View source for Ancient Greece and wine

{{short description|Wine in Ancient Greece}}
[[File:Location greek ancient.svg|250px|right|thumb|Greek influence in the 6th century BC]]
{{Special characters}}

The influence of [[wine]] in [[ancient Greece]] helped ancient Greece trade with neighboring countries and regions. Many mannerisms and cultural aspects were associated with wine. It led to great change in Ancient Greece as well. 
{{cquote|The peoples of the [[Mediterranean]] began to emerge from [[Barbarian|barbarism]] when they learned to cultivate the [[olive]] and the [[vine]].<ref name="Johnson pp. 35–46">H. Johnson ''Vintage: The Story of Wine'', pp. 35–46 Simon and Schuster 1989 {{ISBN|0-671-68702-6}}</ref>}}

The ancient Greeks pioneered new methods of [[viticulture]] and [[winemaking|wine production]] that they shared with early winemaking communities in what are now [[French wine|France]], [[Italian wine|Italy]], [[Austrian wine|Austria]] and [[Russian wine|Russia]], as well as others, through [[Economy of ancient Greece|trade]] and [[Colonies in antiquity|colonization]]. Along the way, they markedly influenced the ancient European winemaking cultures of the [[Celt]]s, [[Etruscan civilization|Etruscans]], [[Scythians]] and ultimately the [[Ancient Rome|Romans]].<ref name="Oxford pp. 326–329">J. Robinson (ed) ''"The Oxford Companion to Wine"'' Third Edition  pp. 326–329 Oxford University Press 2006 {{ISBN|0-19-860990-6}}</ref>

==Origins==
[[File:Mycenaean gold goblet BM 820.jpg|left|thumb|A golden goblet from the Mycenaean period.]]  
Viticulture has existed in Greece since the late [[Neolithic]] period, with domestic cultivation becoming widespread by the early [[Bronze Age]]. Through trade with [[ancient Egypt]], the [[Minoan civilization]] on [[Crete]] was introduced to Egyptian winemaking methods, an influence most likely imparted to [[Mycenaean Greece]].<ref name="Oxford pp. 326–329"/> The [[Minoan palaces]] had their associated vineyards, as Spyridon Marinatos demonstrated in excavations just south of the palace site at [[Archanes]], and the Minoan equivalent of a ''[[villa rustica]]'' devoted to wine production was unearthed at Kato Zakros in 1961.<ref>Noted in Karl Kerenyi, ''Dionysos: Archetypal image of indestructible life'' 1976:56 notes 15, 16.</ref>

In [[Minoan culture]] of the mid-second millennium BC, wine and the [[sacred bull]] were linked in the form of the horn-shaped drinking cups called ''[[Rhyton|rhyta]]''; the name of Oinops (Greek: {{lang|grc|οἶνοψ}}, "wine-colored")<ref>{{LSJ|oi){{=}}noy|οἶνοψ|ref}}.</ref> is twice attested in [[Linear B]]<ref>The attested [[Mycenaean Greek]] Linear B forms of the word are {{lang|gmy|𐀺𐀜𐀦𐀰}}, ''wo-no-qo-so'', and {{lang|gmy|𐀺𐀜𐀦𐀰𐀤}}, ''wo-no-qo-so-qe'', found respectively, on the [[Knossos|KN]] Ch 1015 and KN Ch 897 tablets.{{citation needed|date=June 2016}}</ref> tablets at [[Knossos]]<ref>Michael Ventris and John Chadwick, ''Documents in Mycenaean Greek'' 1959:130</ref> and repeated twice in Homer.<ref>''Iliad'' XIII.703; ''Odyssey'' XIII.32 ("his brace of wine-dark oxen")</ref>  Along with olives and [[grain]], grapes were an important [[agriculture|agricultural]] [[crop]] vital to sustenance and community development; the [[ancient Greek calendar]] followed the course of the vintner's year.{{Cn|date=August 2021}}

One of the earliest known [[history of wine presses|wine presses]] was discovered in [[Palekastro]] in Crete, from which island the Mycenaeans are believed to have spread viticulture to others in the [[Aegean Sea]] and quite possibly to mainland Greece.<ref name="Phillips pp. 29–34">R. Phillips ''A Short History of Wine'', pp. 29–34 Harper Collins 2000 {{ISBN|0-06-621282-0}}</ref>

In the Mycenaean period, wine took on greater cultural, religious and economic importance. Records inscribed on tablets in [[Linear B]] include details of wine, vineyards and wine merchants, as well as an early allusion to [[Dionysus]], the [[Greek mythology|Greek god]] of wine. Greeks embedded the arrival of winemaking culture in the mythologies of Dionysus and the cultural hero [[Aristaeus]].<ref>Wine also plays a leading role in the myths of [[Ikarios]]/[[Semachos]], who welcomed the god and his gift, and of [[Amphitryon]], who taught the civilized technique of mixing wine and water, the lack of which aroused the [[centaur]]s and resulted in the [[Centauromachy|conflict of Lapiths and centaurs]].</ref>

Early remnants of [[amphora]]s show that the Mycenaeans actively traded wine throughout the [[ancient world]] in places such as [[Cyprus]], [[Egypt]], [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]], [[Sicily]] and southern [[Italy]].<ref name="Oxford pp. 326–329"/>

==Colonization and trade==
[[File:Chatillon-sur-Seine - Musée du Pays chatillonnais - Cratère de Vix - 012 (cropped).jpg|right|thumb|The Vix Krater]] 
As the Greek city-states established colonies throughout the Mediterranean, the settlers brought grapevines with them and were active in cultivating the wild vines they encountered. Sicily and southern Italy formed some of the earliest colonies, as they were areas already home to an abundance of grapevines. The Greeks called the southern part of the [[Italian Peninsula]] Oenotria ("land of vines"). Settlements in [[Marseille|Massalia]] in southern France and along the shores of the [[Black Sea]] soon followed, with the expectation that not only would colonial wine production supply domestic needs, but also create trading opportunities to meet the demand of the nearby city-states.{{Cn|date=August 2021}}

[[Athens]] itself provided a large and lucrative market for wine, with significant vineyard estates forming in the [[Attica]]n region and on the island of [[Thasos]] to help satisfy demand.<ref name="Oxford pp. 326–329"/> Wine historians have theorized that the Greeks may have introduced viticulture to [[Spanish wine|Spain]] and [[Portuguese wine|Portugal]], but competing theories suggest that the [[Phoenicians]] probably reached those areas first.<ref name="Phillips pp. 29–34"/>

The grape clusters, vines and wine cups that adorn [[Ancient Greek coinage|Greek coins]] from classical times bear witness to the importance of wine to the ancient Greek economy. With every major trading partner, from the [[Crimean Peninsula|Crimea]], Egypt, Scythia, [[Etruria]] and beyond, the Greeks traded their knowledge of viticulture and winemaking, as well the fruits of their own production. Millions of [[amphora]] pieces bearing the unique seals of various city-states and Aegean islands have been uncovered by [[archaeologist]]s, demonstrating the scope of Greek influence.<ref name="Oxford pp. 326–329"/>

A [[shipwreck]] discovered off the coast of southern France included nearly 10,000 amphoras containing nearly {{convert|300,000|L|USgal}} of Greek wine, presumably destined for trade up the [[Rhône]] and [[Saône]] rivers into [[Gaul]]. It is estimated that the Greeks shipped nearly 10 million liters of wine into Gaul each year through Massalia. In 1929, the discovery of the [[Vix Grave]] in [[Burgundy (region)|Burgundy]] included several artifacts demonstrating the strong ties between Greek wine traders and local Celtic villagers. The most notable of these was a large Greek-made [[krater]], designed to hold over {{convert|1,000|L|USgal}} of wine.<ref name="Phillips pp. 29–34"/>

==Viticulture and winemaking influences==
[[File:Satyrs vine press BM D550.jpg|250px|left|thumb|A [[terra cotta]] relief showing [[Satyrs]] expressing the juice from  trodden grapes in wicker mats in the ''tropeion''.]]

Ancient Greeks called the cultivated vine ''hemeris'' (Greek: ἡμερίς), after their adjective for "tame" (Greek: ἥμερος), differentiating it from its wild form. A massive rootstock was carved into a [[cult image]] of the [[Magna Dea|Great Goddess]] and set up on the coast of [[Phrygia]] by the [[Argonauts]].<ref>''[[Argonautica]]'' I.1116-39.</ref> The late ''[[Dionysiaca]]'' of [[Nonnus]] recounts the primitive invention of wine-pressing, credited to Dionysus, and [[Homer|Homer's]] description of the [[Shield of Achilles]] describes that part of its wrought decoration illustrating the grape harvest from a vineyard protectively surrounded by a trench and a fence; the vines stand in rows supported on stakes. He also wrote that [[Laertes (father of Odysseus)|Laertes]], father of [[Odysseus]], had over 50 grape varieties planted in different parts of his vineyard.<ref name="Johnson pp. 35–46"/>

The 4th-century BC Greek writer [[Theophrastus]] left a detailed record of some Greek influences and innovations in viticulture, one of which was the study of [[List of vineyard soils|vineyard soils]] and their proper match to specific grapevines. Another innovation was the minimization of [[yield (wine)|yield]]s for more intense concentration of flavors and quality, rather than increased quantity. The economics of the time favored high yields for most crops, and intentionally limiting agricultural output was exceedingly uncommon in the ancient world. Theophrastus also detailed the practice of using [[Sucker (botany)|suckering]] and plant [[cutting (plant)|cuttings]] for new vineyard plantings. The Greeks also employed [[vine training]] with stacked plants for easier cultivation and [[harvest (wine)|harvesting]], rather than let the grapevines grow untrained in bushes or up trees.{{Cn|date=August 2021}}

While [[ampelographer]]s have been unable to identify the exact ancestry of any current ''[[Vitis vinifera]]'' [[List of grape varieties|grape variety]] among those grown by the ancient Greeks, several—e.g. [[Aglianico]] (also known as ''Helleniko''), [[Grechetto]], and [[Trebbiano]] (also known as ''Greco'')—have distinct Greek heritage.<ref name="Oxford pp. 326–329"/> Not all Greek viticulture techniques were widely adopted by other wine regions. Some Greek vineyards used [[mysticism]] to ward off disease and bad weather. For example, two vineyard workers would tear a live white [[rooster]] in two, each then carrying one half around the perimeter of the vineyard in an opposite direction from the other. Where they met again, the carcass would be buried next to the vineyard.<ref name="Phillips pp. 29–34"/>

The Greeks practiced an early form of ''[[pigeage]]'' when grapes were ready for crushing. [[Wicker]] baskets filled with grapes were placed inside wooden or [[earthenware]] vats with a rope or plank above. Vineyard workers grasped the rope for balance to crush the grapes with their feet, occasionally to the accompaniment of a [[flute]] played in a festive manner. After crushing, the grapes were placed in large ''[[pithoi]]'', jars where [[fermentation (wine)|fermentation]] took place.{{Cn|date=August 2021}}

Both [[Hesiod|Hesiod's]] writings and Homer's ''[[Odyssey]]'' include some of the earliest mentions of [[straw wine]] production: laying out freshly harvested grapes on mats to dry nearly to [[raisin]]s before pressing. A [[Lesbian wine|wine made on Lesbos]] known as ''protropon'' was among the first known to be made exclusively from "[[free run juice|free-run juice]]," drawn from grape clusters expressing their contents under their own weight. Other Greek innovations include the harvest of deliberately unripe grapes in producing a more acidic wine for blending. The boiling of grape [[must]] was discovered as another means of adding [[sweetness of wine|sweetness]] to the wine. The Greeks believed wine could also be improved by adding [[resin]], [[herb]]s, [[spice]], [[seawater]], [[brine]], [[oil]] and [[perfume]]. [[Retsina]], [[mulled wine]] and [[vermouth]] are some modern examples of these practices.<ref name="Oxford pp. 326–329"/>

As late as the [[Second Council of Constantinople]] in 691 AD, exactly three centuries after Theodosius closed the temples, a canon was issued expressly forbidding the cries of "Dionysus!" from the wine treaders, who still were masked;<ref>In representations of Antiquity, the wine-treaders are invariably [[satyr]]s and [[Silenus|sileni]],: "they were indeed the wine-treaders in disguise," Kerenyi observes; in medieval images peasants tread the grapes, their shifts tucked into their belts.</ref> it was recommended that ''"Kyrie eleison"'' be substituted.<ref>Noted in Kerenyi 1976:67 and notes.</ref>

==Greek wine==
{{More citations needed|section|date=August 2021}}
[[File:Μαρμάρινη σαρκοφάγος αττικού εργαστηρίου με διονυσιακή παράσταση, Θεσσαλονίκη, Δυτικό Νεκροταφείο, μέσα 3ου μ.Χ. αιώνα cropped.jpg|thumb|upright=1.8|3rd-century Roman sarcophagus with Dionysus, [[Ariadne]], satyrs and maenads participating in the wine grape harvest, [[Archaeological Museum of Thessaloniki]].]]

The reputation of a wine depends on the region the wine came from rather than an individual producer or vineyard. In the 4th century BC, the most expensive wine sold in the local agora in Athens was that from [[Chian wine|Chios]], which sold for between a quarter of a [[Ancient drachma|drachma]] and 2 drachma for a [[Ancient Greek units of measurement|chous]] worth—about 3 liters, or the equivalent of four standard 750 ml [[wine bottle]]s today.

Like early wine critics, Greek poets would extol the virtues of certain wines and review less favorably those not up to their standards. The wines most frequently cited as being of good quality were those of [[Chalkidike]], [[Ismaros]], [[Khios|Xios]], [[Kos]], [[Lesbos]], [[Mende (Greece)|Mende]], [[Naxos Island|Naxos]], Peparethos (present-day [[Skopelos]]) and [[Thasos]]. Among individual wines lauded were two with unknown origins: Bibline and Pramnian. Bibline is believed to have been made in a style similar to the [[Phoenicians and wine|Phoenician wine]] from [[Byblos]], highly regarded for its perfumed fragrance by Greek writers like [[Archestratus]]. The Greek version of the wine is thought to have originated in [[Thrace]] from a grape variety known as Bibline. Pramnian wine was found in several regions, most notably Lesbos but also [[Icaria]] and [[Smyrna]] (in present-day Turkey). It was suggested by [[Athenaeus]] that Pramnian was a generic name referring to a dark wine of good quality and aging potential.<ref name="Oxford pp. 326–329"/>

The earliest reference to a named wine is from the lyrical poet [[Alkman]] (7th century BC), who praises "Dénthis," a wine from the western foothills of Mount [[Taygetus]] in [[Messenia]], as "''anthosmías''" ("smelling of flowers"). According to wine expert [[Jancis Robinson]], Limnio was almost certainly the ''Lemnia'' grape described by [[Aristotle]] as a speciality of the island of Limnos,<ref name="Robinson pg 225">J. Robinson ''Vines, Grapes & Wines'' pg 225 Mitchell Beazley 1986 {{ISBN|1-85732-999-6}}</ref> which was probably the same as the modern-day [[Lemnió]] varietal, a red wine with a bouquet of [[oregano]] and [[thyme]]. If so, this makes Lemnió the oldest known varietal still in cultivation.

[[File:Dancing woman krotala BM 1920,0613.1.jpg|right|thumb|A [[Kylix (drinking cup)|kylix]] drinking cup was used to serve Greek wine.]]
The most common style of wine in ancient Greece was sweet and aromatic, though drier wines were also produced. Color ranged from dark, inky black to [[:wiktionary:tawny|tawny]] to nearly clear. [[Oxidation]] was difficult to control, a common [[wine fault]] that meant many wines did not retain their quality beyond the next [[vintage]]. However, wines that were stored well and aged were highly prized: [[Hermippus]] described the best mature wines as having a bouquet of "[[Viola (plant)|violet]]s, [[rose]]s and [[Hyacinth (plant)|hyacinth]]." Comedic poets noted that Greek women liked "old wine but young men." {{fact|date=October 2024}}

Wine was almost always diluted, usually with water (or [[snow]] when the wine was to be served cold). The Greeks believed that only [[barbarian]]s drank unmixed or undiluted wine and that the [[Kings of Sparta|Spartan king]] [[Cleomenes I]] was once driven insane after drinking wine this way.<ref name="Oxford pp. 326–329"/> They also believed that undiluted wine could even kill the drinker: the Gallic chieftain [[Brennus (3rd century BC)|Brennus]] was recorded as having committed suicide by drinking wine full-strength.<ref>Pausanias, Guide for Greece 10.19.4-23.9</ref> Greeks asserted that the dilution of wine with water was a mark of civilized behavior, whose contrast was embodied in the myth of the [[Centauromachy|battle of Lapiths with the Centaurs]], inflamed to rape and mayhem because of wine drunk undiluted with water.

[[File:Exekias Dionysos Staatliche Antikensammlungen 2044 n2.jpg|thumb|left|Wine in Greece was never far from its mystical connection to the cult of [[Dionysus]]: Attic black-figure ''[[kylix (drinking cup)|kylix]]'', ca 530 BC, depicting Dionysus aboard the vine-entangled ship among his would-be abductors transformed to dolphins.]]

==Wine in Greek culture==
In addition to its significance as a trade commodity, wine also served important [[Ancient Greek religion|religious]], social and [[Ancient Greek medicine|medical]] purposes in Greek society. The "feast of the wine" (''me-tu-wo ne-wo'') was a festival in [[Mycenaean Greece]] celebrating the "month of the new wine."<ref>[http://projectsx.dartmouth.edu/history/bronze_age/lessons/les/26.html Mycenaean and Late Cycladic Religion and Religious Architecture] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080915150918/http://projectsx.dartmouth.edu/history/bronze_age/lessons/les/26.html |date=September 15, 2008 }}, Dartmouth  College</ref><ref>T.G. Palaima, [http://www2.ulg.ac.be/archgrec/IMG/aegeum/aegaeum12%28pdf%29/Palaima.pdf ''The Last days of Pylos Polity''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110516070021/http://www2.ulg.ac.be/archgrec/IMG/aegeum/aegaeum12%28pdf%29/Palaima.pdf |date=2011-05-16 }}, Université de Liège</ref><ref>James C. Wright, ''The Mycenaean feast'', American School of Classical Studies, 2004, on [https://books.google.com/books?id=VJ6vBrYKPnMC&pg=PA203 Google books]</ref> The cult of Dionysus was very active, if not mysterious, and was immortalized in [[Euripides|Euripides's]] play ''[[The Bacchae]]''. Several festivals were held throughout the year in honor of the God of wine. February's [[Anthesteria]] marked the opening of the wine jars from the previous autumn harvest, featuring wine-drinking contests and a procession through Athens carrying wine jars.<ref name="Oxford pp. 326–329"/> The [[Dionysia]] included theatrical performances of both comedies and tragedies in honor of the God of wine. Wine was a frequent component at the [[symposium]], which sometimes included the game of ''[[Kottabos (game)|kottabos]]'', which involved flinging [[lees (fermentation)|lees]] from a wine cup towards a target.<ref name="Johnson pp. 35–46"/>

The medicinal use of wine was frequently studied by the Greeks, including [[Hippocrates]], who did extensive research on the topic. He used wine as a cure for [[fever]]s, to ease [[convalescence]] and as an [[antiseptic]]. He also studied the effect of wine on his patients' [[Human feces|stool]].<ref name="Johnson pp. 35–46"/> Various types of wine were prescribed by Greek doctors for use as an [[analgesic]], [[diuretic]], [[Medication#For nutrition|tonic]] and [[Digestion|digestive]] aid. The Greeks were also aware of some [[Short-term effects of alcohol consumption|negative health effect]]s, especially those arising from the consumption of wine beyond moderation. Athenaeus made frequent mention of wine's ability to induce [[hangover]] and suggested various remedies for it.<ref name="Oxford pp. 326–329"/> The poet [[Eubulus (poet)|Eubulus]] noted that three bowls (''[[Kylix (drinking cup)|kylikes]]'') were the ideal amount of wine to consume. The quantity of three bowls to represent moderation is a recurring theme throughout Greek writing (today, the standard 750 ml bottle contains roughly three to six glasses of wine, depending on serving size).<ref name="Johnson pp. 35–46"/> In his  c. 375 BC play ''Semele or Dionysus'', [[Eubulus (poet)|Eubulus]] has [[Dionysus]] say:

{{cquote|Three bowls do I mix for the temperate: one to health, which they empty first; the second to love and pleasure; the third to sleep. When this bowl is drunk up, wise guests go home. The fourth bowl is ours no longer, but belongs to violence; the fifth to uproar; the sixth to drunken revel; the seventh to black eyes; the eighth is the policeman's; the ninth belongs to biliousness; and the tenth to madness and the hurling of furniture.<ref>[[Eubulus (poet)|Eubulus]]. ''Semele or Dionysus'', fr. 93. preserved in Athenaeus, ''Deipnosophists'' 2.37c</ref>}}

==See also==
{{portal|Greece|Wine|History}}
*[[Ancient Greek cuisine]]
*[[Ancient Rome and wine]]
*[[Greek wine]]
*[[Phoenicians and wine]]
*[[Wine-dark sea (Homer)]]
{{Clear}}

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==External links==
{{Commonscat|Ancient Greece and wine}}
*Greek wine history {{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20020712171906/http://greekwinemakers.com/czone/history/2ancient.shtml Greek winemakers]}}
*All about Greek wine [https://web.archive.org/web/20071227193551/http://www.allaboutgreekwine.com/history.htm History]
*[https://biblionet.gr/titleinfo/?titleid=250192&return_url Evangelos Andreou, ''It was nice retsina wine''].

{{Ancient Greece topics}}

[[Category:Ancient Greek cuisine|Wine]]
[[Category:Historical foods|Ancient Greece and wine]]
[[Category:Culture of ancient Greece|Ancient Greece and wine]]
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[[Category:Greek wine]]
[[Category:History of wine]]
[[Category:Cult of Dionysus|Wine]]