View source for Ancient Egypt

{{Short description|Cradle of civilization in Northeast Africa}}
{{For|the magazine|Ancient Egypt (magazine)}}{{for|the TV series|Ancient Egyptians (TV series)}}
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{{Infobox former country
| image_map              = Ancient Egypt map-en.svg
| map_width              = 225
| map_caption            = Ancient Egyptian cities and other sites following the [[Nile]] up to the [[Cataracts of the Nile|Fifth Cataract]]. Modern [[Cairo]] and [[Jerusalem]] are marked for reference.
| conventional_long_name = Ancient Egypt
| common_name            = Ancient Egypt
| capital                = ''See [[List of historical capitals of Egypt]]''
| religion               = [[Ancient Egyptian religion|Egyptian religion]]
| era                    = [[Ancient history]]
| life_span = {{circa|3150 BC}}{{snd}}30&nbsp;BC
<!--Intentionally ignored the intermediate periods because they can overlap with the main periods, also the third intermediate period is not really a chaotic period compared to two other intermediate periods-->| year_start             = {{circa|3150 BC}}
| common_languages       = [[Egyptian language]]
| year_end               = 30 BC{{efn|Depending on the definition, the end of ancient Egypt may be considered to have occurred either with the end of the [[Late Period of ancient Egypt|Late Period]] in 332 BC or with the end of the [[Ptolemaic Kingdom]] in 30 BC.}}
| event_start            = Unification of [[Upper and Lower Egypt]]
| date_start             = 
| event1                 = [[Early Dynastic Period (Egypt)|Early Dynastic Period]]
| date_event1            = {{circa|3150 BC}} – 2686 BC
| event2                 = {{nowrap|[[Old Kingdom of Egypt|Old Kingdom]]}}
| date_event2            = 2686 BC – 2181 BC
| event3                 = {{nowrap|[[Middle Kingdom of Egypt|Middle Kingdom]]}}
| date_event3            = 2134 BC – 1690 BC
| event4                 = {{nowrap|[[New Kingdom of Egypt|New Kingdom]]}}
| date_event4            = {{nowrap|1549 BC – 1078/77 BC{{efn|With the death of [[Ramesses XI]]}}}}
| event5                 = {{nowrap|[[Late Period of ancient Egypt|Late Period]]}}
| date_event5            = 664 BC – 332 BC
| event6                 = {{nowrap|[[Ptolemaic Kingdom]]}}
| date_event6            = 332 BC – 30 BC
| event_end              = [[War of Actium|Annexation by the Roman Empire]]
| p1                     = Predynastic Egypt
| s1                     = Roman Egypt
}}

'''Ancient Egypt''' was a [[cradle of civilization]] concentrated along the lower reaches of the [[Nile River]] in [[Northeast Africa]]. It emerged from [[prehistoric Egypt]] around 3150{{nbsp}}BC (according to [[conventional Egyptian chronology]]),{{sfnp|Chronology|2000}} when [[Upper and Lower Egypt]] were amalgamated by [[Menes]], who is believed by the majority of [[List of Egyptologists|Egyptologists]] to have been the same person as [[Narmer]].{{sfnp|Dodson|Hilton|2004|p=46}} The [[history of ancient Egypt]] unfolded as a series of stable kingdoms interspersed by the "[[Periodization of ancient Egypt|Intermediate Periods]]" of relative instability. These stable kingdoms existed in one of three periods: the [[Old Kingdom of Egypt|Old Kingdom]] of the [[Early Bronze Age]]; the [[Middle Kingdom of Egypt|Middle Kingdom]] of the [[Middle Bronze Age]]; or the [[New Kingdom of Egypt|New Kingdom]] of the [[Late Bronze Age]].

The pinnacle of ancient Egyptian power was achieved during the New Kingdom, which extended its rule to much of [[Nubia]] and a considerable portion of the [[Levant]]. After this period, Egypt entered an era of slow decline. Over the course of its history, it was invaded or conquered by a number of foreign civilizations, including the [[Hyksos]], the [[Kingdom of Kush|Kushites]], the [[Assyrian conquest of Egypt|Assyrians]], the [[History of Persian Egypt|Persians]], and the [[Ptolemaic dynasty|Greeks]] and then the [[Roman Egypt|Romans]]. The end of ancient Egypt is variously defined as occurring with the end of the [[Late Period of ancient Egypt|Late Period]] during the [[Wars of Alexander the Great]] in 332 BC or with the end of the Greek-ruled [[Ptolemaic Kingdom]] during the [[Roman conquest of Egypt]] in 30 BC.{{sfnp|Clayton|1994|p=217}} In AD 642, the [[Arab conquest of Egypt]] brought an end to the region's millennium-long [[Greco-Roman period]].

The success of ancient Egyptian civilization came partly from its ability to adapt to the Nile's conditions for [[Ancient Egyptian agriculture|agriculture]]. The predictable [[flooding of the Nile]] and controlled irrigation of its fertile valley produced surplus crops, which supported a more dense population, and thereby substantial social and cultural development. With resources to spare, the administration sponsored the mineral exploitation of the valley and its surrounding desert regions, the early development of [[Egyptian hieroglyphs|an independent writing system]], the organization of collective construction and agricultural projects, trade with other civilizations, and [[Military of ancient Egypt|a military]] to assert Egyptian dominance throughout the [[Near East]]. Motivating and organizing these activities was a bureaucracy of elite scribes, religious leaders, and administrators under the control of the reigning [[pharaoh]], who ensured the cooperation and unity of the [[Egyptians#Ancient Egypt|Egyptian people]] in the context of [[Ancient Egyptian religion|an elaborate system of religious beliefs]].{{sfnmp|1a1=James|1y=2005|1p=8|2a1=Manuelian|2y=1998|2pp=6–7}}

Among the many achievements of ancient Egypt are: the [[Stone quarries of ancient Egypt|quarrying]], surveying, and construction techniques that supported the building of monumental [[Egyptian pyramids|pyramids]], [[Egyptian temple|temples]], and [[List of Egyptian obelisks|obelisks]]; a [[Egyptian mathematics|system of mathematics]]; a practical and effective [[Ancient Egyptian medicine|system of medicine]]; irrigation systems and agricultural production techniques; the first known planked boats;{{sfnp|Ward|2001}} [[Egyptian faience]] and [[Ancient Egyptian technology#Glassworking|glass technology]]; new forms of [[Ancient Egyptian literature|literature]]; and the [[Egyptian–Hittite peace treaty|earliest known peace treaty]], which was ratified with the [[Anatolia]]-based [[Hittites|Hittite Empire]].{{sfnp|Clayton|1994|p=153}} Its [[Art of ancient Egypt|art]] and [[Ancient Egyptian architecture|architecture]] were widely copied and its [[Egyptian antiquities|antiquities]] were carried off to be studied, admired, or coveted in the far corners of the world. Likewise, its monumental ruins [[Ancient Egypt in the Western imagination|inspired the imaginations]] of travelers and writers for millennia. A newfound European and Egyptian respect for antiquities and excavations that began in earnest in the [[early modern period]] has led to much scientific investigation of ancient Egypt and its society, as well as a greater appreciation of its cultural legacy.{{sfnp|James|2005|p=84}}

==History==
{{Main|History of ancient Egypt|Population history of Egypt}}

The [[Nile]] has been the lifeline of its region for much of human history. The fertile floodplain of the Nile gave humans the opportunity to develop a settled [[Ancient Egyptian agriculture|agricultural economy]] and a more sophisticated, centralized society that became a cornerstone in the history of human civilization.{{sfnp|Shaw|2003|pp=16, 65–66}}

{{Ancient Egypt graphical timeline}}

===Predynastic period===
{{Main|Predynastic Egypt}}
[[File:Predynastic collage (new version).jpg|thumb|Artifacts of Egypt from the prehistoric period, from 4400 to 3100 BC. First row from top left: a [[Badari culture|Badarian]] ivory figurine, a [[Naqada culture|Naqada II]] jar, a [[Bat (goddess)|Bat]] figurine. Second row: a [[diorite]] vase, the ''[[Gebel el-Arak Knife]]'', a [[cosmetic palette]].]]
In Predynastic and [[Early Dynastic Period (Egypt)|Early Dynastic]] times, the [[African humid period|Egyptian climate was much less arid than it is today]]. Large regions of Egypt were [[savanna]] and traversed by herds of grazing [[ungulates]]. Foliage and fauna were far more prolific in all environs, and the Nile region supported large populations of [[Anseriformes|waterfowl]]. Hunting would have been common for Egyptians, and this is also the period when many animals were first [[Domestication|domesticated]].{{sfnp|Ikram|1992|p=5}}

By about [[6th millennium BC|5500&nbsp;BC]], small tribes living in the Nile valley had developed into a series of cultures demonstrating firm control of agriculture and [[animal husbandry]], and identifiable by their [[ancient Egyptian pottery|pottery]] and personal items, such as combs, bracelets, and beads. The largest of these early cultures in upper (Southern) Egypt was the [[Badarian culture]], which probably originated in the [[Western Desert (Egypt)|Western Desert]]; it was known for its high-quality ceramics, [[stone tool]]s, and its use of copper.{{sfnp|Hayes|1964|p=220}}

The Badari was followed by the [[Naqada culture]]: the Naqada I ([[Amratian culture|Amratian]]), the Naqada II ([[Gerzeh culture|Gerzeh]]), and Naqada III ([[Semainean]]).{{sfnp|Kemp|1989|p=14}} These brought a number of technological improvements. As early as the Naqada I Period, predynastic [[Egyptians]] imported [[obsidian]] from [[History of Ethiopia|Ethiopia]], used to shape blades and other objects from [[Lithic flake|flakes]].{{sfnp|Aston|Harrell|Shaw|2000|pp=46–47}}{{sfnp|Aston|1994|pp=23–26}} Mutual trade with the [[Levant]] was established during Naqada II ({{circa|3600–3350 BC}}); this period was also the beginning of [[Egypt-Mesopotamia relations|trade with Mesopotamia]], which continued into the early dynastic period and beyond.{{sfnp|Ataç|2014|pp=424–425}} Over a period of about 1,000 years, the Naqada culture developed from a few small farming communities into a powerful civilization whose leaders were in complete control of the people and resources of the Nile valley.{{sfnp|Chronology of the Naqada Period|2001}} Establishing a power center at [[Nekhen]], and later at [[Abydos, Egypt|Abydos]], [[Naqada III]] leaders expanded their control of Egypt northwards along the [[Nile Delta|Nile]].{{sfnp|Shaw|2003|pp=64–64}} They also traded with [[Nubia]] to the south, the oases of the [[Libyan Desert|western desert]] to the west, and the cultures of the [[eastern Mediterranean]] and [[Near East]] to the east.{{sfnmp|1a1=Shaw|1y=2003|1p=61|2a1=Ataç|2y=2014|2pp=424–425}}

The Naqada culture manufactured a diverse selection of material goods, reflective of the increasing power and wealth of the elite, as well as societal personal-use items, which included combs, small statuary, painted pottery, high quality [[hand drill (hieroglyph)|decorative stone vases]], [[cosmetic palette]]s, and jewelry made of gold, [[lapis]], and [[ivory]]. They also developed a [[ceramic glaze]] known as [[Egyptian faience|faience]], which was used well into the [[Roman Egypt |Roman Period]] to decorate cups, amulets, and figurines.{{sfnp|Nicholson|Peltenburg|2000|pp=178–179}}{{sfnp|Faience in different Periods|2000}} During the last predynastic phase, the Naqada culture began using written symbols that eventually were developed into a full system of [[Egyptian hieroglyphs |hieroglyphs]] for writing the ancient Egyptian language.{{sfnp|Allen|2000|p=1}}

===Early Dynastic Period ({{circa|3150–2686}} BC)===
{{Main|Early Dynastic Period (Egypt)}}
[[File:Narmer Palette.jpg|thumb|The [[Narmer Palette]] depicts the unification of the Two Lands.{{sfnp|Robins|2008|p=32}}]]
The Early Dynastic Period was approximately contemporary to the early [[Sumer]]ian-[[Akkadian Empire|Akkadian]] civilization of [[Mesopotamia]] and of ancient [[Elam]]. The third-century{{nbsp}}BC Egyptian priest [[Manetho]] grouped the long line of kings from [[Menes]] to his own time into 30 dynasties, a system still used today. He began his official history with the king named "Meni" (or Menes in Greek), who was believed to have united the two kingdoms of [[Upper Egypt|Upper]] and [[Lower Egypt]].{{sfnp|Clayton|1994|p=6}}

The transition to a unified state happened more gradually than ancient Egyptian writers represented, and there is no contemporary record of Menes. Some scholars now believe, however, that the mythical Menes may have been the king [[Narmer]], who is depicted wearing [[Regalia of the Pharaoh|royal regalia]] on the ceremonial ''[[Narmer Palette]]'', in a symbolic act of unification.{{sfnp|Clayton|1994|pp=12–13}} In the Early Dynastic Period, which began about 3000{{nbsp}}BC, the first of the Dynastic kings solidified control over Lower Egypt by establishing a capital at [[Memphis, Egypt|Memphis]], from which he could control the [[labor force]] and agriculture of the fertile [[Nile delta |delta region]], as well as the lucrative and critical [[trade route]]s to the [[Levant]]. The increasing power and wealth of the kings during the early dynastic period was reflected in their elaborate [[mastaba]] tombs and [[mortuary cult]] structures at Abydos, which were used to celebrate the [[deified king]] after his death.{{sfnp|Shaw|2003|pp=66–67}} The strong institution of kingship developed by the kings served to legitimize state control over the land, labor, and resources that were essential to the survival and growth of ancient Egyptian civilization.{{sfnp|Early Dynastic Egypt|2001}}

===Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC)===
{{Main|Old Kingdom of Egypt}}
{{multiple image
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| image1            = All_Gizah_Pyramids.jpg
| caption1          = The [[Giza pyramid complex|pyramids of Giza]] are among the most recognizable symbols of ancient Egyptian civilization.
| image2            = Khafre statue.jpg
| caption2          = [[Khafre]] enthroned (c. 2558–2532 BC)
}}
Major advances in architecture, art, and technology were made during the [[Old Kingdom]], fueled by the increased [[agricultural productivity]] and resulting population growth, made possible by a well-developed central administration.{{sfnp|James|2005|p=40}} Some of ancient Egypt's crowning achievements, the [[Giza Necropolis|Giza pyramids]] and [[Great Sphinx of Giza|Great Sphinx]], were constructed during the Old Kingdom. Under the direction of the [[vizier (Ancient Egypt)|vizier]], state officials collected taxes, coordinated irrigation projects to improve [[crop yield]], and drafted peasants to work on construction projects.{{sfnp|Shaw|2003|pp=93–95}} 

With the rise of central administration in Egypt, a new class of educated scribes and officials emerged and were granted estates by the king as payment for their services. Kings also made land grants to their mortuary cults and local [[Egyptian temple|temples]], to ensure that these institutions had the resources to worship the king after his death. Scholars believe that five centuries of these practices slowly eroded the economic vitality of Egypt, and that the economy could no longer afford to support a large centralized administration.{{sfnp|Shaw|2003|pp=104–107}} As the power of the kings diminished, regional governors called [[nomarch]]s began to challenge the supremacy of the office of king. This, coupled with [[4.2 kiloyear event|severe droughts]] between 2200 and 2150{{nbsp}}BC,{{sfnp|Hassan|2011}} is believed to have caused the country to enter the 140-year period of famine and strife known as the First Intermediate Period.{{sfnp|Clayton|1994|p=69}}

===First Intermediate Period (2181–2055 BC)===
{{Main|First Intermediate Period of Egypt}}

After Egypt's [[central government]] collapsed at the end of the Old Kingdom, the administration could no longer support or stabilize the country's economy. The ensuing food shortages and political disputes escalated into famines and small-scale civil wars. Yet despite difficult problems, local leaders, owing no tribute to the king, used their new-found independence to establish a thriving culture in the provinces. Once in control of their own resources, the provinces became economically richer—which was demonstrated by larger and better burials among all social classes.{{sfnp|Shaw|2003|pp=111–112}}

Free from their loyalties to the king, local rulers began competing with each other for territorial control and [[political power]]. By 2160{{nbsp}}BC, rulers in [[Heracleopolis Magna|Herakleopolis]] controlled Lower Egypt in the north, while a rival clan based in [[Thebes, Egypt|Thebes]], the [[Intef I|Intef family]], took control of Upper Egypt in the south. As the Intefs grew in power and expanded their control northward, a clash between the two rival dynasties became inevitable. Around 2055{{nbsp}}BC the northern Theban forces under [[Mentuhotep II|Nebhepetre Mentuhotep II]] finally defeated the Herakleopolitan rulers, reuniting the Two Lands. They inaugurated a period of economic and cultural renaissance known as the [[Middle Kingdom of Egypt|Middle Kingdom]].{{sfnp|Clayton|1994|p=29}}

===Middle Kingdom (2134–1690 BC)===
{{Main|Middle Kingdom of Egypt}}
[[File:GuardianStatueofAmenemhmatII.jpg|thumb|upright|A figure wearing the red crown of Lower Egypt, most probably [[Amenemhat II]] or [[Senwosret II]]]]
The kings of the Middle Kingdom restored the country's stability, which saw a resurgence of art and monumental building projects, and a new flourishing of [[ancient Egyptian literature|literature]].{{sfnp|Shaw|2003|pp=142, 171}} Mentuhotep II and his [[Eleventh Dynasty of Egypt|Eleventh Dynasty]] successors ruled from Thebes, but the vizier [[Amenemhat I]], upon assuming the kingship at the beginning of the [[Twelfth dynasty of Egypt|Twelfth Dynasty]] around 1985{{nbsp}}BC, shifted the kingdom's capital to the city of [[Itjtawy]], located in [[Faiyum Oasis|Faiyum]].{{sfnp|Clayton|1994|p=79}} From Itjtawy, the kings of the Twelfth Dynasty undertook a far-sighted [[land reclamation]] and irrigation scheme to increase agricultural output in the region. Moreover, the military reconquered territory in [[Nubia]] that was rich in quarries and gold mines, while laborers built a defensive structure in the Eastern Delta, called the "[[Walls of the Ruler]]", to defend against foreign attack.{{sfnp|Shaw|2003|pp=148–152}}

With the kings having secured the country militarily and politically and with vast agricultural and mineral wealth at their disposal, the nation's population, arts, and religion flourished. The Middle Kingdom displayed an increase in expressions of personal piety toward the gods. Middle Kingdom literature featured sophisticated themes and characters written in a confident, eloquent style.{{sfnp|Shaw|2003|pp=169–171}} The [[relief]] and portrait sculpture of the period captured subtle, individual details that reached new heights of technical sophistication.{{sfnp|Robins|2008|p=90}}

===Second Intermediate Period (1674–1549 BC) and the Hyksos===
{{Main|Second Intermediate Period of Egypt}}
{{multiple image
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| image1            = Ceremonial axe of Ahmose I (both sides).jpg
| image2            = Pharaoh_Ahmose_I_slaying_a_Hyksos_(axe_of_Ahmose_I,_from_the_Treasure_of_Queen_Aahhotep_II)_Colorized_per_source.jpg
| footer            = Pharaoh [[Ahmose I]] (ruled c. 1549–1524 BC) slaying a probable [[Hyksos]]. Detail of a ceremonial axe in the name of Ahmose I, treasure of Queen [[Ahhotep II]].<ref>{{harvnb|Montet|1968|p=80|ps=. "Others were later added to them, things which came from the pharaoh Ahmose, like the axe decorated with a griffin and a likeness of the king slaying a Hyksos, with other axes and daggers."}}</ref>
}}
Around 1785{{nbsp}}BC, as the power of the Middle Kingdom kings weakened, a [[Western Asia]]n people called the [[Hyksos]], who had already settled in the Delta, seized control of Egypt and established their capital at [[Avaris]], forcing the former central government to retreat to [[Thebes, Egypt|Thebes]]. The king was treated as a vassal and expected to pay tribute.{{sfnp|Ryholt|1997|p=310}} The Hyksos ('foreign rulers') retained Egyptian models of government and identified as kings, thereby integrating Egyptian elements into their culture.{{sfnp|Shaw|2003|pp=180–182}}

After retreating south, the native Theban kings found themselves trapped between the Canaanite Hyksos ruling the north and the Hyksos' [[Nubian people|Nubian]] allies, the [[Kingdom of Kush|Kushites]], to the south. After years of vassalage, Thebes gathered enough strength to challenge the Hyksos in a conflict that lasted more than 30 years, until 1555{{nbsp}}BC.{{sfnp|Ryholt|1997|p=310}} [[Ahmose I]] waged a series of campaigns that permanently eradicated the Hyksos' presence in Egypt. He is considered the founder of the [[Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt|Eighteenth Dynasty]], and the military became a central priority for his successors, who sought to expand Egypt's borders and attempted to gain mastery of the [[Ancient Near East|Near East]].{{sfnp|Redford|1992|pp=129, 148–149}}

===New Kingdom (1549–1069 BC)===
{{Main|New Kingdom of Egypt}}

[[File:CairoEgMuseumTaaMaskMostlyPhotographed.jpg|thumb|Pharaohs' tombs were provided with vast quantities of wealth, such as the [[Tutankhamun's mask|golden mask from the mummy of Tutankhamun]].]]

The New Kingdom [[pharaoh]]s established a period of unprecedented prosperity by securing their borders and strengthening diplomatic ties with their neighbours, including the [[Mitanni]] Empire, [[Assyria]], and [[Canaan]]. Military campaigns waged under [[Thutmose I|Tuthmosis I]] and his grandson [[Thutmose III|Tuthmosis III]] extended the influence of the pharaohs to the largest empire Egypt had ever seen.

Between their reigns, [[Hatshepsut]], a queen who established herself as pharaoh, launched many building projects, including the restoration of temples damaged by the Hyksos, and sent trading expeditions to [[Land of Punt|Punt]] and the Sinai.{{sfnp|Clayton|1994|pp=104–107}} When Tuthmosis III died in 1425{{nbsp}}BC, Egypt had an empire extending from [[Niya (kingdom)|Niya]] in north west [[Syria]] to the [[Cataracts of the Nile|Fourth Cataract]] of the Nile in [[Nubia]], cementing loyalties and opening access to critical imports such as [[bronze]] and [[wood]].{{sfnp|James|2005|p=48}}

The New Kingdom pharaohs began a large-scale building campaign to promote the god [[Amun]], whose growing cult was based in [[Karnak]]. They also constructed monuments to glorify their own achievements, both real and imagined. The Karnak temple is the largest Egyptian temple ever built.{{sfnp|Bleiberg|2005|p=49–50}}

Around 1350{{nbsp}}BC, the stability of the New Kingdom was threatened when Amenhotep IV ascended the throne and instituted a series of radical and chaotic reforms. Changing his name to [[Akhenaten]], he touted the previously obscure [[Solar deity|sun deity]] [[Aten]] as the [[God|supreme deity]], suppressed the worship of most other deities, and moved the capital to the new city of Akhetaten (modern-day [[Amarna]]).{{sfnp|Aldred|1988|p=259}} He was devoted to his new [[Atenism|religion]] and [[Amarna art|artistic style]]. After his death, the cult of the Aten was quickly abandoned and the traditional religious order restored. The subsequent pharaohs, [[Tutankhamun]], [[Ay (pharaoh)|Ay]], and [[Horemheb]], worked to erase all mention of Akhenaten's heresy, now known as the [[Amarna Period]].{{sfnp|O'Connor|Cline|2001|p=273}}

Around 1279{{nbsp}}BC, [[Ramesses II]], also known as Ramesses the Great, ascended the throne, and went on to build more temples, erect more statues and obelisks, and sire more children than any other pharaoh in history.{{efn|With his two principal wives and large harem, Ramesses II sired more than 100 children. ({{harvp|Clayton|1994|p=146}})}} A bold military leader, Ramesses II led his army against the Hittites in the [[Battle of Kadesh]] (in modern [[Syria]]) and, after fighting to a stalemate, finally agreed to the first recorded [[Egyptian–Hittite peace treaty|peace treaty]], around 1258{{nbsp}}BC.{{sfnp|Tyldesley|2001|pp=76–77}}

Egypt's wealth, however, made it a tempting target for invasion, particularly by the [[Ancient Libya|Libyan]] [[Berber people|Berbers]] to the west, and the [[Sea Peoples]], a conjectured confederation of seafarers from the [[Aegean Sea]].{{efn|From {{harvp|Killebrew|Lehmann|2013|p=2}}: "First coined in 1881 by the French Egyptologist G. Maspero (1896), the somewhat misleading term "Sea Peoples" encompasses the ethnonyms Lukka, Sherden, Shekelesh, Teresh, Eqwesh, Denyen, Sikil / Tjekker, Weshesh, and Peleset (Philistines). Footnote: The modern term "Sea Peoples" refers to peoples that appear in several New Kingdom Egyptian texts as originating from "islands"... The use of quotation marks in association with the term "Sea Peoples" in our title is intended to draw attention to the problematic nature of this commonly used term. It is noteworthy that the designation "of the sea" appears only in relation to the Sherden, Shekelesh, and Eqwesh. Subsequently, this term was applied somewhat indiscriminately to several additional ethnonyms, including the Philistines, who are portrayed in their earliest appearance as invaders from the north during the reigns of Merenptah and Ramesses III."{{blist|From {{harvp|Drews|1993|pp=48–61}}: "The thesis that a great "migration of the Sea Peoples" occurred ca. 1200 B.C. is supposedly based on Egyptian inscriptions, one from the reign of Merneptah and another from the reign of Ramesses III. Yet in the inscriptions themselves such a migration nowhere appears. After reviewing what the Egyptian texts have to say about 'the sea peoples', one Egyptologist (Wolfgang Helck) recently remarked that although some things are unclear, "eins ist aber sicher: Nach den agyptischen Texten haben wir es nicht mit einer 'Volkerwanderung' zu tun." Thus the migration hypothesis is based not on the inscriptions themselves but on their interpretation."}}}} Initially, the military was able to [[Battle of Perire|repel]] these invasions, but Egypt eventually lost control of its remaining territories in southern [[Canaan]], much of it falling to the Assyrians. The effects of external threats were exacerbated by internal problems such as corruption, tomb robbery, and [[End of the 19th Dynasty|civil unrest]]. After regaining their power, the high priests at the [[Precinct of Amun-Re|temple of Amun]] in Thebes accumulated vast tracts of land and wealth, and their expanded power splintered the country during the Third Intermediate Period.{{sfnp|James|2005|p=54}}

===Third Intermediate Period (1069–653 BC)===
{{Main|Third Intermediate Period of Egypt}}
[[File:Rulers of Kush, Kerma Museum.jpg|thumb|Statues of two pharaohs of Egypt's [[Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt|Twenty-Fifth Dynasty]] and several other [[Kingdom of Kush|Kushite]] kings, [[Kerma Museum]]{{sfnp|Bonnet|2006|p=128}}]]
Following the death of [[Ramesses XI]] in 1078{{nbsp}}BC, [[Smendes]] assumed authority over the northern part of Egypt, ruling from the city of [[Tanis, Egypt|Tanis]]. The south was effectively controlled by the [[Theban High Priests of Amun (21st and 22nd Dynasty)|High Priests of Amun at Thebes]], who recognized Smendes in name only.{{sfnp|Cerny|1975|p=645}} During this time, Libyans had been settling in the western delta, and chieftains of these settlers began increasing their autonomy. Libyan princes took control of the delta under [[Shoshenq I]] in 945{{nbsp}}BC, founding the so-called Libyan or Bubastite dynasty that would rule for some 200 years. Shoshenq also gained control of southern Egypt by placing his family members in important priestly positions. Libyan control began to erode as a rival dynasty in the delta arose in [[Leontopolis]], and [[Cushi|Kushites]] threatened from the south.

Around 727{{nbsp}}BC the Kushite king [[Piye]] invaded northward, seizing control of Thebes and eventually the Delta, which established the [[25th Dynasty]].{{sfnp|Shaw|2003|p=347}} During the 25th Dynasty, Pharaoh [[Taharqa]] created an empire nearly as large as the [[New Kingdom of Egypt|New Kingdom]]'s. Twenty-fifth Dynasty pharaohs built, or restored, temples and monuments throughout the Nile valley, including at Memphis, Karnak, Kawa, and Jebel Barkal.{{sfnp|Bonnet|2006|pp=142–154}} During this period, the Nile valley saw the first widespread construction of [[Nubian pyramids|pyramids (many in modern Sudan)]] since the Middle Kingdom.{{sfnp|Mokhtar|1990|pp=161–163}}{{sfnp|Emberling|2011|pp=9–11}}{{sfnp|Silverman|1997|pp=36–37}}

Egypt's far-reaching prestige declined considerably toward the end of the Third Intermediate Period. Its foreign allies had fallen into the [[Assyria]]n sphere of influence, and by 700{{nbsp}}BC war between the two states became inevitable. Between 671 and 667{{nbsp}}BC the Assyrians began the [[Assyrian conquest of Egypt]]. The reigns of both [[Taharqa]] and his successor, [[Tantamani|Tanutamun]], were filled with frequent conflict with the Assyrians. Ultimately, the Assyrians pushed the Kushites back into Nubia, occupied Memphis, and [[Sack of Thebes|sacked the temples of Thebes]].{{sfnp|Shaw|2003|pp=352–353}}

===Late Period (653–332 BC)===
{{Main|Late Period of ancient Egypt|History of Persian Egypt}}

The Assyrians left control of Egypt to a series of vassals who became known as the Saite kings of the [[Twenty-sixth dynasty of Egypt|Twenty-Sixth Dynasty]]. By 653{{nbsp}}BC, the Saite king [[Psamtik I]] was able to oust the Assyrians with the help of Greek mercenaries, who were recruited to form Egypt's first [[Ancient Egyptian navy|navy]]. [[Colonies in antiquity|Greek influence]] expanded greatly as the [[Polis|city-state]] of [[Naucratis]] became the home of Greeks in the Nile Delta. The Saite kings based in the new capital of [[Sais, Egypt|Sais]] witnessed a brief but spirited resurgence in the economy and culture, but in 525{{nbsp}}BC, the Persian Empire, led by [[Cambyses II]], began its conquest of Egypt, eventually defeating the pharaoh [[Psamtik III]] at the [[Battle of Pelusium]]. Cambyses II then assumed the formal title of pharaoh, but ruled Egypt from Iran, leaving Egypt under the control of a [[satrap]]. A few revolts against the Persians marked the 5th century{{nbsp}}BC, but Egypt was never able to overthrow the Persians until the end of the century.{{sfnp|Shaw|2003|pp=365-369, 374-375, 377}}

Following its annexation by Persia, Egypt was joined with [[Cyprus]] and [[Phoenicia]] in the sixth satrapy of the [[Achaemenid Empire|Achaemenid Persian Empire]]. This first period of Persian rule over Egypt, also known as the [[Twenty-Seventh Dynasty]], ended in 402{{nbsp}}BC, when Egypt regained independence under a series of native dynasties. The last of these dynasties, the [[Thirtieth Dynasty of Egypt|Thirtieth]], proved to be the last native royal house of ancient Egypt, ending with the kingship of [[Nectanebo II]]. A brief restoration of Persian rule, sometimes known as the [[Achaemenid Empire|Thirty-First Dynasty]], began in 343{{nbsp}}BC, but shortly after, in 332{{nbsp}}BC, the Persian ruler Mazaces handed Egypt over to [[Alexander the Great]] without a fight.{{sfnp|Shaw|2003|p=377–382}}

===Ptolemaic period (332–30 BC)===
{{Main|Ptolemaic Kingdom}}

[[File:Ring with engraved portrait of Ptolemy VI Philometor (3rd–2nd century BCE) - 2009.jpg|thumb|Portrait of [[Ptolemy VI Philometor]] wearing the [[Pschent|double crown of Egypt]]]]

In 332{{nbsp}}BC, [[Alexander the Great]] conquered Egypt with little resistance from the [[Persia]]ns and was welcomed by the Egyptians as a deliverer. The administration established by Alexander's successors, the [[Ancient Macedonians|Macedonian]] [[Ptolemaic Kingdom]], was based on an Egyptian model and based in the new [[Capital (political)|capital city]] of [[Alexandria]]. The city showcased the power and prestige of Hellenistic rule, and became a centre of learning and culture that included the famous [[Library of Alexandria]] and the [[Mouseion]].{{sfnp|Shaw|2003|pp=388, 399-400}} The [[Lighthouse of Alexandria]] lit the way for the many ships that kept trade flowing through the city—as the [[Ptolemaic dynasty|Ptolemies]] made commerce and revenue-generating enterprises, such as papyrus manufacturing, their top priority.{{sfnp|Shaw|2003|p=405}}

[[Hellenistic civilization|Hellenistic culture]] did not supplant native Egyptian culture, as the Ptolemies supported time-honored traditions in an effort to secure the loyalty of the populace. They built new temples in Egyptian style, supported traditional cults, and portrayed themselves as pharaohs. Some traditions merged, as Greek and [[Egyptian mythology|Egyptian gods]] were [[Syncretic religion|syncretized]] into composite deities, such as [[Serapis]], and [[Ancient Greek|classical Greek]] forms of sculpture influenced traditional Egyptian motifs. Despite their efforts to appease the Egyptians, the Ptolemies were challenged by native rebellion, bitter family rivalries, and frequent mob violence in Alexandria.{{sfnp|Shaw|2003|pp=404, 406, 409-412}} In addition, as [[Ancient Rome|Rome]] relied more heavily on imports of grain from Egypt, the [[Ancient Rome|Romans]] took great interest in the political situation in the country. Continued Egyptian revolts, ambitious politicians, and powerful opponents from the Near East made this situation unstable, leading Rome to send forces to secure the country as a province of its empire.{{sfnp|James|2005|p=62}}

===Roman period (30 BC – AD 642)===
{{Main|Roman Egypt}}
[[File:Fayum-22.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Fayum mummy portraits]] epitomize the meeting of Egyptian and Roman cultures.]]

Egypt became a province of the [[Roman Empire]] in 30{{nbsp}}BC, following the defeat of [[Mark Antony]] and [[Ptolemaic Kingdom|Ptolemaic]] Queen [[Cleopatra VII]] by [[Octavian]] (later [[Roman emperor|Emperor]] Augustus) in the [[Battle of Actium]]. The Romans relied heavily on grain shipments from Egypt, and the [[Roman army]], under the control of a prefect appointed by the emperor, quelled rebellions, strictly enforced the collection of heavy taxes, and prevented attacks by bandits, which had become a notorious problem during the period.{{sfnp|James|2005|p=63}} Alexandria became an increasingly important center on the trade route with the orient, as exotic luxuries were in high demand in Rome.{{sfnp|Shaw|2003|p=426}}

Although the Romans had a more hostile attitude than the Greeks towards the Egyptians, some traditions such as mummification and worship of the traditional gods continued.{{sfnp|Shaw|2003|p=422}} The art of mummy portraiture flourished, and some Roman emperors had themselves depicted as pharaohs, though not to the extent that the Ptolemies had. The former lived outside Egypt and did not perform the ceremonial functions of Egyptian kingship. Local administration became Roman in style and closed to native Egyptians.{{sfnp|Shaw|2003|p=422}}

From the mid-first century AD, [[Christianity]] took root in Egypt and it was originally seen as another cult that could be accepted. However, it was an uncompromising religion that sought to win converts from the pagan [[Ancient Egyptian religion|Egyptian]] and [[Hellenistic religion|Greco-Roman]] religions and threatened popular religious traditions. This led to the persecution of converts to Christianity, culminating in the great purges of [[Diocletian]] starting in 303, but eventually Christianity won out.{{sfnp|Shaw|2003|p=431}} In 391, the Christian emperor [[Theodosius I|Theodosius]] introduced legislation that banned pagan rites and closed temples.{{sfnp|Chadwick|2001|p=373}} Alexandria became the scene of great anti-pagan riots with public and private religious imagery destroyed.{{sfnp|MacMullen|1984|p=63}} As a consequence, Egypt's native religious culture was continually in decline. While the native population continued to speak [[Egyptian language|their language]], the ability to read [[Egyptian hieroglyphs|hieroglyphic writing]] slowly disappeared as the role of the Egyptian temple priests and priestesses diminished. The temples themselves were sometimes converted to [[church (building)|churches]] or abandoned to the desert.{{sfnp|Shaw|2003|p=445}}

==Government and economy==

===Administration and commerce===
The pharaoh was the absolute monarch of the country and, at least in theory, wielded complete control of the land and its resources. The king was the supreme [[Commander|military commander]] and head of the government, who relied on a bureaucracy of officials to manage his affairs. In charge of the administration was his second in command, the [[vizier (Ancient Egypt)|vizier]], who acted as the king's representative and coordinated land surveys, the treasury, building projects, the legal system, and the [[archives]].{{sfnp|Manuelian|1998|p=358}} At a regional level, the country was divided into as many as 42 administrative regions called [[Nome (Egypt)|nomes]] each governed by a [[nomarch]], who was accountable to the vizier for his jurisdiction. The temples formed the backbone of the economy. Not only were they [[Place of worship|places of worship]], but were also responsible for collecting and storing the kingdom's wealth in a system of [[granary|granaries]] and treasuries administered by overseers, who redistributed grain and goods.{{sfnp|Manuelian|1998|p=363}}

Much of the economy was centrally organized and strictly controlled. Although the ancient Egyptians did not use [[Currency|coinage]] until the [[Late Period of ancient Egypt|Late period]],{{sfnp|Egypt: Coins of the Ptolemies|2002}} they did use a type of money-barter system,{{sfnp|Meskell|2004|p=23}} with standard sacks of grain and the ''[[Deben (unit)|deben]]'', a weight of roughly {{cvt|91|g|oz|0}} of copper or silver, forming a common denominator.{{sfnp|Manuelian|1998|p=372}} Workers were paid in grain: A simple laborer might earn {{frac|5|1|2}} sacks or ca. {{cvt|200|kg|lb}} of grain per month, while a foreman might earn {{frac|7|1|2}} sacks or roughly {{cvt|250|kg|lb}}. Prices were fixed across the country and recorded in lists to facilitate trading; for example a shirt cost five copper deben, while a cow cost 140{{nbsp}}deben.{{sfnp|Manuelian|1998|p=372}} Grain could be traded for other goods, according to the fixed price list.{{sfnp|Manuelian|1998|p=372}} During the fifth century{{nbsp}}BC coined money was introduced into Egypt from abroad. At first the coins were used as standardized pieces of [[precious metal]] rather than true money, but in the following centuries international traders came to rely on coinage.{{sfnp|Turner|1984|p=125}}

===Social status===
[[File:Relief of a Nobleman, ca. 1295-1070 B.C.E. 36.261.jpg|thumb|Painted limestone relief of a noble member of Ancient Egyptian society during the New Kingdom]]
Egyptian society was highly stratified, and [[social status]] was expressly displayed. Farmers made up the bulk of the population, but agricultural produce was owned directly by the state, temple, or [[Nobility|noble family]] that owned the land.{{sfnp|Manuelian|1998|p=383}} Farmers were also subject to a labor tax and were required to work on irrigation or construction projects in a [[corvée]] system.{{sfnp|James|2005|p=136}} Artists and craftsmen were of higher status than farmers, but they were also under state control, working in the shops attached to the temples and paid directly from the state treasury. Scribes and officials formed the upper class in ancient Egypt, known as the "white kilt class" in reference to the bleached linen garments that served as a mark of their rank.{{sfnp|Billard|1978|p=109}} The upper class prominently displayed their social status in art and literature. Below the nobility were the priests, physicians, and engineers with specialized training in their field. It is unclear whether [[slavery]] as understood today existed in ancient Egypt; there is difference of opinions among authors.{{sfnp|Social classes in ancient Egypt|2003}}

The ancient Egyptians viewed men and women, including people from all social classes, as essentially equal under the law, and even the lowliest [[peasant]] was entitled to petition the [[vizier (Ancient Egypt)|vizier]] and his court for redress.{{sfnp|Johnson|2002}} Although slaves were mostly used as indentured servants, they were able to buy and sell their servitude, work their way to freedom or nobility, and were usually treated by [[physician|doctors]] in the workplace.{{sfnp|Slavery|2012}} Both men and women had the right to own and sell property, make contracts, marry and divorce, receive inheritance, and pursue legal disputes in court. Married couples could own property jointly and protect themselves from divorce by agreeing to marriage contracts, which stipulated the financial obligations of the husband to his wife and children should the marriage end. Compared with their counterparts in ancient Greece, Rome, and even more modern places around the world, ancient Egyptian women had a greater range of personal choices, legal rights, and opportunities for achievement. Women such as [[Hatshepsut]] and [[Cleopatra VII]] even became pharaohs, while others wielded power as [[God's Wife of Amun|Divine Wives of Amun]]. Despite these freedoms, [[Women in ancient Egypt|ancient Egyptian women]] did not often take part in official roles in the administration, aside from the royal high priestesses, apparently served only secondary roles in the temples (not much data for many dynasties), and were not so probably to be as educated as men.{{sfnp|Johnson|2002}}

===Legal system===
[[File:Louvre-antiquites-egyptiennes-p1020372 Cropped and bg reduced.png|thumb|left|[[The Seated Scribe]] from [[Saqqara]], [[Fifth Dynasty of Egypt|5th dynasty]]]]
The head of the legal system was officially the pharaoh, who was responsible for enacting laws, delivering justice, and maintaining law and order, a concept the ancient Egyptians referred to as [[Ma'at]].{{sfnp|Manuelian|1998|p=358}} Although no [[legal code]]s from ancient Egypt survive, court documents show that Egyptian law was based on a common-sense view of right and wrong that emphasized reaching agreements and resolving conflicts rather than strictly adhering to a complicated set of statutes.{{sfnp|Johnson|2002}} Local councils of elders, known as ''Kenbet'' in the New Kingdom, were responsible for ruling in court cases involving small claims and minor disputes.{{sfnp|Manuelian|1998|p=358}} More serious cases involving murder, major land transactions, and tomb robbery were referred to the ''Great Kenbet'', over which the vizier or pharaoh presided. Plaintiffs and defendants were expected to represent themselves and were required to swear an oath that they had told the truth. In some cases, the state took on both the role of prosecutor and judge, and it could torture the accused with beatings to obtain a confession and the names of any co-conspirators. Whether the charges were trivial or serious, court scribes documented the complaint, testimony, and verdict of the case for future reference.{{sfnp|Oakes|Gahlin|2003|p=472}}

Punishment for minor crimes involved either imposition of fines, beatings, facial mutilation, or exile, depending on the severity of the offense. Serious crimes such as murder and tomb robbery were punished by execution, carried out by decapitation, drowning, or [[Impalement|impaling]] the criminal on a stake. Punishment could also be extended to the criminal's family.{{sfnp|Manuelian|1998|p=358}} Beginning in the New Kingdom, [[oracle]]s played a major role in the legal system, dispensing justice in both civil and criminal cases. The procedure was to ask the god a "yes" or "no" question concerning the right or wrong of an issue. The god, carried by a number of priests, rendered judgement by choosing one or the other, moving forward or backward, or pointing to one of the answers written on a piece of papyrus or an [[ostracon]].{{sfnp|McDowell|1999|p=168}}

===Agriculture===
{{Main|Ancient Egyptian agriculture}}
{{See also|Gardens of ancient Egypt}}
[[File:Rope stretching.jpg|thumb|right|Measuring and recording the harvest, from the tomb of [[TT69|Menna]] at [[Thebes, Egypt|Thebes]] (Eighteenth Dynasty)]]
[[File:Le_Jardin_de_Nébamoun.jpg|thumb|Rectangular fishpond with ducks and [[Lotus (plant)|lotus]] planted round with date palms and fruit trees, [[Tomb of Nebamun]], Thebes, 18th Dynasty]]

A combination of favorable geographical features contributed to the success of ancient Egyptian culture, the most important of which was the rich [[fertile soil]] resulting from annual inundations of the Nile River. The ancient Egyptians were thus able to produce an abundance of food, allowing the population to devote more time and resources to cultural, technological, and artistic pursuits. [[Land management]] was crucial in ancient Egypt because taxes were assessed based on the amount of land a person owned.{{sfnp|Manuelian|1998|p=361}}

Farming in Egypt was dependent on the cycle of the Nile River. The Egyptians recognized three seasons: ''[[Season of the Inundation|Akhet]]'' (flooding), ''[[Season of the Emergence|Peret]]'' (planting), and ''[[Season of the Harvest|Shemu]]'' (harvesting). The flooding season lasted from June to September, depositing on the river's banks a layer of mineral-rich silt ideal for growing crops. After the floodwaters had receded, the [[growing season]] lasted from October to February. Farmers plowed and planted seeds in the fields, which were irrigated with ditches and canals. Egypt received little rainfall, so farmers relied on the Nile to water their crops.{{sfnp|Nicholson|Shaw|2000|p=514}} From March to May, farmers used [[sickle]]s to harvest their crops, which were then [[Threshing|threshed]] with a [[Flail (tool)|flail]] to separate the straw from the grain. [[Winnowing]] removed the [[chaff]] from the grain, and the grain was then ground into flour, brewed to make beer, or stored for later use.{{sfnp|Nicholson|Shaw|2000|p=506}}

The ancient Egyptians cultivated [[emmer]] and [[barley]], and several other cereal grains, all of which were used to make the two main food staples of bread and beer.{{sfnp|Nicholson|Shaw|2000|p=510}} [[Flax]] plants, uprooted before they started flowering, were grown for the fibers of their stems. These fibers were split along their length and spun into thread, which was used to weave sheets of [[linen]] and to make clothing. [[Papyrus]] growing on the banks of the Nile River was used to make paper. Vegetables and fruits were grown in garden plots, close to habitations and on higher ground, and had to be watered by hand. Vegetables included leeks, garlic, melons, squashes, pulses, lettuce, and other crops, in addition to grapes that were made into wine.{{sfnp|Nicholson|Shaw|2000|pp=577, 630}}
[[File:Agricultural Scenes, Tomb of Nakht MET 15.5.19b detail 2 rgb.jpg|thumb|center|upright=3|A tomb relief depicts workers plowing the fields, harvesting the crops, and threshing the grain under the direction of an overseer, painting in the tomb of [[TT52|Nakht]].]]{{-|left}}

====Animals====
[[File:Maler der Grabkammer des Sennudem 001.jpg|thumb|left|[[Sennedjem]] plows his fields in [[Aaru]] with a pair of oxen, [[Deir el-Medina]].]]
The Egyptians believed that a balanced relationship between people and [[animal]]s was an essential element of the cosmic order; thus humans, animals and plants were believed to be members of a single whole.{{sfnp|Strouhal|1989|p=117}} Animals, both [[Domestication|domesticated]] and [[Wildlife|wild]], were therefore a critical source of spirituality, companionship, and sustenance to the ancient Egyptians. [[Ancient Egyptian cattle|Cattle]] were the most important livestock; the administration collected taxes on livestock in regular [[Cattle count|censuses]], and the size of a herd reflected the prestige and importance of the estate or temple that owned them. In addition to cattle, the ancient Egyptians kept sheep, goats, and pigs. [[Poultry]], such as ducks, geese, and pigeons, were captured in nets and bred on farms, where they were force-fed with dough to fatten them.{{sfnp|Manuelian|1998|p=381}} The Nile provided a plentiful source of [[fish]]. Bees were also domesticated from at least the Old Kingdom, and provided both honey and wax.{{sfnp|Nicholson|Shaw|2000|p=409}}

The ancient Egyptians used donkeys and [[oxen]] as [[Working animal|beasts of burden]], and they were responsible for plowing the fields and trampling seed into the soil. The slaughter of a fattened ox was also a central part of an offering ritual. Horses were introduced by the [[Hyksos]] in the [[Second Intermediate Period]]. Camels, although known from the New Kingdom, were not used as beasts of burden until the Late Period. There is also evidence to suggest that [[North African elephant|elephants]] were briefly used in the Late Period but largely abandoned due to lack of [[grazing]] land.{{sfnp|Manuelian|1998|p=381}} [[Cats in ancient Egypt|Cats]], dogs, and monkeys were common family pets, while more exotic pets imported from the heart of Africa, such as [[Sub-Saharan Africa]]n [[lion]]s,{{sfnp|Heptner|Sludskii|1992|pp=83–95}} were reserved for royalty. [[Herodotus]] observed that the Egyptians were the only people to keep their animals with them in their houses.{{sfnp|Strouhal|1989|p=117}} During the Late Period, the worship of the gods in their animal form was extremely popular, such as the cat goddess [[Bastet (mythology)|Bastet]] and the ibis god [[Thoth]], and these animals were kept in large numbers for the purpose of ritual sacrifice.{{sfnp|Oakes|Gahlin|2003|p=229}}

===Natural resources===
{{Further|Mining industry of Egypt|Stone quarries of ancient Egypt}}
Egypt is rich in building and decorative stone, copper and lead ores, gold, and semiprecious stones. These [[natural resource]]s allowed the ancient Egyptians to build monuments, sculpt statues, make tools, and [[fashion jewelry]].{{sfnp|Greaves|Little|1930|p=123}} [[Embalming|Embalmers]] used salts from the [[Wadi El Natrun|Wadi Natrun]] for [[mummy|mummification]], which also provided the [[gypsum]] needed to make plaster.{{sfnp|Lucas|1962|p=413}} Ore-bearing [[rock formation]]s were found in distant, inhospitable [[wadi]]s in the [[Eastern Desert]] and the Sinai, requiring large, state-controlled expeditions to obtain natural resources found there. There were extensive [[Gold mining|gold mines]] in [[Nubia]], and one of the first maps known is of a gold mine in this region. The [[Wadi Hammamat]] was a notable source of granite, [[greywacke]], and gold. [[Flint]] was the first mineral collected and used to make tools, and flint handaxes are the earliest pieces of evidence of habitation in the Nile valley. Nodules of the mineral were carefully flaked to make blades and arrowheads of moderate hardness and durability even after copper was adopted for this purpose.{{sfnp|Nicholson|Shaw|2000|p=28}} Ancient Egyptians were among the first to use minerals such as [[sulfur]] as cosmetic substances.{{sfnp|Hogan |2011|loc="Sulphur"}}

The Egyptians worked deposits of the [[Lead|lead ore]] [[galena]] at Gebel Rosas to make net sinkers, plumb bobs, and small figurines. Copper was the most important metal for toolmaking in ancient Egypt and was smelted in furnaces from [[malachite]] ore mined in the Sinai.{{sfnp|Scheel|1989|p=14}} Workers collected gold by washing the nuggets out of sediment in [[Alluvium|alluvial deposits]], or by the more labor-intensive process of grinding and washing gold-bearing quartzite. Iron deposits found in upper Egypt were used in the Late Period.{{sfnp|Nicholson|Shaw|2000|p=166}} High-quality building stones were abundant in Egypt; the ancient Egyptians quarried limestone all along the Nile valley, granite from Aswan, and basalt and sandstone from the wadis of the Eastern Desert. Deposits of decorative stones such as [[Porphyry (geology)|porphyry]], greywacke, [[alabaster]], and [[carnelian]] dotted the Eastern Desert and were collected even before the First Dynasty. In the Ptolemaic and Roman Periods, miners worked deposits of [[emerald]]s in Wadi Sikait and [[amethyst]] in [[Wadi el-Hudi]].{{sfnp|Nicholson|Shaw|2000|p=51}}

===Trade===
{{Main|Ancient Egyptian trade}}
[[File:Relief of Hatshepsut's expedition to the Land of Punt by Σταύρος.jpg|thumb|Hatshepsut's trading expedition to the [[Land of Punt]]]]

The ancient Egyptians engaged in trade with their [[Foreign contacts of ancient Egypt|foreign neighbors]] to obtain rare, exotic goods not found in Egypt. In the [[Predynastic Egypt|Predynastic Period]], they established trade with Nubia to obtain gold and incense. They also established trade with Palestine, as evidenced by Palestinian-style oil jugs found in the burials of the First Dynasty pharaohs.{{sfnp|Shaw|2003|pp=63, 69}} An Egyptian [[colony]] stationed in southern [[Canaan]] dates to slightly before the First Dynasty.{{sfnp|Porat|1992|pp=433–440}} [[Tell es-Sakan]] in present-day Gaza was established as an Egyptian settlement in the late 4th millennium&nbsp;BC, and is theorised to have been the main Egyptian colonial site in the region.{{sfnp|de Miroschedji|Sadeq|2008}} [[Narmer]] had Egyptian pottery produced in Canaan and exported back to Egypt.{{sfnp|Porat|1986|pp=109–129}}{{sfnp|Egyptian pottery of the beginning of the First Dynasty, found in South Palestine|2000}}

By the Second Dynasty at latest, ancient Egyptian trade with [[Byblos]] yielded a critical source of quality timber not found in Egypt. By the Fifth Dynasty, trade with [[Land of Punt|Punt]] provided gold, aromatic resins, ebony, ivory, and wild animals such as monkeys and baboons.{{sfnp|Shaw|2003|pp=74, 101}} Egypt relied on trade with [[Anatolia]] for essential quantities of tin as well as supplementary supplies of copper, both metals being necessary for the manufacture of bronze. The ancient Egyptians prized the blue stone [[lapis lazuli]], which had to be imported from far-away [[Afghanistan]]. Egypt's Mediterranean trade partners also included [[ancient Greece|Greece]] and Crete, which provided, among other goods, supplies of [[olive oil]].{{sfnp|Manuelian|1998|p=145}}

==Language==
{{Main|Egyptian language}}

===Historical development===
{{Hiero | ''r n kmt''<br /> 'Egyptian language' | <hiero>r:Z1 n km m t:O49</hiero> | align=right | era=egypt}}

The [[Egyptian language]] is a northern [[Afro-Asiatic languages|Afro-Asiatic]] language closely related to the [[Berber languages|Berber]] and [[Semitic languages]].{{sfnp|Loprieno|1995b|p=2137}} It has the longest known history of any language having been written from {{circa|3200}}{{nbsp}}BC to the Middle Ages and remaining as a spoken language for longer. The phases of ancient Egyptian are [[Old Egyptian]], [[Middle Egyptian]] (Classical Egyptian), [[Late Egyptian]], [[Demotic (Egyptian)|Demotic]] and [[Coptic language|Coptic]].{{sfnp|Loprieno|2004|p=161}} Egyptian writings do not show dialect differences before Coptic, but it was probably spoken in regional dialects around Memphis and later Thebes.{{sfnp|Loprieno|2004|p=162}}

Ancient Egyptian was a [[synthetic language]], but it became more [[Analytic language|analytic]] later on. Late Egyptian developed prefixal definite and indefinite [[Article (grammar)|articles]], which replaced the older inflectional [[suffix]]es. There was a change from the older [[verb–subject–object]] [[word order]] to [[subject–verb–object]].{{sfnp|Loprieno|1995b|pp=2137–2138}} The Egyptian [[Egyptian hieroglyphs|hieroglyphic]], [[hieratic]], and demotic scripts were eventually replaced by the more phonetic [[Coptic alphabet]]. Coptic is still used in the liturgy of the [[Coptic Orthodox Church|Egyptian Orthodox Church]], and traces of it are found in modern [[Egyptian Arabic]].{{sfnp|Vittman|1991|pp=197–227}}

===Sounds and grammar===
Ancient Egyptian has 25 consonants similar to those of other Afro-Asiatic languages. These include [[pharyngeal consonant|pharyngeal]] and [[Emphatic consonant|emphatic]] consonants, voiced and voiceless stops, voiceless [[Fricative consonant|fricatives]] and voiced and voiceless [[Affricate consonant|affricates]]. It has three long and three short vowels, which expanded in Late Egyptian to about nine.{{sfnp|Loprieno|1995a|p=46}} The basic word in Egyptian, similar to Semitic and Berber, is a [[Semitic root|triliteral]] or biliteral root of consonants and semiconsonants. Suffixes are added to form words. The verb conjugation corresponds to the [[Grammatical person|person]]. For example, the triconsonantal skeleton '''{{transliteration|egy|S-Ḏ-M}}''' is the semantic core of the word 'hear'; its basic conjugation is ''{{transliteration|egy|sḏm}}'', 'he hears'. If the subject is a noun, suffixes are not added to the verb:{{sfnp|Loprieno|1995a|p=74}} ''{{transliteration|egy|sḏm ḥmt}}'', 'the woman hears'.

Adjectives are derived from nouns through a process that Egyptologists call ''[[Arabic grammar|nisbation]]'' because of its similarity with Arabic.{{sfnp|Loprieno|2004|p=175}} The word order is {{smallcaps|predicate–subject}} in verbal and adjectival sentences, and {{smallcaps|subject–predicate}} in nominal and adverbial sentences.{{sfnp|Allen|2000|pp=67, 70, 109}} The subject can be moved to the beginning of sentences if it is long and is followed by a resumptive pronoun.{{sfnp|Loprieno|1995b|p=2147}} Verbs and nouns are negated by the [[Grammatical particle|particle]] ''n'', but ''nn'' is used for adverbial and adjectival sentences. [[Stress (linguistics)|Stress]] falls on the ultimate or penultimate syllable, which can be open (CV) or closed (CVC).{{sfnp|Loprieno|2004|p=173}}

===Writing===
[[File:Rosetta Stone BW.jpeg|thumb|The [[Rosetta Stone]] ({{circa|196}} BC) enabled linguists to begin [[decipherment of ancient Egyptian scripts|deciphering ancient Egyptian scripts]].{{sfnp|Allen|2000|p=13}}|280x280px]]
[[Egyptian hieroglyphs|Hieroglyphic writing]] dates from {{circa|3000}}{{nbsp}}BC, and is composed of hundreds of symbols. A hieroglyph can represent a word, a sound, or a silent determinative; and the same symbol can serve different purposes in different contexts. Hieroglyphs were a formal script, used on stone monuments and in tombs, that could be as detailed as individual works of art. In day-to-day writing, scribes used a cursive form of writing, called [[hieratic]], which was quicker and easier. While formal hieroglyphs may be read in rows or columns in either direction (though typically written from right to left), hieratic was always written from right to left, usually in horizontal rows. A new form of writing, [[Demotic (Egyptian)|Demotic]], became the prevalent writing style, and it is this form of writing—along with formal hieroglyphs—that accompany the Greek text on the Rosetta Stone.{{sfnp|Loprieno|1995a|pp=10–26}}

Around the first century AD, the Coptic alphabet started to be used alongside the Demotic script. Coptic is a modified [[Greek alphabet]] with the addition of some Demotic signs.{{sfnp|Allen|2000|p=7}} Although formal hieroglyphs were used in a ceremonial role until the fourth century, towards the end only a small handful of priests could still read them. As the traditional religious establishments were disbanded, knowledge of hieroglyphic writing was mostly lost. Attempts to decipher them date to the Byzantine{{sfnp|Loprieno|2004|p=166}} and Islamic periods in Egypt,{{sfnp|El-Daly|2005|p=164}} but only in the 1820s, after the discovery of the Rosetta Stone and years of research by [[Thomas Young (scientist)|Thomas Young]] and [[Jean-François Champollion]], were hieroglyphs [[decipherment of ancient Egyptian scripts|substantially deciphered]].{{sfnp|Allen|2000|p=8}}

===Literature===
{{Main|Ancient Egyptian literature}}
[[File:Minnakht 01.JPG|thumb|Hieroglyphs on stela in [[Louvre]], {{circa|1321}} BC]]

Writing first appeared in association with kingship on labels and tags for items found in royal tombs. It was primarily an occupation of the scribes, who worked out of the ''Per Ankh'' institution or the House of Life. The latter comprised offices, libraries (called House of Books), laboratories and observatories.{{sfnp|Strouhal|1989|p=235}} Some of the best-known pieces of ancient Egyptian literature, such as the [[Pyramid Texts|Pyramid]] and [[Coffin Texts]], were written in Classical Egyptian, which continued to be the language of writing until about 1300{{nbsp}}BC. Late Egyptian was spoken from the New Kingdom onward and is represented in [[Ramesside Period|Ramesside]] administrative documents, love poetry and tales, as well as in Demotic and Coptic texts. During this period, the tradition of writing had evolved into the tomb autobiography, such as those of [[Harkhuf]] and [[Weni the Elder|Weni]]. The genre known as ''[[Sebayt]]'' ('instructions') was developed to communicate teachings and guidance from famous nobles; the [[Ipuwer Papyrus|Ipuwer papyrus]], a poem of lamentations describing [[natural disaster]]s and social upheaval, is a famous example.

The ''[[Story of Sinuhe]]'', written in [[Middle Egyptian]], might be the classic of Egyptian literature.{{sfnp|Lichtheim|1975|p=11}} Also written at this time was the [[Westcar Papyrus]], a set of stories told to [[Khufu]] by his sons relating the marvels performed by priests.{{sfnp|Lichtheim|1975|p=215}} The [[Instruction of Amenemope]] is considered a masterpiece of Near Eastern literature.{{sfnp|Day|Gordon|Williamson|1995|p=23}} Towards the end of the New Kingdom, the [[Late Egyptian|vernacular language]] was more often employed to write popular pieces such as the [[Story of Wenamun]] and the [[Instruction of Any]]. The former tells the story of a noble who is robbed on his way to buy cedar from Lebanon and of his struggle to return to Egypt. From about 700{{nbsp}}BC, narrative stories and instructions, such as the popular Instructions of Onchsheshonqy, as well as personal and business documents were written in the [[Demotic (Egyptian)|demotic]] script and phase of Egyptian. Many stories written in demotic during the [[Greco-Roman]] period were set in previous historical eras, when Egypt was an independent nation ruled by great pharaohs such as [[Ramesses II]].{{sfnp|Lichtheim|1980|p=159}}

==Culture==

===Daily life===
{{Further|Clothing in ancient Egypt|Dance in ancient Egypt|Music of Egypt#Old Kingdom}}
[[File:LowClassAncientEgyptianStatuettes.png|thumb|left|Lower-class occupations]]

Most ancient Egyptians were farmers tied to the land. Their dwellings were restricted to immediate family members, and were constructed of [[mudbrick]] designed to remain cool in the heat of the day. Each home had a kitchen with an open roof, which contained a grindstone for milling grain and a small oven for baking the bread.{{sfnp|Manuelian|1998|p=401}} [[Ancient Egyptian pottery|Ceramics]] served as household wares for the storage, preparation, transport, and consumption of food, drink, and raw materials. Walls were painted white and could be covered with dyed linen wall hangings. Floors were covered with reed mats, while wooden stools, beds raised from the floor and individual tables comprised the furniture.{{sfnp|Manuelian|1998|p=403}}
[[File:Ägyptischer Maler um 1400 v. Chr. 001.jpg|thumb|Egyptians celebrated feasts and festivals, accompanied by music and dance.]]
The ancient Egyptians placed a great value on hygiene and appearance. Most bathed in the Nile and used a pasty soap made from [[animal fat]] and chalk. Men shaved their entire bodies for cleanliness; perfumes and aromatic ointments covered bad odors and soothed skin.{{sfnp|Manuelian|1998|p=405}} Clothing was made from simple linen sheets that were bleached white, and both men and women of the upper classes wore wigs, jewelry, and [[Beauty and Cosmetics in Ancient Egypt|cosmetics]]. Children went without clothing until maturity, at about age 12, and at this age males were circumcised and had their heads shaved. Mothers were responsible for taking care of the children, while the father provided the family's [[income]].{{sfnp|Manuelian|1998|pp=406–407}}

Music and dance were popular entertainments for those who could afford them. Early instruments included flutes and harps, while instruments similar to trumpets, oboes, and pipes developed later and became popular. In the New Kingdom, the Egyptians played on bells, cymbals, tambourines, drums, and imported [[lute]]s and [[lyre]]s from Asia.{{sfnp|Music in Ancient Egypt|2003}} The [[sistrum]] was a rattle-like [[musical instrument]] that was especially important in religious ceremonies.
[[File:ThebesDeirMedinaLandscape.jpg|right|thumb|Ruins of Deir el-Medina]]
The ancient Egyptians enjoyed a variety of leisure activities, including games and music. [[Senet]], a board game where pieces moved according to random chance, was particularly popular from the earliest times; another similar game was [[mehen (game)|mehen]], which had a circular gaming board. "[[Hounds and Jackals]]" also known as 58 holes is another example of board games played in ancient Egypt. The first complete set of this game was discovered from a [[List of Theban tombs|Theban tomb]] of the Egyptian pharaoh [[Amenemhat IV]] that dates to the [[13th Dynasty]].{{sfnmp|1a1=Metcalfe|1y=2018|2a1=Seaburn|2y=2018}} Juggling and [[ball game]]s were popular with children, and wrestling is also documented in a tomb at [[Beni Hasan]].{{sfnp|Manuelian|1998|p=126}} The wealthy members of ancient Egyptian society enjoyed [[Hunting, fishing and animals in ancient Egypt|hunting, fishing]], and boating as well.

The excavation of the workers' village of [[Deir el-Medina]] has resulted in one of the most thoroughly documented accounts of community life in the ancient world, which spans almost four hundred years. There is no comparable site in which the organization, social interactions, and working and living conditions of a community have been studied in such detail.{{sfnp|Hayes|1973|p=380}}

===Cuisine===
<!-- this section is intended as a brief overview, more details under 'see also' -->
{{Main|Ancient Egyptian cuisine}}
[[File:Maler_der_Grabkammer_der_Itet_002.jpg|thumb|Hunting game birds and plowing a field, tomb of [[Nefermaat]] and his wife [[Itet]] ({{circa|2700 BC}})]]

Egyptian cuisine remained remarkably stable over time; indeed, the [[Egyptian cuisine|cuisine of modern Egypt]] retains some striking similarities to the cuisine of the ancients. The staple diet consisted of bread and beer, supplemented with vegetables such as onions and garlic, and fruit such as dates and figs. Wine and meat were enjoyed by all on feast days while the upper classes indulged on a more regular basis. Fish, meat, and fowl could be salted or dried, and could be cooked in stews or roasted on a grill.{{sfnp|Manuelian|1998|pp=399–400}}

===Architecture===
<!-- this section is intended as a brief overview, more details under 'see also' -->
{{Main|Ancient Egyptian architecture}}
The architecture of ancient Egypt includes some of the most famous structures in the world: the [[Giza pyramid complex|Great Pyramids of Giza]] and the temples at Thebes. Building projects were organized and funded by the state for religious and commemorative purposes, but also to reinforce the wide-ranging power of the pharaoh. The ancient Egyptians were skilled builders; using only simple but effective tools and sighting instruments, architects could build large [[stone structures]] with great accuracy and precision that is still envied today.{{sfnp|Clarke|Engelbach|1990|pp=94–97}}

The domestic dwellings of elite and ordinary Egyptians alike were constructed from perishable materials such as mudbricks and wood, and have not survived. Peasants lived in simple homes, while the palaces of the elite and the pharaoh were more elaborate structures. A few surviving New Kingdom palaces, such as those in [[Malkata]] and [[Amarna]], show richly decorated walls and floors with scenes of people, birds, water pools, deities and geometric designs.{{sfnp|Badawy|1968|p=50}} Important structures such as temples and tombs that were intended to last forever were constructed of stone instead of mudbricks. The architectural elements used in the world's first large-scale stone building, [[Djoser]]'s mortuary complex, include [[post and lintel]] supports in the papyrus and lotus motif.{{citation needed|date=December 2023}}

The earliest preserved ancient Egyptian temples, such as those at Giza, consist of single, enclosed halls with roof slabs supported by columns. In the New Kingdom, architects added the [[pylon (architecture)|pylon]], the open [[courtyard]], and the enclosed [[hypostyle]] hall to the front of the temple's sanctuary, a style that was standard until the Greco-Roman period.{{sfnp|Types of temples in ancient Egypt|2003}} The earliest and most popular tomb architecture in the Old Kingdom was the [[mastaba]], a flat-roofed rectangular structure of mudbrick or stone built over an underground [[Chamber tomb|burial chamber]]. The [[Pyramid of Djoser|step pyramid of Djoser]] is a series of stone mastabas stacked on top of each other. Pyramids were built during the Old and Middle Kingdoms, but most later rulers abandoned them in favor of less conspicuous rock-cut tombs.{{sfnp|Dodson|1991|p=23}} The use of the pyramid form continued in private tomb chapels of the New Kingdom and in the royal [[Nubian pyramids|pyramids of Nubia]].{{sfnp|Dodson|Ikram|2008|pages=218, 275–276}}

<gallery mode="packed" class="center" heights="170">
File:Model of a Porch and Garden MET DP350593.jpg|Model of a household porch and garden, {{circa|1981–1975 BC}}
File:The Temple of Dendur MET DT563.jpg|The [[Temple of Dendur]], completed by 10 BC, [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]] (New York City)
File:Philae temple at night.jpg|The well preserved Temple of Isis from [[Philae]] is an example of [[Ancient Egyptian architecture|Egyptian architecture]] and [[architectural sculpture]].
File:Lepsius-Projekt tw 1-2-108.jpg|Illustration of various types of capitals, by [[Karl Richard Lepsius]]
</gallery>

===Art===
<!-- this section is intended as a brief overview, more details under 'see also' -->
{{Main|Art of ancient Egypt|Portraiture in ancient Egypt}}
[[File:Menna and Family Hunting in the Marshes, Tomb of Menna MET DT10878.jpg|thumb|Menna and Family Hunting in the Marshes, Tomb of Menna, {{circa|1400}} BC]]

The ancient Egyptians produced art to serve functional purposes. For over 3500 years, artists adhered to artistic forms and iconography that were developed during the Old Kingdom, following a strict set of principles that resisted foreign influence and internal change.{{sfnp|Robins|2008|p=29}} These artistic standards—simple lines, shapes, and flat areas of color combined with the characteristic flat projection of figures with no indication of spatial depth—created a sense of order and balance within a composition. Images and text were intimately interwoven on tomb and temple walls, coffins, stelae, and even statues. The [[Narmer Palette]], for example, displays figures that can also be read as hieroglyphs.{{sfnp|Robins|2008|p=21}} Because of the rigid rules that governed its highly stylized and symbolic appearance, ancient Egyptian art served its political and religious purposes with precision and clarity.{{sfnp|Robins|2008|p=12}}

[[File:Calcite Basin Supporting a Boat with Shrine00 (6).jpg|thumb|Egyptian [[Wooden tomb model|tomb models]] as funerary goods]]
Ancient Egyptian artisans used stone as a medium for carving statues and fine reliefs, but used wood as a cheap and easily carved substitute. Paints were obtained from minerals such as iron ores (red and yellow ochres), copper ores (blue and green), soot or charcoal (black), and limestone (white). Paints could be mixed with [[gum arabic]] as a binder and pressed into cakes, which could be moistened with water when needed.{{sfnp|Nicholson|Shaw|2000|p=105}}

Pharaohs used [[relief]]s to record victories in battle, royal decrees, and religious scenes. Common citizens had access to pieces of [[funerary art]], such as [[Ushabti|shabti]] statues and books of the dead, which they believed would protect them in the afterlife.{{sfnp|James|2005|p=122}} During the Middle Kingdom, [[Wooden tomb model|wooden or clay models]] depicting scenes from everyday life became popular additions to the tomb. In an attempt to duplicate the activities of the living in the [[afterlife]], these models show laborers, houses, boats, and even military formations that are scale representations of the ideal ancient Egyptian afterlife.{{sfnp|Robins|2008|p=74}}

Despite the homogeneity of ancient Egyptian art, the styles of particular times and places sometimes reflected changing cultural or political attitudes. After the invasion of the Hyksos in the Second Intermediate Period, [[Minoan civilization|Minoan]]-style frescoes were found in [[Avaris]].{{sfnp|Shaw|2003|p=204}} The most striking example of a politically driven change in artistic forms comes from the [[Amarna Period]], where figures were radically altered to conform to [[Akhenaten]]'s revolutionary religious ideas.{{sfnp|Robins|2008|p=149}} This style, known as [[Amarna art]], was quickly abandoned after Akhenaten's death and replaced by the traditional forms.{{sfnp|Robins|2008|p=158}}

<gallery mode="packed" class="center" heights="170">
File:Kneeling portrait statue of Amenemhat holding a stele with an inscription 01.jpg|Stelophorous statue of Amenemhat; {{Circa|1500 BC}}
File:Tomb of Nebamun.jpg|Fresco which depicts [[Nebamun]] hunting birds; {{Circa}} 1350&nbsp;BC
File:Portrait head of pharaoh Hatshepsut or Thutmose III 01.jpg|Portrait head of pharaoh [[Hatshepsut]] or [[Thutmose III]]; 1480–1425 BC
File:Falcon Box with Wrapped Contents MET 12.182.5a b EGDP023129.jpg|Falcon box with wrapped contents; 332–30&nbsp;BC
</gallery>

===Religious beliefs===
<!-- this section is intended as a brief overview, more details under 'see also' -->
{{Main|Ancient Egyptian religion}}
[[File:The judgement of the dead in the presence of Osiris.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|The [[Book of the Dead]] was a guide to the deceased's journey in the afterlife.]]

Beliefs in the divine and in the afterlife were ingrained in ancient Egyptian civilization from its inception; pharaonic rule was based on the [[Divine Right of Kings|divine right of kings]]. The Egyptian pantheon was populated by [[Egyptian pantheon|gods]] who had supernatural powers and were called on for help or protection. However, the gods were not always viewed as benevolent, and Egyptians believed they had to be appeased with offerings and prayers. The structure of this [[Ancient Egyptian deities|pantheon]] changed continually as new deities were promoted in the hierarchy, but priests made no effort to organize the diverse and sometimes conflicting [[Egyptian mythology|myths]] and stories into a coherent system.{{sfnp|James|2005|p=102}} These various conceptions of divinity were not considered contradictory but rather layers in the multiple facets of reality.{{sfnp|Redford|2003|p=106}}
[[File:La_Tombe_de_Horemheb_cropped.jpg|alt=Painted relief of a seated man with green skin and tight garments, a man with the head of a jackal, and a man with the head of a falcon|thumb|The gods [[Osiris]], [[Anubis]], and [[Horus]] in the tomb of Horemheb ([[KV57]]) in the Valley of the Kings]]
Gods were worshiped in cult temples administered by priests acting on the king's behalf. At the center of the temple was the cult statue in a shrine. Temples were not places of public worship or congregation, and only on select feast days and celebrations was a shrine carrying the statue of the god brought out for public worship. Normally, the god's domain was sealed off from the outside world and was only accessible to temple officials. Common citizens could worship private statues in their homes, and amulets offered protection against the forces of chaos.{{sfnp|James|2005|p=117}} After the New Kingdom, the pharaoh's role as a spiritual intermediary was de-emphasized as religious customs shifted to direct worship of the gods. As a result, priests developed a system of [[oracle]]s to communicate the will of the gods directly to the people.{{sfnp|Shaw|2003|p=313}}

The Egyptians believed that every human being was composed of physical and spiritual parts or ''aspects''. In addition to the body, each person had a ''šwt'' (shadow), a ''ba'' (personality or soul), a ''ka'' (life-force), and a ''name''.{{sfnp|Allen|2000|pp=79, 94–95}} The heart, rather than the brain, was considered the seat of thoughts and emotions. After death, the spiritual aspects were released from the body and could move at will, but they required the physical remains (or a substitute, such as a statue) as a permanent home. The ultimate goal of the deceased was to rejoin his ''ka'' and ''ba'' and become one of the "blessed dead", living on as an ''akh'', or "effective one". For this to happen, the deceased had to be judged worthy in a trial, in which the heart was weighed against a "[[Maat#Afterlife|feather of truth]]". If deemed worthy, the deceased could continue their existence on earth in spiritual form.{{sfnp|Wasserman|1994|pp=150–153}} If they were not deemed worthy, their heart was eaten by [[Ammit]] the Devourer and they were erased from the Universe.{{citation needed|date=December 2023}}

===Burial customs===
<!-- this section is intended as a brief overview, more details under 'see also' -->
{{Main|Ancient Egyptian funerary practices}}
[[File:Anubis attending the mummy of Sennedjem.jpg|thumb|left|[[Anubis]], the god associated with mummification and burial rituals, attending to a mummy]]

The ancient Egyptians maintained an elaborate set of burial customs that they believed were necessary to ensure immortality after death. These customs involved preserving the body by [[Mummy|mummification]], performing burial ceremonies, and interring with the body goods the deceased would use in the afterlife.{{sfnp|James|2005|p=122}} Before the Old Kingdom, bodies buried in desert pits were naturally preserved by [[desiccation]]. The arid, desert conditions were a boon throughout the history of ancient Egypt for burials of the poor, who could not afford the elaborate burial preparations available to the elite. Wealthier Egyptians began to bury their dead in stone tombs and use artificial mummification, which involved removing the [[Organ (anatomy)|internal organs]], wrapping the body in linen, and burying it in a rectangular stone sarcophagus or wooden coffin. Beginning in the Fourth Dynasty, some parts were preserved separately in [[canopic jar]]s.{{sfnp|Ikram|Dodson|1998|p=29}}

[[File:Tutankhamun tomb photographs 4 326.jpg|thumb|upright|A painted, wooden figure of Tutankhamun found in his royal tomb]]

By the New Kingdom, the ancient Egyptians had perfected the art of mummification; the best technique took 70 days and involved removing the internal organs, removing the brain through the nose, and desiccating the body in a mixture of salts called [[natron]]. The body was then wrapped in linen with protective amulets inserted between layers and placed in a decorated anthropoid coffin. Mummies of the Late Period were also placed in painted [[cartonnage]] mummy cases. Actual preservation practices declined during the Ptolemaic and Roman eras, while greater emphasis was placed on the outer appearance of the mummy, which was decorated.{{sfnp|Ikram|Dodson|1998|pp=40, 51, 138}}

Wealthy Egyptians were buried with larger quantities of luxury items, but all burials, regardless of social status, included goods for the deceased. [[Ancient Egyptian funerary texts|Funerary texts]] were often included in the grave, and, beginning in the New Kingdom, so were [[Ushabti|shabti]] statues that were believed to perform manual labor for them in the afterlife.{{sfnp|Shabtis|2001}} Rituals in which the deceased was magically re-animated accompanied burials. After burial, living relatives were expected to occasionally bring food to the tomb and recite prayers on behalf of the deceased.{{sfnp|James|2005|p=124}}

==Military==
{{Main|Military of ancient Egypt}}
{{Further|Ancient Egyptian navy}}
[[File:King_Tut_charging_enemies,_18th_dynasty.jpg|thumb|Tutankhamun charging enemies on his [[chariot]], 18th dynasty]]

The ancient Egyptian military was responsible for defending Egypt against foreign invasion, and for maintaining Egypt's domination in the [[ancient Near East]]. The military protected mining expeditions to the Sinai during the Old Kingdom and fought civil wars during the First and Second Intermediate Periods. The military was responsible for maintaining fortifications along important trade routes, such as those found at the city of [[Buhen]] on the way to Nubia. Forts also were constructed to serve as military bases, such as the fortress at Sile, which was a base of operations for expeditions to the [[Levant]]. In the New Kingdom, a series of pharaohs used the standing Egyptian army to attack and conquer [[Kingdom of Kush|Kush]] and parts of the Levant.{{sfnp|Shaw|2003|p=245}}

[[File:Mesehtisoldiers.JPG|thumb|Wooden figures of soldiers, from the tomb of nomarch [[Mesehti]] ([[Eleventh Dynasty of Egypt|11th dynasty]])]]

Typical military equipment included [[Bow (weapon)|bows and arrows]], spears, and round-topped shields made by stretching [[Leather|animal skin]] over a wooden frame. In the New Kingdom, the military began using [[Chariotry in ancient Egypt|chariots]] that had earlier been introduced by the Hyksos invaders. Weapons and armor continued to improve after the adoption of bronze: shields were now made from solid wood with a bronze buckle, spears were tipped with a bronze point, and the [[khopesh]] was adopted from Asiatic soldiers.{{sfnp|Gutgesell|1998|p=365}} The pharaoh was usually depicted in art and literature riding at the head of the army; it has been suggested that at least a few pharaohs, such as [[Seqenenre Tao II]] and his sons, did do so.{{sfnp|Clayton|1994|p=96}} However, it has also been argued that "kings of this period did not personally act as frontline war leaders, fighting alongside their troops".{{sfnp|Shaw|2009}} Soldiers were recruited from the general population, but during, and especially after, the New Kingdom, mercenaries from Nubia, Kush, and Libya were hired to fight for Egypt.{{sfnp|Shaw|2003|p=400}}

==Technology, medicine and mathematics==
<!-- This section is linked from [[Civilization]] -->

===Technology===
{{Main|Ancient Egyptian technology}}
[[File:Egyptian glass jar.jpg|thumb|right|Glassmaking was a highly developed art.]]

In technology, medicine, and mathematics, ancient Egypt achieved a relatively high standard of productivity and sophistication. Traditional [[empiricism]], as evidenced by the [[Edwin Smith Papyrus|Edwin Smith]] and [[Ebers Papyrus|Ebers papyri]] ({{circa|1600 BC}}), is first credited to Egypt. The Egyptians created their own alphabet and [[decimal|decimal system]].

===Faience and glass===
Even before the Old Kingdom, the ancient Egyptians had developed a glassy material known as [[Egyptian faience|faience]], which they treated as a type of artificial semi-precious stone. Faience is a non-clay ceramic made of [[Silicon dioxide|silica]], small amounts of [[Calcium oxide|lime]] and [[Sodium oxide|soda]], and a colorant, typically copper.{{sfnp|Nicholson|Shaw|2000|p=177}} The material was used to make beads, tiles, figurines, and small wares. Several methods can be used to create faience, but typically production involved application of the powdered materials in the form of a paste over a clay core, which was then fired. By a related technique, the ancient Egyptians produced a pigment known as [[Egyptian blue]], also called blue frit, which is produced by fusing (or [[sintering]]) silica, copper, lime, and an alkali such as natron. The product can be ground up and used as a pigment.{{sfnp|Nicholson|Shaw|2000|p=109}}

The ancient Egyptians could fabricate a wide variety of objects from glass with great skill, but it is not clear whether they developed the process independently.{{sfnp|Nicholson|Shaw|2000|p=195}} It is also unclear whether they made their own raw glass or merely imported pre-made ingots, which they melted and finished. However, they did have technical expertise in making objects, as well as adding [[Micromineral|trace elements]] to control the color of the finished glass. A range of colors could be produced, including yellow, red, green, blue, purple, and white, and the glass could be made either transparent or opaque.{{sfnp|Nicholson|Shaw|2000|p=215}}

===Medicine===
{{Main|Ancient Egyptian medicine}}
The medical problems of the ancient Egyptians stemmed directly from their environment. Living and working close to the Nile brought hazards from [[malaria]] and debilitating [[schistosomiasis]] parasites, which caused liver and intestinal damage. Dangerous wildlife such as crocodiles and hippos were also a common threat. The lifelong labors of farming and building put stress on the spine and joints, and traumatic injuries from construction and warfare all took a significant toll on the body. The grit and sand from stone-ground flour abraded teeth, leaving them susceptible to [[abscess]]es (though [[dental caries|caries]] were rare).{{sfnp|Filer|1995|p=94}}

The diets of the wealthy were rich in sugars, which promoted [[Periodontitis|periodontal disease]].{{sfnp|Filer|1995|pp=78–80}} Despite the flattering physiques portrayed on tomb walls, the overweight mummies of many of the upper class show the effects of a life of overindulgence.{{sfnp|Filer|1995|p=21}} Adult [[life expectancy]] was about 35 for men and 30 for women, but reaching adulthood was difficult as about one-third of the population died in infancy.{{efn|Figures are given for ''adult'' life expectancy and do not reflect life expectancy ''at birth.'' ({{harvp|Filer|1995|p=25}})}}

[[File:Edwin Smith Papyrus v2.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Edwin Smith Papyrus|Edwin Smith surgical papyrus]] describes anatomy and medical treatments, written in [[hieratic]], {{circa|1550 BC}}.]]
Ancient Egyptian physicians were renowned in the ancient Near East for their healing skills, and some, such as [[Imhotep]], remained famous long after their deaths.{{sfnp|Filer|1995|p=39}} Herodotus remarked that there was a high degree of specialization among Egyptian physicians, with some treating only the head or the stomach, while others were eye-doctors and dentists.{{sfnp|Strouhal|1989|p=243}} Training of physicians took place at the ''Per Ankh'' or "House of Life" institution, most notably those headquartered in [[Bubastis|Per-Bastet]] during the New Kingdom and at [[Abydos, Egypt|Abydos]] and [[Sais, Egypt|Saïs]] in the Late period. [[Medical papyri]] show [[Empirical evidence|empirical knowledge]] of anatomy, injuries, and practical treatments.{{sfnp|Strouhal|1989|pp=244–246}}

Wounds were treated by bandaging with raw meat, white linen, sutures, nets, pads, and swabs soaked with honey to prevent infection,{{sfnp|Strouhal|1989|p=250}} while [[opium]], [[thyme]], and [[Atropa belladonna|belladona]] were used to relieve pain. The earliest records of burn treatment describe burn dressings that use the milk from mothers of male babies. Prayers were made to the goddess [[Isis]]. Moldy bread, honey, and copper salts were also used to prevent infection from dirt in burns.{{sfnp|Pećanac|Janjić|Komarcević|Pajić|2013|pages=263–267}} Garlic and onions were used regularly to promote good health and were thought to relieve [[asthma]] symptoms. Ancient Egyptian surgeons stitched wounds, set [[broken bones]], and amputated diseased limbs, but they recognized that some injuries were so serious that they could only make the patient comfortable until death occurred.{{sfnp|Filer|1995|p=38}}

===Maritime technology===
Early Egyptians knew how to assemble planks of wood into a [[hull (watercraft)|ship hull]] and had mastered advanced forms of [[shipbuilding]] as early as 3000{{nbsp}}BC. The [[Archaeological Institute of America]] reports that the oldest [[Plank (wood)|planked]] [[ship]]s known are the [[Abydos boats]].{{sfnp|Ward|2001}} A group of 14 discovered ships in [[Abydos, Egypt|Abydos]] were constructed of wooden planks "sewn" together. Discovered by Egyptologist David O'Connor of [[New York University]],{{sfnp|Schuster|2000}} woven [[strap]]s were found to have been used to lash the planks together,{{sfnp|Ward|2001}} and [[Cyperus papyrus|reeds]] or [[Poaceae|grass]] stuffed between the planks helped to seal the seams.{{sfnp|Ward|2001}} Because the ships are all buried together and near a mortuary belonging to [[Khasekhemwy|Pharaoh Khasekhemwy]], originally they were all thought to have belonged to him, but one of the 14 ships dates to 3000{{nbsp}}BC, and the associated pottery jars buried with the vessels also suggest earlier dating. The ship dating to 3000{{nbsp}}BC was {{convert|75|ft|m}} long and is now thought to perhaps have belonged to an earlier pharaoh, perhaps one as early as [[Hor-Aha]].{{sfnp|Schuster|2000}}

Early Egyptians also knew how to assemble planks of wood with [[treenail]]s to fasten them together, using [[Pitch (resin)|pitch]] for [[caulking]] the seams. The "[[Khufu ship]]", a {{convert|43.6|m|ft|adj=on}} vessel sealed into a pit in the Giza pyramid complex at the foot of the [[Great Pyramid of Giza]] in the [[Fourth dynasty of Egypt|Fourth Dynasty]] around 2500{{nbsp}}BC, is a full-size surviving example that may have filled the symbolic function of a [[solar barque]]. Early Egyptians also knew how to fasten the planks of this ship together with [[mortise and tenon]] joints.{{sfnp|Ward|2001}}

[[File:Ancient Egyptian Seafaring Ship.jpg|thumb|left|Seagoing ship of an expedition to Punt, from a relief of [[Mortuary temple of Hatshepsut|Hatshepsut's Mortuary temple]], Deir el-Bahari]]Large seagoing ships are known to have been heavily used by the Egyptians in their trade with the city states of the eastern Mediterranean, especially [[Byblos]] (on the coast of modern-day Lebanon), and in several expeditions down the Red Sea to the [[Land of Punt]]. In fact one of the earliest Egyptian words for a seagoing ship is a "Byblos Ship", which originally defined a class of Egyptian seagoing ships used on the Byblos run; however, by the end of the Old Kingdom, the term had come to include large seagoing ships, whatever their destination.{{sfnp|Wachsmann|2009|p=19}}

In 1977, an ancient north–south canal was discovered extending from [[Lake Timsah]] to the Ballah Lakes.{{sfnp|Shea|1977|pp=31–38}} It was dated to the [[Middle Kingdom of Egypt]] by extrapolating dates of ancient sites constructed along its course.{{sfnp|Shea|1977|pp=31–38}}{{efn|See [[Suez Canal]].}}

In 2011, archaeologists from Italy, the United States, and Egypt, excavating a dried-up lagoon known as [[Mersa Gawasis]], unearthed traces of an ancient harbor that once launched early voyages, such as [[Hatshepsut]]'s Punt, expedition onto the open ocean. Some of the site's most evocative evidence for the ancient Egyptians' seafaring prowess include large ship timbers and hundreds of feet of ropes, made from papyrus, coiled in huge bundles.{{sfnp|Curry|2011}} In 2013, a team of Franco-Egyptian archaeologists discovered what is believed to be the world's oldest port, dating back about 4500 years, from the time of King Khufu, on the Red Sea coast, near Wadi el-Jarf (about 110 miles south of [[Suez]]).{{sfnmp|1a1=Boyle|1y=2013|2a1=Lorenzi|2y=2013}}

===Mathematics===
{{Main|Ancient Egyptian mathematics}}
[[File:Senenmut-Grab.JPG|right|thumb|Facsimile of the [[Astronomical ceiling of Senenmut's Tomb|Astronomical chart in Senemut's tomb]], 18th dynasty{{sfnp|Astronomical Ceiling|2020}}]]

The earliest attested examples of mathematical calculations date to the predynastic [[Naqada]] period, and show a fully developed [[Egyptian numerals|numeral system]].{{efn|Understanding of Egyptian mathematics is incomplete due to paucity of available material and lack of exhaustive study of the texts that have been uncovered ({{harvp|Imhausen|2007|p=13}}).}} The importance of mathematics to an educated Egyptian is suggested by a New Kingdom fictional letter in which the writer proposes a scholarly competition between himself and another scribe regarding everyday calculation tasks such as accounting of land, labor, and grain.{{sfnp|Imhausen|2007|p=11}} Texts such as the [[Rhind Mathematical Papyrus]] and the [[Moscow Mathematical Papyrus]] show that the ancient Egyptians could perform the four basic mathematical operations—addition, subtraction, [[Ancient Egyptian multiplication|multiplication]], and division—use fractions, calculate the areas of rectangles, triangles, and circles and compute the volumes of boxes, columns and pyramids. They understood basic concepts of [[Egyptian algebra|algebra]] and [[Egyptian geometry|geometry]], and could solve [[systems of equations]].{{sfnp|Clarke|Engelbach|1990|p=222}}

{{hiero | {{frac|2|3}} | <hiero>D22</hiero>| align=right| era=egypt}}

[[Mathematical notation]] was decimal, and based on hieroglyphic signs for each power of ten up to one million. Each of these could be written as many times as necessary to add up to the desired number; so to write the number eighty or eight hundred, the symbol for ten or one hundred was written eight times respectively.{{sfnp|Clarke|Engelbach|1990|p=217}} Because their methods of calculation could not handle most fractions with a numerator greater than one, they had to write [[Egyptian fraction|fractions]] as the sum of several fractions. For example, they resolved the fraction ''two-fifths'' into the sum of ''one-third'' + ''one-fifteenth''. Standard tables of values facilitated this.{{sfnp|Clarke|Engelbach|1990|p=218}} Some [[Vulgar fraction|common fractions]], however, were written with a special glyph—the equivalent of the modern two-thirds is shown on the right.{{sfnp|Gardiner|1957|p=197}}

Ancient Egyptian mathematicians knew the [[Pythagorean theorem]] as an empirical formula. They were aware, for example, that a triangle had a right angle opposite the [[hypotenuse]] when its sides were in a 3–4–5 ratio.{{sfnp|Strouhal|1989|p=241}} They were able to estimate the area of a [[circle]] by subtracting one-ninth from its diameter and squaring the result:

:Area ≈ [({{frac|8|9}})''D'']<sup>2</sup> = ({{frac|256|81}})''r''<sup>2</sup> ≈ 3.16''r''<sup>2</sup>,

a reasonable approximation of the formula {{nowrap|'''[[Pi|π]]'''''r''<sup>2</sup>}}.{{sfnmp|1a1=Strouhal|1y=1989|1p=241|2a1=Imhausen|2y=2007|2p=31}}

==Population==
{{Further|Population history of Egypt}}
{{See also|Ancient Egyptian race controversy}}
[[File:Megaliths Aswan Nubia museum.JPG|left|thumb|Megaliths from [[Nabta Playa]], constructed by Neolithic populations, located in [[Aswan]], Upper Egypt.{{sfnp|Ehret|2023|p=107}}<ref>{{cite book |last1=Holl |first1=Augustin |title=General history of Africa, IX: General history of Africa revisited |pages=469, 705-722|url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000396045?posInSet=1&queryId=N-EXPLORE-612fe50c-9ec6-4256-8bd3-7b7ec50033a7}}</ref>]]

Estimates of the size of the population range from 1–1.5 million in the 3rd millennium BC to possibly 2–3 million by the 1st millennium BC, before growing significantly towards the end of that millennium.{{sfnp|Bowman|2020}}

[[File:Al Fayum arrowheads.png|thumb|right|Arrowheads from Al Faiyum, [[Lower Egypt]]]]

Historical scholarship has generally regarded the peopling of the Egyptian Nile Valley from archaeological and biological data, to be the result of interaction between coastal [[north Africa|northern Africans]], "neolithic" [[African humid period|Saharans]], [[Nilotic people|Nilotic hunters]], and riverine proto-[[Nubians]] with some influence and migration from the [[Levant]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hassan |first=Fekri A. |date=1988-06-01 |title=The Predynastic of Egypt |journal=Journal of World Prehistory |language=en |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages=135–185 |doi=10.1007/BF00975416 |issn=1573-7802}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Keita |first1=S. O. Y. |title=Studies of ancient crania from northern Africa |journal=American Journal of Physical Anthropology |date=1990 |volume=83 |issue=1 |pages=35–48 |doi=10.1002/ajpa.1330830105 |pmid=2221029 |bibcode=1990AJPA...83...35K |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/ajpa.1330830105 |language=en |issn=1096-8644|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

In 2025, the UNESCO International Scientific Committee members for drafting the [[General History of Africa]] Volumes IX-XI reached the view that Egypt had African and Eurasian populations, with Upper Egypt now repositioned as the origin of pharaonic unification, with close [[archaeological]], [[Genetics|genetic]], [[linguistic]] and [[biological anthropology|biological anthropological]]  affinities identified between the Upper Egyptian populations and Sub-Saharan groups.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Holl |first1=Augustin |title=General history of Africa, IX: General history of Africa revisited |pages=LVII, 355-375, 724-731|url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000396045?posInSet=1&queryId=N-EXPLORE-612fe50c-9ec6-4256-8bd3-7b7ec50033a7}}</ref>

===Archaeogenetics===
{{Main|Genetic history of Egypt}}
According to historian William Stiebling and archaeologist Susan N. Helft, conflicting DNA analysis on recent genetic samples such as the [[Amarna]] royal mummies has led to a lack of consensus on the genetic makeup of the ancient Egyptians and their geographic origins.{{sfnp|Stiebing|Helft|2023}}

The genetic history of Ancient Egypt remains a developing field, and is relevant for the understanding of population demographic events connecting Africa and Eurasia. To date, the amount of genome-wide aDNA analyses on ancient specimens from Egypt and Sudan remain scarce, although studies on uniparental haplogroups in ancient individuals have been carried out several times, pointing broadly to affinities with other African and Eurasian groups.{{sfnp|Sirak|Sawchuk|Prendergast|2022|p=20–22}}{{sfnp|Prendergast|Sawchuk|Sirak|2022|p=13}}

[[File:Ancestry model of Nuwayrat genome (2855-2570 cal. BCE).png|thumb|upright=0.55|Ancestry model of Egyptian genome [[Old Kingdom individual (NUE001)|NUE001]] from Nuwayrat (2855–2570 BC).<ref name="MJ"/>]]
The currently most advanced full genome analyses was published in a 2025 article by the scientific journal [[Nature (journal)|Nature]], a whole-genome genetic study of an Old Kingdom adult male Egyptian of relatively high-status, codenamed "[[Old Kingdom individual (NUE001)]]", who was radiocarbon-dated to 2855–2570 BC, with funerary practices archeologically attributed to the [[Third Dynasty of Egypt|Third]] and [[Fourth Dynasty of Egypt|Fourth Dynasty]], excavated in Nuwayrat (Nuerat, نويرات), in a cliff 265 km south of Cairo.<ref name="MJ"/><ref>{{cite web |last1=Strickland |first1=Ashley |title=The first genome sequenced from ancient Egypt reveals surprising ancestry, scientists say |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2025/07/02/science/ancient-egyptian-genome-sequenced |website=CNN |language=en |date=2 July 2025}}</ref> Before this study, whole-genome sequencing of ancient Egyptians from the early periods of Egyptian Dynastic history had not yet been accomplished, mainly because of the problematic DNA preservation conditions in Egypt.<ref name="MJ"/> The corpse had been placed intact in a large circular clay pot without embalming, and then installed inside a cliff tomb, which accounts for the comparatively good level of conservation of the skeleton and its DNA.<ref name="MJ"/> Most of his genome was found to be associated with North African Neolithic ancestry, but about 20% of his genetic ancestry could be sourced to the eastern [[Fertile Crescent]], including [[Mesopotamia]].<ref name="MJ"/> Overall, the 2025 study "provides direct evidence of genetic ancestry related to the eastern Fertile Crescent in ancient Egypt".<ref name="MJ"/> This genetic connection suggests that there had been ancient migration flows from the eastern Fertile Crescent to Egypt, in addition to the exchanges of objects and imagery (domesticated animals and plants, writing systems...) already observed.<ref name="MJ">{{cite journal |last1=Morez Jacobs |first1=Adeline |last2=Irish |first2=Joel D. |last3=Cooke |first3=Ashley |last4=Anastasiadou |first4=Kyriaki |last5=Barrington |first5=Christopher |last6=Gilardet |first6=Alexandre |last7=Kelly |first7=Monica |last8=Silva |first8=Marina |last9=Speidel |first9=Leo |last10=Tait |first10=Frankie |last11=Williams |first11=Mia |last12=Brucato |first12=Nicolas |last13=Ricaut |first13=Francois-Xavier |last14=Wilkinson |first14=Caroline |last15=Madgwick |first15=Richard |last16=Holt |first16=Emily |last17=Nederbragt |first17=Alexandra J. |last18=Inglis |first18=Edward |last19=Hajdinjak |first19=Mateja |last20=Skoglund |first20=Pontus |last21=Girdland-Flink |first21=Linus |title=Whole-genome ancestry of an Old Kingdom Egyptian |journal=Nature |date=2 July 2025 |volume=644 |issue=8077 |pages=714–721 |doi=10.1038/s41586-025-09195-5 |pmid=40604286 |pmc=12367555 |bibcode=2025Natur.644..714M |language=en |issn=1476-4687|doi-access=free }}</ref> This suggests a pattern of [[Egypt–Mesopotamia relations|wide cultural and demographic expansion from the Mesopotamian region]], which affected both Anatolia and Egypt during this period.<ref name="MJ"/> The authors acknowledged some limitations of the study, such as the results deriving from one single Egyptian genome and known limitations predicting specific phenotypic traits in understudied populations.<ref>Morez Jacobs. [https://static-content.springer.com/esm/art%3A10.1038%2Fs41586-025-09195-5/MediaObjects/41586_2025_9195_MOESM4_ESM.xlsx Supplementary Table S10. Predicted phenotypes from the HirisPlexS system.].</ref>

An earlier partial genomic analyses had been made on much later specimens recovered from the Nile River Valley, Abusir el-Meleq, Egypt, dating from the 787 BC-23 AD time period. Two of the individuals were dated to the Pre-Ptolemaic Period ([[New Kingdom]] to Late Period), and one individual to the Ptolemaic Period. These results point to a genetic continuity of Ancient Egyptians with modern [[Egyptians]]. The results further point to a close genetic affinity between ancient Egyptians and [[Genetic history of the Middle East|Middle Eastern]] populations, especially ancient groups from the [[Levant]].{{sfnp|Sirak|Sawchuk|Prendergast|2022|p=20–22}}{{sfnp|Prendergast|Sawchuk|Sirak|2022|p=13}}

Ancient Egyptians also displayed affinities to [[Nubians]] to the south of Egypt, in modern-day [[Sudan]]. Archaeological and historical evidence support interactions between Egyptian and Nubian populations more than 5000 years ago, with socio-political dynamics between Egyptians and Nubians ranging from peaceful coexistence to variably successful attempts of conquest. A study on sixty-six ancient Nubian individuals revealed significant contact with ancient Egyptians, characterized by the presence of {{circa|57}}% Neolithic/Bronze Age Levantine ancestry in these individuals. Such geneflow of Levantine-like ancestry corresponds with archaeological and botanic evidence, pointing to a Neolithic movement around 7,000 years ago.{{sfnp|Sirak|Sawchuk|Prendergast|2022|p=20–22}}{{sfnp|Prendergast|Sawchuk|Sirak|2022|p=13}}

Modern Egyptians, like modern Nubians, also underwent subsequent admixture events, contributing both "Sub-Saharan" African-like and West Asian-like ancestries, since the [[Roman period]], with significance on the [[African Slave Trade]] and the [[Spread of Islam]].{{sfnp|Sirak|Sawchuk|Prendergast|2022|p=20–22}}{{sfnp|Prendergast|Sawchuk|Sirak|2022|p=13}}

[[File:E1b1b.png|thumb|left|E1b1b is the most common paternal haplogroup across Africa, including Egypt, with modern genetic studies rooting the origin of the E haplogroup in East Africa.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Holl |first1=Augustin |title=General history of Africa, IX: General history of Africa revisited |pages=511-531, 723-731|url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000396045?posInSet=1&queryId=N-EXPLORE-612fe50c-9ec6-4256-8bd3-7b7ec50033a7}}</ref> ]]

Genetic analysis of a modern Upper Egyptian population in Adaima by Eric Crubézy had identified genetic markers common across Africa, with 71% of the Adaima samples carrying E1b1 haplogroup and 3% carrying the L0f mitochondrial haplogroup.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Holl |first1=Augustin |title=General history of Africa, IX: General history of Africa revisited |pages=728|url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000396045?posInSet=1&queryId=N-EXPLORE-612fe50c-9ec6-4256-8bd3-7b7ec50033a7}}</ref> A secondary review, published in [[UNESCO]] [[General History of Africa]] Volume IX, in 2025 noted the results were preliminary and need to be confirmed by other laboratories with new sequencing methods.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Holl |first1=Augustin |title=General history of Africa, IX: General history of Africa revisited |pages=728|url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000396045?posInSet=1&queryId=N-EXPLORE-612fe50c-9ec6-4256-8bd3-7b7ec50033a7}}</ref> This was supported by an anthropological study which found the notable presence of dental markers, characteristic of [[Khoisan people]], in a predynastic-era cemetery at Adaïma.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Holl |first1=Augustin |title=General history of Africa, IX: General history of Africa revisited |pages=723-41|url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000396045?posInSet=1&queryId=N-EXPLORE-612fe50c-9ec6-4256-8bd3-7b7ec50033a7}}</ref> The genetic marker [[Haplogroup E-P2|E1b1]] was identified in a number of genetic studies to have wide distribution across Egypt, with "[[Haplogroup E-P2|P2]]/[[Haplogroup E-M215|215]]/[[Haplogroup E-M35|M35.1]] (E1b1b), for short [[E-M5|M35]], likely also originated in eastern tropical  Africa,  and  is  predominantly  distributed  in  an  arc  from  the  Horn  of  Africa up through Egypt".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Holl |first1=Augustin |title=General history of Africa, IX: General history of Africa revisited |pages=511-531|url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000396045?posInSet=1&queryId=N-EXPLORE-612fe50c-9ec6-4256-8bd3-7b7ec50033a7}}</ref> Multiple [[STR analysis|STR analyses]] of the Amarna royal mummies (including Rameses III, Tutankhamun and Amenhotep III) were deployed to estimate their ethnicity have found they had strong affinities with modern Sub-Saharan populations. Nonetheless, these forms of analysis were not exhaustive as only 8 of the 13 [[Combined DNA Index System|CODIS]] markets were used.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Holl |first1=Augustin |title=General history of Africa, IX: General history of Africa revisited |pages=730|url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000396045?posInSet=1&queryId=N-EXPLORE-612fe50c-9ec6-4256-8bd3-7b7ec50033a7}}</ref> 

Some scholars, such as [[Christopher Ehret]], caution that a wider sampling area is needed and argue that the current data is inconclusive on the origin of ancient Egyptians. They also point out issues with the previously used methodology such as the sampling size, comparative approach and a "biased interpretation" of the genetic data. They argue in favor for a link between Ancient Egypt and the northern [[Horn of Africa]]. This latter view has been attributed to the corresponding archaeological, genetic, linguistic and biological anthropological sources of evidence which broadly indicate that the earliest Egyptians and Nubians were the descendants of populations in northeast Africa.{{sfnp|Eltis|Bradley|Engerman|Perry|2021}}{{sfnp|Keita|2022}}{{sfnp|Ehret|2023}}{{sfnp|Stiebing|Helft|2023}}

==Legacy==
{{See also|Egyptian Revival architecture|Tourism in Egypt}}
[[File:S F-E-CAMERON EGYPT 2006 FEB 00289.JPG|left|thumb|The preserved Temple of Horus at Edfu is a model of Egyptian architecture.]]
[[File:EgyptFrontispiece.jpg|thumb|[[Book frontispiece|Frontispiece]] of ''[[Description de l'Égypte]]'', published in 38 volumes between 1809 and 1829]]

The culture and monuments of ancient Egypt have left a lasting legacy on the world. Egyptian civilization significantly influenced the [[Kingdom of Kush]] and [[Meroë]] with both adopting Egyptian religious and architectural norms (hundreds of pyramids (6–30 meters high) were built in Egypt/Sudan), as well as using Egyptian writing as the basis of the [[Meroitic script]].{{sfnp|Török|1998|pp=62–67, 299–314, 500–510, 516–527}} Meroitic is the oldest written language in Africa, other than Egyptian, and was used from the 2nd century BC until the early 5th century AD.{{sfnp|Török|1998|pp=62–65}} The cult of the goddess [[Isis]], for example, became popular in the [[Roman Empire]], as obelisks and other relics were transported back to Rome.{{sfnp|Siliotti|1998|p=8}} The Romans also imported [[building material]]s from Egypt to erect Egyptian-style structures. Early historians such as Herodotus, [[Strabo]], and [[Diodorus Siculus]] studied and wrote about the land, which Romans came to view as a place of mystery.{{sfnp|Siliotti|1998|p=10}}

During the [[Middle Ages]] and the [[Renaissance]], Egyptian pagan culture was in decline after the rise of Christianity and later [[Islam]], but interest in Egyptian antiquity continued in the writings of medieval scholars such as [[Dhul-Nun al-Misri]] and [[al-Maqrizi]].{{sfnp|El-Daly|2005|p=112}} In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, European travelers and tourists brought back antiquities and wrote stories of their journeys, leading to a wave of [[Ancient Egypt in the Western imagination|Egyptomania]] across Europe, as evident in symbolism such as the [[Eye of Providence]] and the [[Great Seal of the United States]]. This renewed interest sent collectors to Egypt, who took, purchased, or were given many important antiquities.{{sfnp|Siliotti|1998|p=13}} [[Napoleon]] arranged the first studies in [[Egyptology]] when he brought some 150 scientists and artists to study and document Egypt's [[natural history]], which was published in the ''[[Description de l'Égypte]]''.{{sfnp|Siliotti|1998|p=100}}

In the 20th century, the Egyptian Government and archaeologists alike recognized the importance of cultural respect and integrity in excavations. Since the 2010s, the [[Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities (Egypt)|Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities]] has overseen excavations and the recovery of artifacts.{{sfnp|Mohamed|2022}}

<gallery mode="packed" class="center" heights="150">
File:LuxorAbuHaggagNorthSide.jpg|The [[Abu Haggag Mosque]] is integrated into the [[Luxor temple]] from the 14th century BC, which has made it the oldest continuously used temple.
File:Alexandre_Cabanel_-_Cléopatre_essayant_des_poisons_sur_des_condamnés_à_mort.jpg|''[[Cleopatra Testing Poisons on Condemned Prisoners]]'' (1887), by [[Alexandre Cabanel]]{{sfnp|Anderson|2003|p=36}}
File:The Sphinx and Pyramid of Khafre (8838365561).jpg|Tourists at the [[Pyramid of Khafre|pyramid complex of Khafre]] near the [[Great Sphinx of Giza]]
</gallery>

==See also==
{{Portal|Ancient Egypt|Civilizations}}
{{Ancient Egypt dynasties sidebar}}
* [[Dugurasu]]
* [[Egyptology]]
* [[Glossary of ancient Egypt artifacts]]
* [[Index of ancient Egypt–related articles]]
* [[Outline of ancient Egypt]]
* [[List of ancient Egyptians]]
* [[List of Egyptian inventions and discoveries#Ancient Egypt|List of Ancient Egyptian inventions and discoveries]]
* [[Archaeology of Ancient Egypt]]
* [[Archeological Map of Egypt]]
* [[British school of diffusionism]]

==Notes==
{{Notelist}}

==References==

===Citations===
{{Reflist|22em}}

===Works cited===
{{Refbegin}}
* {{cite book|last=Aldred|first=Cyril|title=Akhenaten, King of Egypt|url=https://archive.org/details/akhenatenkingofe0000aldr/|date=1988|publisher=Thames and Hudson|isbn=978-0-500-05048-4}}
* {{cite book|last=Allen|first=James P.|title=Middle Egyptian: An Introduction to the Language and Culture of Hieroglyphs|url=https://archive.org/details/middle-egyptian-an-introduction-to-the-language-and-culture-of-hieroglyphs-1999|date=2000|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-77483-3}}
* {{cite book|last=Anderson |first=Jaynie |author-link=Jaynie Anderson |title=Tiepolo's Cleopatra |location=Melbourne |publisher=Macmillan |date=2003 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K_zR2mHWPmoC |isbn=978-1-876832-44-5 |access-date=15 November 2015 |archive-date=7 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191007111829/https://books.google.com/books?id=K_zR2mHWPmoC |url-status=live}}
* {{cite book|last=Aston|first=Barbara G.|title=Ancient Egyptian Stone Vessels: Materials and Forms|series=Studien zur Archäologie und Geschichte Altägyptens|volume=5|date=1994|publisher=Heidelberger Orientverlag|isbn=978-3-927552-12-8|pages=23–26}}
* {{cite book |last1=Aston |first1=Barbara G. |last2=Harrell |first2=James A. |last3=Shaw |first3=Ian |editor1-last=Nicholson |editor1-first=Paul T. |editor2-last=Shaw |editor2-first=Ian |chapter=Stone: Obsidian |title=Ancient Egyptian Materials and Technology |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Vj7A9jJrZP0C&pg=PP1 |date=2000 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-45257-1 |pages=46–47}}
* {{cite web |title=Astronomical Ceiling |publisher=[[Metropolitan Museum of Art]] |url=https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/544566 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200517170349/https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/544566 |archive-date=17 May 2020 |ref={{harvid|Astronomical Ceiling|2020}}}}
* {{cite book |last1=Ataç |first1=Mehmet-Ali |editor-last1=Hartwig |editor-first1=Melinda K. |chapter=Egyptian Connections with the Larger World: Ancient Near East |title=A Companion to Ancient Egyptian Art |date=2014 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-4443-3350-3 |pages=423–446 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=z0NwDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA424}}
* {{cite book|last=Badawy|first=Alexander|title=A History of Egyptian Architecture|url=https://archive.org/details/Badawy1968|volume=III|date=1968|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-00057-5}}
* {{cite book|last=Billard|first=Jules B.|title=Ancient Egypt, Discovering Its Splendors|date=1978|publisher=National Geographic Society|isbn=978-0-87044-220-9}}
* {{cite book|last=Bleiberg|first=Edward|author-link=Edward Bleiberg|title=Arts and Humanities Through the Eras: Ancient Egypt 2675–332 B.C.E.|url=https://archive.org/details/artsandhumanitiesthroughtheerasvol.1ancientegypt_406_T/|volume=1|date=2005|publisher=Thomson/Gale|isbn=978-0-7876-5698-0}}
* {{cite book|last=Bonnet|first=Charles|title=The Nubian Pharaohs|date=2006|publisher=The American University in Cairo Press|location=New York|isbn=978-977-416-010-3|pages=142–154}}
* {{cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/ancient-Egypt|last1=Bowman |first1=Alan K. |website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|date=22 October 2020|access-date=3 January 2021|title=Ancient Egypt}}
* {{cite news |last1=Boyle |first1=Alan |title=4,500-year-old harbor structures and papyrus texts unearthed in Egypt |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/science/cosmic-log/4-500-year-old-harbor-structures-papyrus-texts-unearthed-egypt-flna1C9356840 |publisher=[[NBC News]] |date=15 April 2013}}
* {{cite book|last=Cerny|first=J.|chapter=Egypt from the Death of Ramesses III to the End of the Twenty-First Dynasty|editor=I.E.S. Edwards|editor-link=I. E. S. Edwards|title=The Cambridge Ancient History: Volume II, Part 2. History of the Middle East and the Aegean Region, c. 1380–1000 B.C|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/the-cambridge-ancient-history-vol.-2-part-2/page/606/|date=1975|edition=third|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-08691-2|page=606}}
* {{cite book|last=Chadwick|first=Henry|author-link=Henry Chadwick (theologian)|title=The Church in Ancient Society: From Galilee to Gregory the Great|url=https://archive.org/details/Book_2239/page/373/|date=2001|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-152995-5|page=373}}
* {{cite web |url=https://www.digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk/chronology/index.html|title=Chronology|date=2000|website=Digital Egypt for Universities |publisher=University College London|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20080316015559/https://www.digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk/chronology/index.html| archive-date= 16 March 2008 |url-status=live |ref={{harvid|Chronology|2000}}}}
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* {{cite journal|last=Shaw|first=Garry J.|title=The Death of King Seqenenre Tao |journal=[[Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt]] |date=2009 |volume=45 |pages=159–176 |jstor=25735452}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Shea |first1=William H. |title=A Date for the Recently Discovered Eastern Canal of Egypt |journal=[[Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research]] |date=April 1977 |volume=226 |pages=31–38 |doi=10.2307/1356573|jstor=i258744|s2cid=163869704 }}
* {{Cite book |last=Siliotti |first=Alberto |title=The Discovery of Ancient Egypt |publisher=Book Sales, Inc |location=Edison, NJ |date=1998|isbn=978-0-7858-1360-6}}
* {{cite book|last=Silverman|first=David|title=Ancient Egypt|date=1997|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=New York|isbn=978-0-19-521270-9|url=https://archive.org/details/ancientegypt00davi_0/page/36}}
* {{cite web |url=https://www.reshafim.org.il/ad/egypt/timelines/topics/slavery.htm |title=Slavery |website=An introduction to the history and culture of Pharaonic Egypt |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120830093437/https://www.reshafim.org.il/ad/egypt/timelines/topics/slavery.htm |archive-date=30 August 2012 |ref={{harvid|Slavery|2012}}}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Sirak |first1=Kendra A. |title=Ancient Human DNA and African Population History |date=2022-05-18 |url=https://reich.hms.harvard.edu/sites/reich.hms.harvard.edu/files/inline-files/acrefore-9780190854584-e-484%5B1%5D.pdf |work=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Anthropology |access-date=2024-01-09|doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780190854584.013.484 |isbn=978-0-19-085458-4 |last2=Sawchuk |first2=Elizabeth A. |last3=Prendergast |first3=Mary E.}}
* {{cite web |url=https://www.digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk/social/index.html |title=Social classes in ancient Egypt |date=2003 |website=Digital Egypt for Universities |publisher=University College London |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071213192904/https://www.digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk/social/index.html |archive-date= 13 December 2007 |url-status=live |ref={{harvid|Social classes in ancient Egypt|2003}}}}
* {{Cite journal |last1=Skoglund |first1=Pontus |last2=Thompson |first2=Jessica C. |last3=Prendergast |first3=Mary E. |last4=Mittnik |first4=Alissa |last5=Sirak |first5=Kendra |last6=Hajdinjak |first6=Mateja |last7=Salie |first7=Tasneem |last8=Rohland |first8=Nadin |last9=Mallick |first9=Swapan |last10=Peltzer |first10=Alexander |last11=Heinze |first11=Anja |last12=Olalde |first12=Iñigo |last13=Ferry |first13=Matthew |last14=Harney |first14=Eadaoin |last15=Michel |first15=Megan |date=September 2017 |title=Reconstructing Prehistoric African Population Structure |journal=Cell |volume=171 |issue=1 |pages=59–71.e21 |doi=10.1016/j.cell.2017.08.049 |issn=0092-8674 |pmc=5679310 |pmid=28938123}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Stiebing  |first1=William H. Jr  |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AUm7EAAAQBAJ&pg=1 |title=Ancient Near Eastern History and Culture |last2=Helft |first2=Susan N. |date=2023 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-1-000-88066-3 |pages=209–212}}
* {{Cite book | last=Strouhal | first=Eugen | title=Life in Ancient Egypt | publisher=University of Oklahoma Press | location=Norman |date=1989 | isbn=978-0-8061-2475-9 | url=https://archive.org/details/lifeofancientegy0000stro }}
* {{cite book |last=Török|first=László |title=The Kingdom of Kush: Handbook of the Napatan-Meroitic Civilization |publisher=Brill |location=Leiden |date=1998 |isbn=978-90-04-10448-8}}
* {{cite book|last=Tyldesley|first=Joyce|author-link=Joyce Tyldesley|title=Ramesses: Egypt's Greatest Pharaoh|url=https://archive.org/details/ramessesegyptsgr0000tyld|date=2001|publisher=Penguin Books Ltd.|isbn=978-0-14-194978-9|pages=76–77}}
* {{cite web|url=https://www.digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk/temple/typestime.html|title=Types of temples in ancient Egypt|date=2003|website=Digital Egypt for Universities |publisher=University College London |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080319233620/https://www.digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk/temple/typestime.html |archive-date= 19 March 2008 | url-status=live |ref={{harvid|Types of temples in ancient Egypt|2003}}}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Vittman |first=Günther |title=Zum koptischen Sprachgut im Ägyptisch-Arabisch |trans-title=the Coptic language in Egyptian Arabic |language=de|journal=Wiener Zeitschrift für die Kunde des Morgenlandes |date=1991 |volume=81 |pages=197–227 |jstor=23865622}}
* {{cite book|last=Wachsmann|first=Shelley|title=Seagoing Ships & Seamanship in the Bronze Age Levant|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=apna4pv7Ks8C&pg=PP1|date=2009|publisher=Texas A&M University Press|isbn=978-1-60344-080-6}}
* {{cite book|last=Turner|first=E.G.|chapter=Ptolemaic Egypt|editor1-last=Walbank|editor1-first=F. W.|editor-link=F. W. Walbank|editor2-last=Astin|editor2-first=A. E.|editor3-last=Fredericksen|editor3-first=M. W.|editor4-first=R.M.|editor4-last=Ogilvie|title=The Cambridge Ancient History: Volume VII, Part 1, The Hellenic World |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lnIpo8KBbP4C&pg=PA125|edition=2nd|date=1984|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-23445-0|page=125|orig-date=1928}}
* {{cite web|url=https://www.digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk/archaicegypt/info.html|title=Early Dynastic Egypt|date=2001 |website=Digital Egypt for Universities |publisher=University College London| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080304143847/https://www.digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk/archaicegypt/info.html |archive-date= 4 March 2008 |url-status=live|ref={{harvid|Early Dynastic Egypt|2001}}}}
* {{cite web|url=https://www.ucl.ac.uk/museums-static/digitalegypt/metal/coins.html|title=Egypt: Coins of the Ptolemies|website=Digital Egypt for Universities|publisher=University College London|date=2002|ref={{harvid|Egypt: Coins of the Ptolemies|2002}}}}
* {{cite journal |last=Ward |first=Cheryl |url=https://www.archaeology.org/0105/abstracts/abydos3.html |title=World's Oldest Planked Boats |journal=[[Archaeology (magazine)|Archaeology]] |volume=54|issue=3 |date=May 2001}}
* {{Cite book |editor-last=Wasserman |editor-first=James |translator=Raymond Faulkner |title=The Egyptian Book of the Dead: The Book of Going Forth by Day |publisher=Chronicle Books |location=San Francisco |date=1994 |isbn=978-0-8118-0767-8 |url=https://archive.org/details/egyptianbookofde0000unse/mode/2up}}
{{Refend}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite book|last1=Baines|first1=John|last2=Málek|first2=Jaromír|title=Cultural Atlas of Ancient Egypt|date=2000|publisher=Checkmark Books|isbn=978-0-8160-4036-0}}
* {{cite book|editor-last=Bard|editor-first=Kathryn A.|editor-link=Kathryn A. Bard |title=Encyclopedia of the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt|url=https://archive.org/details/EncyclopediaOfTheArchaeologyOfAncientEgypt|date=1999|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-134-66525-9}}
* {{cite book|last=Grimal|first=Nicolas|author-link=Nicolas Grimal|title=A History of Ancient Egypt|date=1994|publisher=Wiley|isbn=978-0-631-19396-8|orig-date=1988}}
* {{cite book|editor1-last=Helck|editor1-first=Wolfgang|editor1-link=Wolfgang Helck|editor2-last=Otto|editor2-first=Eberhard|title=[[:de:Lexikon der Ägyptologie|Lexikon der Ägyptologie]]|publisher=O. Harrassowitz|date=1972–1992|isbn=978-3-447-01441-0}}
* {{Cite book|last=Lehner |first=Mark|author-link=Mark Lehner|title=The Complete Pyramids|location=London|publisher=Thames & Hudson|date=1997|isbn=978-0-500-05084-2|url=https://archive.org/details/completepyramids00lehn}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Mallory-Greenough |first=Leanne M. |title=The Geographical, Spatial, and Temporal Distribution of Predynastic and First Dynasty Basalt Vessels |journal=[[Journal of Egyptian Archaeology]] |date=December 2002 |volume=88|issue=1 |pages=67–93 |doi=10.2307/3822337 |jstor=3822337}}
* {{cite book |last=Midant-Reynes|first=Beatrix|title=The Prehistory of Egypt: From the First Egyptians to the First Pharaohs|date=2000|publisher=Wiley|isbn=978-0-631-21787-9}}
* {{cite book|editor-last=Redford|editor-first=Donald B.|editor-link=Donald B. Redford|title=[[Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt|The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt]]|publisher=Oxford University Press|date=2001|isbn=978-0-19-510234-5}}
* {{Cite journal|last1=Schuenemann|first1=Verena J.|last2=Peltzer| first2=Alexander| last3=Welte| first3=Beatrix| last4=Van Pelt| first4=W. Paul| last5=Molak| first5=Martyna| last6=Wang| first6=Chuan-Chao| last7=Furtwängler| first7=Anja| last8=Urban| first8=Christian| last9=Reiter| first9=Ella| last10=Nieselt| first10=Kay| last11=Teßmann| first11=Barbara| last12=Francken| first12=Michael| last13=Harvati| first13=Katerina| last14=Haak| first14=Wolfgang| last15=Schiffels| first15=Stephan| last16=Krause| first16=Johannes|display-authors=3| doi=10.1038/ncomms15694|pmid=28556824|pmc=5459999|title=Ancient Egyptian mummy genomes suggest an increase of Sub-Saharan African ancestry in post-Roman periods|journal=Nature Communications|volume=8|article-number=15694|date=2017|bibcode=2017NatCo...815694S}}
* {{Cite book|last=Wilkinson|first=R.H.|date=2000|title=The Complete Temples of Ancient Egypt|location=London|publisher=Thames and Hudson|isbn=978-0-500-05100-9|url=https://archive.org/details/completetempleso00wilk}}
* {{Cite book|last=Wilkinson|first=R.H.|author-link=Richard H. Wilkinson|title=The Complete Gods and Goddesses of Ancient Egypt|location=London|publisher=Thames and Hudson|date=2003|isbn=978-0-500-05120-7|url=https://archive.org/details/completegodsgodd00wilk_0}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Zakrzewski |first1=Sonia |date=2007 |title=Population continuity or population change: Formation of the ancient Egyptian state |url=https://eprints.soton.ac.uk/12075/1/2007_PopnContinuityChange_AJPA_132pp501-9.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://eprints.soton.ac.uk/12075/1/2007_PopnContinuityChange_AJPA_132pp501-9.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |journal=[[American Journal of Physical Anthropology]] |volume=132 |issue=4 |pages=501–509 |doi=10.1002/ajpa.20569 |pmid=17295300 |bibcode=2007AJPA..132..501Z }}

==External links==
{{Sister project links|voy=Ancient Egypt|b=Ancient History/Egypt|s=Portal:Ancient Egypt|commons=Category:Ancient Egypt}}
* {{cite EB1911|wstitle=Egypt/2 Ancient Egypt |volume=9 |short=x}}
* [https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/egyptians/ BBC History: Egyptians]{{snd}}provides a reliable general overview and further links
* [https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_8c10QYoGa4UC <!--  quote=PtahHotep. --> Ancient Egyptian Science: A Source Book Door Marshall Clagett, 1989]
* ''Napoleon on the Nile: Soldiers, Artists, and the Rediscovery of Egypt'', [https://web.archive.org/web/20080602082144/https://arthistory.about.com/od/from_exhibitions/ig/Napoleon-on-the-Nile/Joseph--1874.htm Art History].
* [https://www.digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk/ Digital Egypt for Universities.] Scholarly treatment with broad coverage and cross references (internal and external). Artifacts used extensively to illustrate topics.
* [https://www.ancient-egypt-priests.com/ Priests of Ancient Egypt] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220322033044/http://www.ancient-egypt-priests.com/ |date=22 March 2022 }} In-depth-information about Ancient Egypt's priests, religious services and temples. Much picture material and bibliography. In English and German.
* [https://www.uee.ucla.edu/ UCLA Encyclopedia of Egyptology]
* [https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/egyptians/women_01.shtml Ancient Egypt and the Role of Women] by Joann Fletcher
* {{Cite web |title=Full-length account of Ancient Egypt as part of history of the world |url=https://www.civilization.org.uk/egypt |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210524151020/http://www.civilization.org.uk/egypt/ |archive-date=24 May 2021}}

{{Ancient Egypt topics}}
{{Ancient seafaring}}
{{Empires}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Ancient Egypt]]
[[Category:Bronze Age civilizations]]
[[Category:Cradle of civilization]]
[[Category:Former monarchies of Africa|Egypt]]
[[Category:Former monarchies of Asia]]
[[Category:Ancient peoples]]
[[Category:History of Egypt by period]]
[[Category:History of the Mediterranean]]