View source for Andrew Carnegie

{{Short description|American industrialist and philanthropist (1835–1919)}}
{{Pp-semi-indef}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=May 2025}}
{{Infobox person
| name               = Andrew Carnegie
| image              = Andrew Carnegie, three-quarter length portrait, seated, facing slightly left, 1913 (cropped) (2).jpg
| caption            = Carnegie, {{circa|1913}}
| birth_date         = {{Birth date|1835|11|25}}
| birth_place        = [[Dunfermline]], Fife, Scotland
| death_date         = {{Death date and age|1919|8|11|1835|11|25}}
| death_place        = [[Lenox, Massachusetts]], U.S.
| resting_place      = [[Sleepy Hollow Cemetery]], [[Sleepy Hollow, New York]], U.S.
| occupation         = [[Industrialist]], [[philanthropist]]
| known_for          = Founding and leading the [[Carnegie Steel Company]] {{Paragraph break}} Founding the [[Carnegie Library]], [[Carnegie Hall]], [[Carnegie Institution for Science]], [[Carnegie Corporation of New York]], [[Carnegie Endowment for International Peace]], [[Carnegie Mellon University]], [[Carnegie Trust for the Universities of Scotland]], [[Carnegie United Kingdom Trust]], [[Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching]], [[Carnegie Council for Ethics in International Affairs]], [[Carnegie Museums of Pittsburgh]], and the [[Carnegie Hero Fund]]
| party              = [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]]<ref name="encyclopedia-carnegie">{{cite encyclopedia |title=Andrew Carnegie |url=http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/Andrew_Carnegie.aspx |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia.com |access-date=March 31, 2016 |archive-date=September 7, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160907210822/http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/Andrew_Carnegie.aspx |url-status=live }}</ref>
| spouse             = {{marriage|[[Louise Whitfield Carnegie|Louise Whitfield]]|April 22, 1887}}
| children           = [[Margaret Carnegie Miller]]
| parents            = William Carnegie<br/>Margaret Morrison Carnegie
| relatives          = {{plainlist|
* [[Thomas M. Carnegie]] (brother)
* [[George Lauder (industrialist)|George Lauder Jr.]] (first cousin) 
* [[George Lauder Sr.]] (uncle-in-law)
}}
| signature          = Andrew Carnegie signature.svg
}}

'''Andrew Carnegie'''{{efn|{{IPAc-en|k|ɑr|ˈ|n|eɪ|ɡ|i}} {{respell|kar|NAY|gee}}, also {{IPAc-en|ˈ|k|ɑr|n|ə|ɡ|i}} {{respell|KAR|nə|gee}}<ref>{{cite book|last=Wells|first=J. C.|title=Longman Pronunciation Dictionary|edition=3rd|publisher=Pearson Education|location=Harlow, Essex|year=2008|isbn=978-1-4058-8118-0|page=126|url=https://archive.org/details/longmanpronuncia0000unse/page/126}}</ref><ref name="NYTimes">{{cite news |last1=Pollak |first1=Michael |title=F.Y.I. |access-date=October 22, 2020 |agency=New York Times |issue=National Edition |publisher=The New York Times Company |date=June 20, 2004 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2004/06/20/nyregion/fyi-019240.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190421152927/https://www.nytimes.com/2004/06/20/nyregion/fyi-019240.html |archive-date=April 21, 2019 |location=New York City |page=2; Section 14 |language=en}}</ref>}} (November 25, 1835{{snd}}August 11, 1919) was a Scottish-American [[industrialist]] and [[philanthropist]]. Carnegie led the expansion of the [[History of the iron and steel industry in the United States|American steel industry]] in the late-19th century and became one of the [[List of richest Americans in history|richest Americans in history]].<ref>listed at 372 billion 2014 USD by Jacob Davidson, [https://web.archive.org/web/20150801233535/http://time.com/money/3977798/the-10-richest-people-of-all-time/ time.com The 10 Richest People of All Time] "Rockefeller gets all the press, but Andrew Carnegie may be the richest American of all time. The Scottish immigrant sold his company, U.S. Steel, to J. P. Morgan for $480 million in 1901. That sum equates to slightly over 2.1 percent of U.S. GDP at the time, giving Carnegie an economic power equivalent to $372 billion in 2014."</ref>

He became a leading philanthropist in the United States, Great Britain, and the [[British Empire]]. During the last 18 years of his life, he gave away around $350 million (equivalent to $6.9 billion in 2025 dollars), almost 90 percent of his fortune, to charities, foundations and universities.<ref name="ACLegacy">{{cite web |url = https://www.carnegie.org/about-us/foundation-history/about-andrew-carnegie/carnegie-for-kids/andrew-carnegie-legacy/ |title = Andrew Carnegie's Legacy |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121016230620/https://www.carnegie.org/about-us/foundation-history/about-andrew-carnegie/carnegie-for-kids/andrew-carnegie-legacy/ |archive-date=October 16, 2012 |url-status=dead}}</ref> His 1889 article proclaiming "[[The Gospel of Wealth]]" called on the rich to use their wealth to improve society, expressed support for [[progressive tax]]ation and an [[Inheritance tax|estate tax]], and stimulated a wave of philanthropy.

Carnegie was born in [[Dunfermline, Scotland]]. He  immigrated to what is now [[Pittsburgh]], [[Pennsylvania]], with his parents in 1848 at the age of 12. Carnegie started work in a cotton mill and later as a [[telegrapher]]. By the 1860s he had investments in railroads, railroad sleeping cars, bridges, and oil [[derrick]]s. He accumulated further wealth as a bond salesman, raising money for American enterprise in Europe. He built Pittsburgh's [[Carnegie Steel Company]], which he sold to [[J. P. Morgan]] in 1901 for $303,450,000;<ref name="Hawke 1980">{{cite book |last=Hawke |first=David Freeman |title=John D. The Founding Father of the Rockefellers |publisher=Harper & Row |date=1980 |page=[https://archive.org/details/johndfoundingfa00hawk/page/210 210] |isbn=978-0060118136 |url=https://archive.org/details/johndfoundingfa00hawk/page/210 }}</ref> it formed the basis of the [[U.S. Steel|U.S. Steel Corporation]]. After selling Carnegie Steel, he surpassed [[John D. Rockefeller]] as the richest American of the time.<ref>{{cite news|title=Andrew Carnegie: Gold key gift celebrates theatre makeover|date=September 18, 2023|author=[[BBC]]|work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-scotland-edinburgh-east-fife-66837540}}</ref>

Carnegie devoted the remainder of his life to large-scale philanthropy, with special emphasis on [[Carnegie library|building local libraries]], working for world peace, education, and scientific research. He funded [[Carnegie Hall]] in New York City, the [[Peace Palace]] in [[The Hague]], founded the [[Carnegie Corporation of New York]], [[Carnegie Endowment for International Peace]], [[Carnegie Institution for Science]], [[Carnegie Trust for the Universities of Scotland]], [[Carnegie Hero Fund]], [[Carnegie Mellon University]], and the [[Carnegie Museums of Pittsburgh]], among others.

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==Biography==

{{Gilded Age}}

===Early life===

[[File:Birthplace of Andrew Carnegie, Dunfermline.jpg|thumb|right|Birthplace of Andrew Carnegie in [[Dunfermline]], Scotland]]

Andrew Carnegie was born to William Carnegie and Margaret (Morrison) Carnegie in [[Dunfermline]], Scotland,<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Scirri |first=Kaitlin |title=Andrew Carnegie: Industrialist and Philanthropist |publisher=Cavendish Square Publishing, LLC |year=2019 |isbn=978-1-5026-4890-7 |location=New York, NY |pages=27 |language=en}}</ref> in a typical weaver's cottage with only one main room. It consisted of half the ground floor, which was shared with the neighboring weaver's family.<ref name="MacKay pp23-24">[[#MacKay|MacKay]], pp. 23–24.</ref> The main room served as a living room, dining room and bedroom.<ref name="MacKay pp23-24"/> He was named after his paternal grandfather.<ref name="MacKay pp23-24"/> William Carnegie had a successful weaving business and owned multiple looms.<ref name=":1" />

In 1836, the family moved to a larger house in Edgar Street (opposite Reid's Park), following the demand for more heavy [[damask]], from which his father benefited.<ref name="MacKay pp23-24"/> Carnegie was educated at the Free School in Dunfermline, a gift to the town from philanthropist [[Adam Rolland]] of Gask.<ref>''The Edinburgh Magazine and Literary Review,'' September 1819.</ref>

Carnegie's maternal uncle, Scottish political leader [[George Lauder Sr.]], deeply influenced him as a boy by introducing him to [[Robert Burns]]' writings{{sfnp|Edge|2004|p=4}} and historical Scottish heroes such as [[Robert the Bruce]], [[William Wallace]], and [[Rob Roy MacGregor|Rob Roy]]. Lauder's son, also named [[George Lauder (industrialist)|George Lauder]], grew up with Carnegie and later became his business partner in the United States.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Skrabec, Jr. |first=Quentin |title=The Carnegie Boys: The Lieutenants of Andrew Carnegie That Changed America |publisher=McFarland |year=2012 |isbn=978-0-7864-6455-5 |location=Jefferson, NC |pages=22 |language=en}}</ref>

When Carnegie was 12, his father had fallen on tough times as a handloom weaver. Making matters worse, the country was in starvation. His mother helped support the family by assisting her brother and by selling potted meats at her "sweetie shop", becoming the primary breadwinner.<ref name=Nasaw/> Struggling to make ends meet, the Carnegies decided to borrow money from George Lauder, Sr.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.thevintagenews.com/2017/02/22/andrew-carnegie-the-railroad-and-steel-magnate-who-played-his-more-imperative-role-as-a-philanthropist/|title=Andrew Carnegie: The railroad and steel magnate who played his more imperative role as a Philanthropist|website=Vintage News|date=February 22, 2017|access-date=February 1, 2019|archive-date=November 15, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191115202956/https://www.thevintagenews.com/2017/02/22/andrew-carnegie-the-railroad-and-steel-magnate-who-played-his-more-imperative-role-as-a-philanthropist/|url-status=live}}</ref> and move to the United States in 1848 for the prospect of a better life. They headed to [[Allegheny, Pennsylvania]], where they heard there was a demand for workers.<ref name="MacKay pp37-38">[[#MacKay|MacKay]], pp. 37–38.</ref> Carnegie's emigration to America was his second journey outside Dunfermline. The first was a family outing to  [[Edinburgh]] to see [[Queen Victoria]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Nasaw |first1=David |url=https://archive.org/details/andrewcarnegie00nasa/page/24 |title=Andrew Carnegie |date=2006 |publisher=Penguin Group |isbn=978-1-59420-104-2 |location=New York |page=[https://archive.org/details/andrewcarnegie00nasa/page/24 24] |authorlink=David Nasaw}}</ref>

In September 1848, Carnegie and his family arrived in Allegheny. Carnegie's father struggled to sell his product on his own.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Nasaw |first1=David |title=Andrew Carnegie |date=2006 |publisher=Penguin Group |location=New York |isbn=978-1-59420-104-2 |page=[https://archive.org/details/andrewcarnegie00nasa/page/33 33] |url=https://archive.org/details/andrewcarnegie00nasa/page/33 }}</ref> Eventually, the father and son both received job offers at Anchor Cotton Mills, a  Scottish-owned facility. Carnegie's first job in 1848 was as a [[bobbin boy]], changing spools of thread in a cotton mill 12 hours a day, 6 days a week in a Pittsburgh cotton factory. His starting wage was $1.20 per week ({{Inflation|US|1.20|1848|r=0|fmt=eq}}{{Inflation/fn|US}}).<ref>''[[#Biography|Autobiography]]'', p. 34.</ref>

His father soon quit his position at the cotton mill, returning to his loom, and was again removed as a substantial breadwinner.<ref name=":0">{{cite book|last1=Nasaw|first1=David|url=https://archive.org/details/andrewcarnegie00nasa/page/34|title=Andrew Carnegie|date=2006|publisher=Penguin Group|isbn=978-1-59420-104-2|location=New York|page=[https://archive.org/details/andrewcarnegie00nasa/page/34 34]}}</ref> But Carnegie attracted the attention of John Hay, a Scottish manufacturer of bobbins, who offered him a job for $2.00 per week ({{Inflation|US|2.00|1848|r=0|fmt=eq}}{{Inflation/fn|US}}).<ref>{{Cite book |title=Autobiography of Andrew Carnegie |last=Carnegie |first=Andrew |year=1919 |pages=42}}</ref>

In his autobiography, Carnegie writes about the hardships he had to endure with this new job:

{{Blockquote|Soon after this Mr. John Hay, a fellow Scotch manufacturer of bobbins in Allegheny City, needed a boy, and asked whether I would not go into his service. I went, and received two dollars per week; but at first the work was even more irksome than the factory. I had to run a small steam-engine and to fire the boiler in the cellar of the bobbin factory. It was too much for me. I found myself night after night, sitting up in bed trying the steam gauges, fearing at one time that the steam was too low and that the workers above would complain that they had not power enough, and at another time that the steam was too high and that the boiler might burst.<ref>{{cite journal |url=https://books.apple.com/us/book/autobiography-of-andrew-carnegie/id395687568 |title=Autobiography of Andrew Carnegie |journal=Nature |bibcode=1921Natur.107....2L |last1=Lankester |first1=E. Ray |year=1921 |volume=107 |issue=2679 |page=2 |doi=10.1038/107002a0 |s2cid=4114721 |access-date=January 13, 2018 |archive-date=November 10, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181110003230/https://itunes.apple.com/us/book/autobiography-of-andrew-carnegie/id395687568?mt=11 |url-status=live | issn=0028-0836 |url-access=subscription }}</ref>}}

===Telegraph===
[[File:Andrew and Thomas Carnegie - Project Gutenberg eText 17976.jpg|thumb|right|upright|Carnegie, age 16, with younger brother Thomas, c.&nbsp;1851]]
In 1849,<ref>Edge (2004) pp. 21–22.</ref> Carnegie became a telegraph messenger boy in the Pittsburgh Office of the Ohio Telegraph Company, at $2.50 per week (${{Inflation|US|2.50|1849|r=0}} by {{inflation/year|US}} inflation)<ref>''[[#Biography|Autobiography]]'', p. 37.</ref> following the recommendation of his uncle. He was a hard worker and would memorize all of the locations of Pittsburgh's businesses and the faces of important men. He made many connections this way. He also paid close attention to his work and quickly learned to distinguish the different sounds the incoming telegraph signals produced. He developed the ability to translate signals by ear, without using the paper slip.<ref>''[[#Biography|Autobiography]]'', pp. 56, 59.</ref>

Within a year he was promoted to an operator. Carnegie's education and passion for reading were given a boost by [[John Byers Anderson|Colonel James Anderson]], who opened his personal library of 400 volumes to working boys each Saturday night.<ref>''[[#Biography|Autobiography]]'', p. 45.</ref> Carnegie was a consistent borrower and a "[[self-made man]]" in both his economic development and his intellectual and cultural development. He was so grateful to Colonel Anderson for the use of his library that he "resolved, if ever wealth came to me, [to see to it] that other poor boys might receive opportunities similar to those for which we were indebted to the nobleman".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Murray |first1=Stuart A. P. |url=https://archive.org/details/libraryillustrat0000murr |title=The Library: An Illustrated History |date=2009 |publisher=[[Skyhorse Pub.]] |isbn=9781602397064 |location=New York, New York |page=197 |language=en |url-access=registration}}</ref> His capacity, his willingness for hard work, his perseverance, and his alertness soon brought him opportunities.

===Railroads===
Starting in 1853, when Carnegie was around 18 years old, [[Thomas A. Scott]] of the [[Pennsylvania Railroad]] employed him as a secretary/telegraph operator at a salary of $4.00 per week (${{Inflation|US|4.00|1853|r=0}} by {{inflation/year|US}}). Carnegie accepted the job with the railroad as he saw more prospects for career growth and experience there than with the telegraph company.<ref name="Nasaw"/> When Carnegie was 24 years old, Scott asked him if he could handle being superintendent of the Western Division of the Pennsylvania Railroad.<ref name="Edge 2004 pg. 35">Edge (2004), p. 35.</ref>

On December 1, 1859, Carnegie officially became superintendent of the Western Division. He hired his sixteen-year-old brother Tom to be his personal secretary and telegraph operator. Carnegie also hired his cousin, Maria Hogan, who became the first female telegraph operator in the country.<ref>Edge (2004), p. 37.</ref> As superintendent, Carnegie made a salary of $1500 a year (${{Inflation|US|1500|1859|r=-3|fmt=c}} by {{inflation/year|US}} inflation).<ref name="Edge 2004 pg. 35"/> His employment by the Pennsylvania Railroad would be vital to his later success. The railroads were the first big businesses in America, and the Pennsylvania was one of the largest. Carnegie learned much about management and cost control during these years, and from Scott in particular.<ref name="Nasaw">[[#Nasaw|Nasaw]], pp. 54–59, 64–65.</ref>

Scott also helped him with his first investments. Many of these were part of the corruption indulged in by Scott and the president of the Pennsylvania Railroad, [[John Edgar Thomson]], which consisted of inside trading in companies with which the railroad did business, or payoffs made by contracting parties "as part of a ''[[quid pro quo]]''".<ref name="Nasaw_pg59_60">[[#Nasaw|Nasaw]], pp. 59–60.</ref> In 1855, Scott made it possible for Carnegie to invest $500 in the [[Adams Express Company]], which contracted with the Pennsylvania to carry its messengers. The money was secured by his mother's placing of a $600 mortgage on the family's $700 home, but the opportunity was available only because of Carnegie's close relationship with Scott.<ref name="Nasaw_pg59_60"/><ref>''[[Andrew Carnegie#Biography|Autobiography]]'', p. 79.</ref> A few years later, he received a few shares in [[Theodore Tuttle Woodruff]]'s sleeping car company as a reward for holding shares that Woodruff had given to Scott and Thomson, as a payoff. Reinvesting his returns in such inside investments in railroad-related industries (iron, bridges, and [[Track (rail transport)|rails]]), Carnegie slowly accumulated capital, the basis for his later success. Throughout his later career, he made use of his close connections to Thomson and Scott, as he established businesses that supplied rails and bridges to the railroad, offering the two men stakes in his enterprises.

===1860–1865: American Civil War===
[[File:Pullman sleeping car circa 1860s.JPG|thumb|upright=1.2|Pullman sleeping car, where Carnegie made one of his most successful investments]]
Before the [[American Civil War]], Carnegie arranged a merger between Woodruff's company and that of [[George Pullman]], the inventor of the [[Pullman (car or coach)|sleeping car]] for [[first class travel|first-class travel]], which facilitated business travel at distances over {{convert|500|mi}}. The investment proved a success and a source of profit for Woodruff and Carnegie. The young Carnegie continued to work for Pennsylvania's Tom Scott and introduced several improvements in the service.<ref name="EB1911">{{harvnb|Chisholm|1911|pages=364–365}}.</ref>

In the spring of 1861, Carnegie joined the [[U.S. Military Telegraph Corps]] and was appointed by Scott, who was now Assistant Secretary of War in charge of military transportation, as Superintendent of the Military Railways and the Union Government's telegraph lines in the East. Carnegie helped open the rail lines into Washington D.C. that the rebels had cut; he rode the locomotive pulling the first brigade of Union troops to reach Washington D.C. Following the defeat of Union forces at [[First Battle of Bull Run|Bull Run]], he personally supervised the transportation of the defeated forces. Under his organization, the telegraph service rendered efficient service to the Union cause and significantly assisted in the eventual victory. Carnegie later joked that he was "the first casualty of the war" when he gained a scar on his cheek from freeing a trapped telegraph wire.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Gillam|first=Scott|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EdvvAMBILJQC&q=andrew+carnegie+during+the+civil+war&pg=PA36|title=Andrew Carnegie: Industrial Giant and Philanthropist|date=January 1, 2009|publisher=ABDO|isbn=978-1-60453-521-1|language=en}}</ref>

The defeat of the Confederacy required vast supplies of [[munition]]s, with railroads and telegraph lines being required to deliver them efficiently. The war demonstrated how integral the industries were to Union success.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Wall|first1=Joseph Frazier|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5g5EDwAAQBAJ&q=andrew+carnegie+during+the+civil+war&pg=PA194|title=Andrew Carnegie|last2=Frazier|first2=Wall Joseph|date=1970|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-501282-8|language=en}}</ref>

===Keystone Bridge Company===
[[File:Eads Bridge from Laclede's Landing, Sep 2012.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Eads Bridge across the [[Mississippi River]], opened in 1874 using Carnegie steel ]]
In 1864, Carnegie was one of the early investors in the Columbia Oil Company in [[Venango County, Pennsylvania]].<ref>Story Farm, Columbia Farm, Columbia Oil Company

* {{cite web |last1=Randolph |first1=Amy |date=2001 |title=Columbia Oil Farm of the Oil Creek Valley, Venago County, Pennsylvania : 150 Years of Petroleum Legacy |url=http://archives.datapages.com/data/phi/v10_2009/randolph.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200726034651/http://archives.datapages.com/data/phi/v10_2009/randolph.htm |archive-date=July 26, 2020 |access-date=March 10, 2019 |publisher=Petroleum History Institute}}
* {{cite web |title=Andrew Carnegie and the Columbia Oil Farm |url=http://www.petroleumhistory.org/OilHistory/pages/Columbia/Columbia.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190315005832/http://www.petroleumhistory.org/OilHistory/pages/Columbia/Columbia.html |archive-date=March 15, 2019 |access-date=March 10, 2019 |work=Oil History |publisher=petroleumhistory.org}}
* {{cite web |date=2001 |title=William Story Farm |url=http://www.petroleumhistory.org/OilHistory/pages/Columbia/Story.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190316042637/http://www.petroleumhistory.org/OilHistory/pages/Columbia/Story.html |archive-date=March 16, 2019 |access-date=March 10, 2019 |publisher=Petroleum History Institute}}</ref> In one year, the firm yielded over $1 million in cash dividends, and petroleum from oil wells on the property sold profitably. The demand for iron products, such as armor for gunboats, cannons, and shells, as well as a hundred other industrial products, made Pittsburgh a center of wartime production. Carnegie worked with others in establishing a steel [[rolling mill]], and steel production and control of industry became the source of his fortune. Carnegie had some investments in the iron industry before the war.

After the war, Carnegie left the railroads to devote his energies to the ironworks trade. Carnegie worked to develop several ironworks, eventually forming the Keystone Bridge Works and the Union Ironworks, in Pittsburgh. Although he had left the Pennsylvania Railroad Company, he remained connected to its management, namely Thomas A. Scott and J. Edgar Thomson. He used his connection to the two men to acquire contracts for his [[Keystone Bridge Company]] and the rails produced by his [[ironworks]]. He also gave stock in his businesses to Scott and Thomson, and the Pennsylvania was his best customer. When he built his first steel plant, he made a point of naming it after Thomson. As well as having good business sense, Carnegie possessed charm and literary knowledge. He was invited to many important social functions, which Carnegie exploited to his advantage.<ref>[[#Nasaw|Nasaw]], pp. 105–107.</ref>

Carnegie, through Keystone, supplied the steel for and owned shares in the landmark [[Eads Bridge]] project across the [[Mississippi River]] at [[St. Louis]], Missouri (completed 1874). This project was an important proof-of-concept for steel technology, which marked the opening of a new steel market.

[[File:Andrew Carnegie circa 1878 - Project Gutenberg eText 17976.jpg|thumb|upright|Carnegie, c.&nbsp;1878]]
Carnegie believed in using his fortune for others and doing more than making money. In 1868, at age 33, he wrote:<ref>{{Cite web |title=Timeline: Rags to Riches {{!}} American Experience |url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/carnegie-timeline-rags-to-riches/ |access-date=October 18, 2024 |website=www.pbs.org |language=en}}</ref>
{{blockquote|I propose to take an income no greater than $50,000 per annum! Beyond this I need ever earn, make no effort to increase my fortune, but spend the surplus each year for benevolent purposes! Let us cast aside business forever, except for others. Let us settle in Oxford and I shall get a thorough education, making the acquaintance of literary men. I figure that this will take three years' active work. I shall pay especial attention to speaking in public. We can settle in London and I can purchase a controlling interest in some newspaper or live review and give the general management of it attention, taking part in public matters, especially those connected with education and improvement of the poorer classes. Man must have no idol and the amassing of wealth is one of the worst species of [[idolatry]]! No idol is more debasing than the worship of money! Whatever I engage in I must push inordinately; therefore should I be careful to choose that life which will be the most elevating in its character. To continue much longer overwhelmed by business cares and with most of my thoughts wholly upon the way to make more money in the shortest time, must degrade me beyond hope of permanent recovery. I will resign business at thirty-five, but during these ensuing two years I wish to spend the afternoons in receiving instruction and in reading systematically!}}

===Industrialist===
====1875–1900: Steel empire====
[[File:Bessemer converter.jpg|thumb|right|Bessemer converter]]
[[File:US-PA(1891) p750 BESSEMER, THE EDGAR THOMSON STEEL WORKS AND BLAST-FURNACES.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.6|The Edgar Thomson Steel Works and Blast-Furnaces in Braddock, Pennsylvania (1891)]]
Carnegie made his fortune in the steel industry, controlling the most extensive integrated iron and steel operations ever owned by an individual in the United States. One of his two great innovations was in the cheap and efficient mass production of steel by adopting and adapting the [[Bessemer process]], which allowed the high carbon content of [[pig iron]] to be burnt away in a controlled and rapid way during [[steel production]]. Steel prices dropped as a result, and Bessemer steel was rapidly adopted for rails; however, it was not suitable for buildings and bridges.<ref>{{cite book |last=Rosenberg |first=Nathan |url=https://archive.org/details/insideblackboxte00rose/page/90 |title=Inside the Black Box: Technology and Economics |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1982 |isbn=978-0-521-27367-1 |location=Cambridge, NY |page=[https://archive.org/details/insideblackboxte00rose/page/90 90] |language=en}} Bessemer steel suffered from nitrogen embrittlement with age</ref>

The second was in his [[vertical integration]] of all suppliers of raw materials. In 1883, Carnegie bought the rival [[Homestead Steel Works]], which included an extensive plant served by tributary coal and iron fields, a {{convert|425|mi|km|adj=mid|-long}} railway, and a line of [[Lake freighter|lake steamships]].<ref name="EB1911"/> In the late 1880s, Carnegie Steel was the largest manufacturer of pig iron, steel rails, and [[coke (fuel)|coke]] in the world, with a capacity to produce approximately 2,000 tons of pig iron per day.

By 1889, the U.S. output of steel exceeded that of the UK, and Carnegie owned a large part of it. Carnegie's empire grew to include the [[Edgar Thomson Steel Works|J. Edgar Thomson Steel Works]] in [[Braddock, Pennsylvania|Braddock]] (named for [[John Edgar Thomson]], Carnegie's former boss and president of the Pennsylvania Railroad), the Pittsburgh Bessemer Steel Works, the [[Lucy Furnace]]s, the Union Iron Mills, the Union Mill (Wilson, Walker & County), the Keystone Bridge Works, the Hartman Steel Works, the Frick Coke Company, and the [[Scotia, Pennsylvania|Scotia]] ore mines. Carnegie combined his assets and those of his associates in 1892 with the launching of the [[Carnegie Steel Company]].<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Andrew-Carnegie |title=Andrew Carnegie {{!}} Biography & Facts |work=Encyclopedia Britannica |access-date=August 23, 2017 |language=en |archive-date=August 23, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170823171925/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Andrew-Carnegie |url-status=live }}</ref>

Carnegie's success was also due to his relationship with the railroad industries, which not only relied on steel for track, but were also making money from steel transport. The steel and railroad barons worked closely to negotiate prices instead of allowing free-market competition.<ref>[[#Nasaw|Nasaw]], pp. 3264–3278.</ref>

Besides Carnegie's market manipulation, United States trade tariffs were also working in favor of the steel industry. Carnegie spent energy and resources lobbying Congress for a continuation of favorable tariffs from which he earned millions of dollars a year.<ref>[[#Nasaw|Nasaw]], pp. 7114–7119.</ref> Carnegie tried to keep this information concealed, but legal documents released in 1900, during proceedings with the ex-chairman of Carnegie Steel, [[Henry Clay Frick]], revealed how favorable the tariffs had been.<ref>[[#Nasaw|Nasaw]], pp. 10653–10657.</ref>

====1901: U.S. Steel====
In 1901, Carnegie was 65 years of age and considering retirement. He reformed his enterprises into conventional [[Joint-stock company|joint stock corporation]]s as preparation for this. [[J. P. Morgan|John Pierpont Morgan]] was a banker and America's most important financial deal maker. He had observed how efficiently Carnegie produced profits. He envisioned an integrated steel industry that would cut costs, lower prices to consumers, produce in greater quantities and raise wages to workers. To this end, he needed to buy out Carnegie and several other major producers and integrate them into one company, thereby eliminating duplication and waste. He concluded negotiations on March 2, 1901, and formed the [[U.S. Steel|United States Steel Corporation]]. It was the first corporation in the world with a market capitalization of over $1 billion.

The buyout, secretly negotiated by [[Charles M. Schwab]] (no relation to [[Charles R. Schwab]]), was the largest such industrial takeover in United States history to date. The holdings were incorporated in the United States Steel Corporation, a trust organized by Morgan, and Carnegie retired from business.<ref name="EB1911"/> His steel enterprises were bought out for $303,450,000.<ref name="Hawke 1980"/>

Carnegie's share of this amounted to $225.64 million (in {{Inflation-year|US}}, ${{Formatprice|{{Inflation|US|225639000|1901}}}}), which was paid to him in the form of 5%, 50-year gold bonds. The letter agreeing to sell his share was signed on February 26, 1901. On March 2, the circular formally filed the organization and capitalization (at $1.4 billion—4% of the U.S. gross domestic product at the time) of the United States Steel Corporation actually completed the contract. The bonds were to be delivered within two weeks to the Hudson Trust Company of [[Hoboken, New Jersey]], in trust to Robert A. Franks, Carnegie's business secretary. There, a special vault was built to house the physical bulk of nearly $230 million worth of bonds.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Krass |first1=Peter |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nwJ-UFP20mMC&q=carnegie+vault+for+us+steel+bonds&pg=PT416 |title=Carnegie |date=2002 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=0471386308 |location=New York |at=Chapter 29 |language=en-us |access-date=December 3, 2019}}</ref>

===Scholar and activist===
====1880–1900====
Carnegie continued his business career; some of his literary intentions were fulfilled. He befriended the English poet [[Matthew Arnold]], the English philosopher [[Herbert Spencer]], and the American humorist [[Mark Twain]], as well as being in correspondence and acquaintance with most of the [[President of the United States|U.S. Presidents]],{{sfnp |Winkler |2006 |p=172}} statesmen, and notable writers.{{sfnp |Winkler |2006 |p=13}}

Carnegie constructed commodious [[Swimming baths|swimming-baths]] for the people of his hometown in [[Dunfermline]] in 1879. In the following year, Carnegie gave £8,000 for the establishment of a [[Dunfermline Carnegie Library]] in Scotland. In 1884, he gave $50,000 to [[Bellevue Hospital Medical College]] (now part of [[NYU Langone Medical Center|New York University Medical Center]]) to create a [[histology|histological]] laboratory, now called the Carnegie Laboratory.

In 1881, Carnegie took his family, including his 70-year-old mother, on a trip to the United Kingdom. They toured Scotland by coach and enjoyed several receptions en route. The highlight was a return to Dunfermline, where Carnegie's mother laid the foundation stone of a [[Carnegie Library]] which he funded. Carnegie's criticism of British society did not mean dislike; on the contrary, one of Carnegie's ambitions was to act as a [[catalyst]] for a close association between English-speaking peoples. To this end, in the early 1880s in partnership with [[Samuel Storey (Liberal politician)|Samuel Storey]], he purchased numerous newspapers in Britain, all of which were to advocate the abolition of the monarchy and the establishment of "the British Republic". Carnegie's charm, aided by his wealth, afforded him many British friends, including Prime Minister [[William Ewart Gladstone]].

In 1886, Carnegie's younger brother Thomas died at age 43. While owning steel works, Carnegie had purchased at low cost the most valuable of the iron ore fields around [[Lake Superior]].

Following his tour of the UK, he wrote about his experiences in a book entitled ''An American Four-in-hand in Britain''. In 1886, Carnegie wrote his most radical work to date, entitled ''Triumphant Democracy''. Liberal in its use of statistics to make its arguments, the book argued his view that the American republican system of government was superior to the British [[monarchy|monarchical]] system. It gave a highly favorable and idealized view of American progress and criticized the British royal family. The cover depicted an upended royal [[crown]] and a broken scepter. The book created considerable controversy in the UK. The book made many Americans appreciate their country's economic progress and sold over 40,000 copies, mostly in the U.S.

[[File:James Bryce, 1st Viscount Bryce & Andrew Carnegie - Project Gutenberg eText 17976.jpg|thumb|upright|Carnegie, right, with [[James Bryce, 1st Viscount Bryce]]]]
Although actively involved in running his many businesses, Carnegie had become a regular contributor to numerous magazines, most notably ''[[Nineteenth Century (periodical)|The Nineteenth Century]]'', under the editorship of [[James Thomas Knowles (1831–1908)|James Knowles]], and the influential ''North American Review'', led by the editor [[Lloyd Bryce]]. In 1889, Carnegie published "Wealth" in the June issue of the ''North American Review''.<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.swarthmore.edu/SocSci/rbannis1/AIH19th/Carnegie.html |journal=North American Review |title=Wealth |author=Carnegie, Andrew |date=June 1889 |access-date=December 25, 2005 |archive-date=December 20, 2005 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051220024630/http://www.swarthmore.edu/SocSci/rbannis1/AIH19th/Carnegie.html |url-status=live }}</ref> After reading it, Gladstone requested its publication in Britain, where it appeared as "The Gospel of Wealth" in ''[[The Pall Mall Gazette]]''. Carnegie argued that the life of a wealthy industrialist should comprise two parts. The first part was the gathering and the accumulation of wealth. The second part was for the subsequent distribution of this wealth to benevolent causes. Philanthropy was key to making life worthwhile.

Carnegie was a well-regarded writer. He published three books on travel.<ref>Swetnam, George (1980) ''Andrew Carnegie''. Twayne Publishers.</ref>

===Anti-imperialism===
In the aftermath of the [[Spanish–American War]], the United States seemed poised to annex [[Republic of Cuba (1902–1959)|Cuba]], [[Guam]], [[Puerto Rico]] and the [[Insular Government of the Philippine Islands|Philippines]]. Carnegie strongly opposed the idea of American colonies. He opposed the annexation of the Philippines almost to the point of supporting [[William Jennings Bryan]] against McKinley in 1900. In 1898, Carnegie tried to arrange independence for the Philippines. As the conclusion of the Spanish–American War neared, the United States purchased the Philippines from Spain for $20 million. To counter what he perceived as [[American imperialism]], Carnegie personally offered $20 million to the Philippines so that the [[Filipinos|Filipino people]] could purchase their independence from the United States.<ref>[https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/carnegie/timeline/timeline2.html Andrew Carnegie timeline of events] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161124171215/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/carnegie/timeline/timeline2.html |date=November 24, 2016 }} PBS.</ref> However, nothing came of the offer. In 1898 Carnegie joined the [[American Anti-Imperialist League]], in opposition to the U.S. annexation of the Philippines. Its membership included former presidents of the United States [[Grover Cleveland]] and [[Benjamin Harrison]] and literary figures such as [[Mark Twain]].<ref>Hirschfeld, Katherine. ''Health, Politics and Revolution in Cuba'', p. 117, Transaction Publishers, 2008 {{ISBN|978-1-4128-0863-7}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Porter, Robert Percival |title=Industrial Cuba: Being a Study of Present Commercial and Industrial Conditions, with Suggestions as to the Opportunities Presented in the Island for American Capital, Enterprise, and Labour|url=https://archive.org/details/industrialcubab00portgoog|year=1899|publisher=G.P. Putnam's Sons|page=[https://archive.org/details/industrialcubab00portgoog/page/n75 43]}}</ref>

===1901–1919: Philanthropist===
{{main|Carnegie library|Carnegie Corporation of New York|Carnegie Endowment for International Peace|Carnegie Institution for Science|Carnegie Trust for the Universities of Scotland|Carnegie United Kingdom Trust|Carnegie Hero Fund|Carnegie Mellon University|Carnegie Museums of Pittsburgh}}
{{see also|Carnegie Hall|Tuskegee Institute|Hooker telescope}}
[[File:Carnegie-1903.jpg|thumb|upright|Andrew Carnegie's philanthropy. ''Puck'' magazine cartoon by Louis Dalrymple, 1903]]
Carnegie spent his last years as a philanthropist. From 1901 forward, public attention was turned from the shrewd business acumen which had enabled Carnegie to accumulate such a fortune, to the public-spirited way in which he devoted himself to using it on philanthropic projects. He had written about his views on social subjects and the responsibilities of great wealth in ''Triumphant Democracy'' (1886) and [[The Gospel of Wealth|''Gospel of Wealth'']] (1889). Carnegie devoted the rest of his life to providing capital for purposes of public interest and social and educational advancement. He saved letters of appreciation from those he helped in a desk drawer labeled "Gratitude and Sweet Words."

He provided $25,000 a year to the movement for [[spelling reform]].<ref>[[Joseph Frazier Wall]], ''Andrew Carnegie'' (1970), pp. 891–893.</ref> His organization, the [[Simplified Spelling Board]],<ref name=NYT19060306>[https://www.nytimes.com/1906/03/12/archives/carnegie-assaults-the-spelling-book-to-pay-the-cost-of-reforming.html "Carnegie Assaults the Spelling Book; To Pay the Cost of Reforming English Orthography. Campaign About to Begin Board Named, with Headquarters Here – Local Societies Throughout the Country."] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160404030227/http://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9F02E5D6103EE733A25751C1A9659C946797D6CF&scp=1 |date=April 4, 2016 }}, ''[[The New York Times]]'', March 12, 1906. Retrieved August 28, 2008.</ref> created the ''Handbook of Simplified Spelling'', which was written wholly in reformed spelling.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Simplified spelling board |first1=New York [from old catalog |url=http://archive.org/details/handbooksimplif00boargoog |title=Handbook of simplified spelling, written and comp. under the direction of the Filology committee of the Simplified spelling board |last2=Paine |first2=Henry Gallup |date=1920 |publisher=New York [Simplified spelling board] |others=Harvard University}}</ref><ref>{{cite AV media |first1=Tom |last1=Scott |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=j9Q1cM7_ai4 | archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211122/j9Q1cM7_ai4| archive-date=November 22, 2021 | url-status=live|title=Ghoti and the Ministry of Helth: Spelling Reform |date=June 28, 2013}}{{cbignore}}</ref>

====3,000 public libraries====
[[File:Andrew Carnegie, Vanity Fair, 1903-10-29.jpg|left|thumb|upright|Captioned "Free Libraries", Carnegie caricatured by "[[Leslie Ward|Spy]]" for the London magazine ''[[Vanity Fair (British magazine)|Vanity Fair]]'', 1903]]
Among his many philanthropic efforts, the establishment of [[public library|public libraries]] throughout the United States, Britain, Canada, New Zealand, and mostly other English-speaking countries was especially prominent. In this special driving interest of his, Carnegie was inspired by meetings with philanthropist [[Enoch Pratt]] (1808–1896). The [[Enoch Pratt Free Library]] (1886) of [[Baltimore, Maryland]], impressed Carnegie deeply; he said, "Pratt was my guide and inspiration."<ref>{{Cite book|last=Pensinger|first=Dr. Kim|title=The Big Cookie Proposition: Insights and Inspiration for a Generous New You|pages=31|language=English}}</ref>

Carnegie turned over management of the library project by 1908 to his staff, led by [[James Bertram (Carnegie secretary)|James Bertram]] (1874–1934).<ref>{{cite book |author=Lagemann |first=Ellen Condliffe |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=s0AalQle34cC&pg=PA17 |title=The Politics of Knowledge: The Carnegie Corporation, Philanthropy, and Public Policy |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=1992 |isbn=9780226467801 |page=17 |language=en-us}}</ref> The first [[Carnegie Library]] opened in 1883 in Dunfermline. His method was to provide funds to build and equip the library, but only on the condition that the local authority matched that by providing the land and a budget for operation and maintenance.{{sfn |Chisholm |1911}}

To secure local interest, in 1885, he gave $500,000 to [[Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania]], for a public library; in 1886, he gave $250,000 to [[Allegheny City, Pennsylvania]], for a music hall and library; and he gave $250,000 to [[Edinburgh]] for a free library. In total, Carnegie funded some 3,000 libraries, located in 47 U.S. states, and also in Canada, Britain, Ireland, Belgium, Serbia, France, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, the [[West Indies]], and [[Fiji]]. He also donated £50,000 to help set up the [[University of Birmingham]] in 1899.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Mickelson |first=Peter |year=1975 |title=American Society and the Public Library in the Thought of Andrew Carnegie |journal=Journal of Library History |language=en |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=117–138 |jstor=25540622}}</ref>

As Van Slyck (1991) showed, during the last years of the 19th century, there was the increasing adoption of the idea that free libraries should be available to the American public. But the design of such libraries was the subject of prolonged and heated debate. On one hand, the library profession called for designs that supported efficiency in administration and operation; on the other, wealthy philanthropists favored buildings that reinforced the paternalistic metaphor and enhanced civic pride. Between 1886 and 1917, Carnegie reformed both library philanthropy and library design, encouraging a closer correspondence between the two.<ref>{{cite journal |author=VanSlyck |first=Abigail A. |year=1991 |title="The Utmost Amount of Effectiv [sic] Accommodation": Andrew Carnegie and the Reform of the American Library |url=https://digitalcommons.conncoll.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1002&context=archfacpub |url-status=live |journal=Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians |language=en |volume=50 |issue=4 |pages=359–383 |doi=10.2307/990662 |jstor=990662 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414074147/https://digitalcommons.conncoll.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1002&context=archfacpub |archive-date=April 14, 2021 |access-date=March 1, 2021 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

Carnegie's libraries also served as institutions of control. According to the historian [[Richard White (historian)|Richard White]], many steelworkers employed by Carnegie "despised" his library in [[Homestead, Pennsylvania]].<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last=White |first=Richard |url=http://archive.org/details/republicforwhich0000whit |title=The republic for which it stands : the United States during Reconstruction and the Gilded Age, 1865–1896 |date=2017 |publisher=New York, NY : Oxford University Press |others=Internet Archive |isbn=978-0-19-973581-5}}</ref>{{Reference page|pages=|page=673}}

{{Blockquote|text=Carnegie imposed work rules that deprived his employees of virtually all their leisure; then he built a library and lectured them on how to spend time they did not have. He owned their days, but declared the meager time they had left between work and sleep or their bursts of unemployment to be 'the key to... progress in all virtues." Mill officers dominated the library board, and the professional staff agreed that 'the library has the right to control the character of the reading, it has a right to direct the reader to the desired information."|author=Richard White|title=The Republic for Which it Stands: The United States During Reconstruction and the Gilded Age}}

<gallery class="center">
File:CarnegieLibraryPittsburghFrontEntrance.jpg|[[Carnegie Library of Pittsburgh]], [[Pittsburgh|Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania]]
File:Macomb Public Library.JPG|[[Carnegie library]], [[Macomb, Illinois]]
File:Edinburgh Central Library, George IV Bridge.JPG|[[Edinburgh]] [[Central Library, Edinburgh|Central Library]]
File:TPL Yorkville 2025-05-07.jpg|[[Yorkville Library (Toronto)|Yorkville Library]], [[Ontario]].
File:Syracuse Carnegie Library.jpg|Carnegie Library at [[Syracuse University]], New York
File:Carnegie library 002.jpg|Carnegie Library, [[Moorreesburg]], [[South Africa]]
</gallery>

====Investing in education, science, pensions, civil heroism, music, and world peace====
[[File:CMUquadfromCoLcrop.jpg|thumb|right|[[Carnegie Mellon University]]]]
[[File:PSM V76 D210 Carnegie institution administration buiding in washington.png|thumb|Carnegie Institution administration building in Washington, D.C.]]
In 1900, Carnegie gave $2 million to start the [[Carnegie Institute of Technology]] (CIT) at Pittsburgh and the same amount in 1902 to create the [[Carnegie Institution]] at Washington, D.C., to encourage research and discovery. He later contributed more to these and other schools.{{sfn|Chisholm|1911}} CIT is now known as [[Carnegie Mellon University]] after it merged with the [[Mellon Institute of Industrial Research]]. Carnegie also served on the Boards of [[Cornell University]] and [[Stevens Institute of Technology]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://web.stevens.edu/catalog/archive/home/campus.html |title=Stevens Institute of Technology Campus and Directions |website=web.stevens.edu |access-date=September 29, 2017 |archive-date=June 6, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160606084643/http://web.stevens.edu/catalog/archive/home/campus.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

In 1911, Carnegie became a sympathetic benefactor to [[George Ellery Hale]], who was trying to build the {{convert|100|in|m|adj=on}} [[Hooker telescope|Hooker Telescope]] at [[Mount Wilson Observatory|Mount Wilson]], and donated an additional ten million dollars to the [[Carnegie Institution for Science|Carnegie Institution]] with the following suggestion to expedite the construction of the telescope: "I hope the work at Mount Wilson will be vigorously pushed, because I am so anxious to hear the expected results from it. I should like to be satisfied before I depart, that we are going to repay to the old land some part of the debt we owe them by revealing more clearly than ever to them the new heavens." The telescope saw [[First light (astronomy)|first light]] on November 2, 1917, with Carnegie still alive.<ref>Simmons, Mike (1984). [http://www.mtwilson.edu/his/art/g1a4.php "History of Mount Wilson Observatory&nbsp;– Building the 100-Inch Telescope"] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090208191301/http://www.mtwilson.edu/his/art/g1a4.php |date=February 8, 2009}}. [[Mount Wilson Observatory]] Association (MWOA).</ref>

[[File:Pittencrieff Park, Dunfermline.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Pittencrieff Park, [[Dunfermline]], Scotland]]

In 1901, in Scotland, he gave $10 million to establish the [[Carnegie Trust for the Universities of Scotland]]. It was created by a deed that he signed on June 7, 1901, and it was incorporated by royal charter on August 21, 1902. The establishing gift of $10 million was then an unprecedented sum: at the time, total government assistance to all four Scottish universities was about £50,000 a year. The aim of the Trust was to improve and extend the opportunities for scientific research in the Scottish universities and to enable the deserving and qualified youth of Scotland to attend a university.<ref>{{Cite web |date=May 13, 2008 |title=Carnegie Trust - for the Universities of Scotland |url=http://www.carnegie-trust.org/our_history.htm |access-date=February 11, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080513232654/http://www.carnegie-trust.org/our_history.htm |archive-date=May 13, 2008 }}</ref> He was subsequently elected [[Lord Rector]] of [[University of St. Andrews]] in December 1901,<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-times-university-intelligence/138126085/ |newspaper=[[The Times]] |publication-place=London |title=University Intelligence |date=December 7, 1901 |page=11 |issue=36632 |access-date=January 5, 2024 |via=Newspapers.com}}</ref> and formally installed as such in October 1902,<ref>{{Cite news |date=October 23, 1902 |title=University Intelligence |url=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-times-university-intelligence/138126227/ |access-date=January 5, 2024 |newspaper=[[The Times]] |page=9 |language=en |publication-place=London, England |via=Newspapers.com |issue=36906}}</ref> serving until 1907. He also donated large sums of money to Dunfermline, the place of his birth. In addition to a library, Carnegie also bought the private estate which became [[Pittencrieff Park]] and opened it to all members of the public, establishing the Carnegie Dunfermline Trust<ref>{{Scottish charity|SC015710|Carnegie Dunfermline Trust}}</ref> to benefit the people of Dunfermline. A statue of Carnegie was later built between 1913 and 1914 in the park as a commemoration for his creation of the park.<ref>{{Historic Environment Scotland|cat=IMG|num=383697|num2=SC 383697|desc= View of Andrew Carnegie Statue, Pittencrieff Park, Dunfermline. From South East.}}</ref><ref>{{Historic Environment Scotland|desc=PITTENCRIEFF PARK, STATUE OF ANDREW CARNEGIE |num=LB25970|fewer-links=yes|access-date=August 10, 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.dunfermlinepress.com/news/16133533.Andrew_Carnegie_statue_vandalised/|title=Andrew Carnegie statue vandalised|website=Dunfermline Press|date=April 3, 2018|language=en|access-date=April 3, 2018|archive-date=April 3, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180403114732/http://www.dunfermlinepress.com/news/16133533.Andrew_Carnegie_statue_vandalised/|url-status=live}}</ref>

Carnegie was a major patron of music. He was a founding financial backer of [[Jeannette Thurber]]'s [[National Conservatory of Music of America]] in 1885.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Rubin |first=Emanuel |date=1990 |title=Jeannette Meyers Thurber and the National Conservatory of Music |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3052098 |journal=American Music |volume=8 |issue=3 |pages=294–325 |doi=10.2307/3052098 |jstor=3052098 |issn=0734-4392 |access-date=October 28, 2022 |archive-date=October 28, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221028220607/https://www.jstor.org/stable/3052098 |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}</ref> He built the music performing venue [[Carnegie Hall]] in New York City; it opened in 1891 and remained in his family until 1925. His interest in music led him to fund the construction of 7,000 pipe organs in churches and temples, with no apparent preference for any religious denomination or sect.<ref>"Looking Back Into the Past" (PDF). The Diapason. 47 (2): 22. January 1, 1956.</ref><ref>"Mr. Carnegie Gives To All" (PDF). The Diapason. 2 (3): 3. February 1, 1911.</ref>

He gave a further $10 million in 1913 to endow the [[Carnegie United Kingdom Trust]], a grant-making foundation.<ref>{{Scottish charity |SC012799 |Carnegie United Kingdom Trust}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.carnegieuktrust.org.uk/ |title=Home – Carnegie UK Trust |access-date=March 13, 2013 |archive-date=December 28, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101228172131/http://www.carnegieuktrust.org.uk/ |url-status=live }}</ref> He transferred to the trust the charge of all his existing and future benefactions, other than university benefactions in the United Kingdom. He gave the trustees a wide discretion, and they inaugurated a policy of financing rural library schemes rather than erecting library buildings, and of assisting the musical education of the people rather than granting organs to churches.<ref name="EB1922">{{EB1922|inline=y|wstitle=Carnegie, Andrew|volume=30|page=579}}</ref>

[[File:Tuskegee Institute - faculty.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|Carnegie with Black American leader [[Booker T. Washington]] (front row, center) in 1906 while visiting [[Tuskegee Institute]]]]
[[File:Friedenspalast Den Haag.jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.9|The Peace Palace in the Hague, opened in 1913]]

In 1901, Carnegie also established large pension funds for his former employees at Homestead and, in 1905, for American college professors.<ref name="EB1911"/> The latter fund evolved into [[TIAA-CREF]]. One critical requirement was that church-related schools had to sever their religious connections to get his money.

Carnegie was a large benefactor of the [[Tuskegee Institute]] for Black American education under [[Booker T. Washington]]. He helped Washington create the [[National Negro Business League]].{{Citation needed|date=September 2025}}

[[File:Medaille Carneggie Heldenfonds.jpg|thumb|right|80px|Dutch medal of the Carnegie Hero Fund]]
In 1904, he founded the [[Carnegie Hero Fund]] for the United States and Canada (a few years later also established in the United Kingdom, Switzerland, Norway, Sweden, France, Italy, the Netherlands, Belgium, Denmark, and Germany) for the recognition of deeds of heroism. Carnegie contributed $1.5 million in 1903 for the erection of the [[Peace Palace]] at [[The Hague]]; and he donated $150,000 for a Pan-American Palace in Washington as a home for the International Bureau of American Republics.<ref name="EB1911"/>

When it became obvious that Carnegie could not give away his entire fortune within his lifetime, he established the [[Carnegie Corporation of New York]] in 1911 "to promote the advancement and diffusion of knowledge and understanding" and continue his program of giving.

Carnegie was honored for his philanthropy and support of the arts by initiation as an honorary member of [[Phi Mu Alpha Sinfonia]] fraternity on October 14, 1917, at the [[New England Conservatory|New England Conservatory of Music]] in Boston, Massachusetts. The fraternity's mission reflects Carnegie's values by developing young men to share their talents to create harmony in the world.

===Death===
[[File:Andrew Carnegie Gravesite.JPG|thumb|upright|Carnegie's grave at Sleepy Hollow Cemetery in [[Sleepy Hollow, New York]]]]
Carnegie died on August 11, 1919, in [[Lenox, Massachusetts]], at his [[Shadow Brook Farm Historic District|Shadow Brook]] estate, of [[bronchial pneumonia]].<ref>{{cite news |date=August 12, 1919 |title=Andrew Carnegie Dies Of Pneumonia In His 84th Year |work=The New York Times |url=https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1919/08/12/118155506.pdf |url-status=live |access-date=August 1, 2008 |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1919/08/12/118155506.pdf |archive-date=October 9, 2022 |quote=Andrew Carnegie died at Shadow Brook of bronchial pneumonia at 7:10 o'clock this morning.}}</ref><ref name="Krass">Krass (2002), Ch. "The Carnegie Legacy".</ref> He had already given away $350,695,653 (approximately $6.9 billion in 2025 dollars) of his wealth. After his death, his last $30 million was given to foundations, charities, and to pensioners.<ref>{{cite news |title=Carnegie's Estate, At Time Of Death, About $30,000,000 |url=https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1919/08/29/103460462.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1919/08/29/103460462.pdf |archive-date=October 9, 2022 |url-status=live |work=The New York Times |date=August 29, 1919 |access-date=August 1, 2008}}</ref>

He was buried at [[Sleepy Hollow Cemetery]] in [[Sleepy Hollow, New York]]. The grave site is located on the Arcadia Hebron plot of land at the corner of Summit Avenue and Dingle Road. Carnegie is buried only a few yards away from union organizer [[Samuel Gompers]], another important figure of industry in the [[Gilded Age]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://sleepyhollowcemetery.org/wpress/wp-content/uploads/2009/07/sleepy-hollow-cemetery-map.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110209080936/http://sleepyhollowcemetery.org/wpress/wp-content/uploads/2009/07/sleepy-hollow-cemetery-map.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=February 9, 2011 |title=Sleepy Hollow Cemetery Map |year=2009 |publisher=Sleepy Hollow Cemetery Historic Fund |access-date=April 19, 2010 }}</ref>

==Controversies==
===1889: Johnstown Flood===
{{main|Johnstown Flood}}
[[Image:The Great Conemaugh Valley Disaster.jpg|thumb|A contemporary rendition of the Johnstown Flood scene at the Stone Bridge by [[Kurz and Allison]] (1890)|left]]
Carnegie was one of more than 50 members of the [[South Fork Fishing and Hunting Club]], which has been blamed for the [[Johnstown Flood]] that killed 2,209 people in 1889.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Frank, Walter Smoter |title=The Cause of the Johnstown Flood |date=May 1988 |journal=Civil Engineering |pages=63–66 |url=http://smoter.com/flooddam/johnstow.htm |access-date=February 27, 2015 |archive-date=April 6, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190406140339/http://smoter.com/flooddam/johnstow.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref>

At the suggestion of his friend Benjamin Ruff, Carnegie's partner [[Henry Clay Frick]] had formed the exclusive South Fork Fishing and Hunting Club high above Johnstown, Pennsylvania. The sixty-odd club members were the leading business tycoons of Western Pennsylvania and included among their number Frick's best friend, [[Andrew W. Mellon|Andrew Mellon]], his attorneys [[Philander Knox]] and James Hay Reed, as well as Frick's business partner, Carnegie. High above the city, near the small town of South Fork, the [[South Fork Dam]] was originally built between 1838 and 1853 by the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania as part of a canal system to be used as a reservoir for a canal basin in Johnstown. With the coming-of-age of railroads superseding canal barge transport, the lake was abandoned by the Commonwealth, sold to the Pennsylvania Railroad, and sold again to private interests, and eventually came to be owned by the South Fork Fishing and Hunting Club in 1881. Prior to the flood, speculators had purchased the abandoned reservoir, made less than well-engineered repairs to the old dam, raised the lake level, built cottages and a clubhouse, and created the South Fork Fishing and Hunting Club. Less than {{convert|20|mi}} downstream from the dam sat the city of Johnstown.

The dam was {{convert|72|ft}} high and {{convert|931|ft}} long. Between 1881, when the club was opened, and 1889, the dam frequently sprang leaks and was patched, mostly with mud and straw. Additionally, a previous owner removed and sold for scrap the three [[cast iron]] discharge pipes that previously allowed a controlled release of water. There had been some speculation as to the dam's integrity, and concerns had been raised by the head of the Cambria Iron Works downstream in Johnstown. Such repair work, a reduction in height, and unusually high snowmelt and heavy spring rains combined to cause the dam to give way on May 31, 1889, resulting in twenty million tons of water sweeping down the valley as the Johnstown Flood.<ref>[[McCullough, David]] (1987) ''The Johnstown Flood''. Simon & Schuster, New York. {{ISBN|0671207148}}</ref> When word of the dam's failure was telegraphed to Pittsburgh, Frick and other members of the South Fork Fishing and Hunting Club gathered to form the Pittsburgh Relief Committee for assistance to the flood victims as well as determining never to speak publicly about the club or the flood. This strategy was a success, and Knox and Reed were able to fend off all lawsuits that would have placed blame upon the club's members.

Although Cambria Iron and Steel's facilities were heavily damaged by the flood, they returned to full production within a year. After the flood, Carnegie built Johnstown a new library to replace the one built by Cambria's chief legal counsel Cyrus Elder, which was destroyed in the flood. The Carnegie-donated library is now owned by the Johnstown Area Heritage Association and houses the Flood Museum.

===1892: Homestead Strike===
[[File:Homestead Strike - Mob attacking Pinkerton men.jpg|thumb|The Homestead Strike]]
{{Main|Homestead Strike}}
The [[Homestead Strike]] was a bloody labor confrontation lasting 143 days in 1892, one of the most serious in U.S. history. The conflict was centered on Carnegie Steel's main plant in [[Homestead, Pennsylvania]], and grew out of a labor dispute between the [[Amalgamated Association of Iron and Steel Workers]] (AA) and the [[Carnegie Steel Company]].

Carnegie left on a trip to Scotland before the unrest peaked.<ref name="Carnegie, Andrew 1920">''[[#Biography|Autobiography]]'', Ch. 17.</ref> In doing so, Carnegie left mediation of the dispute in the hands of his associate and partner [[Henry Clay Frick]]. Frick was well known in industrial circles for maintaining staunch anti-union sentiment. With the collective bargaining agreement between the union and company expiring at the end of June, Frick and the leaders of the local AA union entered into negotiations in February. With the steel industry doing well and prices higher, the AA asked for a wage increase; the AA represented about 800 of the 3,800 workers at the plant. Frick immediately countered with an average 22% wage decrease that would affect nearly half the union's membership and remove a number of positions from the bargaining unit.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NZY8mAT222EC |title=History of the Labor Movement in the United States: Volume Two: From the Founding of the American Federation of Labor to the Emergence of American Imperialism |last=Foner |first=Philip Sheldon |date=1975 |publisher=International Pub |isbn=9780717803880 |language=en}}</ref>

[[File:Frick to Carnegie letter about the arming of the Pinkertons.jpg|thumb|left|Frick's letter to Carnegie describing the plans and munitions that will be on the barges when the Pinkertons arrive to confront the strikers in Homestead]]
The union and company failed to come to an agreement, and management locked the union out. Workers considered the stoppage a "[[lockout (industry)|lockout]]" by management and not a "strike" by workers. As such, the workers would have been well within their rights to protest, and subsequent government action would have been a set of criminal procedures designed to crush what was seen as a pivotal demonstration of the growing [[Labor history of the United States|labor rights movement]], strongly opposed by management. Frick brought in thousands of strikebreakers to work the steel mills and [[Pinkerton National Detective Agency|Pinkerton]] agents to safeguard them.

On July 6, the arrival of a force of 300 Pinkerton agents from New York City and Chicago resulted in a fight in which 10 men — seven strikers and three Pinkertons — were killed and hundreds were injured. Pennsylvania Governor [[Robert E. Pattison|Robert Pattison]] ordered two brigades of the state militia to the strike site. Then allegedly in response to the fight between the striking workers and the Pinkertons, [[Anarchism|anarchist]] [[Alexander Berkman]] shot at Frick in an attempted assassination, wounding him. While not directly connected to the strike, Berkman was tied in for the assassination attempt. According to Berkman, "...{{nbsp}}with the elimination of Frick, responsibility for Homestead conditions would rest with Carnegie."<ref>Berkman, Alexander (1912) [https://archive.org/details/prisonmemoirsan01berkgoog ''Prison Memoirs of an Anarchist'']. Mother Earth Publishing Association. p. 67.</ref> Afterwards, the company successfully resumed operations with non-union immigrant employees in place of the Homestead plant workers, and Carnegie returned to the United States.<ref name="Carnegie, Andrew 1920"/> However, Carnegie's reputation was permanently damaged by the Homestead events.

===Theodore Roosevelt===
According to David Nasaw, after 1898, when the United States entered a war with Spain, Carnegie increasingly devoted his energy to supporting pacifism. He strongly opposed the war and the subsequent imperialistic American takeover of the Philippines. When [[Theodore Roosevelt]] became president in 1901, Carnegie and Roosevelt were in frequent contact. They exchanged letters, communicated through mutual friends such as Secretary of State [[John Hay]], and met in person. Carnegie hoped that Roosevelt would turn the Philippines free. He saluted Roosevelt for forcing Germany and Britain to arbitrate their conflict with Venezuela in 1903, and especially for becoming the mediator who negotiated an end to the war between Russia and Japan in 1907–1908. Roosevelt relied on Carnegie for financing his expedition to [[Smithsonian–Roosevelt African Expedition|Africa in 1909]]. In return he asked the ex-president to mediate the growing conflict between the cousins who ruled Britain and Germany. Roosevelt started to do so but the scheme collapsed when king [[Edward VII]] suddenly died.<ref>Nasaw, ''Carnegie'' pp 650–652, 729–738.</ref><ref>[[Richard Ernsberger Jr.|Richard Ernsberger, Jr.]], "A Fool for Peace" ''American History'', (Oct 2018), Vol. 53, Issue 4.</ref> Nasaw argues that Roosevelt systematically deceived and manipulated Carnegie and held the elderly man in contempt. Nasaw quotes a private letter Roosevelt wrote to [[Whitelaw Reid]] in 1905:<ref>Nasaw, ''Carnegie'' p. 675.</ref> <blockquote>[I have] tried hard to like Carnegie, but it is pretty difficult. There is no type of man for whom I feel a more contemptuous abhorrence than for the one who makes a God of mere money-making and at the same time is always yelling out that kind of utterly stupid condemnation of war which in almost every case springs from a combination of defective physical courage, of unmanly shrinking from pain and effort, and of hopelessly twisted ideals. All the suffering from Spanish war comes far short of the suffering, preventable and non-preventable, among the operators of the Carnegie steel works, and among the small investors, during the time that Carnegie was making his fortune…. It is as noxious folly to denounce war per se as it is to denounce business per se. Unrighteous war is a hideous evil; but I am not at all sure that it is worse evil than business unrighteousness.</blockquote>

==Personal life==
===Family===
[[File:Margaret Carnegie Miller and Andrew Carnegie.jpg|thumb|right|Andrew Carnegie with his wife [[Louise Whitfield Carnegie]] and their daughter [[Margaret Carnegie Miller]] in 1910]]
Carnegie did not want to marry during his mother's lifetime, instead choosing to take care of her in her illness towards the end of her life.{{sfnp |Edge |2004 |p=78}} After she died in 1886, the 51-year-old Carnegie married [[Louise Whitfield Carnegie|Louise Whitfield]],{{sfnp |Edge |2004 |p=78}} who was 21 years his junior.<ref>{{cite book |author=Meachen Rau, Dana |title=Andrew Carnegie: Captain of Industry |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CyvHd3LxnIkC&pg=PA72 |date=2005 |publisher=Capstone |isbn=978-0-7565-1853-0 |pages=72–}}</ref> In 1897,{{sfnp |Edge |2004 |p=93}} the couple had their only child, [[Margaret Carnegie Miller|Margaret]], whom they named after Carnegie's mother.<ref>{{cite book |author=Parker, Lewis K. |title=Andrew Carnegie and the Steel Industry |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=82w0rAyuhUkC&pg=PA40 |date=2003 |publisher=The Rosen Publishing Group |isbn=978-0-8239-6896-1 |pages=40–}}</ref>

===Residences===
[[File:Cooper Hewitt (48059131921).jpg|thumb|right|The [[Andrew Carnegie Mansion]], located on 5th Avenue on the [[Upper East Side]], [[Manhattan|Manhattan, New York]]]] 
Carnegie bought [[Skibo Castle]] in Scotland,<ref>{{cite book |title=Skibo: The Story of the Scottish Estate of Andrew Carnegie, from Its Celtic Origins to the Present Day |last=Wall |first=Joseph Frazier |year=1984 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford, NY |isbn=978-0-1950-3450-9 |page=[https://archive.org/details/skibo00wall/page/70 70] |url=https://archive.org/details/skibo00wall/page/70 }}</ref> and made his home partly there and partly in his [[Andrew Carnegie Mansion|New York mansion]] located at 2 East [[91st Street (Manhattan)|91st Street]] at [[Fifth Avenue]].<ref name="EB1911"/> The building was completed in late 1902, and he lived there until his death in 1919. His wife Louise continued to live there until her death in 1946. The building has been used since 1976 as the [[Cooper-Hewitt, Smithsonian Design Museum]], part of the [[Smithsonian Institution]]. The surrounding neighborhood on Manhattan's [[Upper East Side]] has come to be called [[Carnegie Hill]]. The mansion was designated as a [[National Historic Landmark]] in 1966.<ref name="nhlsum">{{cite web |url=http://tps.cr.nps.gov/nhl/detail.cfm?ResourceId=387&ResourceType=Building |title=Carnegie Hall |date=September 9, 2007 |work=National Historic Landmark summary listing |publisher=National Park Service |access-date=December 23, 2015 |archive-date=November 6, 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071106090549/http://tps.cr.nps.gov/nhl/detail.cfm?ResourceId=387&ResourceType=Building |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="nrhpinv">{{cite web |url=https://npgallery.nps.gov/NRHP/GetAsset/NHLS/66000536_photos |format=pdf |title=National Register of Historic Places Inventory-Nomination |date=May 30, 1975 |publisher=National Park Service |access-date=March 10, 2019 |archive-date=July 26, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200726060025/https://npgallery.nps.gov/NRHP/GetAsset/NHLS/66000536_photos |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="GuidetoNYCLandmarks">{{cite book |last1=Dolkart |first1=Andrew S |authorlink1=Andrew S. Dolkart |last2=Postal |first2=Matthew A. |others=Mayor Michael R. Bloomberg (Author of Foreword) |title=Guide to New York City Landmarks |url=https://archive.org/details/guidetonewyorkci00dolk_0 |url-access=registration |edition=Third |series=New York City Landmarks Preservation Committee |year=2004 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |location=Hoboken, NJ |pages=[https://archive.org/details/guidetonewyorkci00dolk_0/page/51 51], 175|isbn=9780471369004 }}</ref>

==Philosophy==
===Politics===
Carnegie gave "formal allegiance" to the Republican Party, though he was said to be "a violent opponent of some of the most sacred doctrines" of the party.<ref name=VeteranIronmaster>{{cite web| url = https://www.newspapers.com/image/466222580/?terms=Andrew%2BCarnegie%2Brepublican| title = "Veteran Ironmaster Wrought Marvels in Public Benefactions," ''The Sun,'' August 12, 1919, page 10, column 5| access-date = February 5, 2019| archive-date = February 7, 2019| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190207020219/https://www.newspapers.com/image/466222580/?terms=Andrew%2BCarnegie%2Brepublican| url-status = live}}</ref>

===Andrew Carnegie Dictum===
In his final days, Carnegie had pneumonia. Before his death on August 11, 1919, Carnegie had donated $350,695,654 for various causes. The "Andrew Carnegie Dictum" was:
*To spend the first third of one's life getting all the education one can.
*To spend the next third making all the money one can.
*To spend the last third giving it all away for worthwhile causes.
Carnegie was involved in philanthropic causes, but he kept himself away from religious circles. He wanted to be identified by the world as a "[[positivist]]". He was highly influenced in public life by [[John Bright]].

===On wealth===
[[File:Andrew Carnegie at Skibo 1914 - Project Gutenberg eText 17976.jpg|thumb|upright|Carnegie at Skibo Castle, 1914]]
[[File:Andrew_Carnegie_by_Charles_McBride,_Edinburgh_Central_Library.jpg|thumb|upright|Andrew Carnegie by [[Charles McBride]], Edinburgh Central Library]]
As early as 1868, at age 33, he drafted a memo to himself. He wrote: "...{{nbsp}}The amassing of wealth is one of the worse species of idolatry. No idol more debasing than the worship of money."<ref>Klein, Maury (2004) ''The Change Makers'', p. 57, Macmillan. {{ISBN|978-0-8050-7518-2}}</ref> In order to avoid degrading himself, he wrote in the same memo he would retire at age 35 to pursue the practice of philanthropic giving, for "... the man who dies thus rich dies disgraced." However, he did not begin his philanthropic work in all earnest until 1881, at age 46, with the gift of a library to his hometown of Dunfermline, Scotland.<ref>Burlingame, Dwight (2004) ''Philanthropy in America''. ABC-CLIO. {{ISBN|978-1-57607-860-0}}. p. 60</ref>

Carnegie wrote "[[The Gospel of Wealth]]",<ref>''[[#Biography|Autobiography]]'', pp. 255–67</ref> an article in which he stated his belief that the rich should use their wealth to help enrich society. In that article, Carnegie also expressed sympathy for the ideas of [[progressive tax]]ation and an [[Estate tax in the United States|estate tax]]:

{{blockquote|The growing disposition to tax more and more heavily large estates left at death is a cheering indication of the growth of a salutary change in public opinion. The State of Pennsylvania now takes—subject to some exceptions—one-tenth of the property left by its citizens. The budget presented in the British Parliament the other day proposes to increase the death duties; and, most significant of all, the new tax is to be a graduated one. Of all forms of taxation, this seems the wisest. Men who continue hoarding great sums all their lives, the proper use of which for public ends would work good to the community from which it chiefly came, should be made to feel that the community, in the form of the State, cannot thus be deprived of its proper share. By taxing estates heavily at death the State marks its condemnation of the selfish millionaire's unworthy life.<ref>{{cite book |last=Carnegie |first=Andrew |title=The Gospel of Wealth and Other Timely Essays |publisher=[[The Century Company]] |page=11 |place=New York |year=1900}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Carnegie |first=Andrew |title=The Gospel of Wealth and Other Timely Essays |publisher=[[Harvard University Press|Belknap Press of Harvard University Press]] |pages=21–22 |place=Cambridge, Massachusetts |year=1962}}</ref>}}

The following is taken from one of Carnegie's memos to himself:

{{blockquote|Man does not live by bread alone. I have known millionaires starving for lack of the nutriment which alone can sustain all that is human in man, and I know workmen, and many so-called poor men, who revel in luxuries beyond the power of those millionaires to reach. It is the mind that makes the body rich. There is no class so pitiably wretched as that which possesses money and nothing else. Money can only be the useful drudge of things immeasurably higher than itself. Exalted beyond this, as it sometimes is, it remains [[Caliban]] still and still plays the beast. My aspirations take a higher flight. Mine be it to have contributed to the enlightenment and the joys of the mind, to the things of the spirit, to all that tends to bring into the lives of the toilers of Pittsburgh sweetness and light. I hold this the noblest possible use of wealth.<ref>{{cite web |title=Carnegie Libraries |publisher=Ontario Ministry of Tourism and Culture |url=http://www.mtc.gov.on.ca/en/libraries/carnegie_bio.shtml |access-date=4 September 2011 |archive-date=September 26, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110926185935/http://www.mtc.gov.on.ca/en/libraries/carnegie_bio.shtml |url-status=live }}</ref>}}

===Intellectual influences===
====Herbert Spencer; evolutionary thought====
Carnegie claimed to be a champion of evolutionary thought—particularly the work of [[Herbert Spencer]], even declaring Spencer his teacher.<ref>''[[#Wealth|Wealth]]'', p. 165</ref>

{{blockquote|... I came fortunately upon Darwin’s and Spencer’s works "The Data of Ethics," "First Principles," "Social Statics," "The Descent of Man." Reaching the pages which explain how man has absorbed such mental foods as were favorable to him, retaining what was salutary, rejecting what was deleterious, I remember that light came as in a flood and all was clear. Not only had I got rid of theology and the supernatural, but I had found the truth of evolution. "All is well since all grows better" became my motto, my true source of comfort. Man was not created with an instinct for his own degradation, but from the lower he had risen to the higher forms. Nor is there any conceivable end to his march to perfection. His face is turned to the light; he stands in the sun and looks upward.<ref>{{cite book |last=Carnegie |first=Andrew |authorlink= |date=1920 |title=Autobiography of Andrew Carnegie with Illustrations |url=http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/17976 |accessdate=July 4, 2014}} Chapter XXV, p339</ref>}}

However although Carnegie claimed to be a disciple of Spencer, many of his actions went against the ideas he espoused.

Spencerian evolution was for individual rights and against government interference. Furthermore, Spencerian evolution held that those unfit to sustain themselves must be allowed to perish. Spencer believed that just as there were many varieties of beetles, respectively modified to existence in a particular place in nature, so too had human society "spontaneously fallen into division of labour".<ref>Spencer, Herbert, 1855 (''The Principles of Psychology'', Chapter 1. "Method"). (Kindle Locations 7196–7197). Kindle Edition</ref> Individuals who survived to this, the latest and highest stage of evolutionary progress would be "those in whom the power of self-preservation is the greatest—are the select of their generation."<ref>Spencer, Herbert 1904. (''An Autobiography'', Chapter 23, "A More Active Year") (Kindle Location 5572). Peerless Press. Kindle Edition</ref> Moreover, Spencer perceived governmental authority as borrowed from the people to perform the transitory aims of establishing social cohesion, insurance of rights, and security.<ref>Spencer, Herbert, 1851 (''Social Statics'', Chapter 19 "The Right to Ignore the State"). (Kindle Locations 43303–43309). Kindle Edition.</ref><ref>Spencer, Herbert, 1851 (''Social Statics'', "Chapter 21 The Duty of the State"). (Kindle Locations 44159–44168). Kindle Edition.</ref> Spencerian 'survival of the fittest' firmly credits any provisions made to assist the weak, unskilled, poor and distressed to be an imprudent disservice to evolution.<ref name="ReferenceA">Spencer, Herbert, 1851 (''Social Statics'', chapter 25 "poor-laws"). (Kindle Locations 45395–45420). Kindle Edition.</ref> Spencer insisted people should resist for the benefit of collective humanity, as severe fate singles out the weak, debauched, and disabled.<ref name="ReferenceA"/>

====Laissez-faire economics====
Andrew Carnegie's political and economic focus during the late nineteenth and early twentieth century was the defense of laissez-faire economics. Carnegie emphatically resisted government intrusion in commerce, as well as government-sponsored charities. Carnegie believed the concentration of capital was essential for societal progress and should be encouraged.<ref name="ReferenceB">''[[#Wealth|Wealth]]'', pp. 947–954.</ref> Carnegie was an ardent supporter of commercial "survival of the fittest" and sought to attain immunity from business challenges by dominating all phases of the steel manufacturing procedure.<ref name="ReferenceC">[[#Nasaw|Nasaw]], pp. 4762–67</ref> Carnegie's determination to lower costs included cutting labor expenses as well.<ref>''[[#Wealth|Wealth]]'', pp. 118–21</ref> In a notably Spencerian manner, Carnegie argued that unions impeded the natural reduction of prices by pushing up costs, which blocked evolutionary progress.<ref>''[[#Wealth|Wealth]]'', pp. 1188–95.</ref> Carnegie felt that unions represented the narrow interest of the few while his actions benefited the entire community.<ref name="ReferenceC"/>

On the surface, Andrew Carnegie appears to be a strict laissez-faire capitalist and follower of [[Herbert Spencer]], often referring to himself as a disciple of Spencer.<ref name="Carnegie, Andrew pp. 163-171">''[[#Wealth|Wealth]]'', pp. 163–71</ref> Conversely, Carnegie, a titan of industry, seems to embody all of the qualities of Spencerian [[survival of the fittest]]. The two men enjoyed a mutual respect for one another and maintained a correspondence until Spencer's death in 1903.<ref name="Carnegie, Andrew pp. 163-171"/> There are, however, some major discrepancies between Spencer's capitalist evolutionary conceptions and Andrew Carnegie's capitalist practices.

====Market concentration====
Spencer wrote that in production the advantages of the superior individual are comparatively minor, and thus acceptable, yet the benefit that dominance provides those who control a large segment of production might be hazardous to competition. Spencer feared that an absence of "sympathetic self-restraint" of those with too much power could lead to the ruin of their competitors.<ref name="autogenerated1">Spencer, Herbert 1887 (''The Ethics of Social Life: Negative Beneficence''). ''The Collected Works of 6 Books'' (With Active Table of Contents) (Kindle Locations 26500–26524). Kindle Edition.</ref> He did not think free-market competition necessitated competitive warfare. Furthermore, Spencer argued that individuals with superior resources who deliberately used investment schemes to put competitors out of business were committing acts of "commercial murder".<ref name="autogenerated1"/> Carnegie built his wealth in the steel industry by maintaining an extensively integrated operating system. Carnegie also bought out some regional competitors, and merged with others, usually maintaining the majority shares in the companies. Over the course of twenty years, Carnegie's steel properties grew to include the Edgar Thomson Steel Works, the Lucy Furnace Works, the Union Iron Mills, the Homestead Works, the Keystone Bridge Works, the Hartman Steel Works, the Frick Coke Company, and the Scotia ore mines among many other industry-related assets.<ref>Morris, Charles R. (2005). ''The Tycoons: How Andrew Carnegie, John D. Rockefeller, Jay Gould, and J.P. Morgan Invented the American Supereconomy''. Times Books. {{ISBN|0-8050-7599-2}}. p. 132</ref>

Herbert Spencer absolutely was against government interference in business in the form of regulatory limitations, taxes, and tariffs as well. Spencer saw tariffs as a form of taxation that levied against the majority in service to "the benefit of a small minority of manufacturers and artisans".<ref>Spencer, Herbert. ''Principles of Ethics'', 1897 (Chapter 22: "Political Rights-So-called"). (With Active Table of Contents) (Kindle Locations 24948–24956). Kindle Edition.</ref>

Despite Carnegie's personal dedication to Herbert Spencer as a friend, his adherence to Spencer's political and economic ideas is more contentious. In particular, it appears Carnegie either misunderstood or intentionally misrepresented some of Spencer's principal arguments. Spencer remarked upon his first visit to Carnegie's steel mills in Pittsburgh, which Carnegie saw as the manifestation of Spencer's philosophy, "Six months' residence here would justify suicide."<ref>Joseph Frazer Wall, ''Andrew Carnegie'' (1989) p. 386.</ref>

{{Blockquote|The conditions of human society create for this an imperious demand; the concentration of capital is a necessity for meeting the demands of our day, and as such should not be looked at askance, but be encouraged. There is nothing detrimental to human society in it, but much that is, or is bound soon to become, beneficial. It is an evolution from the heterogeneous to the homogeneous, and is clearly another step in the upward path of development.|Carnegie, Andrew 1901 The Gospel of Wealth and Other Timely Essays<ref name="ReferenceB"/>}}

[[File:Stained-glass window of Andrew Carnegie at the former Carnegie Library, Victoria Street, St Albans, June 2023.jpg|thumb|right|Stained-glass window of Andrew Carnegie at the former Carnegie Library, St Albans, Hertfordshire]]

====Charitable institutions====
On the subject of charity Andrew Carnegie's actions diverged in the most significant and complex manner from Herbert Spencer's philosophies. In his 1854 essay "Manners and Fashion", Spencer referred to public education as "Old schemes". He went on to declare that public schools and colleges fill the heads of students with inept, useless knowledge and exclude useful knowledge. Spencer stated that he trusted no organization of any kind, "political, religious, literary, philanthropic", and believed that as they expanded in influence so too did their regulations expand. In addition, Spencer thought that as all institutions grow they become ever more corrupted by the influence of power and money. The institution eventually loses its "original spirit, and sinks into a lifeless mechanism".<ref>Spencer, Herbert. 1854 (''Manners and Fashion'') ''The Collected Works of 6 Books'' (With Active Table of Contents) (Kindle Locations 74639–74656). Kindle Edition.</ref> Spencer insisted that all forms of philanthropy that uplift the poor and downtrodden were reckless and incompetent. Spencer thought any attempt to prevent "the really salutary sufferings" of the less fortunate "bequeath to posterity a continually increasing curse".<ref>Spencer, Herbert; Eliot, Charles William (September 15, 2011). ''The Collected Works of 6 Books'' (With Active Table of Contents) (Kindle Locations 45395–45420). Kindle Edition.</ref> Carnegie, a self-proclaimed devotee of Spencer,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/carnegie-herbert-spencer/#:~:text=%22I+remember+that+light+came,my+true+source+of+comfort.%22|title=Herbert Spencer &#124; American Experience|website=www.pbs.org}}</ref> testified to Congress on February 5, 1915: "My business is to do as much good in the world as I can; I have retired from all other business."<ref>[[#Nasaw|Nasaw]], p. 787.</ref>

====Charity to enable people to develop====
Carnegie held that societal progress relied on individuals who maintained moral obligations to themselves and to society.<ref>[[#Nasaw|Nasaw]], pp. 11529–36.</ref> Furthermore, he believed that charity supplied the means for those who wish to improve themselves to achieve their goals.<ref name="autogenerated2">''[[#Wealth|Wealth]]'', pp. 747–48</ref> Carnegie urged other wealthy people to contribute to society in the form of parks, works of art, libraries and other endeavors that improve the community and contribute to the "lasting good".<ref>''[[#Wealth|Wealth]]''</ref> Carnegie also held a strong opinion against inherited wealth. Carnegie believed that the sons of prosperous businesspersons were rarely as talented as their fathers.<ref name="autogenerated2"/> By leaving large sums of money to their children, wealthy business leaders were wasting resources that could be used to benefit society. Most notably, Carnegie believed that the future leaders of society would rise from the ranks of the poor.<ref name="autogenerated3">''[[#Wealth|Wealth]]'', pp. 682–689.</ref> Carnegie strongly believed in this because he had risen from the bottom. He believed the poor possessed an advantage over the wealthy because they receive greater attention from their parents and are taught better work ethics.<ref name="autogenerated3"/>

===Religion and worldview===
Carnegie and his family belonged to the [[Presbyterian Church in the United States of America]], also known informally as the Northern Presbyterian Church. In his early life Carnegie was skeptical of [[Calvinism]], and religion as a whole, but reconciled with it later in his life. In his autobiography, Carnegie describes his family as moderate [[Presbyterian]] believers, writing that "there was not one orthodox Presbyterian" in his family; various members of his family having somewhat distanced themselves from Calvinism, some of them leaning more towards [[Swedenborgianism]]. While a child, his family led vigorous theological and political disputes. His mother avoided the topic of religion. His father left the Presbyterian church after a sermon on infant damnation, while, according to Carnegie, still remaining very religious on his own.

Witnessing sectarianism and strife in 19th century Scotland regarding religion and philosophy, Carnegie kept his distance from organized religion and theism.<ref>[[#Nasaw|Nasaw]]</ref> Carnegie instead preferred to see things through naturalistic and scientific terms stating, "Not only had I got rid of the theology and the supernatural, but I had found the truth of evolution."<ref>''[[#Biography|Autobiography]]'', p. 339</ref>

Later in life, Carnegie's firm opposition to religion softened. For many years he was a member of [[Madison Avenue Presbyterian Church]], pastored from 1905 to 1926 by [[Social Gospel]] exponent [[Henry Sloane Coffin]], while his wife and daughter belonged to the [[Brick Presbyterian Church (New York City)|Brick Presbyterian Church]].<ref>[https://www.nytimes.com/1919/04/23/archives/bagpipe-tunes-at-carnegie-wedding-charm-of-bonnie-scotland-lent-to.html "Bagpipe Tunes at Carnegie Wedding"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140326093809/http://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=FA0E13F6395C1B728DDDAA0A94DC405B898DF1D3 |date=March 26, 2014 }}. ''The New York Times''. April 23, 1919.</ref> He also prepared (but did not deliver) an address in which he professed a belief in "an Infinite and Eternal Energy from which all things proceed".<ref>[[#Nasaw|Nasaw]], p. 625</ref> Records exist of a short period of correspondence around 1912–1913 between Carnegie and [['Abdu'l-Bahá]], the eldest son of [[Bahá'u'lláh]], founder of the [[Baháʼí Faith]]. In these letters, one of which was published in ''[[The New York Times]]'' in full text,<ref>[https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1915/09/05/301813232.pdf "Carnegie exalted by Bahaist leader"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200507025855/https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1915/09/05/301813232.pdf |date=May 7, 2020 }}. ''The New York Times''. September 5, 1917.</ref> Carnegie is extolled as a "lover of the world of humanity and one of the founders of Universal Peace".

===World peace===
[[File:Stamp-andrew-carnegie.jpg|thumb|Carnegie commemorated as an industrialist, philanthropist, and founder of the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 1960<ref>"[http://arago.si.edu/flash/?tid=2027477|s1=1 Andrew Carnegie Issue] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090422214535/http://www.arago.si.edu/flash/?tid=2027477%7Cs1%3D1 |date=April 22, 2009 }}", Arago: people, postage & the post, Smithsonian National Postal Museum, viewed September 27, 2014</ref>]] 
Influenced by his "favorite living hero in public life", [[John Bright]], Carnegie started his efforts in pursuit of world peace at a young age,<ref>''[[#Biography|Autobiography]]'', Ch. 21, pp. 282–83</ref> and he supported causes that opposed [[military intervention]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.americamagazine.org/arts-culture/2017/04/06/examining-american-peace-movement-prior-world-war-i |title=Examining the American peace movement prior to World War I |date=April 6, 2017 |access-date=August 7, 2018 |archive-date=December 18, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191218195550/https://www.americamagazine.org/arts-culture/2017/04/06/examining-american-peace-movement-prior-world-war-i |url-status=live }}</ref> His motto, "All is well since all grows better", served not only as a good rationalization of his successful business career but also his view of international relations.

Despite his efforts towards international peace, Carnegie faced many dilemmas on his quest. These dilemmas are often regarded as conflicts between his view on international relations and his other loyalties. Throughout the 1880s and 1890s, for example, Carnegie allowed his steel works to fill large orders of armor plate for the building of an enlarged and modernized United States Navy, but he opposed American overseas expansion.<ref>Carnegie, ''An American Four-in-Hand in Britain'' (New York, 1883), pp. 14–15.</ref>

Despite that, Carnegie served as a major donor for the newly established [[International Court of Arbitration]]'s [[Peace Palace]]—brainchild of Russian tsar [[Nicholas II of Russia|Nicholas II]].<ref name="MoscowTimes">{{cite web |last1=Gay |first1=Mark H |title=The Hague Peace Palace Keeps Tsar's Vision Alive |url=http://old.themoscowtimes.com/guides/eng/russia--holland-2013/488749/the-hague-peace-palace-keeps-tsars-vision-alive/508994.html |website=The Moscow Times |access-date=August 8, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160808232924/http://old.themoscowtimes.com/guides/eng/russia--holland-2013/488749/the-hague-peace-palace-keeps-tsars-vision-alive/508994.html |archive-date=August 8, 2016 |date=November 10, 2013}}</ref>

[[File:Carnegie_Endowment_for_International_Peace_-_Dupont_Circle.JPG|thumb|left|upright=0.9|The Washington, D.C. headquarters of the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace]]
His largest and, in the long run, most influential peace organization was the [[Carnegie Endowment for International Peace]], formed in 1910 with a $10 million endowment.<ref>David S. Patterson,"Andrew Carnegie's quest for world peace." ''Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society'' 114.5 (1970): 371–383. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/985802 online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181007145424/https://www.jstor.org/stable/985802 |date=October 7, 2018 }}</ref> In 1913, at the dedication of the Peace Palace in The Hague, Carnegie predicted that the end of the war was ''as certain to come, and come soon, as day follows night.''<ref>Cited in Bruno Tertrais "The Demise of Ares: The End of War as We Know It?" ''The Washington Quarterly'', 35/3, (2012): p. 17.
</ref>

In 1914, on the eve of the First World War, Carnegie founded the Church Peace Union (CPU), a group of leaders in religion, academia, and politics. Through the CPU, Carnegie hoped to mobilize the world's churches, religious organizations, and other spiritual and moral resources to join in promoting moral leadership to put an end to war forever. For its inaugural international event, the CPU sponsored a conference to be held on August 1, 1914, on the shores of Lake Constance in southern Germany. As the delegates made their way to the conference by train, Germany was invading Belgium.

Despite its inauspicious beginning, the CPU thrived. Today its focus is on ethics, and it is known as the [[Carnegie Council for Ethics in International Affairs]], an independent, nonpartisan, nonprofit organization, whose mission is to be the voice for ethics in international affairs.

The outbreak of the First World War was clearly a shock to Carnegie and his optimistic view on world peace. Although his promotion of [[anti-imperialism]] and world peace had all failed, and the Carnegie Endowment had not fulfilled his expectations, his beliefs and ideas on international relations had helped build the foundation of the [[League of Nations]] after his death, which took world peace to another level.

===United States colonial expansion===
On the matter of [[American imperialism|American colonial expansion]], Carnegie had always thought it is an unwise gesture for the United States. He did not oppose the [[Newlands Resolution|annexation of the Hawaiian islands]] or [[Puerto Rico]], but he opposed the [[Philippine–American War|annexation of the Philippines]]. Carnegie believed that it involved a denial of the fundamental democratic principle, and he also urged [[William McKinley]] to withdraw American troops and allow the Filipinos to live with their independence.<ref>Carnegie, ''Americanism Versus Imperialism'', esp. pp. 12–13</ref> This act strongly impressed the other American anti-imperialists, who soon elected him vice-president of the Anti-Imperialist League.

After he sold his steel company in 1901, Carnegie was able to get fully involved in the peace cause, both financially and personally. He gave away much of his fortunes to various peacekeeping agencies in order to keep them growing. When a friend, the British writer [[William T. Stead]], asked him to create a new organization for the goal of a peace and arbitration society, his reply was:

{{blockquote|I do not see that it is wise to devote our efforts to creating another organization. Of course I may be wrong in believing that, but I am certainly not wrong that if it were dependent on any millionaire's money it would begin as an object of pity and end as one of derision. I wonder that you do not see this. There is nothing that robs a righteous cause of its strength more than a millionaire's money. Its life is tainted thereby.<ref>Quoted in Hendrick, B. J. (1932) ''The Life of Andrew Carnegie'', Vol.2, p. 337. Garden City, NY [https://books.google.com/books?id=qEwLAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA376]</ref>}}

Carnegie believed that it is the effort and will of the people, that maintains the peace in international relations. Money is just a push for the act. If world peace depended solely on financial support, it would not seem a goal, but more like an act of pity.

Like Stead, he believed that the United States and the [[British Empire]] would merge into one nation, telling him "We are heading straight to the Re-United States". Carnegie believed that the combined country's power would maintain world peace and disarmament.<ref name="stead1901">{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/stream/americanizationo01stea#page/406/mode/2up |title=The Americanization of the World |publisher=Horace Markley |author=Stead, W.T. |year=1901 |pages=406–12}}</ref> The creation of the [[Carnegie Endowment for International Peace]] in 1910 was regarded as a milestone on the road to the ultimate goal of abolition of war. Beyond a gift of $10 million for peace promotion, Carnegie also encouraged the "scientific" investigation of the various causes of war, and the adoption of judicial methods that should eventually eliminate them. He believed that the Endowment exists to promote information on the nations' rights and responsibilities under existing international law and to encourage other conferences to codify this law.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Patterson, David S. |title=Andrew Carnegie's Quest for World Peace|journal=Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society |volume=114 |issue=5 |year=1970 |pages=371–83 |jstor=985802}}</ref>

==Legacy and honors==
[[File:Andrew Carnegie's statue, Dunfermline.jpg|thumb|Carnegie statue, [[Dunfermline]]]]

In 1899, Andrew Carnegie was awarded [[American Library Association Honorary Membership]].

Carnegie received the honorary [[Legum Doctor|Doctor of Laws]] (DLL) from the [[University of Glasgow]] in June 1901,<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-times-glasgow-university-jubilee/131294008/ |date=June 14, 1901 |title=Glasgow University Jubilee |page=10 |newspaper=[[The Times]] |publication-place=London |issue=36481 |access-date=January 5, 2024 |via=Newspapers.com}}</ref> and received the [[Freedom of the City]] of [[Glasgow]] "in recognition of his munificence" later the same year.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-times-court-circular/138126316/ |newspaper=[[The Times]] |publication-place=London |title=Court circular |date=August 13, 1901 |page=7 |issue=36532 |access-date=January 5, 2024 |via=Newspapers.com}}</ref>

[[File:Andrew Carnegie in National Portrait Gallery IMG 4441.JPG|upright|thumb|Carnegie as he appears in the [[National Portrait Gallery (United States)|National Portrait Gallery]] in Washington, D.C.]]

In July 1902, he received the Freedom of the city of [[St Andrews]], "in testimony of his great zeal for the welfare of his fellow-men on both sides of the Atlantic",<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-times-the-freedom-of-st-andrews/138125857/ |newspaper=[[The Times]] |publication-place=London |title=The Freedom of St. Andrews |date=July 19, 1902 |page=14 |issue=36824 |access-date=January 5, 2024 |via=Newspapers.com}}</ref> and in October 1902 the Freedom of the City of [[Perth, Scotland|Perth]] "in testimony of his high personal worth and beneficial influence, and in recognition of widespread benefactions bestowed on this and other lands, and especially in gratitude for the endowment granted by him for the promotion of University education in Scotland."<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-times-mr-carnegie-at-perth/138126419/ |newspaper=[[The Times]] |publication-place=London |title=Mr. Carnegie at Perth |date=October 9, 1902 |page=4 |issue=36894 |access-date=January 5, 2024 |via=Newspapers.com}}</ref> and the Freedom of the City of [[Dundee]].<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-times-mr-carnegie-at-dundee/138126538/ |newspaper=[[The Times]] |publication-place=London |title=Mr. Carnegie at Dundee |date=October 27, 1902 |page=2 |issue=36909 |access-date=January 5, 2024 |via=Newspapers.com}}</ref> Also in 1902, he was elected as a member to the [[American Philosophical Society]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=APS Member History|url=https://search.amphilsoc.org/memhist/search?year=1902;smode=advanced;startDoc=1|access-date=May 19, 2021|website=search.amphilsoc.org|archive-date=May 19, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210519184242/https://search.amphilsoc.org/memhist/search?year=1902;smode=advanced;startDoc=1|url-status=live}}</ref>

He received an honorary Doctor of Laws (LLD) from the [[University of Aberdeen]] in 1906.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.abdn.ac.uk/special-collections/the-quatercentenary-celebrations-1906-424.php|title=Quatercentenary Celebrations|access-date=April 17, 2020|archive-date=July 26, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200726025535/https://www.abdn.ac.uk/special-collections/the-quatercentenary-celebrations-1906-424.php|url-status=live}}</ref> In 1910, he received the [[Freedom of the City of Belfast]]<ref>{{cite news |title=Mr. Carnegie Will Receive Freedom of Belfast |date=September 26, 1910 |access-date=August 4, 2014 |work=[[Evening Telegraph (Dundee)]] |publisher = [[British Newspaper Archive]] |url=http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000563/19100926/031/0002 |url-access=subscription }}</ref> and was made as well Commander of the [[National Order of the Legion of Honour]] by the French government.<ref>[http://digitalcollections.powerlibrary.org/cdm/singleitem/collection/acamu-acarc/id/678/rec/3 Certificate of membership, Commander of the Order of Legion of Honor, 19th March, 1910] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211212113642/http://digitalcollections.powerlibrary.org/cdm/singleitem/collection/acamu-acarc/id/678/rec/3 |date=December 12, 2021 }} – online portal [[Pennsylvania Department of Education#Power Library|Power_Library]]</ref> Carnegie was awarded as Knight Grand Cross of the [[Order of Orange-Nassau]] by Queen [[Wilhelmina of the Netherlands]] on August 25, 1913.<ref>[http://digitalcollections.powerlibrary.org/cdm/compoundobject/collection/acamu-acarc/id/512/rec/10 Diploma conferring on Mr. Carnegie the rank of Knight (Grand Cross) in the Order of Orange Nassau, The Hague-- 25th August, 1913] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211212113641/http://digitalcollections.powerlibrary.org/cdm/compoundobject/collection/acamu-acarc/id/512/rec/10 |date=December 12, 2021 }} – online portal [[Pennsylvania Department of Education#Power Library|Power_Library]]</ref> Carnegie received July 1, 1914, an [[honorary doctorate]] from the [[University of Groningen]] the Netherlands.<ref>Jaarboek der Rijksuniversiteit te Groningen. 1913–1914. Promotiën Faculteit der Rechtgeleerdheid. Honoris Causa. Staatswetenschappen. 1914, 1 Juli, p. 91.</ref>

[[File:CM Diplodocus.jpg|thumb|Mounted ''D. carnegii'' (or "[[Dippy]]") skeleton at the [[Carnegie Museum of Natural History]]; considered the most famous single dinosaur skeleton in the world]]
*The dinosaur ''[[Diplodocus carnegiei]]'' (Hatcher) was named for Carnegie after he sponsored the expedition that discovered its remains in the [[Morrison Formation]] ([[Jurassic]]) of [[Utah]]. Carnegie was so proud of "Dippy" that he had casts made of the bones and plaster replicas of the whole skeleton donated to several museums in Europe and South America. The original fossil skeleton is assembled and stands in the Hall of Dinosaurs at the [[Carnegie Museum of Natural History]] in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.
*After the [[Spanish–American War]], Carnegie offered to donate $20 million to the Philippines so they could buy their independence.
*[[Carnegie, Pennsylvania]],<ref>{{cite news |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=a4NIAAAAIBAJ&pg=2443%2C2320121 |title=Town names carry bit of history |work=Pittsburgh Post-Gazette |date=May 10, 1984 |access-date=October 31, 2015 |author=Ackerman, Jan |pages=1 |archive-date=February 4, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210204132543/https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=a4NIAAAAIBAJ&pg=2443%2C2320121 |url-status=live }}</ref> and [[Carnegie, Oklahoma]], were named in his honor.
*The [[Saguaro]] cactus's scientific name, ''[[Carnegiea gigantea]]'', is named after him.
*The [[Carnegie Medal (literary award)|Carnegie Medal]] for the best children's literature published in the UK was established in his name.
*The Carnegie Faculty of Sport and Education, at [[Leeds Beckett University]], UK, is named after him.
*The concert halls in [[Dunfermline]] and New York are named after him.
*At the height of his career, Carnegie was the second-richest person in the world, behind only [[John D. Rockefeller]] of [[Standard Oil]].
*[[Carnegie Mellon University]] in Pittsburgh was named after Carnegie, who founded the institution as the Carnegie Technical Schools.[[File:CVHSFourthWard.JPG|thumb|[[Carnegie Vanguard High School]]]]
*Lauder College (named after his uncle [[George Lauder Sr.]]) in the [[Halbeath]] area of Dunfermline was renamed [[Carnegie College]] in 2007.
*A street in [[Belgrade]] ([[Serbia]]), next to the [[Belgrade University Library]] which is one of the [[Carnegie library|Carnegie libraries]], is named in his honor.
*An American high school, [[Carnegie Vanguard High School]] in [[Houston]], Texas, is named after him<ref name="SchoolHistoriesHoustonISD">"[https://web.archive.org/web/20110710153727/http://www.houstonisd.org/HISDConnectDS/v/index.jsp?vgnextoid=0afe09c28afc3110VgnVCM10000028147fa6RCRD&vgnextchannel=2e2b2f796138c010VgnVCM10000052147fa6RCRD School Histories: the Stories Behind the Names]". [[Houston Independent School District]]. Retrieved September 24, 2008. "It is named for Andrew Carnegie, the famous Scottish immigrant who rose to become a steel tycoon and philanthropist."</ref>
*Carnegie was awarded the Freedom of the Burgh of [[Kilmarnock]] in Scotland in 1903, prior to laying the foundation stone of Loanhead Public School.<ref>{{Citation|last=White|first=Colin|title='His dirge our groans—his monument our praise': Official and Popular Commemoration of Nelson in 1805–6|date=June 14, 2007|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.5871/bacad/9780197264065.003.0003|work=History, Commemoration and National Preoccupation|publisher=British Academy|doi=10.5871/bacad/9780197264065.003.0003|isbn=978-0-19-726406-5|access-date=August 10, 2021|url-access=subscription}}</ref>

===Benefactions===
[[File:Andrew_Carnegie,_1835-1919,_full,_standing,_wearing_kilt,_throwing_money_in_air_LCCN2005696202.jpg|thumb|upright=0.9|Andrew Carnegie's cartoon throwing money in air, ''Life'', 1905]]
According to biographer [[Burton J. Hendrick]]:
:His benefactions amounted to $350,000,000—for he gave away not only his annual income of something more than $12,500,000, but most of the principal as well. Of this sum, $62,000,000 was allotted to the British Empire and $288,000,000 to the United States, for Carnegie, in the main, confined his benefactions to the English-speaking nations. His largest gifts were $125,000,000 to the Carnegie Corporation of New York (this same body also became his residuary legatee), $60,000,000 to public library buildings, $20,000,000 to colleges (usually the smaller ones), $6,000,000 to church organs, $29,000,000 to the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, $22,000,000 to the Carnegie Institute of Pittsburgh, $22,000,000 to the Carnegie Institution of Washington, $10,000,000 to Hero Funds, $10,000,000 to the Endowment for International Peace, $10,000,000 to the Scottish Universities Trust, $10,000,000 to the United Kingdom Trust, and $3,750,000 to the Dunfermline Trust.<ref>Burton J. Hendrick, "Carnegie, Andrew, 1835–1919" ''Dictionary of American Biography'' (1929) v. 3 p. 505.</ref>

Hendrick argues that:

:These gifts fairly picture Carnegie's conception of the best ways to improve the status of the common man. They represent all his personal tastes—his love of books, art, music, and nature—and the reforms which he regarded as most essential to human progress—scientific research, education both literary and technical, and, above all, the abolition of war. The expenditure the public most associates with Carnegie's name is that for public libraries. Carnegie himself frequently said that his favorite benefaction was the Hero Fund—among other reasons, because "it came up my ain back"; but probably deep in his own mind his library gifts took precedence over all others in importance. There was only one genuine remedy, he believed, for the ills that beset the human race, and that was enlightenment. "Let there be light" was the motto that, in the early days, he insisted on placing in all his library buildings. As to the greatest endowment of all, the Carnegie Corporation, that was merely Andrew Carnegie in permanently organized form; it was established to carry on, after Carnegie's death, the work to which he had given personal attention in his own lifetime.<ref>Hendrick, "Carnegie, Andrew, 1835–1919"</ref>

===Research sources===
Carnegie's personal papers are at the [[Library of Congress]] Manuscript Division.
The Carnegie Collections of the Columbia University Rare Book and Manuscript Library consist of the archives of the following organizations founded by Carnegie: The [[Carnegie Corporation of New York]] (CCNY); The [[Carnegie Endowment for International Peace]] (CEIP); the [[Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching]] (CFAT);The Carnegie Council on Ethics and International Affairs (CCEIA). These collections deal primarily with Carnegie philanthropy and have very little personal material related to Carnegie. [[Carnegie Mellon University]] and the [[Carnegie Library of Pittsburgh]] jointly administer the Andrew Carnegie Collection of digitized archives on Carnegie's life.

===Moral appraisal===
[[File:Andrew Carnegie, April 1905.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|April 1905]]

By the standards of 19th-century tycoons, Carnegie was not a particularly ruthless man but a humanitarian with enough acquisitiveness to go in the ruthless pursuit of money.<ref>Krause, Paul (1992). ''The Battle for Homestead 1880–1892''. University of Pittsburgh Press. {{ISBN|978-0-8229-5466-8}}. p. 233.</ref> "Maybe with the giving away of his money," commented biographer [[Joseph Frazier Wall|Joseph Wall]], "he would justify what he had done to get that money."<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20000901220315/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/carnegie/filmmore/description.html "Andrew Carnegie"] (). ''[[The American Experience]]''. PBS.</ref>

Historian Richard White makes a similar appraisal, writing that "In disposing of his wealth, Carnegie also sought to justify the existing social order."<ref name=":2" />{{Reference page|page=671}}

{{Blockquote|text=Procuring such wealth reduced ordinary people to conditions of dependence and made life worse for the vast majority of Americans. Carnegie had two tasks. First, he had to justify these fortunes as the deserved rewards of those who ranked among [[Herbert Spencer|Spencer]]'s fit, and second, he had to show that they benefited society at large by providing a road to improvement and independence.}}

To some, Carnegie represents the idea of the American dream. He was an immigrant from Scotland who came to America and became successful. He is not only known for his successes but his huge amounts of philanthropic works, not only for charities but also to promote democracy and independence to colonized countries.<ref>Swetnam, George (1980). ''Andrew Carnegie''. Twayne Publishers. {{ISBN|0805772391}}.</ref>

== In popular culture ==

* Carnegie's career is highlighted in the [[History Channel]]'s [[miniseries]] [[docudrama]] ''[[The Men Who Built America]]''.<ref>{{cite web |date=October 16, 2012 |title=The Men Who Built America (TV Mini Series) |url=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt2167393/ |access-date=December 7, 2025 |publisher=IMDB}}</ref>

== Works ==
Carnegie was a frequent contributor to periodicals on labor issues.

<!--chronological list of works by Carnegie himself-->
'''Books'''
* ''Our Coaching Trip, Brighton to Inverness'' (1882).
* ''An American Four-in-hand in Britain'' (1883).
* [[Iarchive:roundworld00carn|''Round the World'']]. New York: [[Charles Scribner's Sons]] (1884).
* [[Iarchive:anamericanfouri02carngoog|''An American Four-in-Hand in Britain'']]. New York: [[Charles Scribner's Sons]] (1886).
* [[Iarchive:triumphantdemocr00carn|''Triumphant Democracy, or, Fifty Years' March of the Republic'']]. New York: [[Charles Scribner's Sons]] (1886).
* ''[[The Gospel of Wealth]]'' (1889).
* [https://archive.org/download/gospelofwealthot00carnuoft/gospelofwealthot00carnuoft.pdf ''The Gospel of Wealth and Other Timely Essays''.] New York: [[The Century Co.]] (1901).
* ''[[The Empire of Business]]'' (1902).
** [https://librivox.org/the-empire-of-business-by-andrew-carnegie/ Audiobook] via [[LibriVox]].
* ''The Secret of Business is the Management of Men'' (1903).<ref>Hellenic American Center of the Arts (February 23, 2015). [https://archive.today/20221023224217/http://hellenicamericancenterofthearts.blogspot.com/2015/02/andrew-carnegie.html "Andrew Carnegie."]</ref>
* [[Iarchive:jameswatt00carngoog|''James Watt'']] ([[List of books for the "Famous Scots Series"|Famous Scots Series]]). New York: [[Doubleday (publisher)|Doubleday, Page and Co.]] (1905).
* [https://archive.org/download/problemsoftodayw00carnuoft/problemsoftodayw00carnuoft.pdf ''Problems of Today: Wealth–Labor–Socialism''.] New York: [[Doubleday (publisher)|Doubleday, Page and Co.]] (1907).
* [[Iarchive:autobiography00carnuoft|''Autobiography of Andrew Carnegie'']] ([[Posthumous publication|posthumous]]). Boston: [[Houghton Mifflin]] (1920).
** [https://librivox.org/autobiography-of-andrew-carnegie-by-andrew-carnegie/ Audiobook] via [[Librivox]].

'''Articles'''
* [[Iarchive:8906CarnegieWealth|"Wealth"]]. ''[[North American Review]]'', vol. 148, no. 381 (Jun. 1889), pp.&nbsp;653–64. Original version of ''[[The Gospel of Wealth]]''.
* [[Iarchive:bugaboooftrusts00carnrich|"The Bugaboo of Trusts"]]. ''[[North American Review]]'', vol. 148, no. 377 (Feb. 1889).

'''Pamphlets'''
* [[Iarchive:bugaboooftrusts00carnrich|''The Bugaboo of Trusts'']]. Reprinted from ''[[North American Review]]'', vol. 148, no. 377 (Feb. 1889).

'''Public speaking'''
* [[Iarchive:industrialpeace00carn|''Industrial Peace: Address at the Annual Dinner of the National Civic Federation, New York City, December 15, 1904'']]. [n.c.]: [[National Civic Federation]] (1904).
* [[Iarchive:edwinmstantona00carn|''Edwin M. Stanton: An Address by Andrew Carnegie on Stanton Memorial Day at Kenyon College'']]. New York: [[Doubleday (publisher)|Doubleday, Page and Co.]] (1906).
* [[Iarchive:negroinamerica00carnrich|''The Negro in America: An Address Delivered Before the Philosophical Institution of Edinburg, October 16, 1907'']]. Inverness: R. Carruthers & Sons, Courier Office (1907).
* [[Iarchive:speechatannualme00carn|''Speech at the Annual Meeting of the Peace Society, at the Guildhall, London, EC, May 24, 1910'']]. London: The Peace Society (1910).
* [[Iarchive:leagueofpeacere00carn|''A League of Peace: A Rectorial Address Delivered to the Students in the University of St. Andrews, October 17, 1905'']]. New York: [[New York Peace Society]] (1911).

'''Collected works'''
* [[Joseph Frazier Wall|Wall, Joseph Frazier]], ed. [[Iarchive:andrewcarnegiere00carn|''The Andrew Carnegie Reader'']] (1992).

==See also==
{{Portal|Biography|Business and economics|Pennsylvania|Scotland|Trains}}
* [[Carnegie (disambiguation)]]
* [[Commemoration of the American Civil War on postage stamps]]
* [[History of public library advocacy]]
* [[List of Carnegie libraries in the United States]]
* [[List of peace activists]]
* [[List of richest Americans in history]]
* [[List of colleges and universities named after people]]

== Notes ==
{{Notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

===Bibliography===
* {{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Carnegie, Andrew|volume=5|pages=364–365}}
* {{Cite book |first=Laura Bufano |last=Edge |date=2004 |title=Andrew Carnegie: Industrial Philanthropist |publisher=Lerner Publishing Group |isbn=978-0-8225-4965-9 |oclc=760059951 |url=https://archive.org/details/andrewcarnegie00edge }}
* {{Cite CAB|wstitle=Carnegie, Andrew |last= Homans |first= James E. |author-link= |page= |short=}}
* {{Cite book |ref=MacKay |author=MacKay, J. A. |year=1997 |title=Little Boss: A life of Andrew Carnegie |publisher=Mainstream |isbn=978-1851588329}}
* {{Cite book |ref=Nasaw |title=Andrew Carnegie |url=https://archive.org/details/andrewcarnegie00nasa |url-access=registration |last=Nasaw |first=David |year=2006 |publisher=The Penguin Press |location=New York |isbn=978-1-59420-104-2}}
** Ernsberger, Richard Jr. (October 2018). "A Fool for Peace". ''American History'', Vol. 53, Issue 4. Interview with Nasaw.
* [[Joseph Frazier Wall|Wall, Joseph Frazier]] (1989). [[Iarchive:andrewcarnegie00wall|''Andrew Carnegie'']]. {{ISBN|0822959046}}. Along with Nasaw the most detailed scholarly biography.
* {{Cite book |last=Winkler |first=John K. |date=2006 |title=Incredible Carnegie |publisher=Read Books |isbn=978-1-4067-2946-7 }}

'''Collections'''
* {{Internet Archive author |sname=Andrew Carnegie}}
* {{Gutenberg author | id=2029| name=Andrew Carnegie}}
* {{Librivox author |id=2692}}

==Further reading==
* Bostaph, Samuel (2015). ''Andrew Carnegie: An Economic Biography.'' Lanham, MD: [[Lexington Books]]. {{ISBN|978-0739189832}}. 125pp [http://eh.net/?s=bostaph online review]
* Ernsberger, Richard Jr. (February 2015). "Robber Baron Turned Robin Hood". ''American History''. 49#6 pp.&nbsp;32–41, cover story.
* Farrah, Margaret Ann. ''Andrew Carnegie: A Psychohistorical Sketch'' (PhD dissertation, Carnegie Mellon University; ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, 1982. 8209384).
* Goldin, Milton (1997). "Andrew Carnegie and the Robber Baron Myth". In: ''Myth America: A Historical Anthology, Volume II''. Gerster, Patrick, and Cords, Nicholas, eds. St. James, NY: Brandywine Press {{ISBN|1881089975}}.
* Harvey, Charles, et al. ''Andrew Carnegie and the foundations of contemporary entrepreneurial philanthropy.'' ''Business History'' (2011) 53#3 pp.&nbsp;425–450.
* Hendrick, Burton Jesse (1933). ''The Life of Andrew Carnegie'' (2 vol.). [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.155770 Vol. 2 online].
* Josephson, Matthew (1938). ''The Robber Barons: The Great American Capitalists, 1861–1901''. {{ISBN|9991847995}}.
* Krass, Peter (2002). ''Carnegie''. Wiley. {{ISBN|0471386308}}. Scholarly biography.
* {{cite book|author=Lagemann, Ellen Condliffe |title=The Politics of Knowledge: The Carnegie Corporation, Philanthropy, and Public Policy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=s0AalQle34cC&pg=PA17|year=1992|publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]]|isbn=978-0226467801}}
* Lester, Robert M. (1941). ''Forty Years of Carnegie Giving: A Summary of the Benefactions of Andrew Carnegie and of the Work of the Philanthropic Trusts Which He Created''. New York: [[Charles Scribner's Sons]].
* Livesay, Harold C. (1999). [[Iarchive:andrewcarnegieri00live|''Andrew Carnegie and the Rise of Big Business'', 2nd ed.]] {{ISBN|0321432878}}. Short biography by a scholar.
* {{cite journal |author=Lorenzen, Michael. |year=1999 |title=Deconstructing the Carnegie Libraries: The Sociological Reasons Behind Carnegie's Millions to Public Libraries |journal=Illinois Libraries |volume=81 |issue=2|pages=75–78}}
* McGormick, Blaine, and Burton W. Folsom Jr. "Survey of Business Historians on America's Greatest Entrepreneurs." ''Business History Review'' (2003), 77#4, pp.&nbsp;703–716. Carnegie ranks #3 behind Ford and Rockefeller.
* Patterson, David S. (1970). "Andrew Carnegie's Quest for World Peace." ''[[Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society]]'' 114#5 (1970): 371–383. {{JSTOR|985802}}.
* Rees, Jonathan. (1997). "Homestead in Context: Andrew Carnegie and the Decline of the Amalgamated Association of Iron and Steel Workers." ''Pennsylvania History'' '''64'''(4): 509–533. {{ISSN|0031-4528}}.
* Skrabec, Quentin R. Jr. ''Henry Clay Frick: The life of the perfect capitalist'' (McFarland, 2010). [https://books.google.com/books?id=ICOfBQAAQBAJ&dq=Quentin+R.+Skrabec+lauder++&pg=PP1 online]
* Skrabec, Quentin R. Jr. ''The Carnegie Boys: The Lieutenants of Andrew Carnegie that Changed America'' (McFarland, 2012) [https://books.google.com/books?id=Ckgc1qJfzCQC&dq=Quentin+R.+Skrabec+lauder++&pg=PP1 online].
* VanSlyck, Abigail A. (1991). "'The Utmost Amount of Effective Accommodation': Andrew Carnegie and the Reform of the American Library." ''[[Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians]]''. '''50'''(4): 359–383. {{ISSN|0037-9808}}.
* Zimmerman, Jonathan. "Simplified Spelling and the Cult of Efficiency in the 'Progressiv' Era." ''Journal of the Gilded Age & Progressive Era'' (2010) 9#3 pp.&nbsp;365–394.

==External links==
{{wikisource|works=or}}
{{Commons}}
{{Wikiquote|Andrew Carnegie}}
* [https://vimeo.com/ondemand/andrewcarnegie Documentary: "Andrew Carnegie: Rags to Riches, Power to Peace"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190406140338/https://vimeo.com/ondemand/andrewcarnegie |date=April 6, 2019 }}
* [http://www.carnegiebirthplace.com/ Carnegie Birthplace Museum website]
* {{UK National Archives ID}}
* {{Internet Archive author|sname=Andrew Carnegie}}
* {{librivox author | id=2692}}
* [https://www.c-span.org/video/?173040-1/carnegie ''Booknotes'' interview with Peter Krass on ''Carnegie'', November 24, 2002.]
* {{PM20|FID=pe/002999}}
* [https://www.citydeskpublishing.com/andrew-carnegie-on-prosperity-tax-and-poverty.html Marguerite Martyn, "Andrew Carnegie on Prosperity, Income Tax, and the Blessings of Poverty," May 1, 1914, City Desk Publishing]

{{s-start}}
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{{s-bef|before=[[James Stuart (1843–1913)|James Stuart]]}} 
{{s-ttl|title=[[Rector of the University of St Andrews]]|years=1901–1907}} 
{{s-aft|after=[[John Lubbock, 1st Baron Avebury|The Lord Avebury]]}}
{{s-bef|before=[[H. H. Asquith|Herbert Henry Asquith]]}} 
{{s-ttl|title=[[Rector of the University of Aberdeen]]|years=1911–1914}} 
{{s-aft|after=[[Winston Churchill]]}}
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{{Carnegie Mellon}}
{{Hall of Fame for Great Americans}}
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