski, p. 131.</ref> He was also tasked with integrating ''Fliegerführer Irak'' with Iraqi forces in operations against the British.<ref name="Lyman63" /> On 15 May, he flew from Mosul to Baghdad. On its approach to Baghdad, the aircraft was engaged by Iraqi ground fire, and von Blomberg was killed.<ref>Lyman, p. 65.</ref>

At this time Germany and the Soviet Union were still allies due to the [[Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact]] of 1939, and this was reflected in Soviet actions regarding Iraq. On 12 May, the Soviet Union recognised Rashid Ali's "National Defence Government."<ref>''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]'' magazine, 30 June 1941.</ref> An Iraqi-Soviet exchange of notes established diplomatic relations between the two governments.<ref>''New York Times'', 18 May 1941, p. 6.</ref>

====Vichy French supplies from Syria====
{{Campaignbox Vichy France Military in World War II}}

On 13 May, the first trainload of supplies, from Syria, arrived in Mosul via Turkey. The Iraqis took delivery of 15,500 rifles, with {{#invoke:Spellnum per MOS|main|6000000|}} rounds of ammunition, 200 machine guns with 900 belts of ammunition, and four 75&nbsp;mm field guns with 10,000 shells. Two additional deliveries were made on 26 and 28 May, which included eight 155&nbsp;mm guns with 6,000 shells, 354 machine pistols, 30,000 grenades, and 32 trucks.<ref name="Lyman, p. 64">Lyman, p. 64.</ref>

On 14 May, according to Winston Churchill, the RAF was authorised to act against German aircraft in Syria and on Vichy French airfields.<ref>Churchill, p. 289.</ref> On the same day, two over-laden Heinkel 111 bombers were left in [[Palmyra]] in central Syria because they had damaged rear wheels. British fighters entered French air space and strafed and disabled the damaged Heinkels.<ref name="Lyman, p. 64" /> On 15 May an attack was made on German aircraft on the ground at [[Damascus]], killing a French officer in the process.<ref>Sutherland & Canwell, p. 40.</ref>

By 18 May, Junck's force had been whittled down to 8 [[Messerschmitt Bf 110]] fighters, 4 [[Heinkel He 111]] bombers, and 2 [[Junkers Ju 52]] transports. This represented roughly a 30 per cent loss of his original force. With few replacements available, no spares, poor fuel, and aggressive attacks by the British, this rate of attrition did not bode well for ''Fliegerführer Irak''. Indeed, near the end of May, Junck had lost 14 Messerschmitts and 5 Heinkels.<ref name="Lyman68">Lyman, pp. 66–68.</ref> On 18 May four Vichy [[Morane-Saulnier M.S.406|Morane 406s]] chased British aircraft flying above Syria, and another three Moranes attacked British Bristol Blenheims near Damascus without causing damage.<ref>Sutherland & Canwell, p. 41.</ref> On 19 May another British aerial attack near Damascus damaged several French aircraft and wounded a French soldier, and on 20 May British aircraft intentionally shot up six French aircraft and fifty vehicles.<ref>Sutherland & Canwell, p. 42.</ref>

More dogfights between Vichy and British aircraft took place on 24 May, as well as a British sabotage mission by 13 [[sapper]]s on the Aleppo-Mosul railway line, which led to a French armoured car firing on the British.<ref name="Sutherland & Canwell, p. 43">Sutherland & Canwell, p. 43.</ref> Further British-French aerial combat occurred on 28 May, in which a Blenheim was shot down by a French fighter, killing its crew.<ref name="Sutherland & Canwell, p. 43"/> On the same day, French Morane fighters escorted four Nazi [[Junkers Ju 52|Ju 52]]s near [[Nerab]] in eastern Syria.<ref name="Sutherland & Canwell, p. 43"/> More Vichy-British aerial combat occurred on 31 May.<ref name="Sutherland & Canwell, p. 44">Sutherland & Canwell, p. 44.</ref>

Britain was incensed that Vichy had assisted Italy and Germany in their attacks on the British in Iraq, which would not have been possible save for the connivance of the Vichy French.<ref>Sutherland & Canwell, pp. 34–39.</ref> The Vichyite actions ensured Britain began preparing for an invasion of Syria, which ultimately led to the [[Syria-Lebanon campaign]] of June and July.<ref name="Sutherland & Canwell, p. 44"/>

====Italy====
On 27 May, after being invited by Germany, 12 Italian [[Fiat CR.42]]s of the 155.<sup>a</sup> ''Squadriglia'' (renamed ''Squadriglia speciale Irak'') of the ''[[Regia Aeronautica|Regia Aeronautica Italiana]]'' (Royal Italian Air Force) arrived at Mosul to operate under German command.<ref name="Playfair196">Playfair 1956, p. 196.</ref> Also present were a Savoia-Marchetti SM.79 and Savoia-Marchetti SM.81 acting as pathfinder aircraft, which were stationed in [[Aleppo]]; personnel and equipment were brought in on three [[Savoia-Marchetti SM.82]]s.<ref name="Thomas 2002, p. 81">Thomas 2002, p. 81.</ref> By 29 May, Italian aircraft were reported in the skies over Baghdad.<ref name="Wavell, p. 4095">Wavell, p. 4095.</ref> Churchill claimed that the Italian aircraft accomplished nothing,<ref name="Churchill, p. 234">Churchill, p. 234.</ref> but on 29 May near Khan Nuqta the Italians intercepted a flight of Hawker Audaxes escorted by Gloster Gladiators of No. 94 Squadron. In the resulting combat, two Gladiators were lost for one CR.42 shot down by Wing Commander Wightman. This was the final aerial battle of the Anglo-Iraqi War.<ref name="Thomas 2002, p. 81" /> The SM.79 was destroyed on the ground in Aleppo by RAF bombers. Three CR.42s were damaged and had to be abandoned during the Axis withdrawal from Iraq. The remaining Italian aircraft were evacuated at the end of May and used to defend [[Pantelleria]].<ref name="Lembo pp. 34–38">Lembo, Daniele. "La squadriglia speciale Irak." ''Aerei nella Storia'' Magazine, Delta editions, Parma, 9/1999, pp. 34–38.</ref>

Plans were drawn up to supply troops, but the German high command was hesitant and required the permission of Turkey for passage. In the end the ''Luftwaffe'' found conditions in Iraq intolerable, as spare parts were not available, and the quality of aircraft fuel was far below the ''Luftwaffe's'' requirements. With each passing day fewer aircraft remained serviceable, and ultimately all ''Luftwaffe'' personnel were evacuated on the last remaining Heinkel He 111.{{Citation needed|date=July 2009}}

===Advance from Palestine===
On 2 May, the day AVM Smart launched his airstrikes, Wavell continued to urge for further diplomatic action to be taken with the Iraqi government to end the current situation and accept the Turkish government's offer of mediation. He was informed by the Defence Committee that there would be no accepting the Turkish offer and that the situation in Iraq had to be restored.{{citation needed|date=May 2022}}

====Rutbah====
[[File:Royal Air Force Operations in the Middle East and North Africa, 1939-1943. CM822.jpg|thumb|The fort at [[Rutbah]] under attack from H4-based Bristol Blenheims, 9 May 1941]]

Before Smart launched his airstrikes on 2 May, members of the Iraqi Desert Police had seized the fort at [[Ar Rutba|Rutbah]] for the "National Defence Government."<ref name="Lyman, p. 57">Lyman, p. 57.</ref> On 1 May, the police opened fire on British workers in Rutbah.<ref name="Playfair187">Playfair 1956, p. 187.</ref> In response, Major-General Clark had ordered the mechanised squadron of the [[Transjordan Frontier Force]] (TJFF), which was based at H4 pumping station, to seize the fort for the British. When the members of the TJFF refused, they were marched back to H3 and disarmed.<ref name="Lyman, p. 57" />

By the end of the first day of airstrikes, there had been reports that elements of the Royal Iraqi Army were advancing on the town of Rutbah.<ref name="Martin42" /> C Company of the 1st Battalion The [[Essex Regiment]] were ordered to travel from Palestine to H4, between Haifa and Iraq; from here the company would join a [[Number 2 Armoured Car Company RAF|detachment of RAF armoured cars]] and defend the position from the Iraqi rebels.<ref>Martin, pp. 42–43.</ref>

On 4 May, Churchill ordered Wavell to dispatch a force from Palestine.<ref>Lyman, p.16.</ref> On 5 May, Wavell was placed in command of operations in northern Iraq, and General [[Henry Maitland Wilson, 1st Baron Wilson|Maitland Wilson]] was called back from Greece to take command of forces in Palestine and Transjordan. The [[Ministry of Defence (United Kingdom)#History|Defence Committee]] and chiefs-of-staff rationale for taking military action against the Iraqi rebels was that they needed to secure the country from Axis intervention, and considered Rashid Ali to have been conspiring with the Axis powers.<ref>Playfair 1956, pp. 184–185.</ref> The Chiefs-of-Staff accepted full responsibility for the dispatch of troops to Iraq.<ref name="Playfair186" />

On 8 May a column of the [[Arab Legion]], under [[Glubb Pasha]], reached the fort at Rutbah.<ref name="Young, p. 7">Young, p. 7.</ref> They picketed the ground surrounding the fort, to await the RAF bombardment. The fort was defended by approximately 100 policemen, mostly Iraqi Desert Police.<ref>de Chair, p. 18.</ref> The H4-based Blenheims of [[No. 203 Squadron RAF|203 Squadron]] arrived and bombed the fort and, thinking that it had surrendered, left. The fort had not surrendered, and the RAF returned twice that day to bomb the fort without success.

The next day, the RAF continued to bomb the fort intermittently. One plane sustained such heavy small-arms fire that it crashed on the way home, killing the pilot. That evening, 40 trucks armed with machine guns arrived at the fort to reinforce the garrison. Half of the trucks were irregulars under the command of Fawzi al-Qawuqji and the other half were Iraqi Desert Police. Glubb decided to withdraw the troops back to H3 to await the reinforcement of the main column.{{citation needed|date=May 2022}}

The Arab Legion returned to H3 on the morning of 10 May, and found [[No. 2 Armoured Car Company RAF]] under Squadron Leader [[Michael Casano]] waiting there. They had been sent up ahead of the main column to assist the Arab Legion in taking Rutbah. Casano took his RAF armoured cars to Rutbah whilst the Arab Legion replenished their supplies at H3. Casano's armoured cars fought an action against al-Qawuqji's trucks for most of the rest of the day and, although the result was not decisive, the trucks retired to the east under the cover of darkness, leaving the garrison to its fate. That night the RAF succeeded in a night bombing, with several bombs landing inside the fort.{{citation needed|date=May 2022}}

Following the withdrawal of al-Qawuqji's trucks and the successful bombing by the RAF, the garrison withdrew from the fort under the cover of darkness. In the morning the Arab Legion column arrived and garrisoned the fort whilst Casano's armoured cars continued to fight remnants of the Iraqi Desert Police's forces.<ref>Glubb, pp. 263–267.</ref>

====Habbaniya Force====
The force put together in Palestine by Wavell was codenamed ''[[Habforce]]'', short for ''Habbaniya Force''.<ref name="Jackson152">Jackson, p. 152.</ref> The force was placed under the command of Major-General [[John George Walters Clark|George Clark]], who was the commander of the [[1st Cavalry Division (United Kingdom)|1st Cavalry Division]]. After Wavell complained that using any of the force stationed in Palestine for service in Iraq would put Palestine and Egypt at risk, Churchill wrote [[Hastings Ismay]], Secretary of the Chiefs-of-Staff Committee, and asked: "Why would the force mentioned, which seems considerable, be deemed insufficient to deal with the Iraq Army?" Concerning the 1st Cavalry Division specifically, he wrote: "Fancy having kept the cavalry division in Palestine all this time without having the rudiments of a mobile column organised!"<ref>Churchill, [https://books.google.com/books?id=zVdux2KfenoC&pg=PA228 p. 228].</ref> On balance, Wavell wrote that the 1st Cavalry Division in Palestine had been stripped of its artillery, its engineers, its signals, and its transport to provide for the needs of other formations in Greece, North Africa, and East Africa. While one motorised cavalry brigade could be provided, this was only possible by pooling the whole of the divisional motor transport.<ref>Wavell, p. 3433.</ref>

After the TJFF refused to enter Iraq that Clark decided to divide ''Habforce'' into two columns.<ref name="Lyman, p. 57" /><ref>Martin, p. 44.</ref> The first column was a [[flying column]]<ref name="Playfair187" /> codenamed ''[[Kingcol]]''. ''Kingcol'' was named after its commanding officer, Brigadier [[James Joseph Kingstone|James Kingstone]],<ref name="Jackson152" /> and was composed of the [[4th Cavalry Brigade (United Kingdom)|4th Cavalry Brigade]], two companies of the 1st battalion The Essex Regiment, the Number 2 Armoured Car Company RAF, and 237 Field Battery of [[Ordnance QF 25 pounder|25 pounder howitzers]] from [[1st Lincolnshire Artillery Volunteers|60th (North Midland) Field Regiment]], [[Royal Artillery]].<ref>Martin, pp. 44–45.</ref> The second column, the ''Habforce'' main force, under the command of Lieutenant-Colonel [[John Sebastian Nichols|J. S. Nichols]], was composed of the remaining elements of the 1st battalion The Essex Regiment, the remainder of the 60th Field Regiment, RA, one anti-tank battery, and ancillary services. In addition to ''Kingcol'' and the ''Habforce'' main force, there was available to Major-General Clark a 400-man strong detachment of the Arab Legion (''al-Jaysh al-Arabī'')<ref name="Young, p. 7" /><ref name="Martin45">Martin, p. 45.</ref> in Transjordan. The Arab Legion consisted of three mechanised squadrons<ref name="Mack94" /> transported in a mixture of civilian [[Ford Motor Company|Ford]] trucks and equipped with [[Improvised fighting vehicle|home-made armoured cars]].<ref>Lyman, p. 55.</ref> Unlike the TJFF, the Arab Legion was not part of the [[British Army]] but was the regular Army of Transjordan, commanded by Lieutenant-General [[John Bagot Glubb]], also known as "Glubb Pasha."<ref>Lyman, pp. 54–55.</ref>

====Kingcol====
During the morning of 11 May, Kingcol departed from Haifa<ref name="Martin45" /> with orders to reach Habbaniya as quickly as possible.<ref name="Playfair187" /> The occasion was the last all-horse operation in British military history.<ref>Lyman, p.&nbsp;53.</ref> On 13 May, Kingcol arrived in Rutbah but found no military presence there: Glubb Pasha and the Arab Legion had already moved on. The flying column under Brigadier Kingstone then conducted maintenance at Rutbah before moving on themselves. On 15 May, the first contact was made with the Iraqi military when a Blenheim bomber strafed the column and dropped a bomb; no damage was inflicted and no casualties were sustained.<ref>Martin, p. 46.</ref>{{refn|Accounts vary, but there are indications that the "Blenheim bomber" was a German Heinkel 111 of ''Fliegerführer Irak''.<ref name="Lyman, p. 16" />|group=nb}} On 16 May, further bombing attacks were made against the column when it was attacked by the ''Luftwaffe'', again no damage was sustained, but there were a few casualties.<ref name="Playfair 1956, p. 188" /><ref name="Martin47" />
Also on 15 May, Fraser went sick and was replaced as the commander of the 10th Indian Division.<ref name="Mackenzie, p. 101">Mackenzie, p. 101.</ref> His illness had led to him losing the confidence of his own staff, and he was replaced by the newly promoted Major-General [[William Slim, 1st Viscount Slim|William Slim]], who later went on to be one of the most dynamic and innovative British commanders of the war.<ref name="Lyman, p. 20" /> Also in early May, Longmore was replaced as Air Officer Commanding in the Middle East by his deputy, Sir [[Arthur Tedder]].<ref name="Lyman, p. 18" />

====Arrival at Habbaniya====
During the late evening of 17 May, Kingcol reached the vicinity of Habbaniya. The next morning the column entered the RAF base<ref name="Martin47">Martin, p. 47.</ref><ref>Mackenzie, p. 102.</ref> and throughout the day the remainder of the 1st battalion The Essex Regiment were airlifted into the base.<ref name="Martin48">Martin, p. 48.</ref> The force dispatched from Palestine to relieve the Iraqi siege of RAF Habbaniya arrived about 12 days after the siege was lifted.<ref name="Wavell, p. 4095" />

===Battle of Fallujah===
[[File:Firing party near Ramadi.jpg|thumb|British firing party near isolated [[Ramadi]]]]

With Habbaniya secure, the next objective for British forces was to secure the town of Fallujah as a preliminary objective before being able to march on Baghdad.<ref name="Playfair 1956, p. 188" /> An Iraqi brigade group was holding the town and bridge of Fallujah denying the road to Baghdad; a further Brigade group was holding the town of Ramadi, west of Habbaniya, barring all movement westwards.<ref>Martin, p. 49.</ref> Colonel Roberts dismissed the idea of attacking Ramadi because it was still garrisoned heavily by the Iraqi Army and was largely cut off by self-imposed flooding. Roberts left Ramadi isolated and instead secured the strategically important bridge over the Euphrates at Fallujah.<ref>Lyman, p. 89.</ref>

In the week following the withdrawal of the Iraqi forces near Habbaniya, Colonel Roberts formed what became known as the Habbaniya Brigade, formed by grouping the 1st battalion The Essex Regiment from Kingcol with further infantry reinforcements that had arrived from Basra, the 2nd battalion [[4 Gorkha Rifles|4th Gurkha Rifles]], and some light artillery.<ref name="Martin48" /><ref name="Lyman, p. 69">Lyman, p. 69.</ref>

During the night of 17–18 May, elements of the Gurkha battalion, a company of RAF Assyrian Levies, RAF Armoured Cars and some captured Iraqi howitzers crossed the Euphrates using improvised cable ferries.{{refn|The cable ferry was fashioned by a section of the [[Madras Engineer Group|Queen Victoria's Own Madras Sappers and Miners]] flown in from Basra. Loaded barges were hooked onto a fixed wire cable they had stretched taught across the river, which was {{Convert|750|ft|m}} wide at the point of crossing.<ref>Mackenzie, pp. 102–103.</ref>| group=nb}} They crossed the river at Sin el Dhibban and approached Fallujah from the village of [[Saqlawiyah]]. During the early hours of the day, one company of the 1st battalion KORR were air-transported by 4 Valentias and landed on the Baghdad road beyond the town near Notch Fall. A company of RAF Assyrian Levies, supported by artillery from Kingcol, was ordered to secure the bridge across the river. Throughout the day the RAF bombed positions in the town and along the Baghdad road, avoiding a general bombardment of the town because of the civilian population. On 19 May 57 aircraft bombarded Iraqi positions within and around Fallujah, dropping ten tons of bombs in 134 sorties.<ref name="Lyman, p. 75">Lyman, p. 75.</ref>

During the afternoon a ten-minute bombardment of Iraqi trenches near the bridge was made before the Assyrian Levies advanced, covered by artillery fire. Facing little opposition they captured the bridge within 30 minutes; they were then met by an Iraqi envoy who offered the surrender of the garrison and the town. 300 prisoners were taken, with no British casualties.<ref>Lyman, p. 74.</ref><ref>Martin, pp. 49–50.</ref><ref>Playfair 1956, p. 189.</ref> The ''Luftwaffe'' responded to the British capture of the city by attacking the Habbaniya airfield, destroying and damaging several aircraft and inflicting a number of casualties.<ref>Playfair 1956, p. 191.</ref> On 18 May, Major-General Clark and AVM D'Albiac arrived in Habbaniya by air, but determined not to interfere with the ongoing operations of Colonel Roberts.<ref name="Lyman, p. 69" /> On 21 May, having secured Fallujah, Roberts returned to Shaibah and to his duties with the 10th Indian Infantry Division.<ref name="Lyman, p. 75" />

====Iraqi counterattack====
On 22 May, the Iraqi 6th Infantry Brigade of the Iraqi 3rd Infantry Division conducted a counter-attack against the British forces within Fallujah, starting at 02:30 hours, supported by a number of Italian-built L3/35 light tanks. By 03:00 the Iraqis reached the north-eastern outskirts of the town. Two light tanks which had penetrated into the town were quickly destroyed. By dawn British counter-attacks had pushed the Iraqis out of north-eastern Fallujah. The Iraqis now switched their attack to the south-eastern edge of the town, but met stiff resistance from the start and made no progress. By 10:00 Kingstone arrived with reinforcements, from Habbaniya, who were immediately thrown into battle. The newly arrived infantry companies, of the Essex Regiment, methodically cleared the Iraqi positions house-by-house. By 18:00 the remaining Iraqis had fled or were taken prisoner, sniper fire was silenced, six Iraqi light tanks were captured, and the town was secure.<ref>Lyman, pp. 75–76.</ref> On 23 May, aircraft of ''Fliegerführer Irak'' made a belated appearance, strafing British positions at Fallujah three times, being a nuisance but accomplishing little. A day earlier an air assault coordinated with Iraqi ground forces might have changed the outcome of the counter-attack.<ref>Lyman, p. 76.</ref>

====Jezireh====
Meanwhile Glubb Pasha's Legionnaires dominated the tribal country north of Fallujah between the Euphrates and the Tigris, an area known as [[Upper Mesopotamia|Jezireh]]. Lieutenant-General Glubb had been instructed to persuade the local tribes to stop supporting Rashid Ali's government. Using a combination of propaganda and raids against Iraqi government posts, his actions proved to be remarkably successful.<ref>Lyman, pp. 76–77.</ref> The British also used this period to increase air activity against the northern airfields of the ''Luftwaffe'' and to finally crush the German effort to support the Iraqis.<ref>Churchill, pp. 233–234.</ref>

===Basra===
[[File:Rolls-Royce Armoured Car 1920.jpg|thumb|Rolls-Royce armoured car]]

In response to the initial Iraqi moves, the 10th Indian Infantry Division, under Major-General Fraser, occupied Basra airport, the city's docks, and the power station.<ref name="Jackson149" /> Elements of the 20th Indian Infantry Brigade, under Brigadier Powell, were used to occupy these sites. Between 18 and 29 April, two convoys had landed this brigade in the Basra area. 2nd battalion 8th Gurkha Rifles guarded the RAF airfield at Shabaih, 3rd battalion 11th Sikh Regiment secured the Maqil docks, and 2nd battalion 7th Gurkha Rifles were held in reserve.<ref name="Lyman, p. 32">Lyman, p. 32.</ref> Otherwise, no major operations took place in the Basra area. The principal difficulty was that there were insufficient troops to take over Maqil, Ashar, and Basra City concurrently. The Iraqi troops in Basra agreed to withdraw on 2 May, but did not.<ref name="Wavell, p. 4095" /> On 6 May, the [[21st Indian Infantry Brigade]] under the command of Brigadier [[Charles Joseph Weld]] arrived and disembarked at Basra. This was the 10th Indian Infantry Division's second brigade to arrive in Iraq.<ref name="Lyman, p. 32" /> The 21st Indian Infantry Brigade included 4th battalion [[13th Frontier Force Rifles]],{{refn|Included two [[troop]]s of Rolls-Royce armoured cars.<ref name="Lyman, p. 32" />|group=nb}} 2nd battalion 4th Gurkha Rifles, and 2nd battalion [[10th Princess Mary's Own Gurkha Rifles|10th Gurkha Rifles]].

====Ashar====
[[File:Wavell quinan 1941.jpg|thumb|General [[Archibald Wavell, 1st Earl Wavell|Wavell]] (right) and Lieutenant-General [[Edward Quinan|Quinan]], April 1941]]
From 7 to 8 May elements of the 20th Indian Infantry Brigade and the 21st Indian Infantry Brigade captured Ashar, near Basra. Ashar was well defended, and the Iraqi defenders inflicted a number of casualties on the British attackers. The British units involved were A, B, C, and D companies of 2nd battalion 8th Gurkha Rifles and a half-section of Rolls-Royce armoured cars from 4th battalion 13th Frontier Force Rifles. 2nd battalion 4th Gurkha Rifles were held in reserve. As a result of the successful action against Ashar, Basra City was secured without a fight, but armed resistance from Iraqi police and Army units continued until 17 May.<ref>Lyman, pp. 82–83.</ref> While the Basra area was now secured, it was flood season in Iraq, and the difficulty of northward movement from Basra by rail, road, or river towards Baghdad stifled further operations. In addition, Iraqi forces occupied points along the Tigris and along the railway to further discourage northward movement.<ref name="Wavell, p. 3438" />

On 8 May, control of operations in Iraq was passed, from Auchinleck in New Delhi, to Wavell's Middle East Command.<ref name="Playfair186" /><ref>Mackenzie, p. 97.</ref> Lieutenant-General [[Edward Quinan]] arrived from India to replace Fraser as commander of ''Iraqforce''. Quinan's immediate task was to secure Basra as a base. He was ordered by Wavell not to advance north until the co-operation of the local tribes was fully assured. Quinan could also not contemplate any move north for three months on account of the flooding of the Tigris and Euphrates.<ref name="Playfair186" /><ref>Mackenzie, pp. 101–102.</ref>

Directives were issued to Quinan prior to his assuming command. On 2 May, he had been directed as follows: "(a) Develop and organise the port of Basra to any extent necessary to enable such forces, our own or Allied, as might be required to operate in the Middle East including Egypt, Turkey, Iraq, and Iran, to be maintained. (b) Secure control of all means of communication, including all aerodromes and landing grounds in Iraq, and develop these to the extent requisite to enable the Port of Basra to function to its fullest capacity." Quinan was further instructed to "begin at once to plan a system of defences to protect the Basra Base against attack by armoured forces supported by strong air forces, and also to be ready to take special measures to protect: (i) Royal Air Force installations and personnel at Habbaniya and Shaiba. (ii) The lives of British subjects in Baghdad and elsewhere in Iraq. (iii) The Kirkuk oilfields and [[Kirkuk-Haifa oil pipeline|the pipe line to Haifa]]." Lastly, Quinan was directed "to make plans to protect the [[Anglo-Iranian Oil Company]]'s installations and its British employees in South West Iran if necessary." Quinan was informed that "it was the intention to increase his force up to three infantry divisions and possibly also an armoured division, as soon as these troops could be despatched from India."<ref name="Wavell4094" />

====Operations Regulta and Regatta====
On 23 May, Wavell flew to Basra to discuss further reinforcements and operations in Iraq with Auchinleck. Additionally, he instructed Quinan, commanding the Indian forces there, to make plans for an advance from Basra towards Baghdad.<ref name="Wavell, p. 3438" /> On 27 May, the forces from Basra started to advance northwards. In Operation Regulta, the 20th Indian Infantry Brigade, known as the "Euphrates Brigade", advanced along the Euphrates by boat and by road. In Operation Regatta, the 21st Indian Infantry Brigade, known as the "Tigris Brigade", advanced up the Tigris by boat to [[Kut]].<ref name="Lyman, p. 88" /><ref>Lyman, p. 17.</ref> On 30 May, the 10th Indian Infantry Division's third brigade, [[25th Indian Infantry Brigade]] under Brigadier [[Ronald Gervase Mountain|Ronald Mountain]], arrived and disembarked at Basra. The 25th Indian Infantry Brigade included 3rd battalion [[Jat Regiment|9th Jat Regiment]], 2nd battalion 11th Royal Sikh Regiment, and 1st battalion [[Maratha Light Infantry|5th Mahratta Light Infantry]].<ref>Lyman, p. 36.</ref> In June 1941, additional British forces arrived in Basra from India. On 9 June, the [[17th Indian Infantry Brigade]] arrived and, on 16 June, the [[24th Indian Infantry Brigade]] arrived.<ref name="Lyman, p. 88" />

===Iraqi collapse===
[[File:Fordson Armoured Car Iraq.jpg|thumb|An RAF Fordson Armoured Car waits outside Baghdad while negotiations for an armistice take place]]

The British forces from Habbaniya pressed on to Baghdad after the defence of Fallujah. Major-General Clark decided to maintain the momentum because he suspected that the Iraqis did not appreciate just how small and vulnerable his forces actually were. Clark had a total of about 1,450 men to attack at least 20,000 Iraqi defenders. However, Clark did enjoy an [[Air supremacy|advantage in the air]].<ref>Lyman, p. 77.</ref>

====Baghdad====
On the night of 27 May, the British advance on Baghdad began. The advance made slow progress and was hindered by extensive inundations and by the many destroyed bridges over the irrigation waterways which had to be crossed.<ref name="Churchill, p. 234" /> Faced with Clark's advance, the government of Rashid Ali collapsed. On 29 May, Rashid Ali, the [[Mohammad Amin al-Husayni|Grand Mufti]], and many members of the "National Defence Government" fled to Persia, then went on to Italy. On the morning of 31 May, the Mayor of Baghdad and a delegation approached British forces at the Washash Bridge. With the Mayor was Sir Kinahan Cornwallis, the British Ambassador, who had been confined to the British Embassy in Baghdad for the past four weeks.<ref name="Wavell, p. 3439" /> Terms were quickly reached and an [[armistice]] was signed.<ref>Lyman, pp. 84–85.</ref><ref>Mackenzie, p. 104.</ref> ''[[Mercol]]'', ''[[Gocol]]'', and ''[[Harcol]]'' operations against guerrillas continued into June. The British decided not to occupy Baghdad immediately, partly to disguise the weakness of British forces outside the city, as the Iraqi armed forces in the vicinity of Baghdad still greatly outnumbered the British.<ref name="Lyman, p. 86">Lyman, p. 86.</ref> On 1 June, Prince 'Abd al-Ilah returned to Baghdad as the Regent and the monarchy and a pro-British government were put back in place. On 2 June, [[Jamil al-Midfai]] was named Prime Minister.<ref name="Lyman, p. 86" />

==Aftermath==
{{Further|Gocol|Mercol}}

In the immediate aftermath of the fall of Rashid Ali's "National Defence Government" and the armistice, Baghdad was torn apart [[Farhud|by rioting and looting]].<ref name="Wavell, p. 4095" /> Much of the violence was channelled towards the city's [[Jewish quarter (diaspora)|Jewish Quarter]]; over 180 [[History of the Jews in Iraq|Jewish residents]] were killed and about 850 injured before the Iraqi police were ordered to restore order with live ammunition.<ref name="Kaplan">{{cite magazine |last=Kaplan |first=Robert D. |title=In Defense of Empire |magazine=The Atlantic |date=April 2014 |pages=13–15 |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2014/04/in-defense-of-empire/358645/ |url-access=limited}}</ref><ref name="Lyman, p. 86" />

At least two British accounts of the conflict praised the efforts of the air and ground forces at RAF Habbaniya. According to Churchill, the landing of the 20th Indian Infantry Brigade at Basra on 18 April was "timely", and in his opinion had forced Rashid Ali into premature action. He added that the "spirited defence" of Habbaniya by the Flying School was a "prime factor" in British success.<ref>Churchill, pp. 235–236.</ref> Wavell wrote that the "gallant defence" of Habbaniya and the bold advance of ''Habforce'' discouraged the Iraqi Army, while the Germans in their turn were prevented from sending further reinforcements by "the desperate resistance of our troops in Crete, and their crippling losses in men and aircraft."<ref name="Wavell, p. 3439" />

On 18 June, Lieutenant-General Quinan was given command of all British and Commonwealth forces in Iraq. Before this, ''Iraqforce'' was more or less limited to the forces landed at and advancing from Basra.<ref name="Wavell, p. 4095" />

After the Anglo-Iraq War, elements of ''Iraqforce'' (known as ''Iraq Command'' from 21 June) were used to attack the Vichy French-held [[Mandate of Syria]] during the Syria-Lebanon campaign, which started 8 June and ended 14 July. Iraq Command (known as Persia and Iraq Force (Paiforce from 1 September) was also used to attack Persia during the [[Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran|Anglo-Soviet invasion of Persia]], which took place in August to September 1941. Forward defences against a possible German invasion from the north through the [[Caucasus]] were created in 1942, and the strength of Paiforce peaked at the equivalent of over 10 brigades before the Russians halted the German threat at the [[Battle of Stalingrad]]. After 1942, Iraq and Persia were used to [[Persian Corridor|transit war material]] to the Soviet Union, and the British military presence became mainly lines of communication troops.{{citation needed|date=May 2022}}

On 20 June, Churchill told Wavell that he was to be replaced by Auchinleck.<ref>Mead 2007, p. 476.</ref> Of Wavell, Auchinleck wrote: "In no sense do I wish to infer that I found an unsatisfactory situation on my arrival – far from it. Not only was I greatly impressed by the solid foundations laid by my predecessor, but I was also able the better to appreciate the vastness of the problems with which he had been confronted and the greatness of his achievements, in a command in which some 40 different languages are spoken by the British and Allied Forces."<ref>Auchinleck, p. 4215.</ref>

British forces remained in Iraq until 26 October 1947, and the country remained effectively under British control.{{Citation needed|date=July 2009}} The British considered the occupation of Iraq necessary to ensure that access to its strategic oil resources was maintained. On 18 August 1942, General Maitland Wilson was appointed Commander-in-Chief of the [[Persia and Iraq Command]]. By 15 September, he was headquartered in Baghdad. Wilson's primary task was "to secure at all costs from land and air attack the oil fields and oil installations in Persia and Iraq." His secondary task was "to ensure the transport from the Persian Gulf ports of supplies to Russia to the maximum extent possible without prejudicing [his] primary task."<ref>Wilson, p. 4333.</ref>

While Rashid Ali and his supporters were in alliance with the Fascist Regime in Italy<ref>"Italy and Saudi Arabia confronting the challenges of the XXI century" p. 20.</ref> the war demonstrated that Iraq's independence was at best conditional on British approval of the government's actions.{{Citation needed|date=December 2008}} Rashid Ali and the Mufti of Jerusalem fled to Persia, then to Turkey, then to Italy, and finally to Berlin, Germany, where Ali was welcomed by Hitler as head of the Iraqi [[government-in-exile]].{{Citation needed|date=July 2009}}

==Battle honours==
The British and Commonwealth system of [[battle honours]] recognised participation in the Anglo-Iraq War by the award to 16 units of the battle honour Iraq 1941, for service in Iraq between 2–31 May 1941. The award was accompanied by honours for three actions during the war: Defence of Habbaniya awarded to one unit for operations against the Iraqi rebels between 2–6 May, Falluja awarded to two units for operations against the Iraqi rebels between 19–22 May, and Baghdad 1941 awarded to two units for operations against the Iraqi rebels between 28–31 May.<ref>Rodger, p. 271.</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Iraq}}
* [[Germany–Iraq relations]]
* [[Iraq–Italy relations]]
* [[Iraq–United Kingdom relations]]
* [[World War II]]
*[[List of British military equipment of World War II]]- Due to British influence in Iraq after World War I Iraqi army would have mainly been using British equipment at the time

== Notes ==
=== Explanatory footnotes ===
{{Reflist|group=nb}}

=== Citations ===
{{Reflist}}

== General and cited references==
===Books===
* {{Cite book |last=Auchinleck |first=Claude |title=Despatch on Operations in the Middle East From 5th July, 1941 to 31st October 1941 |publisher=War Office |year=1946 |location=London |author-link=Claude Auchinleck}} in {{London Gazette| issue=37695 |date=20 August 1946 |supp=y |pages=4215–4230 }}
* Broich, John. ''Blood, Oil, and the Axis: The Allied Resistance against a Fascist State in Iraq and the Levant, 1941''. Abrams Press, 2019, p.&nbsp;365. 
* {{Cite book |last=de Chair |first=Somerset |title=The Golden Carpet |date=1943 |publisher=[[Faber and Faber]] |edition=2nd |location=London |oclc=633936612 |author-link=Somerset de Chair}}
* {{Cite book |last=Churchill |first=Winston |title=The Grand Alliance |publisher=Houghton Mifflin Company |year=1985 |isbn=0-395-41057-6 |series=The Second World War |volume=III |location=Boston |chapter=14: The Revolt in Iraq |author-link=Winston Churchill |orig-date=1950}}
* {{Cite book |last=Dudgeon |first=Anthony |title=Hidden Victory: The Battle of Habbaniya, May 1941 |publisher=[[The History Press|Tempus Publishing]] |year=2000 |isbn=0-7524-2001-1 |location=Stroud and Charleston}}
* {{Cite book |last=Dunford Wood |first=Colin |title=The War Diaries of Colin Dunford Wood, 1939-41, India and Iraq |publisher=[[Independent Publishing Network]] |year=2020 |isbn=978-1-83853-848-4 |location=London}}
* {{Cite book |last=Dunford Wood |first=James |title=The Big Little War: a WW2 epic |publisher=[[Kensington Square]] |year=2023 |isbn=978-1-7392668-0-6 |location=London}}
* {{Cite book |last=Glubb |first=John Bagot |title=The Story of the Arab Legion |date=1948 |publisher=[[Hodder & Stoughton]] |series=Mazal Holocaust Collection |location=London |oclc=798611 |author-link=John Bagot Glubb}}
* {{Cite book |last=Jackson |first=Ashley |title=The British Empire and the Second World War |publisher=Hambledon Continuum |year=2006 |isbn=1-85285-417-0 |location=London}}
* {{Cite book |last=James |first=Barrie G. |title=Hitler's Gulf War, The Fight for Iraq 1941 |publisher=Pen & Sword Aviation |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-84884-090-4 |location=Barnsley}}
* {{Cite web |last=Kiwarkis |first=Gaby |title=Assyrian RAF Levies |url=http://www.assyrianlevies.info/ |access-date=1 January 2016}}
* {{Cite book |last=Kurowski |first=Franz |title=The Brandenburger Commandos: Germany's Elite Warrior Spies in World War II |publisher=Stackpole Books |year=2005 |isbn=0-8117-3250-9 |location=Mechanicsburg, PA}}
* Lake, Alan. ''Flying Units of the RAF – The ancestry, formation and disbandment of all flying units from 1912.'' Airlife Publishing Ltd, Shrewsbury, UK, 1999, {{ISBN|1-84037-086-6}}.
* Lunt, James. ''Imperial Sunset – Frontier Soldiering in the 20th Century.'' Macdonald, London and Sydney, 1981.
* {{Cite book |last=Lyman |first=Robert |title=Iraq 1941: The Battles for Basra, Habbaniya, Fallujah and Baghdad |publisher=Osprey |year=2006 |isbn=1-84176-991-6 |series=Campaign |location=Oxford}}
* {{Cite book |last=Mackenzie |first=Compton |title=Eastern Epic: September 1939 – March 1943 Defence |publisher=[[Chatto & Windus]] |year=1951 |volume=1 |location=London |oclc=59637091 |author-link=Compton Mackenzie}}
* {{Cite book |last=Martin |first=Colonel Thomas Alexander |title=The Essex Regiment, 1929–1950 |publisher=Essex Regiment Association |year=1952 |location=Brentwood |oclc=4045659}}
* {{Cite book |last=Mead |first=Richard |title=Churchill's Lions: A Biographical Guide to the Key British Generals of World War II |publisher=Spellmount |year=2007 |isbn=978-1-86227-431-0 |location=Stroud}}
* {{Cite book |last=Peretz |first=Don |title=The Middle East Today |publisher=Greenwood Press |year=2004 |isbn=978-027594-576-3 |location=Santa Barbara, CA |orig-date=1963}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Playfair |first1=Major-General I. S. O. |title=The Mediterranean and Middle East: The Early Successes Against Italy (to May 1941) |last2=Stitt [[Royal Navy|RN]] |first2=Commander G. M. S. |last3=Molony |first3=Brigadier C. J. C. |last4=Toomer |first4=Air Vice-Marshal S. E. |publisher=HMSO |others=3rd impression, 1959 |year=1954 |editor-last=Butler |editor-first=J. R. M. |editor-link=James Ramsay Montagu Butler |series=History of the Second World War, United Kingdom Military Series |volume=I |oclc=888934805 |author-link=Ian Stanley Ord Playfair |name-list-style=amp}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Playfair |first1=Major-General I. S. O. |title=The Mediterranean and Middle East: The Germans come to the help of their Ally (1941) |last2=with Flynn [[Royal Navy|RN]] |first2=Captain F. C. |last3=Molony |first3=Brigadier C. J. C. |last4=Toomer |first4=Air Vice-Marshal S. E. |publisher=Naval & Military Press |year=2004 |isbn=1-84574-066-1 |editor-last=Butler |editor-first=J. R. M. |editor-link=James Ramsay Montagu Butler |series=History of the Second World War, United Kingdom Military Series |volume=II |author-link=Ian Stanley Ord Playfair |orig-date=1st. pub. [[HMSO]] 1956 |name-list-style=amp}}
* {{Cite book |last=Rodger |first=Alexander |title=Battle Honours of the British Empire and Commonwealth Land Forces |publisher=The Crowood Press |year=2003 |isbn=1-86126-637-5 |location=Marlborough}}
* {{Cite book |last=Richards |first=Denis |title=The Royal Air Force 1939–1945 |publisher=HM Stationery Office |year=1953 |volume=I: The Fight at Odds |location=London |oclc=64981511}}
* {{Cite book |last=Thomas |first=Andrew |title=Gloster Gladiator Aces |publisher=Osprey |year=2002 |isbn=1-84176-289-X |location=Oxford}}
* {{Cite book |last=Thomas |first=David A |url=https://archive.org/details/nazivictorycrete0000thom |title=Nazi Victory: Crete 1941 |publisher=Stein and Day |year=1972 |isbn=0-8128-1559-9 |location=New York |url-access=registration}}
* {{Cite book |last=Warwick |first=Nigel W. M. |title=In Every Place: The RAF Armoured Cars in the Middle East 1921–1953 |publisher=Forces & Corporate Publishing |year=2014 |isbn=978-0-9574725-2-5 |location=Rushden}}
* {{Cite book |last=Waters |first=S. D. |title=HMNZS Leander |publisher=Merriam Press |year=2008 |isbn=978-1-4357-5892-6 |location=Wellington, NZ}}
* {{Cite book |last=Wavell |first=Archibald |title=Despatch on Operations in the Middle East From 7th February, 1941 to 15th July 1941 |publisher=War Office |year=1946 |location=London |author-link=Archibald Wavell, 1st Earl Wavell}} in {{London Gazette|issue=37638 |date=3 July 1946 |supp=y |pages=3423–3444 }}
* {{Cite book |last=Wavell |first=Archibald |title=Despatch on Operations in Iraq, East Syria and Iran from 10th April, 1941 to 12th January, 1942 |publisher=War Office |year=1946 |location=London |author-link=Archibald Wavell, 1st Earl Wavell}} in {{London Gazette| issue=37685 |date=13 August 1946 |supp=y |pages=4093–4102 }}
* {{Cite book |last=Weal |first=John |title=Messerschmitt Bf 110 Zerstörer Aces of World War 2 |publisher=Osprey |year=1999 |isbn=1-85532-753-8 |location=Oxford}}
* {{Cite book |last=Wilson |first=Maitland |title=Despatch on the Persia and Iraq Command Covering the Period from 21st August, 1942, to 17th February, 1943 |publisher=War Office |year=1946 |location=London |author-link=Henry Maitland Wilson, 1st Baron Wilson}} in {{London Gazette |issue=37703 |date=28 August 1946 |supp=y |pages=4333–4340 }}
* {{Cite book |last=Young |first=Peter |title=The Arab Legion |publisher=Osprey |year=1972 |isbn=0-85045-084-5 |series=Men-at-Arms |location=Oxford}}

===Websites===
* {{Cite web |last=Ammentorp |first=Steen |title=Major-General George Guy Waterhouse |url=http://www.generals.dk/general/Waterhouse/George_Guy/Great_Britain.html |access-date=2 November 2009 |website=Generals of World War II website}}
* {{Cite web |title=4 FTS History |url=http://www.raf.mod.uk/rafvalley/aboutus/4ftshist.cfm |access-date=1 January 2016 |website=RAF Valley |publisher=Royal Air Force |archive-date=28 June 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130628045156/http://www.raf.mod.uk/rafvalley/aboutus/4ftshist.cfm }}
* {{Cite web |title=Royal Air Force Museum |url=http://www.rafmuseum.org.uk |access-date=1 January 2016 |publisher=Royal Air Force}}

== Further reading ==
* {{Cite book |last=Jackson |first=Ashley |title=Persian Gulf Command: A History of the Second World War in Iran and Iraq |publisher=Yale University Press |year=2018 |isbn=978-0-300-22196-1 |location=New Haven}}
* {{Cite web |date=3 July 1946 |title=Archibald Wavell's Despatch on Operations in the Middle East From 7th February, 1941 to 15th July 1941 |url=http://www.london-gazette.co.uk/issues/37638/supplements/3439.pdf |access-date=31 October 2009 |website=Supplement to the [[London Gazette]], Number 37638}}
* {{Cite web |date=13 August 1946 |title=Archibald Wavell's Despatch on Operations in Iraq, East Syria, and Iran From 10th April, 1941 to 12th January 1942 |url=http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/UN/UK/LondonGazette/37685.pdf |access-date=26 September 2009 |website=Supplement to the London Gazette, Number 37685}}
* {{Cite web |date=20 August 1946 |title=Claude Auchinleck's Despatch on Operations in the Middle East From 5th July, 1941 to 31st October 1941 |url=http://www.london-gazette.co.uk/issues/37695/pages/4215 |access-date=6 November 2009 |website=Supplement to the London Gazette, Number 37695}}
* {{Cite web |date=28 August 1946 |title=Maitland Wilson's Despatch on the Persia and Iraq Command Covering the Period from 21st August, 1942, to 17th February, 1943 |url=http://www.london-gazette.co.uk/issues/37703/supplements/4333.pdf |access-date=6 July 2017 |website=Supplement to the [[London Gazette]], Number 37703}}

==External links==
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070621120847/http://www.ccc.nps.navy.mil/rsepResources/si/dec02/middleEast.asp Portch, D. Strategic Insight: The Other "Gulf War" – The British Invasion of Iraq in 1941]
* [http://www.habbaniya.org RAF Habbaniya Association]
* [http://www.habbaniya.org/Plateau.html RAF Habbaniya, the Plateau Airfield & Lake]
* [http://www.storyofwar.com War Diaries of Colin Dunford Wood, Habbaniya, May 1941]

{{Iraq topics}}
{{World War II}}
{{WWII history by nation}}
{{Arab nationalism}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Anglo-Iraqi War| ]]
[[Category:1941 in Iraq]]
[[Category:1941 in the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:British military occupations]]
[[Category:Campaigns, operations and battles of World War II involving the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Conflicts in 1941]]
[[Category:Invasions of Iraq]]
[[Category:Invasions by the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Iraq in World War II]]
[[Category:Iraq–United Kingdom military relations]]
[[Category:Kingdom of Iraq]]
[[Category:May 1941 in Asia]]
[[Category:Military occupations of Iraq]]
[[Category:Middle East theatre of World War II]]
[[Category:Military history of Germany during World War II]]
[[Category:Military history of India during World War II]]
[[Category:Military history of Italy during World War II]]
[[Category:Military history of the United Kingdom during World War II]]
[[Category:Wars involving Australia]]
[[Category:Wars involving British India]]
[[Category:Wars involving Germany]]
[[Category:Wars involving Greece]]
[[Category:Wars involving Iraq]]
[[Category:Wars involving Italy]]
[[Category:Wars involving Jordan]]
[[Category:Wars involving New Zealand]]
[[Category:Wars involving the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Wars of independence]]