View source for Anabolic steroid

{{Short description|Class of drugs}}
{{About|exogenously administered androgens|androgens as natural hormones|Androgen}}
{{cs1 config|name-list-style=vanc}}{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2023}}
{{Infobox drug class
| Name = Anabolic–androgenic steroids
| Image = Testosteron.svg
| Alt =
| Width = 225px
| Caption = Chemical structure of the natural AAS [[testosterone (medication)|testosterone]] (androst-4-en-17β-ol-3-one).
| Pronounce =
| Synonyms = Anabolic steroids; Androgens
<!-- Class identifiers -->
| Use = [[#Medical uses|Various]]
| ATC_prefix = A14A
| Mode_of_action =
| Mechanism_of_action =
| Biological_target = [[Androgen receptor]] (AR)
| Chemical_class = [[Steroid]]s; [[Androstane]]s; [[Estrane]]s
<!-- Clinical data -->
| Drugs.com = {{Drugs.com|drug-class|androgens-and-anabolic-steroids}}
| Consumer_Reports =
| medicinenet =
| rxlist =
<!-- External links -->
| MeshID = D045165
<!-- Legal status -->
|legal_US=Schedule III
|legal_UK=Class C
|legal_CA = Schedule IV
|legal_status=Controlled in many countries
}}

'''Anabolic steroids''', also known as '''anabolic-androgenic steroids''' ('''AAS'''), are a class of drugs that are structurally related to [[testosterone]], the main male [[sex hormone]], and produce effects by binding to the [[androgen receptor]] (AR). [[Anabolism|Anabolic]] [[Steroid|steroids]] have a number of medical uses,<ref name="pmid29494025">{{cite book | vauthors = Ganesan K, Rahman S, Zito PM | chapter = Anabolic Steroids |title = StatPearls |date=2023 | chapter-url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK482418/ |publisher=StatPearls Publishing |pmid=29494025 |quote=Endogenous anabolic steroids such as testosterone and dihydrotestosterone and synthetic anabolic steroids mediate their effects by binding to and activating androgen receptors.}}</ref> but are also used by athletes to increase muscle size, strength, and performance.

Health risks can be produced by long-term use or excessive doses of AAS.<ref name="pmid7556805">{{cite journal | vauthors = Barrett-Connor EL | title = Testosterone and risk factors for cardiovascular disease in men | journal = Diabète & Métabolisme | volume = 21 | issue = 3 | pages = 156–161 | date = June 1995 | pmid = 7556805 }}</ref><ref name="pmid16606610">{{cite journal | vauthors = Yamamoto Y, Moore R, Hess HA, Guo GL, Gonzalez FJ, Korach KS, Maronpot RR, Negishi M | display-authors = 6 | title = Estrogen receptor alpha mediates 17alpha-ethynylestradiol causing hepatotoxicity | journal = The Journal of Biological Chemistry | volume = 281 | issue = 24 | pages = 16625–16631 | date = June 2006 | pmid = 16606610 | doi = 10.1074/jbc.M602723200 | s2cid = 83319949 | doi-access = free }}</ref> These effects include harmful changes in [[cholesterol]] levels (increased [[low-density lipoprotein]] and decreased [[high-density lipoprotein]]), [[acne]], [[high blood pressure]], [[hepatotoxicity|liver damage]] (mainly with most oral AAS), and [[left ventricular hypertrophy]].<ref name="pmid1917226">{{cite journal | vauthors = De Piccoli B, Giada F, Benettin A, Sartori F, Piccolo E | title = Anabolic steroid use in body builders: an echocardiographic study of left ventricle morphology and function | journal = International Journal of Sports Medicine | volume = 12 | issue = 4 | pages = 408–412 | date = August 1991 | pmid = 1917226 | doi = 10.1055/s-2007-1024703 | s2cid = 19425569 }}</ref> These risks are further increased when athletes take steroids alongside other drugs, causing significantly more damage to their bodies.<ref name="pmid19751025">{{cite journal | vauthors = Green GA | title = Performance-enhancing drug use | journal = Orthopedics | volume = 32 | issue = 9 | pages = 647–649 | date = September 2009 | pmid = 19751025 | doi = 10.3928/01477447-20090728-39 }}</ref> The effect of anabolic steroids on the heart can cause [[myocardial infarction]] and [[stroke]]s.<ref name="pmid19751025" /> Conditions pertaining to [[hormonal imbalance]]s such as [[gynecomastia]] and [[hypogonadism|testicular size reduction]] may also be caused by AAS.<ref name="pmid21443513" /> In women and children, AAS can cause irreversible [[masculinization]].<ref name="pmid21443513" />

[[Ergogenic]] uses for AAS in sports, [[racing]], and [[bodybuilding]] as [[performance-enhancing drugs]] are controversial because of their adverse effects and the potential to gain advantage in physical competitions. Their use is referred to as [[Use of performance-enhancing drugs in sport|doping]] and banned by most major sporting bodies. Athletes have been looking for drugs to enhance their athletic abilities since the Olympics started in Ancient Greece.<ref name="pmid19751025" /> For many years, AAS have been by far the most-detected doping substances in [[IOC]]-accredited laboratories.<ref name="pmid15248788">{{cite journal | vauthors = Hartgens F, Kuipers H | title = Effects of androgenic-anabolic steroids in athletes | journal = Sports Medicine | volume = 34 | issue = 8 | pages = 513–554 | year = 2004 | pmid = 15248788 | doi = 10.2165/00007256-200434080-00003 | s2cid = 15234016 }}</ref><ref name="pmid12880534"/> Anabolic steroids are classified as [[Schedule III controlled substances]] in many countries,<ref name="Powers-2011">{{cite book | vauthors = Powers M | chapter = Performance-Enhancing Drugs | veditors = Houglum J, Harrelson GL | title = Principles of Pharmacology for Athletic Trainers |publisher=SLACK Incorporated |date=2011 |edition=2nd |isbn=978-1-55642-901-9 |page=345 | chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=wbkoeZuwqjwC&pg=PA345 |access-date=17 October 2016 |archive-date=22 December 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161222024020/https://books.google.com/books?id=wbkoeZuwqjwC&pg=PA345 |url-status=live }}</ref> meaning that AAS have recognized medical use but are also recognized as having a potential for abuse and dependence, leading to their regulation and control. In countries where AAS are [[controlled substances]], there is often a [[black market]] in which smuggled, [[wikt:clandestine|clandestine]]ly manufactured or even [[counterfeit drugs]] are sold to users.

{{TOC limit|3}}

==Uses==

===Medical===
[[File:Anabolicsteroids41.jpg|thumb|Various AAS and related compounds]]

Since the discovery and synthesis of testosterone in the 1930s, AAS have been used by physicians for many purposes, with varying degrees of success. These can broadly be grouped into anabolic, androgenic, and other uses.

====Anabolic====
* [[Bone marrow]] stimulation: For decades, AAS were the mainstay of therapy for [[hypoplastic]] [[anemia]]s due to [[leukemia]], [[kidney failure]] or [[aplastic anemia]].<ref name="pmid11701661"/>
* [[Human development (biology)|Growth]] stimulation: AAS can be used by [[pediatric endocrinology|pediatric endocrinologists]] to treat children with [[growth failure]].<ref name="pmid2429792">{{cite journal | vauthors = Ranke MB, Bierich JR | title = Treatment of growth hormone deficiency | journal = Clinics in Endocrinology and Metabolism | volume = 15 | issue = 3 | pages = 495–510 | date = August 1986 | pmid = 2429792 | doi = 10.1016/S0300-595X(86)80008-1 }}</ref> However, the availability of recombinant [[growth hormone treatment|growth hormone]], which has fewer side effects, makes this a secondary treatment.{{medical citation needed|date=May 2024}}
* Stimulation of [[appetite]] and preservation and increase of [[muscle]] mass: AAS have been given to people with [[cachexia|chronic wasting conditions]] such as [[cancer]] and [[AIDS]].<ref name="pmid16540931">{{cite journal | vauthors = Grunfeld C, Kotler DP, Dobs A, Glesby M, Bhasin S | title = Oxandrolone in the treatment of HIV-associated weight loss in men: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study | journal = Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes | volume = 41 | issue = 3 | pages = 304–314 | date = March 2006 | pmid = 16540931 | doi = 10.1097/01.qai.0000197546.56131.40 | s2cid = 25911263 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref name="pmid8970686">{{cite journal | vauthors = Berger JR, Pall L, Hall CD, Simpson DM, Berry PS, Dudley R | title = Oxandrolone in AIDS-wasting myopathy | journal = AIDS | volume = 10 | issue = 14 | pages = 1657–1662 | date = December 1996 | pmid = 8970686 | doi = 10.1097/00002030-199612000-00010 | s2cid = 9832782 }}</ref>
* Stimulation of lean body mass and prevention of [[bone resorption|bone loss]] in elderly men, as some studies indicate.<ref name="pmid11320105">{{cite journal | vauthors = Kenny AM, Prestwood KM, Gruman CA, Marcello KM, Raisz LG | title = Effects of transdermal testosterone on bone and muscle in older men with low bioavailable testosterone levels | journal = The Journals of Gerontology. Series A, Biological Sciences and Medical Sciences | volume = 56 | issue = 5 | pages = M266–M272 | date = May 2001 | pmid = 11320105 | doi = 10.1093/gerona/56.5.M266 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref name="pmid17824721">{{cite journal | vauthors = Baum NH, Crespi CA | title = Testosterone replacement in elderly men | journal = Geriatrics | volume = 62 | issue = 9 | pages = 15–18 | date = September 2007 | pmid = 17824721 }}</ref><ref name="pmid11730258">{{cite journal | vauthors = Francis RM | title = Androgen replacement in aging men | journal = Calcified Tissue International | volume = 69 | issue = 4 | pages = 235–238 | date = October 2001 | pmid = 11730258 | doi = 10.1007/s00223-001-1051-9 | s2cid = 24170276 }}</ref> However, a 2006 placebo-controlled trial of low-dose testosterone supplementation in elderly men with low levels of testosterone found no benefit on body composition, physical performance, [[insulin sensitivity]], or [[quality of life]].<ref name="pmid17050889">{{cite journal | vauthors = Nair KS, Rizza RA, O'Brien P, Dhatariya K, Short KR, Nehra A, Vittone JL, Klee GG, Basu A, Basu R, Cobelli C, Toffolo G, Dalla Man C, Tindall DJ, Melton LJ, Smith GE, Khosla S, Jensen MD | display-authors = 6 | title = DHEA in elderly women and DHEA or testosterone in elderly men | journal = The New England Journal of Medicine | volume = 355 | issue = 16 | pages = 1647–1659 | date = October 2006 | pmid = 17050889 | doi = 10.1056/NEJMoa054629 | s2cid = 42844580 | doi-access = free | hdl = 11577/2443403 | hdl-access = free }}</ref>
* Prevention or treatment of [[osteoporosis]] in [[postmenopausal]] women.<ref name="Mangus-2005" /><ref name="London1999">{{cite book|author=Royal College of Physicians of London|title=Osteoporosis: Clinical Guidelines for Prevention and Treatment|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ANyPYl4gboQC&pg=PA51|year=1999|publisher=Royal College of Physicians|isbn=978-1-86016-079-0|pages=51–|access-date=25 June 2017|archive-date=14 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414082806/https://books.google.com/books?id=ANyPYl4gboQC&pg=PA51|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Nandrolone decanoate]] is approved for this use.<ref name="pmid10418991">{{cite journal | vauthors = Davis SR | title = The therapeutic use of androgens in women | journal = The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology | volume = 69 | issue = 1–6 | pages = 177–184 | year = 1999 | pmid = 10418991 | doi = 10.1016/s0960-0760(99)00054-0 | s2cid = 23520067 }}</ref> Although they have been indicated for this indication, AAS saw very little use for this purpose due to their virilizing side effects.<ref name="Mangus-2005" /><ref name="McFarland-2002">{{cite book| vauthors = Taylor WN | chapter = Current and Future Medical Uses of Anabolic Steroids |title=Anabolic Steroids and the Athlete | edition = 2nd |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OGcQ0Tp2AFcC&pg=PA193|date=16 January 2002|publisher=McFarland|isbn=978-0-7864-1128-3|pages=193–|access-date=25 June 2017|archive-date=14 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414135325/https://books.google.com/books?id=OGcQ0Tp2AFcC&pg=PA193|url-status=live}}</ref>
* Aiding [[weight gain]] following [[surgery]] or [[physical trauma]], during [[chronic infection]], or in the context of unexplained [[weight loss]].<ref name="UpsherSmithLabel">{{cite web | url = https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/label/2006/076761lbl.pdf | title = Oxandrolone Tablets, USP – Rx only | publisher = U.S. Food and Drug Administration | work = Drugs@FDA | date = 1 December 2006 | access-date = 21 June 2016 | archive-date = 26 August 2016 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160826023419/https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/label/2006/076761lbl.pdf | url-status = dead }}</ref><ref name="BTGLabel">{{cite web | url=https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/label/2003/13718slr022_Oxandrin_lbl.pdf | title=Oxandrin (oxandrolone tablets, USP) | publisher=BTG Pharmaceuticals, U.S. Food and Drug Administration | work=Drugs@FDA | date=21 April 2003 | access-date=21 June 2016 | archive-date=1 March 2017 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170301103150/http://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/label/2003/13718slr022_Oxandrin_lbl.pdf | url-status=live }}</ref>
* Counteracting the [[catabolic]] effect of long-term [[corticosteroid]] therapy.<ref name="UpsherSmithLabel"/><ref name="BTGLabel"/>
* [[Oxandrolone]] improves both short-term and long-term outcomes in people recovering from [[severe burns]], and is well-established as a safe treatment for this indication.<ref name="pmid26454425">{{cite journal | vauthors = Li H, Guo Y, Yang Z, Roy M, Guo Q | title = The efficacy and safety of oxandrolone treatment for patients with severe burns: A systematic review and meta-analysis | journal = Burns | volume = 42 | issue = 4 | pages = 717–727 | date = June 2016 | pmid = 26454425 | doi = 10.1016/j.burns.2015.08.023 | s2cid = 24139354 }}</ref><ref name="pmid23121414">{{cite journal | vauthors = Rojas Y, Finnerty CC, Radhakrishnan RS, Herndon DN | title = Burns: an update on current pharmacotherapy | journal = Expert Opinion on Pharmacotherapy | volume = 13 | issue = 17 | pages = 2485–2494 | date = December 2012 | pmid = 23121414 | pmc = 3576016 | doi = 10.1517/14656566.2012.738195 }}</ref>
* Treatment of [[idiopathic short stature]], [[hereditary angioedema]], [[alcoholic hepatitis]], and [[hypogonadism]].<ref name="pmid22729959">{{cite journal | vauthors = Bork K | title = Current management options for hereditary angioedema | journal = Current Allergy and Asthma Reports | volume = 12 | issue = 4 | pages = 273–280 | date = August 2012 | pmid = 22729959 | doi = 10.1007/s11882-012-0273-4 | s2cid = 207323793 }}</ref><ref name="pmid22541704">{{cite journal | vauthors = Choi G, Runyon BA | title = Alcoholic hepatitis: a clinician's guide | journal = Clinics in Liver Disease | volume = 16 | issue = 2 | pages = 371–385 | date = May 2012 | pmid = 22541704 | doi = 10.1016/j.cld.2012.03.015 }}</ref>
* Methyltestosterone is used in the treatment of [[delayed puberty]], [[hypogonadism]], [[cryptorchidism]], and [[erectile dysfunction]] in males, and in low doses to treat [[menopause|menopausal symptom]]s (specifically for [[osteoporosis]], [[hot flash]]es, and to increase [[libido]] and [[energy (psychological)|energy]]), [[postpartum]] [[breast pain]] and [[engorgement]], and [[breast cancer]] in women.<ref name="Ebadi2007">{{cite book| vauthors = Ebadi M | chapter = Methyltestosterone |title=Desk Reference of Clinical Pharmacology | edition = Second | chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=ihxyHbnj3qYC&pg=PA434|date=31 October 2007|publisher=CRC Press|isbn=978-1-4200-4744-8|pages=434–|access-date=27 July 2018|archive-date=14 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414135627/https://books.google.com/books?id=ihxyHbnj3qYC&pg=PA434|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Yagiela-2010">{{cite book | vauthors = Mariotti A | chapter = Steroid Hormones of Reproduction and Sexual Development| veditors = Yagiela JA, Dowd FJ, Johnson B, Mariotti A, Neidle EA | title = Pharmacology and Therapeutics for Dentistry – E-Book | chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=utVOHYuhxioC&pg=PA569 | date = 19 March 2010 | publisher = Elsevier Health Sciences | isbn = 978-0-323-07824-5 | pages = 569– | access-date = 27 July 2018 | archive-date = 14 April 2021 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210414135114/https://books.google.com/books?id=utVOHYuhxioC&pg=PA569 | url-status = live }}</ref><ref name="Android-Label">{{cite web |url=https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/label/2014/083976s031lbl.pdf |title=Android® C-III Label |access-date=27 July 2018 |archive-date=10 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170210212856/http://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/label/2014/083976s031lbl.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>
* [[Growth hormone]]s used in veterinary medicine (e.g. [[trenbolone acetate]]) are also used in  [[intensive animal farming]] for faster gains in muscle mass for higher yields of meat from livestock and higher milk production in the [[Dairy farming|dairy industry]].<ref>{{Cite web |title="The Use Of Steroid Hormones For Growth Promotion In Food-Producing Animals" |website=[[Food and Drug Administration]] |url=http://www.fda.gov/cvm/hormones.htm |access-date=2024-05-14 |archive-date=8 April 2005 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050408160132/http://www.fda.gov/cvm/hormones.htm |url-status=bot: unknown }}</ref>

====Androgenic====
* [[Androgen replacement therapy]] for men with low levels of testosterone, such as those associated with [[late-onset hypogonadism]];<ref name="pmid35266057">{{cite journal |vauthors=Snyder P |title=Testosterone treatment of late-onset hypogonadism – benefits and risks |journal=Rev Endocr Metab Disord |volume=23 |issue=6 |pages=1151–1157 |date=December 2022 |pmid=35266057 |doi=10.1007/s11154-022-09712-1}}</ref> also effective in improving libido for elderly males.<ref name="pmid17403329">{{cite journal | vauthors = Shah K, Montoya C, Persons RK | title = Clinical inquiries. Do testosterone injections increase libido for elderly hypogonadal patients? | journal = The Journal of Family Practice | volume = 56 | issue = 4 | pages = 301–303 | date = April 2007 | pmid = 17403329 }}</ref><ref name="pmid17367445">{{cite journal | vauthors = Yassin AA, Saad F | title = Improvement of sexual function in men with late-onset hypogonadism treated with testosterone only | journal = The Journal of Sexual Medicine | volume = 4 | issue = 2 | pages = 497–501 | date = March 2007 | pmid = 17367445 | doi = 10.1111/j.1743-6109.2007.00442.x }}</ref><ref name="pmid9497881">{{cite journal | vauthors = Arver S, Dobs AS, Meikle AW, Caramelli KE, Rajaram L, Sanders SW, Mazer NA | title = Long-term efficacy and safety of a permeation-enhanced testosterone transdermal system in hypogonadal men | journal = Clinical Endocrinology | volume = 47 | issue = 6 | pages = 727–737 | date = December 1997 | pmid = 9497881 | doi = 10.1046/j.1365-2265.1997.3071113.x | s2cid = 31976796 }}</ref><ref name="pmid10619981">{{cite journal | vauthors = Nieschlag E, Büchter D, Von Eckardstein S, Abshagen K, Simoni M, Behre HM | title = Repeated intramuscular injections of testosterone undecanoate for substitution therapy in hypogonadal men | journal = Clinical Endocrinology | volume = 51 | issue = 6 | pages = 757–763 | date = December 1999 | pmid = 10619981 | doi = 10.1046/j.1365-2265.1999.00881.x | s2cid = 19174381 }}</ref>
* Induction of male [[puberty]]: Androgens are given to many boys distressed about extreme [[delayed puberty|delay of puberty]]. Testosterone is now nearly the only androgen used for this purpose and has been shown to increase height, weight, and fat-free mass in boys with delayed puberty.<ref name="pmid9329341">{{cite journal | vauthors = Arslanian S, Suprasongsin C | title = Testosterone treatment in adolescents with delayed puberty: changes in body composition, protein, fat, and glucose metabolism | journal = The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism | volume = 82 | issue = 10 | pages = 3213–3220 | date = October 1997 | pmid = 9329341 | doi = 10.1210/jcem.82.10.4293 | s2cid = 5031396 | doi-access = free }}</ref>
* [[Masculinizing hormone therapy]] for [[transgender men]], other [[transmasculine]] people, and [[intersex]] people, by producing masculine secondary sexual characteristics such as a [[voice deepening|deeper voice]], increased bone and muscle mass, [[android fat distribution|masculine fat distribution]], facial and body hair, and [[clitoral enlargement]], as well as mental changes such as alleviation of [[gender dysphoria]] and increased sex drive.<ref name="pmid12915619">{{cite journal | vauthors = Moore E, Wisniewski A, Dobs A | title = Endocrine treatment of transsexual people: a review of treatment regimens, outcomes, and adverse effects | journal = The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism | volume = 88 | issue = 8 | pages = 3467–3473 | date = August 2003 | pmid = 12915619 | doi = 10.1210/jc.2002-021967 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref name="ieet.org">{{cite web | vauthors = Notaro K | url = http://ieet.org/index.php/IEET/more/notaro20131025 | title = Genderqueer, Pansexual, LGBTQ: Will Gender Exist 100 Years From Now? – Rebooted | work = Institute for Ethics and Emerging Technologies (IEET)| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20141209085445/http://ieet.org/index.php/IEET/more/notaro20131025 |archive-date = 9 December 2014 | date = 24 October 2013 | access-date = 17 November 2014 }}</ref><ref name="www.sfgate.com">{{cite web | vauthors = Leigh S | url = http://www.sfgate.com/health/article/Young-people-exploring-nonbinary-gender-roles-5225994.php | title = Young people exploring nonbinary gender roles | work =SF Gate | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20141208060330/http://www.sfgate.com/health/article/Young-people-exploring-nonbinary-gender-roles-5225994.php | archive-date=8 December 2014 | date = 12 February 2014 | access-date = 17 November 2014 }}</ref><ref name="pmid15649098">{{cite journal | vauthors = Warne GL, Grover S, Zajac JD | title = Hormonal therapies for individuals with intersex conditions: protocol for use | journal = Treatments in Endocrinology | volume = 4 | issue = 1 | pages = 19–29 | year = 2005 | pmid = 15649098 | doi = 10.2165/00024677-200504010-00003 | s2cid = 71737774 }}</ref><ref name="interactyouth.org">{{cite web | url = http://interactyouth.org/post/97343969730/support-the-intersex-youth-supporting-tvs-first | title = What is Intersex – An Intersex FAQ by Inter/Act | work = Inter/Act Youth | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20141207211714/http://interactyouth.org/post/97343969730/support-the-intersex-youth-supporting-tvs-first | archive-date=7 December 2014 | date = 12 September 2014 | url-status = usurped | access-date = 5 December 2014 }}</ref>

====Other====
* Treatment of [[breast cancer]] in women, although they are now very rarely used for this purpose due to their marked virilizing side effects.<ref name="Perry-2012">{{cite book | vauthors = Kardinal CG, Bobba RK, Cole JT | chapter = Breast Cancer| veditors = Perry MC, Doll DC, Freter CE | title = Perry's The Chemotherapy Source Book | chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=My3SjQTguyYC&pg=PA409 | date = 30 July 2012 | publisher = Lippincott Williams & Wilkins | isbn = 978-1-4698-0343-2 | pages = 409– | access-date = 25 June 2017 | archive-date = 14 April 2021 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210414135432/https://books.google.com/books?id=My3SjQTguyYC&pg=PA409 | url-status = live }}</ref><ref name="Mangus-2005">{{cite book| vauthors = Mangus BC, Miller MG | chapter = Muscle-Building Agents Used in Sport |title=Pharmacology Application in Athletic Training| chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=tV72AAAAQBAJ&pg=PA151|date=11 January 2005|publisher=F.A. Davis|isbn=978-0-8036-2027-8|pages=151–|access-date=25 June 2017|archive-date=14 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414135427/https://books.google.com/books?id=tV72AAAAQBAJ&pg=PA151|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="pmid3909420">{{cite journal | vauthors = Allegra JC, Bertino J, Bonomi P, Byrne P, Carpenter J, Catalano R, Creech R, Dana B, Durivage H, Einhorn L | display-authors = 6 | title = Metastatic breast cancer: preliminary results with oral hormonal therapy | journal = Seminars in Oncology | volume = 12 | issue = 4 Suppl 6 | pages = 61–64 | date = December 1985 | pmid = 3909420 }}</ref>
* In low doses as a component of [[hormone replacement therapy|hormone therapy]] for [[postmenopausal]] and [[transgender women]], for instance to increase [[energy (psychological)|energy]], [[well-being]], [[libido]], and [[quality of life]], as well as to reduce [[hot flash]]es.<ref name="pmid10076169">{{cite journal | vauthors = Bachmann GA | title = Androgen cotherapy in menopause: evolving benefits and challenges | journal = American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology | volume = 180 | issue = 3 Pt 2 | pages = S308–S311 | date = March 1999 | pmid = 10076169 | doi = 10.1016/S0002-9378(99)70724-6 }}</ref><ref name="pmid17087613">{{cite journal | vauthors = Kotz K, Alexander JL, Dennerstein L | title = Estrogen and androgen hormone therapy and well-being in surgically postmenopausal women | journal = Journal of Women's Health | volume = 15 | issue = 8 | pages = 898–908 | date = October 2006 | pmid = 17087613 | doi = 10.1089/jwh.2006.15.898 }}</ref><ref name="pmid18488873">{{cite journal | vauthors = Garefalakis M, Hickey M | title = Role of androgens, progestins and tibolone in the treatment of menopausal symptoms: a review of the clinical evidence | journal = Clinical Interventions in Aging | volume = 3 | issue = 1 | pages = 1–8 | year = 2008 | pmid = 18488873 | pmc = 2544356 | doi = 10.2147/CIA.S1043 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref name="pmid16794424">{{cite journal | vauthors = Somboonporn W | title = Androgen and menopause | journal = Current Opinion in Obstetrics & Gynecology | volume = 18 | issue = 4 | pages = 427–432 | date = August 2006 | pmid = 16794424 | doi = 10.1097/01.gco.0000233938.36554.37 | s2cid = 8030248 }}</ref> Testosterone is usually used for this purpose, although [[methyltestosterone]] is also used.<ref name="pmid16794424" /><ref name="pmid11304877">{{cite journal | vauthors = Davis S | title = Testosterone deficiency in women | journal = The Journal of Reproductive Medicine | volume = 46 | issue = 3 Suppl | pages = 291–296 | date = March 2001 | pmid = 11304877 }}</ref>
* [[Male hormonal contraception]]; currently experimental, but potential for use as effective, safe, reliable, and reversible male contraceptives.<ref name="pmid20933120">{{cite journal | vauthors = Nieschlag E | title = Clinical trials in male hormonal contraception | journal = Contraception | volume = 82 | issue = 5 | pages = 457–470 | date = November 2010 | pmid = 20933120 | doi = 10.1016/j.contraception.2010.03.020 | url = http://www.kup.at/kup/pdf/10172.pdf | access-date = 18 August 2019 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20201205082822/https://www.kup.at/kup/pdf/10172.pdf | archive-date = 5 December 2020 }}</ref>
* Assistant in the treatment of [[Raynaud's Phenomenon]] and peripheral [[acrocyanosis]]. Testosterone and other anabolics tend to be potent [[vasodilators]], which can significantly improve bloodflow in individuals prone to vasoconstriction.<ref name="Baalmann-2017">{{cite web | vauthors = Baalmann J | title=Testosterone can be part of your treatment plan for Raynaud's Disease. | website=BioBalance Health | date=19 June 2017 | url=https://biobalancehealth.com/managing-raynauds-disease-testosterone/ | access-date=9 June 2023}}</ref>

===Enhancing performance===
{{See also|Ergogenic use of anabolic steroids}}
[[File:Rawdealsteroids4.jpg|thumb|Numerous vials of injectable AAS]]

Most steroid users are not athletes.<ref name="Reuters-2007">{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-steroid-users-idUSCOL17558920071121 |title=Most steroid users are not athletes: study |agency=Reuters |date=21 November 2007 |access-date=3 January 2014 |newspaper=Reuters |archive-date=25 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160125054638/http://www.reuters.com/article/us-steroid-users-idUSCOL17558920071121 |url-status=live }}</ref> In the United States, between 1 million and 3 million people (1% of the population) are thought to have used AAS.<ref name="pmid18514731">{{cite journal | vauthors = Sjöqvist F, Garle M, Rane A | title = Use of doping agents, particularly anabolic steroids, in sports and society | journal = Lancet | volume = 371 | issue = 9627 | pages = 1872–1882 | date = May 2008 | pmid = 18514731 | doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(08)60801-6 | s2cid = 10762429 }}</ref> Studies in the United States have shown that AAS users tend to be mostly middle-class men with a [[median]] age of about 25 who are noncompetitive bodybuilders and non-athletes and use the drugs for cosmetic purposes.<ref name="pmid8355384">{{cite journal | vauthors = Yesalis CE, Kennedy NJ, Kopstein AN, Bahrke MS | title = Anabolic-androgenic steroid use in the United States | journal = JAMA | volume = 270 | issue = 10 | pages = 1217–1221 | date = September 1993 | pmid = 8355384 | doi = 10.1001/jama.270.10.1217 }}</ref> "Among 12- to 17-year-old boys, use of steroids and similar drugs jumped 25 percent from 1999 to 2000, with 20 percent saying they use them for looks rather than sports, a study by insurer Blue Cross Blue Shield found."<ref>{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x9MJEAAAQBAJ&dq=%22Among+12-+to+17-year-old+boys%2C+use+of+steroids+and+similar+drugs+jumped+25+percent+from+1999+to+2000%2C+with+20+percent+saying+they+use+them+for+looks+rather+than+sports%2C+a+study+by+insurer+Blue+Cross+Blue+Shield+found%22&pg=PA153 | title=Physiology of Exercise | isbn=978-81-947997-5-7 | date=19 November 2020 | publisher=Friends Publications (India) | vauthors = Koley S }}</ref> Another study found that non-medical use of AAS among college students was at or less than 1%.<ref name="pmid17512138">{{cite journal | vauthors = McCabe SE, Brower KJ, West BT, Nelson TF, Wechsler H | title = Trends in non-medical use of anabolic steroids by U.S. college students: results from four national surveys | journal = Drug and Alcohol Dependence | volume = 90 | issue = 2–3 | pages = 243–251 | date = October 2007 | pmid = 17512138 | pmc = 2383927 | doi = 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2007.04.004 }}</ref> According to a recent survey, 78.4% of steroid users were noncompetitive bodybuilders and non-athletes, while about 13% reported unsafe injection practices such as reusing needles, sharing needles, and sharing multidose vials,<ref name="pmid16679978">{{cite journal | vauthors = Parkinson AB, Evans NA | title = Anabolic androgenic steroids: a survey of 500 users | journal = Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise | volume = 38 | issue = 4 | pages = 644–651 | date = April 2006 | pmid = 16679978 | doi = 10.1249/01.mss.0000210194.56834.5d | doi-access = free }}</ref> though a 2007 study found that sharing of needles was extremely uncommon among individuals using AAS for non-medical purposes, less than 1%.<ref name="pmid17931410"/> Another 2007 study found that 74% of non-medical AAS users had post-secondary degrees and more had completed college and fewer had failed to complete high school than is expected from the general populace.<ref name="pmid17931410">{{cite journal | vauthors = Cohen J, Collins R, Darkes J, Gwartney D | title = A league of their own: demographics, motivations and patterns of use of 1,955 male adult non-medical anabolic steroid users in the United States | journal = Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition | volume = 4 | pages = 12 | date = October 2007 | pmid = 17931410 | pmc = 2131752 | doi = 10.1186/1550-2783-4-12 | doi-access = free }}</ref> The same study found that individuals using AAS for non-medical purposes had a higher employment rate and a higher household income than the general population.<ref name="pmid17931410"/> AAS users tend to research the drugs they are taking more than other controlled-substance users;{{Citation needed|date=November 2022}} however, the major sources consulted by steroid users include friends, non-medical handbooks, internet-based forums, blogs, and fitness magazines, which can provide questionable or inaccurate information.<ref name="pmid9549549">{{cite journal | vauthors = Copeland J, Peters R, Dillon P | title = A study of 100 anabolic-androgenic steroid users | journal = The Medical Journal of Australia | volume = 168 | issue = 6 | pages = 311–312 | date = March 1998 | pmid = 9549549 | doi = 10.5694/j.1326-5377.1998.tb140177.x | s2cid = 8699231 }}</ref>

AAS users tend to be unhappy with the portrayal of AAS as deadly in the media and in politics.<ref name="Eastley-2006">{{cite web | vauthors = Eastley T |title=Steroid study debunks user stereotypes |publisher=[[Australian Broadcasting Corporation|ABC]] |date=18 January 2006 |url=http://www.abc.net.au/am/content/2006/s1550328.htm |access-date=3 January 2014 |archive-date=16 July 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140716050505/http://www.abc.net.au/am/content/2006/s1550328.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> According to one study, AAS users also distrust their physicians and in the sample 56% had not disclosed their AAS use to their physicians.<ref name="pmid15317640">{{cite journal | vauthors = Pope HG, Kanayama G, Ionescu-Pioggia M, Hudson JI | title = Anabolic steroid users' attitudes towards physicians | journal = Addiction | volume = 99 | issue = 9 | pages = 1189–1194 | date = September 2004 | pmid = 15317640 | doi = 10.1111/j.1360-0443.2004.00781.x }}</ref> Another 2007 study had similar findings, showing that, while 66% of individuals using AAS for non-medical purposes were willing to seek medical supervision for their steroid use, 58% lacked trust in their physicians, 92% felt that the medical community's knowledge of non-medical AAS use was lacking, and 99% felt that the public has an exaggerated view of the side-effects of AAS use.<ref name="pmid17931410"/> A recent study has also shown that long term AAS users were more likely to have symptoms of [[muscle dysmorphia]] and also showed stronger endorsement of more conventional male roles.<ref name="pmid16585446">{{cite journal | vauthors = Kanayama G, Barry S, Hudson JI, Pope HG | title = Body image and attitudes toward male roles in anabolic-androgenic steroid users | journal = The American Journal of Psychiatry | volume = 163 | issue = 4 | pages = 697–703 | date = April 2006 | pmid = 16585446 | doi = 10.1176/appi.ajp.163.4.697 | s2cid = 38738640 }}</ref> A recent study in the Journal of Health Psychology showed that many users believed that steroids used in moderation were safe.<ref name="pmid17035257">{{cite journal | vauthors = Grogan S, Shepherd S, Evans R, Wright S, Hunter G | title = Experiences of anabolic steroid use: in-depth interviews with men and women body builders | journal = Journal of Health Psychology | volume = 11 | issue = 6 | pages = 845–856 | date = November 2006 | pmid = 17035257 | doi = 10.1177/1359105306069080 | s2cid = 5794238 }}</ref>

AAS have been used by men and women in many different kinds of professional sports to attain a competitive edge or to assist in recovery from injury. These sports include [[bodybuilding]], [[Olympic weightlifting|weightlifting]], [[shot put]] and other [[track and field]], [[cycle sport|cycling]], [[baseball]], [[wrestling]], [[mixed martial arts]], [[boxing]], [[football]], and [[cricket]]. Such use is prohibited by the rules of the governing bodies of most sports. AAS use occurs among adolescents, especially by those participating in competitive sports. It has been suggested that the prevalence of use among high-school students in the U.S. may be as high as 2.7%.<ref name="pmid2199753">{{cite journal | vauthors = Hickson RC, Czerwinski SM, Falduto MT, Young AP | title = Glucocorticoid antagonism by exercise and androgenic-anabolic steroids | journal = Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise | volume = 22 | issue = 3 | pages = 331–340 | date = June 1990 | pmid = 2199753 | doi = 10.1249/00005768-199006000-00010 }}</ref>

===Dosages===
{| class="wikitable sortable floatright" style="margin: 1em auto;"
|+ class="nowrap" | General dosage ranges of anabolic steroids
|-
! scope=col | Medication
! scope=col | Route
! scope=col | Dosage range{{efn|group=AASdoses|Unless otherwise noted, given as a once daily/weekly dose}}
|-
| [[Danazol]] || [[Oral administration|Oral]] || 100–800&nbsp;mg/day
|-
| [[Drostanolone propionate]] || [[Injection (medicine)|Injection]] || 100&nbsp;mg 3 times/week
|-
| [[Ethylestrenol]] || Oral || 2–8&nbsp;mg/day
|-
| [[Fluoxymesterone]] || Oral || 2–40&nbsp;mg/day
|-
| [[Mesterolone]] || Oral || 25–150&nbsp;mg/day
|-
| [[Metandienone]] || Oral || 2.5–15&nbsp;mg/day
|-
| [[Metenolone acetate]] || Oral || 10–150&nbsp;mg/day
|-
| [[Metenolone enanthate]] || Injection || 25–100&nbsp;mg/week
|-
| [[Methyltestosterone]] || Oral || 1.5–200&nbsp;mg/day
|-
| [[Nandrolone decanoate]] || Injection || 12.5–200&nbsp;mg/week{{efn|group=AASdoses|name=div}}
|-
| [[Nandrolone phenylpropionate]] || Injection || 6.25–200&nbsp;mg/week{{efn|group=AASdoses|name=div}}
|-
| [[Norethandrolone]] || Oral || 20–30&nbsp;mg/day
|-
| [[Oxandrolone]] || Oral || 2.5–20&nbsp;mg/day
|-
| [[Oxymetholone]] || Oral || 1–5&nbsp;mg/kg/day or<br />50–150&nbsp;mg/day
|-
| rowspan=2 | [[Stanozolol]] || Oral || 2–6&nbsp;mg/day
|-
| Injection || 50&nbsp;mg up to<br /> every two weeks
|-
| rowspan=2 | [[Testosterone (medication)|Testosterone]] || Oral{{efn|group=AASdoses|Studied for human use but never marketed, for comparison only}} || 400–800&nbsp;mg/day{{efn|group=AASdoses|name=div|In divided doses}}
|-
| Injection || 25–100&nbsp;mg up to<br />three times weekly
|-
| [[Testosterone cypionate]] || Injection || 50–400&nbsp;mg up to<br />every four weeks
|-
| [[Testosterone enanthate]] || Injection || 50–400&nbsp;mg up to<br />every four weeks
|-
| [[Testosterone propionate]] || Injection || 25–50&nbsp;mg up to<br />three times weekly
|-
| rowspan=2 | [[Testosterone undecanoate]] || Oral || 80–240&nbsp;mg/day{{efn|group=AASdoses|name=div}}
|-
| Injection || 750–1000&nbsp;mg up to<br /> every 10 weeks
|-
| [[Trenbolone hexahydrobenzylcarbonate|Trenbolone {{abbr|HBC|hexahydrobenzylcarbonate}}]] || Injection || 75&nbsp;mg every 10 days
|- class="sortbottom"
| colspan="5" style="width:1px; background:#eaecf0; text-align:center;"| '''Sources:''' <ref name="Drugs@FDA">{{cite web | title = Drugs@FDA: FDA Approved Drug Products | publisher = United States Food and Drug Administration | access-date = 1 December 2019 | url = https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cder/daf/ | archive-date = 16 November 2016 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20161116164727/http://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cder/daf/ | url-status = live }}</ref><ref name="HamiltonDuffy2014">{{cite book| vauthors = Hamilton RJ, Duffy NA, Stone D | chapter = Androgens/Anabolic Steroids |title=Tarascon Pharmacopoeia |chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=F6YdAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA174|year=2014|publisher=Jones & Bartlett Publishers|isbn=978-1-284-05671-6|pages=174–|access-date=13 September 2020|archive-date=13 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210213224121/https://books.google.com/books?id=F6YdAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA174|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="FordRoach2010">{{cite book | vauthors = Ford SM, Roach SS |title=Roach's Introductory Clinical Pharmacology|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xb52b7Nf6h8C&pg=PA499|year=2010|publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins|isbn=978-1-60547-633-9|pages=499–|access-date=13 September 2020|archive-date=14 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414083101/https://books.google.com/books?id=xb52b7Nf6h8C&pg=PA499|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="LemkeWilliams2012">{{cite book| vauthors = Lemke TL, Williams DA |title=Foye's Principles of Medicinal Chemistry|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Sd6ot9ul-bUC&pg=PA1358|date=24 January 2012|publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins|isbn=978-1-60913-345-0|pages=1358–|access-date=13 September 2020|archive-date=14 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414135448/https://books.google.com/books?id=Sd6ot9ul-bUC&pg=PA1358|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Mangus-2005" /><ref name="Thomas2012">{{cite book| vauthors = Colby HD, Longhurst PA | chapter = Anabolic Steroids in the Body | veditors = Thomas JA |title=Drugs, Athletes, and Physical Performance| chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=9u0pBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA20|date=6 December 2012|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-1-4684-5499-4|pages=20–|access-date=13 September 2020|archive-date=14 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414135429/https://books.google.com/books?id=9u0pBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA20|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Llewellyn2011">{{cite book|author=William Llewellyn|title=Anabolics|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=afKLA-6wW0oC|year=2011|publisher=Molecular Nutrition Llc|isbn=978-0-9828280-1-4|access-date=2 December 2016|archive-date=14 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414083125/https://books.google.com/books?id=afKLA-6wW0oC|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Burkett-1984">{{cite journal| vauthors = Burkett LN, Falduto MT |title=Steroid Use by Athletes in a Metropolitan Area|journal=The Physician and Sportsmedicine|volume=12|issue=8|year=1984|pages=69–74|issn=0091-3847|doi=10.1080/00913847.1984.11701923}}</ref><ref name="BainSchill2012">{{cite book| vauthors = Bain J, Schill WB, Schwarzstein L |title=Treatment of Male Infertility|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W1cGCAAAQBAJ&pg=PT176|date=6 December 2012|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-3-642-68223-0|pages=176–177|access-date=13 September 2020|archive-date=13 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210213223558/https://books.google.com/books?id=W1cGCAAAQBAJ&pg=PT176|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="pmid6372655">{{cite journal | vauthors = Snyder PJ | title = Clinical use of androgens | journal = Annual Review of Medicine | volume = 35 | issue = 1 | pages = 207–217 | year = 1984 | pmid = 6372655 | doi = 10.1146/annurev.me.35.020184.001231 }}</ref><br />{{notelist|group=AASdoses}}
|}

===Available forms===
{{See also|List of androgens/anabolic steroids}}

The AAS that have been used most commonly in medicine are [[testosterone (medication)|testosterone]] and its many [[testosterone ester|ester]]s (but most typically [[testosterone undecanoate]], [[testosterone enanthate]], [[testosterone cypionate]], and [[testosterone propionate]]),<ref name="Becker-2001">{{cite book | vauthors = Matsumoto AM | chapter = Clinical Use and Abuse of Androgens and Antiandrogens | veditors = Becker KL |title=Principles and Practice of Endocrinology and Metabolism | chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=FVfzRvaucq8C&pg=PA1185 |year=2001 |publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins |isbn=978-0-7817-1750-2 |pages=1185–1186 |access-date=17 October 2016 |archive-date=17 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200517043226/https://books.google.com/books?id=FVfzRvaucq8C&pg=PA1185 |url-status=live }}</ref> [[nandrolone]] [[nandrolone ester|ester]]s (typically [[nandrolone decanoate]] and [[nandrolone phenylpropionate]]), [[stanozolol]], and [[metandienone]] (methandrostenolone).<ref name="pmid18500378" /> Others that have also been available and used commonly but to a lesser extent include [[methyltestosterone]], [[oxandrolone]], [[mesterolone]], and [[oxymetholone]], as well as [[drostanolone propionate]] (dromostanolone propionate), [[metenolone]] (methylandrostenolone) esters (specifically [[metenolone acetate]] and [[metenolone enanthate]]), and [[fluoxymesterone]].<ref name="pmid18500378" /> [[Androstanolone|Dihydrotestosterone]] (DHT), known as androstanolone or stanolone when used medically, and its [[dihydrotestosterone ester|ester]]s are also notable, although they are not widely used in medicine.<ref name="Llewellyn2011" /> [[Boldenone undecylenate]] and [[trenbolone acetate]] are used in [[veterinary medicine]].<ref name="pmid18500378" />

[[Designer steroid]]s are AAS that have not been approved and marketed for medical use but have been distributed through the black market.<ref name="pmid25684733">{{cite journal | vauthors = Rahnema CD, Crosnoe LE, Kim ED | title = Designer steroids – over-the-counter supplements and their androgenic component: review of an increasing problem | journal = Andrology | volume = 3 | issue = 2 | pages = 150–155 | date = March 2015 | pmid = 25684733 | doi = 10.1111/andr.307 | s2cid = 6999218 | doi-access = free }}</ref> Examples of notable designer steroids include [[1-testosterone]] (dihydroboldenone), [[methasterone]], [[trenbolone enanthate]], [[desoxymethyltestosterone]], [[tetrahydrogestrinone]], and [[methylstenbolone]].<ref name="pmid25684733" />

=== Routes of administration ===
[[File:Depo-testosterone 200 mg ml.jpg|thumb|upright|A vial of injectable testosterone cypionate]]

There are four common forms in which AAS are administered: oral pills; injectable steroids; creams/gels for topical application; and skin patches. Oral administration is the most convenient. Testosterone administered by mouth is rapidly absorbed, but it is largely converted to inactive metabolites, and only about one-sixth is available in active form. In order to be sufficiently active when given by mouth, testosterone derivatives are alkylated at the 17α position, e.g. [[methyltestosterone]] and [[fluoxymesterone]]. This modification reduces the liver's ability to break down these compounds before they reach the systemic circulation.

Testosterone can be administered [[Parenteral medication|parenterally]], but it has more irregular prolonged absorption time and greater activity in muscle in [[enanthate]], [[undecanoate]], or [[cypionate]] [[ester]] form. These derivatives are hydrolyzed to release free testosterone at the site of injection; absorption rate (and thus injection schedule) varies among different esters, but medical injections are normally done anywhere between semi-weekly to once every 12 weeks. A more frequent schedule may be desirable in order to maintain a more constant level of hormone in the system.<ref name="Chrousos-2012"/> Injectable steroids are typically administered into the muscle, not into the vein, to avoid sudden changes in the amount of the drug in the bloodstream. In addition, because estered testosterone is dissolved in oil, intravenous injection has the potential to cause a dangerous [[embolism]] (clot) in the bloodstream.

[[Transdermal patch]]es (adhesive patches placed on the skin) may also be used to deliver a steady dose through the skin and into the bloodstream. Testosterone-containing creams and gels that are applied daily to the skin are also available, but absorption is inefficient (roughly 10%, varying between individuals) and these treatments tend to be more expensive. Individuals who are especially physically active and/or bathe often may not be good candidates, since the medication can be washed off and may take up to six hours to be fully absorbed. There is also the risk that an intimate partner or child may come in contact with the application site and inadvertently dose themselves; children and women are highly sensitive to testosterone and can develop unintended masculinization and health effects, even from small doses. Injection is the most common method used by individuals administering AAS for non-medical purposes.<ref name="pmid17931410"/>

The traditional routes of administration do not have differential effects on the efficacy of the drug. Studies indicate that the anabolic properties of AAS are relatively similar despite the differences in pharmacokinetic principles such as [[first-pass metabolism]]. However, the orally available forms of AAS may cause [[hepatotoxicity|liver damage]] in high doses.<ref name="pmid12880534">{{cite journal | vauthors = Kicman AT, Gower DB | title = Anabolic steroids in sport: biochemical, clinical and analytical perspectives | journal = Annals of Clinical Biochemistry | volume = 40 | issue = Pt 4 | pages = 321–356 | date = July 2003 | pmid = 12880534 | doi = 10.1258/000456303766476977 | s2cid = 24339701 }}{{closed access}}</ref><ref name="pmid11366379">{{cite journal | vauthors = Mutzebaugh C | title = Does the choice of alpha-AAS really make a difference? | journal = HIV Hotline | volume = 8 | issue = 5–6 | pages = 10–11 | date = December 1998 | pmid = 11366379 }}</ref>

==Adverse effects==
[[File:HarmCausedByDrugsTable.svg|class=skin-invert-image|thumb|upright=1.35|Table from the 2010 ISCD study ranking various drugs (legal and illegal) based on statements by drug-harm experts. Anabolic steroids was found to be the 15th overall most dangerous drug.<ref name="Nutt_2010">{{cite journal | vauthors = Nutt DJ, King LA, Phillips LD | title = Drug harms in the UK: a multicriteria decision analysis | journal = Lancet | volume = 376 | issue = 9752 | pages = 1558–1565 | date = November 2010 | pmid = 21036393 | doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(10)61462-6 | s2cid = 5667719 | citeseerx = 10.1.1.690.1283 }}</ref>]]

Known possible [[side effect]]s of AAS include:<ref name="pmid21443513">{{cite journal | vauthors = Turillazzi E, Perilli G, Di Paolo M, Neri M, Riezzo I, Fineschi V | title = Side effects of AAS abuse: an overview | journal = Mini Reviews in Medicinal Chemistry | volume = 11 | issue = 5 | pages = 374–389 | date = May 2011 | pmid = 21443513 | doi = 10.2174/138955711795445925 | hdl-access = free | hdl = 11392/2357154 }}</ref><ref name="pmid17723870">{{cite journal | vauthors = Casavant MJ, Blake K, Griffith J, Yates A, Copley LM | title = Consequences of use of anabolic androgenic steroids | journal = Pediatric Clinics of North America | volume = 54 | issue = 4 | pages = 677–90, x | date = August 2007 | pmid = 17723870 | doi = 10.1016/j.pcl.2007.04.001 }}</ref><ref name="pmid24423981">{{cite journal | vauthors = Pope HG, Wood RI, Rogol A, Nyberg F, Bowers L, Bhasin S | title = Adverse health consequences of performance-enhancing drugs: an Endocrine Society scientific statement | journal = Endocrine Reviews | volume = 35 | issue = 3 | pages = 341–375 | date = June 2014 | pmid = 24423981 | pmc = 4026349 | doi = 10.1210/er.2013-1058 }}</ref><ref name="pmid19028512">{{cite journal | vauthors = Fragkaki AG, Angelis YS, Koupparis M, Tsantili-Kakoulidou A, Kokotos G, Georgakopoulos C | title = Structural characteristics of anabolic androgenic steroids contributing to binding to the androgen receptor and to their anabolic and androgenic activities. Applied modifications in the steroidal structure | journal = Steroids | volume = 74 | issue = 2 | pages = 172–197 | date = February 2009 | pmid = 19028512 | doi = 10.1016/j.steroids.2008.10.016 | s2cid = 41356223 }}</ref><ref name="pmid25805894">{{cite journal | vauthors = Nieschlag E, Vorona E | title = MECHANISMS IN ENDOCRINOLOGY: Medical consequences of doping with anabolic androgenic steroids: effects on reproductive functions | journal = European Journal of Endocrinology | volume = 173 | issue = 2 | pages = R47–R58 | date = August 2015 | pmid = 25805894 | doi = 10.1530/EJE-15-0080 | doi-access = free }}</ref>
* [[Cutaneous condition|Dermatological]]/[[integumentary system|integumental]]: [[oily skin]], [[acne vulgaris]], [[acne conglobata]], [[seborrhea]], [[stretch mark]]s (due to rapid [[muscle hypertrophy|muscle enlargement]]), [[hypertrichosis]] (excessive body hair growth), [[androgenic alopecia]] (pattern hair loss; scalp baldness), [[water retention (medicine)|fluid retention]]/[[edema]].
* [[Reproductive system disease|Reproductive]]/[[endocrine disease|endocrine]]: [[libido]] changes, reversible [[infertility]], [[hypogonadotropic hypogonadism]].
* Male-specific: [[spontaneous erection]]s, [[nocturnal emission]]s, [[priapism]], [[erectile dysfunction]], [[gynecomastia]] (mostly only with [[aromatase|aromatizable]] and hence [[estrogen (medication)|estrogen]]ic AAS), [[oligospermia]]/[[azoospermia]], [[testicular atrophy]], [[intratesticular leiomyosarcoma]], [[prostate hypertrophy]], [[prostate cancer]].
* Female-specific: [[masculinization]], irreversible [[voice deepening]], [[hirsutism]] (excessive facial/body hair growth), [[menstrual disturbances]] (e.g., [[anovulation]], [[oligomenorrhea]], [[amenorrhea]], [[dysmenorrhea]]), [[clitoral enlargement]], [[breast atrophy]], [[uterine atrophy]], [[teratogenicity]] (in female [[fetus]]es).
* Child-specific: premature [[epiphyseal closure]] and associated [[short stature]], [[precocious puberty]] in boys, [[delayed puberty]] and [[contrasexual precocity]] in girls.
* [[Emotional and behavioral disorders|Psychiatric]]/[[Neurological disorder|neurological]]: [[mood swing]]s, [[irritability]], [[aggression]], [[violent behavior]], [[impulsivity]]/[[recklessness (psychology)|recklessness]], [[hypomania]]/[[mania]], [[euphoria]], [[depression (mood)|depression]], [[anxiety]], [[dysphoria]], [[suicidality]], [[delusion]]s, [[psychosis]], [[drug withdrawal|withdrawal]], [[drug dependence|dependence]], [[neurotoxicity]], [[cognitive impairment]].<ref name="pmid16000671">{{cite journal | vauthors = Hall RC, Hall RC, Chapman MJ | title = Psychiatric complications of anabolic steroid abuse | journal = Psychosomatics | volume = 46 | issue = 4 | pages = 285–290 | year = 2005 | pmid = 16000671 | doi = 10.1176/appi.psy.46.4.285 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref name="pmid15984895">{{cite journal | vauthors = Trenton AJ, Currier GW | title = Behavioural manifestations of anabolic steroid use | journal = CNS Drugs | volume = 19 | issue = 7 | pages = 571–595 | year = 2005 | pmid = 15984895 | doi = 10.2165/00023210-200519070-00002 | s2cid = 32243658 }}</ref>
* [[Musculoskeletal disorder|Musculoskeletal]]: [[muscle hypertrophy]], [[muscle strain]]s, [[tendon rupture]]s, [[rhabdomyolysis]].
* [[Cardiovascular disease|Cardiovascular]]: [[dyslipidemia]] (e.g., increased {{abbrlink|LDL|low-density lipoprotein}} levels, decreased {{abbrlink|HDL|high-density lipoprotein}} levels, reduced {{abbrlink|apo-A1|apolipoprotein A1}} levels), [[atherosclerosis]], elevated [[hematocrit]], [[hypertension]], [[left ventricular hypertrophy]], [[cardiomyopathy]], [[myocardial hypertrophy]], [[polycythemia]]/[[erythrocytosis]], [[arrhythmia]]s, [[thrombosis]] (e.g., [[embolism]], [[stroke]]), [[myocardial infarction]], [[sudden cardiac death|sudden death]].<ref name="pmid20020375">{{cite book | vauthors = Vanberg P, Atar D | chapter = Androgenic Anabolic Steroid Abuse and the Cardiovascular System | title = Doping in Sports | volume = 195 | pages = 411–57 | pmid = 20020375 | doi = 10.1007/978-3-540-79088-4_18 | series = Handbook of Experimental Pharmacology | date = 2009 | issue = 195 | publisher = Springer | isbn = 978-3-540-79087-7 }}</ref><ref name="pmid20816133">{{cite journal | vauthors = Achar S, Rostamian A, Narayan SM | title = Cardiac and metabolic effects of anabolic-androgenic steroid abuse on lipids, blood pressure, left ventricular dimensions, and rhythm | journal = The American Journal of Cardiology | volume = 106 | issue = 6 | pages = 893–901 | date = September 2010 | pmid = 20816133 | pmc = 4111565 | doi = 10.1016/j.amjcard.2010.05.013 }}</ref>
* [[Liver disease|Hepatic]]: elevated [[liver function test]]s ({{abbrlink|AST|aspartate aminotransferase}}, {{abbrlink|ALT|alanine aminotransferase}}, [[bilirubin]], {{abbrlink|LDH|lactic dehydrogenase}}, {{abbrlink|ALP|alkaline phosphatase}}), [[hepatotoxicity]], [[jaundice]], [[hepatic steatosis]], [[hepatocellular adenoma]], [[hepatocellular carcinoma]], [[cholestasis]], [[peliosis hepatis]]; all mostly or exclusively with 17α-alkylated AAS.<ref name="pmid28379599">{{cite journal | vauthors = Solimini R, Rotolo MC, Mastrobattista L, Mortali C, Minutillo A, Pichini S, Pacifici R, Palmi I | display-authors = 6 | title = Hepatotoxicity associated with illicit use of anabolic androgenic steroids in doping | journal = European Review for Medical and Pharmacological Sciences | volume = 21 | issue = 1 Suppl | pages = 7–16 | date = March 2017 | pmid = 28379599 }}</ref>
* [[Renal disease|Renal]]: [[renal hypertrophy]], [[nephropathy]], [[acute renal failure]] (secondary to rhabdomyolysis), [[focal segmental glomerulosclerosis]], [[renal cell carcinoma]].
* Others: [[glucose intolerance]], [[insulin resistance]], [[immune dysfunction]].<ref name="pmid21443507">{{cite journal | vauthors = Brenu EW, McNaughton L, Marshall-Gradisnik SM | title = Is there a potential immune dysfunction with anabolic androgenic steroid use?: A review | journal = Mini Reviews in Medicinal Chemistry | volume = 11 | issue = 5 | pages = 438–445 | date = May 2011 | pmid = 21443507 | doi = 10.2174/138955711795445907 }}</ref>

===Physiological===
Depending on the length of drug use, there is a chance that the immune system can be damaged. Most of these side-effects are dose-dependent, the most common being elevated [[blood pressure]], especially in those with pre-existing [[hypertension]].<ref name="pmid14609147">{{cite journal | vauthors = Grace F, Sculthorpe N, Baker J, Davies B | title = Blood pressure and rate pressure product response in males using high-dose anabolic androgenic steroids (AAS) | journal = Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport | volume = 6 | issue = 3 | pages = 307–312 | date = September 2003 | pmid = 14609147 | doi = 10.1016/S1440-2440(03)80024-5 }}</ref> In addition to morphological changes of the heart which may have a permanent adverse effect on cardiovascular efficiency.

AAS have been shown to alter fasting blood sugar and glucose tolerance tests.<ref name="Dailymed.nlm.nih.gov">{{cite web |url=http://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/drugInfo.cfm?id=3607 |title=DailyMed: About DailyMed |publisher=Dailymed.nlm.nih.gov |access-date=3 November 2008 |archive-date=12 May 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090512072736/http://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/drugInfo.cfm?id=3607 |url-status=live }}</ref> AAS such as testosterone also increase the risk of [[cardiovascular disease]]<ref name="pmid7556805" /> or [[coronary artery disease]].<ref name="pmid1586105">{{cite journal | vauthors = Bagatell CJ, Knopp RH, Vale WW, Rivier JE, Bremner WJ | title = Physiologic testosterone levels in normal men suppress high-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels | journal = Annals of Internal Medicine | volume = 116 | issue = 12 Pt 1 | pages = 967–973 | date = June 1992 | pmid = 1586105 | doi = 10.7326/0003-4819-116-12-967 }}</ref><ref name="pmid8821428">{{cite journal | vauthors = Mewis C, Spyridopoulos I, Kühlkamp V, Seipel L | title = Manifestation of severe coronary heart disease after anabolic drug abuse | journal = Clinical Cardiology | volume = 19 | issue = 2 | pages = 153–155 | date = February 1996 | pmid = 8821428 | doi = 10.1002/clc.4960190216 | s2cid = 37024092 }}</ref> [[Acne]] is fairly common among AAS users, mostly due to stimulation of the [[sebaceous gland]]s by increased testosterone levels.<ref name="pmid15248788"/><ref name="pmid17274777">{{cite journal | vauthors = Melnik B, Jansen T, Grabbe S | title = Abuse of anabolic-androgenic steroids and bodybuilding acne: an underestimated health problem | journal = Journal der Deutschen Dermatologischen Gesellschaft = Journal of the German Society of Dermatology | volume = 5 | issue = 2 | pages = 110–117 | date = February 2007 | pmid = 17274777 | doi = 10.1111/j.1610-0387.2007.06176.x | s2cid = 13382470 }}</ref> Conversion of testosterone to DHT can accelerate the rate of premature [[baldness]] for males genetically predisposed, but testosterone itself can produce baldness in females.<ref name="pmid12870172">{{cite journal | vauthors = Vierhapper H, Maier H, Nowotny P, Waldhäusl W | title = Production rates of testosterone and of dihydrotestosterone in female pattern hair loss | journal = Metabolism | volume = 52 | issue = 7 | pages = 927–929 | date = July 2003 | pmid = 12870172 | doi = 10.1016/S0026-0495(03)00060-X }}</ref>

A number of severe side effects can occur if adolescents use AAS. For example, AAS may prematurely stop the lengthening of bones (premature [[epiphyseal plate|epiphyseal fusion]] through increased levels of [[estrogen (medication)|estrogen]] [[metabolite]]s), resulting in [[stunted growth]]. Other effects include, but are not limited to, accelerated [[bone maturation]], increased frequency and duration of erections, and premature sexual development. AAS use in adolescence is also [[correlated]] with poorer attitudes related to health.<ref name="pmid11927236">{{cite journal | vauthors = Irving LM, Wall M, Neumark-Sztainer D, Story M | title = Steroid use among adolescents: findings from Project EAT | journal = The Journal of Adolescent Health | volume = 30 | issue = 4 | pages = 243–252 | date = April 2002 | pmid = 11927236 | doi = 10.1016/S1054-139X(01)00414-1 }}</ref>

====Cancer====
WHO organization [[International Agency for Research on Cancer]] (IARC) list AAS under [[List of IARC Group 2A carcinogens|Group 2A]]: Probably carcinogenic to humans.<ref name="url_ACS_known_carcinogens">{{cite web |url=http://www.cancer.org/cancer/cancercauses/othercarcinogens/generalinformationaboutcarcinogens/known-and-probable-human-carcinogens |title=Known and Probable Human Carcinogens |date=29 June 2011 |publisher=American Cancer Society |access-date=17 November 2014 |archive-date=17 November 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141117200818/http://www.cancer.org/cancer/cancercauses/othercarcinogens/generalinformationaboutcarcinogens/known-and-probable-human-carcinogens |url-status=live }}</ref>

====Cardiovascular====
Other side-effects can include alterations in the structure of the [[heart]], such as [[left ventricular hypertrophy|enlargement and thickening of the left ventricle]], which impairs its contraction and [[diastolic|relaxation]], and therefore reducing ejected blood volume.<ref name="pmid1917226" /> Possible effects of these alterations in the heart are hypertension, [[cardiac arrhythmia]]s, [[congestive heart failure]], [[heart attacks]], and [[sudden cardiac death]].<ref name="pmid10499702">{{cite journal | vauthors = Sullivan ML, Martinez CM, Gallagher EJ | title = Atrial fibrillation and anabolic steroids | journal = The Journal of Emergency Medicine | volume = 17 | issue = 5 | pages = 851–857 | year = 1999 | pmid = 10499702 | doi = 10.1016/S0736-4679(99)00095-5 }}</ref> These changes are also seen in non-drug-using [[athletes]], but steroid use may accelerate this process.<ref name="pmid9778553">{{cite journal | vauthors = Dickerman RD, Schaller F, McConathy WJ | title = Left ventricular wall thickening does occur in elite power athletes with or without anabolic steroid Use | journal = Cardiology | volume = 90 | issue = 2 | pages = 145–148 | date = October 1998 | pmid = 9778553 | doi = 10.1159/000006834 | s2cid = 22123696 }}</ref><ref name="pmid1829849">{{cite journal | vauthors = George KP, Wolfe LA, Burggraf GW | title = The 'athletic heart syndrome'. A critical review | journal = Sports Medicine | volume = 11 | issue = 5 | pages = 300–330 | date = May 1991 | pmid = 1829849 | doi = 10.2165/00007256-199111050-00003 | s2cid = 45280834 }}</ref> However, both the connection between changes in the structure of the left ventricle and decreased cardiac function, as well as the connection to steroid use have been disputed.<ref name="pmid9113423">{{cite journal | vauthors = Dickerman RD, Schaller F, Zachariah NY, McConathy WJ | title = Left ventricular size and function in elite bodybuilders using anabolic steroids | journal = Clinical Journal of Sport Medicine | volume = 7 | issue = 2 | pages = 90–93 | date = April 1997 | pmid = 9113423 | doi = 10.1097/00042752-199704000-00003 | s2cid = 42891343 }}</ref><ref name="pmid4079743">{{cite journal | vauthors = Salke RC, Rowland TW, Burke EJ | title = Left ventricular size and function in body builders using anabolic steroids | journal = Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise | volume = 17 | issue = 6 | pages = 701–704 | date = December 1985 | pmid = 4079743 | doi = 10.1249/00005768-198512000-00014 | doi-access = free }}</ref>

AAS use can cause harmful changes in [[cholesterol]] levels: Some steroids cause an increase in [[LDL cholesterol]] and a decrease in [[HDL cholesterol]].<ref name="Tokar-2006">{{cite web | vauthors = Tokar S  |title=Liver Damage And Increased Heart Attack Risk Caused By Anabolic Steroid Use |publisher=University of California – San Francisco |date=February 2006 |url=http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/releases/38069.php |access-date=24 April 2007 |archive-date=14 June 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110614002438/http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/releases/38069.php |url-status=live }}</ref>

====Growth defects====
AAS use in adolescents quickens bone maturation and may reduce adult height in high doses.{{citation needed|date=June 2016}} Low doses of AAS such as [[oxandrolone]] are used in the treatment of [[idiopathic short stature]], but this may only quicken maturation rather than increasing adult height.<ref name="pmid26051296">{{cite journal | vauthors = Wit JM, Oostdijk W | title = Novel approaches to short stature therapy | journal = Best Practice & Research. Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism | volume = 29 | issue = 3 | pages = 353–366 | date = June 2015 | pmid = 26051296 | doi = 10.1016/j.beem.2015.01.003 }}</ref>

====Feminization====
[[File:GynecomastiaFrontalAsymSevere.jpg|thumb|22-year-old man with gynecomastia not due to AAS use. Before and after gynecomastia surgery.]]
{{see also|Feminization (biology)}}

Although all anabolic steroids have [[androgenic]] effects, some of them paradoxically results in feminization, such as breast tissue in males, a condition called [[gynecomastia]]. These side effect are caused by the natural conversion of testosterone into [[estrogen]] and [[estradiol]] by the action of [[aromatase]] enzyme, encoded by the ''CYP19A1'' gene.<ref name="pmid779604">{{cite journal | vauthors = Marcus R, Korenman SG | title = Estrogens and the human male | journal = Annual Review of Medicine | volume = 27 | pages = 357–370 | year = 1976 | pmid = 779604 | doi = 10.1146/annurev.me.27.020176.002041 }}</ref>

Prolonged use of androgenic-anabolic steroids by men results in temporary shut down of their natural testosterone production due to an inhibition of the [[hypothalamic–pituitary–gonadal axis]]. This manifests in [[testicular atrophy]], inhibition of the [[spermatogenesis|production of sperm]], [[sexual function]] and  [[infertility]].<ref name="pmid2104626">{{cite journal | vauthors = Matsumoto AM | title = Effects of chronic testosterone administration in normal men: safety and efficacy of high dosage testosterone and parallel dose-dependent suppression of luteinizing hormone, follicle-stimulating hormone, and sperm production | journal = The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism | volume = 70 | issue = 1 | pages = 282–287 | date = January 1990 | pmid = 2104626 | doi = 10.1210/jcem-70-1-282 }}</ref><ref name="Hoffman-2006">{{cite journal |vauthors=Hoffman JR, Ratamess NA |journal=Journal of Sports Science and Medicine |title=Medical Issues Associated with Anabolic Steroid Use: Are they Exaggerated? |date=1 June 2006 |url=http://www.jssm.org/vol5/n2/2/v5n2-2pdf.pdf |access-date=8 May 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070620160853/http://www.jssm.org/vol5/n2/2/v5n2-2pdf.pdf |archive-date=20 June 2007 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="pmid12185103">{{cite journal | vauthors = Meriggiola MC, Costantino A, Bremner WJ, Morselli-Labate AM | title = Higher testosterone dose impairs sperm suppression induced by a combined androgen-progestin regimen | journal = Journal of Andrology | volume = 23 | issue = 5 | pages = 684–690 | year = 2002 | pmid = 12185103 | doi = 10.1002/j.1939-4640.2002.tb02311.x | hdl-access = free | s2cid = 2400041 | hdl = 1773/4474 }}</ref>  A short (1–2 months) use of androgenic-anabolic steroids by men followed by a course of testosterone-boosting therapy (e.g. [[clomifene]] and [[human chorionic gonadotropin]]) usually results in return to normal testosterone production.<ref name="pmid2991700">{{cite journal | vauthors = Alén M, Reinilä M, Vihko R | title = Response of serum hormones to androgen administration in power athletes | journal = Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise | volume = 17 | issue = 3 | pages = 354–359 | date = June 1985 | pmid = 2991700 | doi = 10.1249/00005768-198506000-00009 }}</ref>)

====Masculinization====
{{See also|Virilization}}

Female-specific side effects include [[hirsutism|increases in body hair]], permanent deepening of the voice, [[clitoral hypertrophy|enlarged clitoris]], and temporary decreases in [[menstrual cycle]]s. Alteration of [[fertility]] and ovarian cysts can also occur in females.<ref name="pmid9216474">{{cite journal | vauthors = Franke WW, Berendonk B | title = Hormonal doping and androgenization of athletes: a secret program of the German Democratic Republic government | journal = Clinical Chemistry | volume = 43 | issue = 7 | pages = 1262–1279 | date = July 1997 | pmid = 9216474 | doi = 10.1093/clinchem/43.7.1262 | doi-access = free }}</ref> When taken during pregnancy, AAS can affect [[fetal development]] by causing the development of male features in the female fetus and female features in the male fetus.<ref name="pmid14576190">{{cite journal | vauthors = Manikkam M, Crespi EJ, Doop DD, Herkimer C, Lee JS, Yu S, Brown MB, Foster DL, Padmanabhan V | display-authors = 6 | title = Fetal programming: prenatal testosterone excess leads to fetal growth retardation and postnatal catch-up growth in sheep | journal = Endocrinology | volume = 145 | issue = 2 | pages = 790–798 | date = February 2004 | pmid = 14576190 | doi = 10.1210/en.2003-0478 | doi-access = free }}</ref>

====Kidney problems====
Kidney tests revealed that nine of the ten steroid users developed a condition called [[focal segmental glomerulosclerosis]], a type of scarring within the kidneys. The kidney damage in the bodybuilders has similarities to that seen in morbidly obese patients, but appears to be even more severe.<ref name="Herlitz-2009">{{cite conference | vauthors = Herlitz LC, Markowitz GS, Farris AB, Schwimmer JA, Stokes MB, Kunis C, Colvin RB, D'Agati VD  | display-authors = 6 |date=29 October 2009 |title=Development of FSGS Following Anabolic Steroid Use in Bodybuilders |url=http://fitforin.it/images/stories/allegati/herlitzabstract.pdf |conference=42nd Annual Meeting and Scientific Exposition of the American Society of Nephrology  |access-date=17 November 2014 |archive-date=7 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181007030553/http://fitforin.it/images/stories/allegati/herlitzabstract.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

====Liver problems====
High doses of oral AAS compounds can cause [[hepatotoxicity|liver damage]].<ref name="pmid16606610" /> [[Peliosis hepatis]] has been increasingly recognised with the use of AAS.

===Neuropsychiatric===
<!-- "Roid rage" redirects here. If you change this headline, please edit "Roid rage" to point to the new article title. -->
[[File:Rational harm assessment of drugs radar plot.svg|class=skin-invert-image|thumb|Addiction experts in psychiatry, chemistry, pharmacology, forensic science, epidemiology, and the police and legal services engaged in [[Delphi method|delphic analysis]] regarding 20 popular recreational drugs. AAS were ranked 19th in dependence, 9th in physical harm, and 15th in social harm.<ref name="pmid17382831">{{cite journal | vauthors = Nutt D, King LA, Saulsbury W, Blakemore C | title = Development of a rational scale to assess the harm of drugs of potential misuse | journal = Lancet | volume = 369 | issue = 9566 | pages = 1047–1053 | date = March 2007 | pmid = 17382831 | doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(07)60464-4 | s2cid = 5903121 }}</ref>]]

A 2005 review in ''[[CNS Drugs]]'' determined that "significant psychiatric symptoms including aggression and violence, [[mania]], and less frequently [[psychosis]] and suicide have been associated with steroid [[drug abuse|abuse]]. Long-term steroid abusers may develop symptoms of [[Substance dependence|dependence]] and [[Drug withdrawal|withdrawal]] on discontinuation of AAS".<ref name="pmid15984895" /> High concentrations of AAS, comparable to those likely sustained by many recreational AAS users, produce [[apoptotic]] effects on [[neuron]]s,{{Citation needed|date=August 2015}} raising the specter of possibly irreversible neurotoxicity. Recreational AAS use appears to be associated with a range of potentially prolonged psychiatric effects, including dependence syndromes, [[mood disorder]]s, and progression to other forms of substance use, but the prevalence and severity of these various effects remains poorly understood.<ref name="pmid18599224"/> There is no evidence that steroid dependence develops from ''therapeutic'' use of AAS to treat medical disorders, but instances of AAS dependence have been reported among weightlifters and bodybuilders who chronically administered supraphysiologic doses.<ref name="pmid12230967">{{cite journal | vauthors = Brower KJ | title = Anabolic steroid abuse and dependence | journal = Current Psychiatry Reports | volume = 4 | issue = 5 | pages = 377–387 | date = October 2002 | pmid = 12230967 | doi = 10.1007/s11920-002-0086-6 | s2cid = 25684227 }}</ref> Mood disturbances (e.g. depression, [hypo-]mania, psychotic features) are likely to be dose- and drug-dependent, but AAS dependence or withdrawal effects seem to occur only in a small number of AAS users.<ref name="pmid15248788"/> Large-scale long-term studies of psychiatric effects on AAS users are not currently available.<ref name="pmid18599224"/>

====Diagnostic Statistical Manual assertion====
[[DSM-IV]] lists [[Personality disorder#Diagnosis|General diagnostic criteria]] for a personality disorder guideline that "The pattern must not be better accounted for as a manifestation of another mental disorder, or to the direct physiological effects of a substance (e.g. drug or medication) or a general medical condition (e.g. head trauma).". As a result, AAS users may get misdiagnosed by a psychiatrist not told about their habit.<ref name="Rashid-2007">{{cite journal |doi=10.1192/apt.bp.105.000935 |title=Anabolic androgenic steroids: What the psychiatrist needs to know |year=2007 |vauthors=Rashid H, Ormerod S, Day E |journal=Advances in Psychiatric Treatment |volume=13 |issue=3 |pages=203–211|doi-access=free }}</ref>

====Personality profiles====
Cooper, Noakes, Dunne, Lambert, and Rochford identified that AAS-using individuals are more likely to score higher on [[Borderline personality disorder|borderline]] (4.7 times), [[Anti-social behaviour|antisocial]] (3.8 times), [[Paranoid personality disorder|paranoid]] (3.4 times), [[schizotypal]] (3.1 times), [[Histrionic personality disorder|histrionic]] (2.9 times), [[Passive-aggressive personality disorder|passive-aggressive]] (2.4 times), and [[Narcissistic personality disorder|narcissistic]] (1.6 times) personality profiles than non-users.<ref name="pmid8889121">{{cite journal | vauthors = Cooper CJ, Noakes TD, Dunne T, Lambert MI, Rochford K | title = A high prevalence of abnormal personality traits in chronic users of anabolic-androgenic steroids | journal = British Journal of Sports Medicine | volume = 30 | issue = 3 | pages = 246–250 | date = September 1996 | pmid = 8889121 | pmc = 1332342 | doi = 10.1136/bjsm.30.3.246 }}</ref> Other studies have suggested that antisocial personality disorder is slightly more likely among AAS users than among non-users (Pope & Katz, 1994).<ref name="Rashid-2007"/> [[Bipolar disorder|Bipolar]] dysfunction,<ref name="Vitalquests.org">{{cite web |url=http://www.vitalquests.org/publication2steroiduse.html |title=Dr. Ritchi Morris |publisher=Vitalquests.org |access-date=1 December 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203081738/http://www.vitalquests.org/publication2steroiduse.html |archive-date=3 December 2013 }}</ref> [[substance dependency]], and [[conduct disorder]] have also been associated with AAS use.<ref name="pmid19922565">{{cite journal | vauthors = Kanayama G, Brower KJ, Wood RI, Hudson JI, Pope HG | title = Anabolic-androgenic steroid dependence: an emerging disorder | journal = Addiction | volume = 104 | issue = 12 | pages = 1966–1978 | date = December 2009 | pmid = 19922565 | pmc = 2780436 | doi = 10.1111/j.1360-0443.2009.02734.x }}</ref>

====Mood and anxiety====
Affective disorders have long been recognised as a complication of AAS use. Case reports describe both hypomania and mania, along with irritability, elation, recklessness, racing thoughts and feelings of power and invincibility that did not meet the criteria for mania/hypomania.<ref name="Eisenberg-1992">{{cite book |vauthors=Eisenberg ER, Galloway GP |chapter=Anabolic androgenic steroids |title=Substance Abuse: A Comprehensive Textbook |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780683052114 |url-access=registration |veditors=Lowinson JH, Ruiz P, Millman RB |publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins |year=1992 |isbn=978-0-683-05211-4 }}</ref> Of 53 bodybuilders who used AAS, 27 (51%) reported unspecified mood disturbance.<ref name="pmid2351927">{{cite journal | vauthors = Lindström M, Nilsson AL, Katzman PL, Janzon L, Dymling JF | title = Use of anabolic-androgenic steroids among body builders—frequency and attitudes | journal = Journal of Internal Medicine | volume = 227 | issue = 6 | pages = 407–411 | date = June 1990 | pmid = 2351927 | doi = 10.1111/j.1365-2796.1990.tb00179.x | s2cid = 22121959 }}</ref>

====Aggression and hypomania====
{{Further info|Roid rage}}
From the mid-1980s onward, the media reported "roid rage" as a side effect of AAS.<ref name="Lenahan-2003">{{cite book | vauthors = Lenahan P | title = Anabolic Steroids: And Other Performance-enhancing Drugs | date = 2003 | publisher = Taylor & Francis | location = London | isbn = 0-415-28030-3 }}</ref>{{rp|23}}

A 2005 review determined that some, but not all, randomized controlled studies have found that AAS use correlates with [[hypomania]] and increased aggressiveness, but pointed out that attempts to determine whether AAS use triggers violent behavior have failed, primarily because of high rates of non-participation.<ref name="pmid15660958">{{cite journal | vauthors = Thiblin I, Petersson A | title = Pharmacoepidemiology of anabolic androgenic steroids: a review | journal = Fundamental & Clinical Pharmacology | volume = 19 | issue = 1 | pages = 27–44 | date = February 2005 | pmid = 15660958 | doi = 10.1111/j.1472-8206.2004.00298.x | s2cid = 2009549 }}</ref> A 2008 study on a nationally representative sample of young adult males in the United States found an association between lifetime and past-year self-reported AAS use and involvement in violent acts. Compared with individuals that did not use steroids, young adult males that used AAS reported greater involvement in violent behaviors even after controlling for the effects of key demographic variables, previous violent behavior, and polydrug use.<ref name="pmid18923108">{{cite journal | vauthors = Beaver KM, Vaughn MG, Delisi M, Wright JP | title = Anabolic-androgenic steroid use and involvement in violent behavior in a nationally representative sample of young adult males in the United States | journal = American Journal of Public Health | volume = 98 | issue = 12 | pages = 2185–2187 | date = December 2008 | pmid = 18923108 | pmc = 2636528 | doi = 10.2105/AJPH.2008.137018 }}</ref> A 1996 review examining the [[blinded experiment|blind studies]] available at that time also found that these had demonstrated a link between aggression and steroid use, but pointed out that with estimates of over one million past or current steroid users in the United States at that time, an extremely small percentage of those using steroids appear to have experienced mental disturbance severe enough to result in clinical treatments or medical case reports.<ref name="pmid8969015">{{cite journal | vauthors = Bahrke MS, Yesalis CE, Wright JE | title = Psychological and behavioural effects of endogenous testosterone and anabolic-androgenic steroids. An update | journal = Sports Medicine | volume = 22 | issue = 6 | pages = 367–390 | date = December 1996 | pmid = 8969015 | doi = 10.2165/00007256-199622060-00005 | s2cid = 23846419 }}</ref>

The relationship between AAS use and depression is inconclusive. A 1992 review{{update inline|date=September 2023}} found that AAS may both relieve and cause depression, and that cessation or diminished use of AAS may also result in depression, but called for additional studies due to disparate data.<ref name="pmid1551042">{{cite journal | vauthors = Uzych L | title = Anabolic-androgenic steroids and psychiatric-related effects: a review | journal = Canadian Journal of Psychiatry. Revue Canadienne de Psychiatrie | volume = 37 | issue = 1 | pages = 23–28 | date = February 1992 | pmid = 1551042 | doi = 10.1177/070674379203700106 | s2cid = 22571743 }}</ref>

=== Reproductive ===
[[Androgen]]s such as [[testosterone]], [[androstenedione]] and [[dihydrotestosterone]] are required for the development of organs in the [[male reproductive system]], including the [[seminal vesicles]], [[epididymis]], [[vas deferens]], [[penis]] and [[prostate]].<ref name="pmid26855782">{{cite journal | vauthors = El Osta R, Almont T, Diligent C, Hubert N, Eschwège P, Hubert J | title = Anabolic steroids abuse and male infertility | journal = Basic and Clinical Andrology | volume = 26 | issue = 2 | pages = 2 | year = 2016 | pmid = 26855782 | pmc = 4744441 | doi = 10.1186/s12610-016-0029-4 | doi-access = free }}</ref> AAS are testosterone derivatives designed to maximize the [[anabolic]] effects of testosterone.<ref name="pmid18500378">{{cite journal | vauthors = Kicman AT | title = Pharmacology of anabolic steroids | journal = British Journal of Pharmacology | volume = 154 | issue = 3 | pages = 502–521 | date = June 2008 | pmid = 18500378 | pmc = 2439524 | doi = 10.1038/bjp.2008.165 }}</ref> AAS are consumed by [[elite athletes]] competing in [[sports]] like [[Olympic weightlifting|weightlifting]], [[bodybuilding]], and [[track and field]].<ref name="pmid4437350">{{cite journal | vauthors = Stromme SB, Meen HD, Aakvaag A | title = Effects of an androgenic-anabolic steroid on strength development and plasma testosterone levels in normal males | journal = Medicine and Science in Sports | volume = 6 | issue = 3 | pages = 203–208 | year = 1974 | pmid = 4437350 }}</ref> Male recreational athletes take AAS to achieve an "enhanced" [[physical appearance]].<ref name="pmid24582699">{{cite journal | vauthors = Sagoe D, Molde H, Andreassen CS, Torsheim T, Pallesen S | title = The global epidemiology of anabolic-androgenic steroid use: a meta-analysis and meta-regression analysis | journal = Annals of Epidemiology | volume = 24 | issue = 5 | pages = 383–398 | date = May 2014 | pmid = 24582699 | doi = 10.1007/s40279-017-0709-z | s2cid = 42489596 }}</ref>

AAS consumption disrupts the [[hypothalamic–pituitary–gonadal axis]] (HPG axis) in males.<ref name="pmid26855782"/> In the HPG axis, [[gonadotropin-releasing hormone]] (GnRH) is secreted from the [[arcuate nucleus]] of the [[hypothalamus]] and stimulates the [[anterior pituitary]]  to secrete the two [[gonadotropin]]s, [[follicle stimulating hormone]] (FSH) and [[luteinizing hormone]] (LH).<ref name="pmid28258581">{{cite journal | vauthors = Christou MA, Christou PA, Markozannes G, Tsatsoulis A, Mastorakos G, Tigas S | title = Effects of Anabolic Androgenic Steroids on the Reproductive System of Athletes and Recreational Users: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis | journal = Sports Medicine | volume = 47 | issue = 9 | pages = 1869–1883 | date = September 2017 | pmid = 28258581 | doi = 10.1007/s40279-017-0709-z | s2cid = 42489596 }}</ref> In adult males, LH stimulates the [[Leydig cells]] in the [[testes]] to produce testosterone which is required to form new [[sperm]] through [[spermatogenesis]].<ref name="pmid26855782"/> AAS consumption leads to dose-dependent suppression of gonadotropin release through suppression of GnRH from the hypothalamus (long-loop mechanism) or from direct [[negative feedback]] on the anterior pituitary to inhibit gonadotropin release (short-loop mechanism), leading to AAS-induced [[hypogonadism]].<ref name="pmid26855782"/>

==Pharmacology==

===Mechanism of action===
{{See also|Steroid hormone}}
[[File:Steroid receptor.png|thumb|The human [[androgen receptor]] bound to [[testosterone]]<ref name="pmid16641486">{{cite journal | vauthors = Pereira de Jésus-Tran K, Côté PL, Cantin L, Blanchet J, Labrie F, Breton R | title = Comparison of crystal structures of human androgen receptor ligand-binding domain complexed with various agonists reveals molecular determinants responsible for binding affinity | journal = Protein Science | volume = 15 | issue = 5 | pages = 987–999 | date = May 2006 | pmid = 16641486 | pmc = 2242507 | doi = 10.1110/ps.051905906 }}</ref> The protein is shown as a [[ribbon diagram]] in red, green, and blue, with the steroid shown in white.]]

The [[pharmacodynamics]] of AAS are unlike [[peptide hormone]]s. Water-soluble peptide hormones cannot penetrate the fatty [[cell membrane]] and only indirectly affect the [[cell nucleus|nucleus]] of target [[Cell (biology)|cells]] through their interaction with the cell's surface [[Receptor (biochemistry)|receptors]]. However, as fat-soluble hormones, AAS are membrane-permeable and influence the nucleus of cells by direct action. The pharmacodynamic action of AAS begin when the exogenous hormone penetrates the membrane of the target cell and binds to an [[androgen receptor]] (AR) located in the [[cytoplasm]] of that cell. From there, the compound hormone-receptor diffuses into the nucleus, where it either alters the [[gene expression|expression]] of [[gene]]s<ref name="pmid16238547">{{cite journal | vauthors = Lavery DN, McEwan IJ | title = Structure and function of steroid receptor AF1 transactivation domains: induction of active conformations | journal = The Biochemical Journal | volume = 391 | issue = Pt 3 | pages = 449–464 | date = November 2005 | pmid = 16238547 | pmc = 1276946 | doi = 10.1042/BJ20050872 }}</ref> or activates processes that [[signal transduction|send signals]] to other parts of the cell.<ref name="pmid15352158">{{cite journal | vauthors = Cheskis BJ | title = Regulation of cell signalling cascades by steroid hormones | journal = Journal of Cellular Biochemistry | volume = 93 | issue = 1 | pages = 20–27 | date = September 2004 | pmid = 15352158 | doi = 10.1002/jcb.20180 | s2cid = 43430651 }}</ref> Different types of AAS bind to the AAR with different [[Dissociation constant|affinities]], depending on their chemical structure.<ref name="pmid15248788"/>

The effect of AAS on muscle mass is caused in at least two ways:<ref name="pmid8855787">{{cite journal | vauthors = Brodsky IG, Balagopal P, Nair KS | title = Effects of testosterone replacement on muscle mass and muscle protein synthesis in hypogonadal men—a clinical research center study | journal = The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism | volume = 81 | issue = 10 | pages = 3469–3475 | date = October 1996 | pmid = 8855787 | doi = 10.1210/jcem.81.10.8855787 }}</ref> first, they increase the [[Protein biosynthesis|production of proteins]]; second, they reduce recovery time by blocking the effects of stress hormone [[cortisol]] on muscle tissue, so that [[catabolism]] of muscle is greatly reduced. It has been [[hypothesized]] that this reduction in muscle breakdown may occur through AAS inhibiting the action of other steroid hormones called [[glucocorticoid]]s that promote the breakdown of muscles.<ref name="pmid2199753"/> AAS also affect the number of cells that develop into fat-storage cells, by favouring [[cellular differentiation]] into muscle cells instead.<ref name="pmid12960001">{{cite journal | vauthors = Singh R, Artaza JN, Taylor WE, Gonzalez-Cadavid NF, Bhasin S | title = Androgens stimulate myogenic differentiation and inhibit adipogenesis in C3H 10T1/2 pluripotent cells through an androgen receptor-mediated pathway | journal = Endocrinology | volume = 144 | issue = 11 | pages = 5081–5088 | date = November 2003 | pmid = 12960001 | doi = 10.1210/en.2003-0741 | doi-access = free }}</ref>

==== Molecular interaction of AAS with androgen receptors ====
Anabolic steroids interact with ARs across various tissues, including muscle, bone, and reproductive systems.<ref name="pmid15082523"/> Upon binding to the AR, anabolic steroids trigger a translocation of the hormone-receptor complex to the cell nucleus, where they either alter gene expression or activate cellular signaling pathways; this results in increased protein synthesis, enhanced muscle growth, and reduced muscle catabolism.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Riggs BL, Khosla S, Melton LJ | title = Sex steroids and the construction and conservation of the adult skeleton | journal = Endocrine Reviews | volume = 23 | issue = 3 | pages = 279–302 | date = June 2002 | doi = 10.1210/edrv.23.3.0465 | pmid = 12050121 | s2cid = 28160750 | doi-access = free }}</ref>

Anabolic steroids influence cellular differentiation while favoring the development of muscle cells over fat-storage cells.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Azziz R, Carmina E, Dewailly D, Diamanti-Kandarakis E, Escobar-Morreale HF, Futterweit W, Janssen OE, Legro RS, Norman RJ, Taylor AE, Witchel SF | display-authors = 6 | title = The Androgen Excess and PCOS Society criteria for the polycystic ovary syndrome: the complete task force report | journal = Fertility and Sterility | volume = 91 | issue = 2 | pages = 456–488 | date = February 2009 | pmid = 18950759 | doi = 10.1016/j.fertnstert.2008.06.035 | doi-access = free }}</ref> Research in this field has shown that structural modifications in anabolic steroids are critical in determining their binding affinity to ARs and their resulting anabolic and androgenic activities.<ref name="pmid19028512"/> These modifications affect a steroid's ability to influence gene expression and cellular processes, highlighting the complex biophysical interactions of anabolic steroids at the cellular level.<ref name="pmid15082523">{{cite journal | vauthors = Heinlein CA, Chang C | title = Androgen receptor in prostate cancer | journal = Endocrine Reviews | volume = 25 | issue = 2 | pages = 276–308 | date = April 2004 | pmid = 15082523 | doi = 10.1210/er.2002-0032 | s2cid = 24665772 | doi-access = free }}</ref>

===Anabolic and androgenic effects===
{{Relative androgenic to anabolic activity in animals}}

As their name suggests, AAS have two different, but overlapping, types of effects: ''anabolic'', meaning that they promote anabolism (cell growth), and ''androgenic'' (or ''virilizing''), meaning that they affect the development and maintenance of masculine characteristics.

Some examples of the anabolic effects of these hormones are increased [[protein synthesis]] from [[amino acid]]s, increased appetite, increased bone remodeling and growth, and stimulation of [[bone marrow]], which increases the production of [[red blood cell]]s. Through a number of [[#Mechanism of action|mechanisms]] AAS stimulate the formation of muscle cells and hence cause an increase in the size of [[skeletal muscles]], leading to increased strength.<ref name="pmid16424293">{{cite journal | vauthors = Schroeder ET, Vallejo AF, Zheng L, Stewart Y, Flores C, Nakao S, Martinez C, Sattler FR | display-authors = 6 | title = Six-week improvements in muscle mass and strength during androgen therapy in older men | journal = The Journals of Gerontology. Series A, Biological Sciences and Medical Sciences | volume = 60 | issue = 12 | pages = 1586–1592 | date = December 2005 | pmid = 16424293 | doi = 10.1093/gerona/60.12.1586 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref name="pmid16540931"/><ref name="pmid10710012">{{cite journal | vauthors = Giorgi A, Weatherby RP, Murphy PW | title = Muscular strength, body composition and health responses to the use of testosterone enanthate: a double blind study | journal = Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport | volume = 2 | issue = 4 | pages = 341–355 | date = December 1999 | pmid = 10710012 | doi = 10.1016/S1440-2440(99)80007-3 }}</ref>

The androgenic effects of AAS are numerous. Depending on the length of use, the side effects of the steroid can be irreversible. Processes affected include pubertal growth, [[sebaceous gland]] oil production, and sexuality (especially in fetal development). Some examples of virilizing effects are [[clitoral hypertrophy|growth of the clitoris]] in females and the [[penis]] in male children (the adult penis size does not change due to steroids{{medical citation needed|date=March 2013}}), increased [[vocal cord]] size, increased [[libido]], suppression of [[endogenous|natural]] [[sex hormone]]s, and impaired [[spermatogenesis|production of sperm]].<ref name="pmid12017555">{{cite journal | vauthors = Kuhn CM | title = Anabolic steroids | journal = Recent Progress in Hormone Research | volume = 57 | pages = 411–434 | year = 2002 | pmid = 12017555 | doi = 10.1210/rp.57.1.411 | doi-access = free }}</ref> Effects on women include deepening of the voice, facial hair growth, and possibly a decrease in breast size. Men may develop an enlargement of breast tissue, known as gynecomastia, testicular atrophy, and a reduced sperm count.{{citation needed|date=August 2019}}
The androgenic:anabolic ratio of an AAS is an important factor when determining the clinical application of these compounds. Compounds with a high ratio of androgenic to an anabolic effects are the drug of choice in androgen-replacement therapy (e.g., treating [[hypogonadism]] in males), whereas compounds with a reduced androgenic:anabolic ratio are preferred for anemia and osteoporosis, and to reverse protein loss following trauma, surgery, or prolonged immobilization. Determination of androgenic:anabolic ratio is typically performed in animal studies, which has led to the marketing of some compounds claimed to have anabolic activity with weak androgenic effects. This disassociation is less marked in humans, where all AAS have significant androgenic effects.<ref name="Chrousos-2012">{{cite book | veditors = Katzung BG, Chrousos GP |chapter=The Gonadal Hormones & Inhibitors |title=Basic & Clinical Pharmacology |publisher=McGraw-Hill Medical McGraw-Hill distributor |location=New York London |year=2012 |isbn=978-0-07-176401-8}}</ref>

A commonly used protocol for determining the androgenic:anabolic ratio, dating back to the 1950s, uses the relative weights of ventral [[prostate]] (VP) and [[levator ani]] muscle (LA) of male [[Laboratory rat|rats]]. The VP weight is an indicator of the androgenic effect, while the LA weight is an indicator of the anabolic effect. Two or more batches of rats are [[castrated]] and given no treatment and respectively some AAS of interest. The ''LA/VP ratio'' for an AAS is calculated as the ratio of LA/VP weight gains produced by the treatment with that compound using castrated but untreated rats as baseline: (LA<sub>c,t</sub>–LA<sub>c</sub>)/(VP<sub>c,t</sub>–VP<sub>c</sub>). The LA/VP weight gain ratio from rat experiments is not unitary for testosterone (typically 0.3–0.4), but it is normalized for presentation purposes, and used as basis of comparison for other AAS, which have their androgenic:anabolic ratios scaled accordingly (as shown in the table above).<ref name="pmid9593936">{{cite journal | vauthors = Roselli CE | title = The effect of anabolic-androgenic steroids on aromatase activity and androgen receptor binding in the rat preoptic area | journal = Brain Research | volume = 792 | issue = 2 | pages = 271–276 | date = May 1998 | pmid = 9593936 | doi = 10.1016/S0006-8993(98)00148-6 | s2cid = 29441013 }}</ref><ref name="pmid13064212">{{cite journal | vauthors = Hershberger LG, Shipley EG, Meyer RK | title = Myotrophic activity of 19-nortestosterone and other steroids determined by modified levator ani muscle method | journal = Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine | volume = 83 | issue = 1 | pages = 175–180 | date = May 1953 | pmid = 13064212 | doi = 10.3181/00379727-83-20301 | s2cid = 2628925 }}</ref> In the early 2000s, this procedure was standardized and generalized throughout [[OECD]] in what is now known as the Hershberger assay.

====Body composition and strength improvements====
Anabolic steroids notably influence muscle fiber characteristics, affecting both the size and type of muscle fibers. This alteration significantly contributes to enhanced muscle strength and endurance.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Eriksson A, Kadi F, Malm C, Thornell LE | title = Skeletal muscle morphology in power-lifters with and without anabolic steroids | journal = Histochemistry and Cell Biology | volume = 124 | issue = 2 | pages = 167–175 | date = August 2005 | pmid = 16059740 | doi = 10.1007/s00418-005-0029-5 | s2cid = 1887613 }}</ref> Anabolic-androgenic steroids (AAS) cause these changes by directly impacting the muscle tissue's cellular components. Studies have shown that these changes are not merely superficial but represent a profound transformation in the muscle's structural and functional properties. This transformation is a key factor in the steroids' ability to enhance physical performance and endurance.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Reyes-Vallejo L | title = Current use and abuse of anabolic steroids | journal = Actas Urologicas Espanolas | volume = 44 | issue = 5 | pages = 309–313 | date = June 2020 | pmid = 32113828 | doi = 10.1016/j.acuroe.2019.10.007 | s2cid = 229152974 }}</ref>

Body weight in men may increase by 2 to 5&nbsp;kg as a result of short-term (<10 weeks) AAS use, which may be attributed mainly to an increase of lean mass. Animal studies also found that fat mass was reduced, but most studies in humans failed to elucidate significant fat mass decrements. The effects on lean body mass have been shown to be dose-dependent. Both [[muscle hypertrophy]] and the formation of new [[muscle fibers]] have been observed. The hydration of lean mass remains unaffected by AAS use, although small increments of blood volume cannot be ruled out.<ref name="pmid15248788"/>

The upper region of the body (thorax, neck, shoulders, and upper arm) seems to be more susceptible for AAS than other body regions because of predominance of ARs in the upper body.{{Citation needed|date=December 2016}} The largest difference in muscle fiber size between AAS users and non-users was observed in type I muscle fibers of the [[vastus lateralis]] and the [[trapezius muscle]] as a result of long-term AAS self-administration. After drug withdrawal, the effects fade away slowly, but may persist for more than 6–12 weeks after cessation of AAS use.<ref name="pmid15248788"/>

Strength improvements in the range of 5 to 20% of baseline strength, depending largely on the drugs and dose used as well as the administration period. Overall, the exercise where the most significant improvements were observed is the [[bench press]].<ref name="pmid15248788"/> For almost two decades, it was assumed that AAS exerted significant effects only in experienced strength athletes.<ref name="pmid61389">{{cite journal | vauthors = Hervey GR, Hutchinson I, Knibbs AV, Burkinshaw L, Jones PR, Norgan NG, Levell MJ | title = "Anabolic" effects of methandienone in men undergoing athletic training | journal = Lancet | volume = 2 | issue = 7988 | pages = 699–702 | date = October 1976 | pmid = 61389 | doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(76)90001-5 | url = http://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(76)90001-5/abstract | access-date = 17 November 2014 | url-status = live | s2cid = 22417506 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20141129053456/http://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(76)90001-5/abstract | archive-date = 29 November 2014 | url-access = subscription }}{{closed access}}</ref><ref name="pmid7018798">{{cite journal | vauthors = Hervey GR, Knibbs AV, Burkinshaw L, Morgan DB, Jones PR, Chettle DR, Vartsky D | title = Effects of methandienone on the performance and body composition of men undergoing athletic training | journal = Clinical Science | volume = 60 | issue = 4 | pages = 457–461 | date = April 1981 | pmid = 7018798 | doi = 10.1042/cs0600457 | s2cid = 30590287 }}</ref> A randomized controlled trial demonstrated, however, that even in novice athletes a 10-week strength training program accompanied by [[testosterone enanthate]] at 600&nbsp;mg/week may improve strength more than training alone does.<ref name="pmid15248788"/><ref name="pmid8637535">{{cite journal | vauthors = Bhasin S, Storer TW, Berman N, Callegari C, Clevenger B, Phillips J, Bunnell TJ, Tricker R, Shirazi A, Casaburi R | display-authors = 6 | title = The effects of supraphysiologic doses of testosterone on muscle size and strength in normal men | journal = The New England Journal of Medicine | volume = 335 | issue = 1 | pages = 1–7 | date = July 1996 | pmid = 8637535 | doi = 10.1056/NEJM199607043350101 | s2cid = 73721690 | doi-access = free }}</ref> This dose is sufficient to significantly improve lean muscle mass relative to placebo even in subjects that did not exercise at all.<ref name="pmid8637535"/> The anabolic effects of testosterone enanthate were highly dose dependent.<ref name="pmid15248788"/><ref name="pmid11701431">{{cite journal | vauthors = Bhasin S, Woodhouse L, Casaburi R, Singh AB, Bhasin D, Berman N, Chen X, Yarasheski KE, Magliano L, Dzekov C, Dzekov J, Bross R, Phillips J, Sinha-Hikim I, Shen R, Storer TW | display-authors = 6 | title = Testosterone dose-response relationships in healthy young men | journal = American Journal of Physiology. Endocrinology and Metabolism | volume = 281 | issue = 6 | pages = E1172–E1181 | date = December 2001 | pmid = 11701431 | doi = 10.1152/ajpendo.2001.281.6.E1172 | s2cid = 2344757 }}</ref>

===Dissociation of effects===
Endogenous/natural AAS like testosterone and DHT and synthetic AAS mediate their effects by binding to and activating the AR.<ref name="pmid18500378"/> On the basis of animal [[bioassay]]s, the effects of these agents have been divided into two partially dissociable types: anabolic (myotrophic) and androgenic.<ref name="pmid18500378" /> Dissociation between the ratios of these two types of effects relative to the ratio observed with testosterone is observed in rat bioassays with various AAS.<ref name="pmid18500378" /> Theories for the dissociation include differences between AAS in terms of their [[intracellular]] [[metabolism]], [[functional selectivity]] (differential recruitment of [[coactivator]]s), and [[Nuclear receptor#Non-genomic|non-genomic]] mechanisms (i.e., signaling through non-AR [[membrane androgen receptor]]s, or mARs).<ref name="pmid18500378" /> Support for the latter two theories is limited and more hypothetical, but there is a good deal of support for the intracellular metabolism theory.<ref name="pmid18500378" />

The measurement of the dissociation between anabolic and androgenic effects among AAS is based largely on a simple but outdated and unsophisticated model using rat tissue bioassays.<ref name="pmid18500378" /> It has been referred to as the "[[myotrophic–androgenic index]]".<ref name="pmid18500378" /> In this model, myotrophic or anabolic activity is measured by change in the weight of the rat [[bulbospongiosus muscle|bulbocavernosus]]/[[levator ani]] muscle, and androgenic activity is measured by change in the weight of the rat [[ventral prostate]] (or, alternatively, the rat [[seminal vesicles]]), in response to exposure to the AAS.<ref name="pmid18500378" /> The measurements are then compared to form a ratio.<ref name="pmid18500378" />

====Intracellular metabolism====
Testosterone is [[metabolized]] in various tissues by [[5α-reductase]] into DHT, which is 3- to 10-fold more potent as an AR agonist, and by [[aromatase]] into [[estradiol]], which is an [[estrogen]] and lacks significant AR affinity.<ref name="pmid18500378" /> In addition, DHT is metabolized by [[3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase]] (3α-HSD) and [[3β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase]] (3β-HSD) into [[3α-androstanediol]] and [[3β-androstanediol]], respectively, which are [[metabolite]]s with little or no AR affinity.<ref name="pmid18500378" /> 5α-reductase is widely distributed throughout the body, and is concentrated to various extents in skin (particularly the scalp, face, and genital areas), prostate, seminal vesicles, liver, and the brain.<ref name="pmid18500378" /> In contrast, expression of 5α-reductase in [[skeletal muscle]] is undetectable.<ref name="pmid18500378" /> Aromatase is highly expressed in [[adipose tissue]] and the brain, and is also expressed significantly in skeletal muscle.<ref name="pmid18500378" /> 3α-HSD is highly expressed in skeletal muscle as well.<ref name="Llewellyn2011" />

Natural AAS like testosterone and DHT and synthetic AAS are analogues and are very similar structurally.<ref name="pmid18500378" /> For this reason, they have the capacity to bind to and be metabolized by the same [[steroidogenic enzyme|steroid-metabolizing]] [[enzyme]]s.<ref name="pmid18500378" /> According to the intracellular metabolism explanation, the androgenic-to-anabolic ratio of a given AR agonist is related to its capacity to be transformed by the aforementioned enzymes in conjunction with the AR activity of any resulting products.<ref name="pmid18500378" /> For instance, whereas the AR activity of testosterone is greatly potentiated by local conversion via 5α-reductase into DHT in tissues where 5α-reductase is expressed, an AAS that is not metabolized by 5α-reductase or is already 5α-reduced, such as DHT itself or a derivative (like [[mesterolone]] or [[drostanolone]]), would not undergo such potentiation in said tissues.<ref name="pmid18500378" /> Moreover, nandrolone is metabolized by 5α-reductase, but unlike the case of testosterone and DHT, the 5α-reduced metabolite of nandrolone has much lower affinity for the AR than does nandrolone itself, and this results in reduced AR activation in 5α-reductase-expressing tissues.<ref name="pmid18500378" /> As so-called "androgenic" tissues such as skin/hair follicles and male reproductive tissues are very high in 5α-reductase expression, while skeletal muscle is virtually devoid of 5α-reductase, this may primarily explain the high myotrophic–androgenic ratio and dissociation seen with nandrolone, as well as with various other AAS.<ref name="pmid18500378" />

Aside from 5α-reductase, aromatase may inactivate testosterone signaling in skeletal muscle and adipose tissue, so AAS that lack aromatase affinity, in addition to being free of the potential side effect of [[gynecomastia]], might be expected to have a higher myotrophic–androgenic ratio in comparison.<ref name="pmid18500378" /> In addition, DHT is inactivated by high activity of 3α-HSD in skeletal muscle (and cardiac tissue), and AAS that lack affinity for 3α-HSD could similarly be expected to have a higher myotrophic–androgenic ratio (although perhaps also increased long-term cardiovascular risks).<ref name="pmid18500378" /> In accordance, DHT, [[mestanolone]] (17α-methyl-DHT), and [[mesterolone]] (1α-methyl-DHT) are all described as very poorly anabolic due to inactivation by 3α-HSD in skeletal muscle, whereas other DHT derivatives with other structural features like [[metenolone]], [[oxandrolone]], [[oxymetholone]], [[drostanolone]], and [[stanozolol]] are all poor substrates for 3α-HSD and are described as potent anabolics.<ref name="Llewellyn2011" />

The intracellular metabolism theory explains how and why remarkable dissociation between anabolic and androgenic effects might occur despite the fact that these effects are mediated through the same signaling receptor, and why this dissociation is invariably incomplete.<ref name="pmid18500378" /> In support of the model is the rare condition [[congenital 5α-reductase type 2 deficiency]], in which the [[5α-reductase type 2]] enzyme is defective, production of DHT is impaired, and DHT levels are low while testosterone levels are normal.<ref name="pmid431680">{{cite journal | vauthors = Imperato-McGinley J, Peterson RE, Gautier T, Sturla E | title = Androgens and the evolution of male-gender identity among male pseudohermaphrodites with 5alpha-reductase deficiency | journal = The New England Journal of Medicine | volume = 300 | issue = 22 | pages = 1233–1237 | date = May 1979 | pmid = 431680 | doi = 10.1056/NEJM197905313002201 }}</ref><ref name="pmid16985920">{{cite journal | vauthors = Marks LS | title = 5alpha-reductase: history and clinical importance | journal = Reviews in Urology | volume = 6 | issue = Suppl 9 | pages = S11–S21 | year = 2004 | pmid = 16985920 | pmc = 1472916 }}</ref> Males with this condition are born with [[ambiguous genitalia]] and a severely underdeveloped or even absent prostate gland.<ref name="pmid431680" /><ref name="pmid16985920" /> In addition, at the time of puberty, such males develop normal musculature, voice deepening, and libido, but have reduced facial hair, a female pattern of body hair (i.e., largely restricted to the pubic triangle and underarms), no incidence of [[male pattern hair loss]], and no prostate enlargement or incidence of [[prostate cancer]].<ref name="pmid16985920" /><ref name="Sloane-2002">{{cite book | vauthors = Sloane E |title=Biology of Women |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kqcYyk7zlHYC&pg=PA160 |year=2002 |publisher=Cengage Learning |isbn=0-7668-1142-5 |pages=160– |access-date=17 October 2016 |archive-date=19 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200819135839/https://books.google.com/books?id=kqcYyk7zlHYC&pg=PA160 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Hanno-2014" /><ref name="Jain-2006">{{cite book | vauthors = Saleem M, Siddiqui IA, Mukhtar H | chapter = The Tea Beverage in Chemoprevention of Prostate Cancer| veditors = Jain NK, Siddiqi M, Weisburger JH | title = Protective Effects of Tea on Human Health | chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=aILVwQhjsBMC&pg=PA95 | year = 2006 | publisher = CABI | isbn = 978-1-84593-113-1 | pages = 95– | access-date = 17 October 2016 | archive-date = 22 December 2016 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20161222024256/https://books.google.com/books?id=aILVwQhjsBMC&pg=PA95 | url-status = live }}</ref><ref name="Harper-2007">{{cite book | vauthors = Harper C |title=Intersex |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fM6vAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA123 |date=1 August 2007 |publisher=Berg |isbn=978-1-84788-339-1 |pages=123– |access-date=17 October 2016 |archive-date=19 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200819064959/https://books.google.com/books?id=fM6vAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA123 |url-status=live }}</ref> They also notably do not develop gynecomastia as a consequence of their condition.<ref name="Hanno-2014">{{cite book | vauthors = Hanno PM, Guzzi TJ, Malkowicz SB, J Wein A  | title = Penn Clinical Manual of Urology | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=OQTbAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA782 | date = 26 January 2014 | publisher = Elsevier Health Sciences | isbn = 978-0-323-24466-4 | pages = 782– | access-date = 17 October 2016 | archive-date = 19 August 2020 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200819170719/https://books.google.com/books?id=OQTbAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA782 | url-status = live }}</ref>

{{Relative affinities of nandrolone and related steroids at the androgen receptor}}

====Functional selectivity====
An animal study found that two different kinds of [[androgen response element]]s could differentially respond to testosterone and DHT upon activation of the AR.<ref name="pmid11701661">{{cite journal | vauthors = Basaria S, Wahlstrom JT, Dobs AS | title = Clinical review 138: Anabolic-androgenic steroid therapy in the treatment of chronic diseases | journal = The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism | volume = 86 | issue = 11 | pages = 5108–5117 | date = November 2001 | pmid = 11701661 | doi = 10.1210/jcem.86.11.7983 | quote = [...] in a recent animal study, Hsiao et al. (10) found two different kinds of androgen response elements that could respond differentially to T and DHT. Therefore, it is possible that a selective androgen response element sequence may play a role in differential T vs. DHT AR trans-activation. | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref name="pmid11343670">{{cite journal | vauthors = Basaria S, Dobs AS | title = Hypogonadism and androgen replacement therapy in elderly men | journal = The American Journal of Medicine | volume = 110 | issue = 7 | pages = 563–572 | date = May 2001 | pmid = 11343670 | doi = 10.1016/s0002-9343(01)00663-5 | quote = Although both testosterone and dihydrotestosterone activate the same androgen receptor, differences in the sequence of androgen response elements are responsible for differential regulation of these hormones (21). }}</ref> Whether this is involved in the differences in the ratios of anabolic-to-myotrophic effect of different AAS is unknown however.<ref name="pmid11701661" /><ref name="pmid11343670" /><ref name="pmid18500378" />

====Non-genomic mechanisms====
Testosterone signals not only through the nuclear AR, but also through mARs, including [[ZIP9]] and [[GPRC6A]].<ref name="pmid25257522">{{cite journal | vauthors = Wang C, Liu Y, Cao JM | title = G protein-coupled receptors: extranuclear mediators for the non-genomic actions of steroids | journal = International Journal of Molecular Sciences | volume = 15 | issue = 9 | pages = 15412–15425 | date = September 2014 | pmid = 25257522 | pmc = 4200746 | doi = 10.3390/ijms150915412 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref name="pmid28479083">{{cite journal | vauthors = Thomas P, Converse A, Berg HA | title = ZIP9, a novel membrane androgen receptor and zinc transporter protein | journal = General and Comparative Endocrinology | volume = 257 | pages = 130–136 | date = February 2018 | pmid = 28479083 | doi = 10.1016/j.ygcen.2017.04.016 }}</ref> It has been proposed that differential signaling through mARs may be involved in the dissociation of the anabolic and androgenic effects of AAS.<ref name="pmid18500378" /> Indeed, DHT has less than 1% of the affinity of testosterone for ZIP9, and the synthetic AAS [[metribolone]] and [[mibolerone]] are ineffective competitors for the receptor similarly.<ref name="pmid28479083" /> This indicates that AAS do show differential interactions with the AR and mARs.<ref name="pmid28479083" /> However, women with [[complete androgen insensitivity syndrome]] (CAIS), who have a 46,XY ("male") [[genotype]] and [[testes]] but a defect in the AR such that it is non-functional, are a challenge to this notion.<ref name="pmid26303084" /> They are completely insensitive to the AR-mediated effects of androgens like testosterone, and show a perfectly female [[phenotype]] despite having testosterone levels in the high end of the normal male range.<ref name="pmid26303084">{{cite journal | vauthors = Mongan NP, Tadokoro-Cuccaro R, Bunch T, Hughes IA | title = Androgen insensitivity syndrome | journal = Best Practice & Research. Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism | volume = 29 | issue = 4 | pages = 569–580 | date = August 2015 | pmid = 26303084 | doi = 10.1016/j.beem.2015.04.005 }}</ref> These women have little or no [[sebum]] production, incidence of [[acne]], or body hair growth (including in the pubic and axillary areas).<ref name="pmid26303084" /> Moreover, CAIS women have [[lean body mass]] that is normal for females but is of course greatly reduced relative to males.<ref name="Orwoll-2009">{{cite book | vauthors = Baroncelli GI, Bertelloni S | chapter = The Effects of Sex Steroids on Bone Growth | veditors = Orwoll ES, Bilezikian JP, Vanderschueren D | title = Osteoporosis in Men: The Effects of Gender on Skeletal Health | chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=nfWNYFdOsCsC&pg=PA114 | date = 30 November 2009 | publisher = Academic Press | isbn = 978-0-08-092346-8 | pages = 114– | access-date = 21 December 2017 | archive-date = 14 April 2021 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210414135451/https://books.google.com/books?id=nfWNYFdOsCsC&pg=PA114 | url-status = live }}</ref> These observations suggest that the AR is mainly or exclusively responsible for masculinization and myotrophy caused by androgens.<ref name="pmid26303084" /><ref name="Orwoll-2009" /><ref name="Rahwan1988">{{cite journal | vauthors = Rahwan RG | date = 1988 | title = The Pharmacology of Androgens and Anabolic Steroids. | journal = American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education | volume = 52 | issue = 2 | pages = 167–177 | doi = 10.1016/S0002-9459(24)03012-2 }}</ref> The mARs have however been found to be involved in some of the health-related effects of testosterone, like modulation of prostate cancer risk and progression.<ref name="pmid28479083" /><ref name="pmid21681779">{{cite journal | vauthors = Pi M, Quarles LD | title = GPRC6A regulates prostate cancer progression | journal = The Prostate | volume = 72 | issue = 4 | pages = 399–409 | date = March 2012 | pmid = 21681779 | pmc = 3183291 | doi = 10.1002/pros.21442 }}</ref>

====Antigonadotropic effects====
Changes in endogenous testosterone levels may also contribute to differences in myotrophic–androgenic ratio between testosterone and synthetic AAS.<ref name="Llewellyn2011" /> AR agonists are [[antigonadotropic]] – that is, they dose-dependently suppress gonadal testosterone production and hence reduce systemic testosterone concentrations.<ref name="Llewellyn2011" /> By suppressing endogenous testosterone levels and effectively replacing AR signaling in the body with that of the exogenous AAS, the myotrophic–androgenic ratio of a given AAS may be further, dose-dependently increased, and this hence may be an additional factor contributing to the differences in myotrophic–androgenic ratio among different AAS.<ref name="Llewellyn2011" /> In addition, some AAS, such as 19-nortestosterone derivatives like nandrolone, are also potent [[progestogen]]s, and activation of the [[progesterone receptor]] (PR) is antigonadotropic similarly to activation of the AR.<ref name="Llewellyn2011" /> The combination of sufficient AR and PR activation can suppress circulating testosterone levels into the [[castrate]] range in men (i.e., complete suppression of gonadal testosterone production and circulating testosterone levels decreased by about 95%).<ref name="pmid20933120" /><ref name="pmid9920070">{{cite journal | vauthors = Wu FC, Balasubramanian R, Mulders TM, Coelingh-Bennink HJ | title = Oral progestogen combined with testosterone as a potential male contraceptive: additive effects between desogestrel and testosterone enanthate in suppression of spermatogenesis, pituitary-testicular axis, and lipid metabolism | journal = The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism | volume = 84 | issue = 1 | pages = 112–122 | date = January 1999 | pmid = 9920070 | doi = 10.1210/jcem.84.1.5412 | doi-access = free }}</ref> As such, combined progestogenic activity may serve to further increase the myotrophic–androgenic ratio for a given AAS.<ref name="Llewellyn2011" />

===GABA<sub>A</sub> receptor modulation===
Some AAS, such as testosterone, DHT, stanozolol, and methyltestosterone, have been found to modulate the [[GABAA receptor|GABA<sub>A</sub> receptor]] similarly to endogenous [[neurosteroid]]s like [[allopregnanolone]], [[3α-androstanediol]], [[dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate]], and [[pregnenolone sulfate]].<ref name="pmid18500378" /> It has been suggested that this may contribute as an alternative or additional mechanism to the neurological and behavioral effects of AAS.<ref name="pmid18500378" /><ref name="pmid8294123">{{cite journal | vauthors = Bitran D, Kellogg CK, Hilvers RJ | title = Treatment with an anabolic-androgenic steroid affects anxiety-related behavior and alters the sensitivity of cortical GABAA receptors in the rat | journal = Hormones and Behavior | volume = 27 | issue = 4 | pages = 568–583 | date = December 1993 | pmid = 8294123 | doi = 10.1006/hbeh.1993.1041 | s2cid = 29134676 }}</ref><ref name="pmid7603620">{{cite journal | vauthors = Masonis AE, McCarthy MP | title = Direct effects of the anabolic/androgenic steroids, stanozolol and 17 alpha-methyltestosterone, on benzodiazepine binding to the. gamma-aminobutyric acid(a) receptor | journal = Neuroscience Letters | volume = 189 | issue = 1 | pages = 35–38 | date = April 1995 | pmid = 7603620 | doi = 10.1016/0304-3940(95)11445-3 | s2cid = 54394931 }}</ref><ref name="pmid8858992"/><ref name="pmid16814373">{{cite journal | vauthors = Rivera-Arce JC, Morales-Crespo L, Vargas-Pinto N, Velázquez KT, Jorge JC | title = Central effects of the anabolic steroid 17alpha methyltestosterone in female anxiety | journal = Pharmacology, Biochemistry, and Behavior | volume = 84 | issue = 2 | pages = 275–281 | date = June 2006 | pmid = 16814373 | doi = 10.1016/j.pbb.2006.05.009 | s2cid = 31725431 }}</ref><ref name="pmid17433821">{{cite journal | vauthors = Henderson LP | title = Steroid modulation of GABAA receptor-mediated transmission in the hypothalamus: effects on reproductive function | journal = Neuropharmacology | volume = 52 | issue = 7 | pages = 1439–1453 | date = June 2007 | pmid = 17433821 | pmc = 1985867 | doi = 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2007.01.022 }}</ref><ref name="pmid19376158">{{cite journal | vauthors = Schwartzer JJ, Ricci LA, Melloni RH | title = Interactions between the dopaminergic and GABAergic neural systems in the lateral anterior hypothalamus of aggressive AAS-treated hamsters | journal = Behavioural Brain Research | volume = 203 | issue = 1 | pages = 15–22 | date = October 2009 | pmid = 19376158 | doi = 10.1016/j.bbr.2009.04.007 | s2cid = 26938839 }}</ref>

===Comparison of AAS===
AAS differ in a variety of ways including in their capacities to be [[metabolized]] by [[steroidogenic]] [[enzyme]]s such as [[5α-reductase]], [[3-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase]]s, and [[aromatase]], in whether their potency as AR agonists is potentiated or diminished by 5α-reduction, in their ratios of [[anabolic]]/[[myotrophic]] to [[androgen]]ic effect, in their [[estrogen (medication)|estrogen]]ic, [[progestogen]]ic, and [[neurosteroid]] activities, in their [[oral administration|oral]] activity, and in their capacity to produce [[hepatotoxicity]].<ref name="Llewellyn2011" /><ref name="pmid18500378" /><ref name="pmid8674183">{{cite journal | vauthors = Schänzer W | title = Metabolism of anabolic androgenic steroids | journal = Clinical Chemistry | volume = 42 | issue = 7 | pages = 1001–1020 | date = July 1996 | pmid = 8674183 | doi = 10.1093/clinchem/42.7.1001 | url = http://clinchem.aaccjnls.org/content/clinchem/42/7/1001.full.pdf | access-date = 1 April 2019 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170823074057/http://clinchem.aaccjnls.org/content/clinchem/42/7/1001.full.pdf | archive-date = 23 August 2017 }}</ref>

{{Pharmacological properties of major anabolic steroids}}

{{Relative affinities of anabolic steroids and related steroids}}

{{Parenteral durations of androgens/anabolic steroids}}

{{Pharmacokinetics of testosterone esters}}

====5α-Reductase and androgenicity====
Testosterone can be robustly converted by [[5α-reductase]] into DHT in so-called androgenic tissues such as [[skin]], [[scalp]], [[prostate]], and [[seminal vesicles]], but not in [[muscle]] or [[bone]], where 5α-reductase either is not expressed or is only minimally expressed.<ref name="pmid18500378" /> As DHT is 3- to 10-fold more potent as an agonist of the AR than is testosterone, the AR agonist activity of testosterone is thus markedly and selectively potentiated in such tissues.<ref name="pmid18500378" /> In contrast to testosterone, DHT and other 4,5α-dihydrogenated AAS are already 5α-reduced, and for this reason, cannot be potentiated in androgenic tissues.<ref name="pmid18500378" /> 19-Nortestosterone derivatives like [[nandrolone]] can be [[metabolized]] by 5α-reductase similarly to testosterone, but 5α-reduced metabolites of 19-nortestosterone derivatives (e.g., [[5α-dihydronandrolone]]) tend to have reduced activity as AR agonists, resulting in reduced androgenic activity in tissues that express 5α-reductase.<ref name="pmid18500378" /> In addition, some 19-nortestosterone derivatives, including [[trestolone]] (7α-methyl-19-nortestosterone (MENT)), [[11β-methyl-19-nortestosterone]] (11β-MNT), and [[dimethandrolone]] (7α,11β-dimethyl-19-nortestosterone), cannot be 5α-reduced.<ref name="pmid20599615">{{cite journal | vauthors = Attardi BJ, Hild SA, Koduri S, Pham T, Pessaint L, Engbring J, Till B, Gropp D, Semon A, Reel JR | display-authors = 6 | title = The potent synthetic androgens, dimethandrolone (7α,11β-dimethyl-19-nortestosterone) and 11β-methyl-19-nortestosterone, do not require 5α-reduction to exert their maximal androgenic effects | journal = The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology | volume = 122 | issue = 4 | pages = 212–218 | date = October 2010 | pmid = 20599615 | pmc = 2949447 | doi = 10.1016/j.jsbmb.2010.06.009 }}</ref> Conversely, certain 17α-alkylated AAS like methyltestosterone are 5α-reduced and potentiated in androgenic tissues similarly to testosterone.<ref name="pmid18500378" /><ref name="Llewellyn2011" /> 17α-Alkylated DHT derivatives cannot be potentiated via 5α-reductase however, as they are already 4,5α-reduced.<ref name="pmid18500378" /><ref name="Llewellyn2011" />

The capacity to be metabolized by 5α-reductase and the AR activity of the resultant metabolites appears to be one of the major, if not the most important determinant of the [[androgenic-myotrophic ratio|androgenic–myotrophic ratio]] for a given AAS.<ref name="pmid18500378" /> AAS that are not potentiated by 5α-reductase or that are weakened by 5α-reductase in androgenic tissues have a reduced risk of androgenic side effects such as [[acne]], [[androgenic alopecia]] (male-pattern baldness), [[hirsutism]] (excessive male-pattern hair growth), [[benign prostatic hyperplasia]] (prostate enlargement), and [[prostate cancer]], while incidence and magnitude of other effects such as [[muscle hypertrophy]], bone changes,<ref name="Orwoll-2009-2">{{cite book | vauthors = Wiren KM, Orwoll ES | chapter = Androgens and Bone: Basic Aspects | veditors = Orwoll ES, Bilezikian JP, Vanderschueren D |title=Osteoporosis in Men: The Effects of Gender on Skeletal Health| chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=nfWNYFdOsCsC&pg=PA296|date=30 November 2009|publisher=Academic Press|isbn=978-0-08-092346-8|pages=296–}}</ref> [[voice deepening]], and changes in [[sex drive]] show no difference.<ref name="pmid18500378" /><ref name="Fillit-2010">{{cite book| vauthors = Brinton RD | chapter = Neuroendocrinology of Aging | veditors = Fillit HM, Rockwood K, Woodhouse K |title=Brocklehurst's Textbook of Geriatric Medicine and Gerontology| chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=DPcUtY0kP7oC&pg=PA166|date=10 May 2010|publisher=Elsevier Health Sciences|isbn=978-1-4377-2075-4|pages=166–167|access-date=2 December 2016|archive-date=9 January 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200109183401/https://books.google.com/books?id=DPcUtY0kP7oC&pg=PA166|url-status=live}}</ref>

====Aromatase and estrogenicity====
Testosterone can be [[metabolized]] by [[aromatase]] into [[estradiol]], and many other AAS can be metabolized into their corresponding [[estrogen (medication)|estrogen]]ic metabolites as well.<ref name="pmid18500378" /> As an example, the 17α-alkylated AAS [[methyltestosterone]] and [[metandienone]] are converted by aromatase into [[methylestradiol]].<ref name="Thieme-2009">{{cite book| vauthors = Büttner A, Thieme D | chapter = Side Effects of Anabolic Androgenic Steroids: Pathological Findings and Structure-Activity Relationships| veditors = Thieme D, Hemmersbach P |title=Doping in Sports| chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=R-hIC-caIn8C&pg=PA470|date=18 December 2009|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-3-540-79088-4|pages=470–|access-date=2 December 2016|archive-date=9 January 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200109183423/https://books.google.com/books?id=R-hIC-caIn8C&pg=PA470|url-status=live}}</ref> 4,5α-Dihydrogenated derivatives of testosterone such as DHT cannot be aromatized, whereas 19-nortestosterone derivatives like nandrolone can be but to a greatly reduced extent.<ref name="pmid18500378" /><ref name="pmid18555683">{{cite journal | vauthors = Attardi BJ, Pham TC, Radler LC, Burgenson J, Hild SA, Reel JR | title = Dimethandrolone (7alpha,11beta-dimethyl-19-nortestosterone) and 11beta-methyl-19-nortestosterone are not converted to aromatic A-ring products in the presence of recombinant human aromatase | journal = The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology | volume = 110 | issue = 3–5 | pages = 214–222 | date = June 2008 | pmid = 18555683 | pmc = 2575079 | doi = 10.1016/j.jsbmb.2007.11.009 }}</ref> Some 19-nortestosterone derivatives, such as dimethandrolone and 11β-MNT, cannot be aromatized due to [[steric hindrance]] provided by their 11β-methyl group, whereas the closely related AAS trestolone (7α-methyl-19-nortestosterone), in relation to its lack of an 11β-methyl group, can be aromatized.<ref name="pmid18555683" /> AAS that are 17α-alkylated (and not also 4,5α-reduced or 19-demethylated) are also aromatized but to a lesser extent than is testosterone.<ref name="pmid18500378" /><ref name="Llewellyn2011c">{{cite book|author=Llewellyn, William|title=Anabolics|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=afKLA-6wW0oC&pg=PT533|year=2011|publisher=Molecular Nutrition Llc|isbn=978-0-9828280-1-4|pages=533–,402–412, 460–467|access-date=2 December 2016|archive-date=17 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200517071827/https://books.google.com/books?id=afKLA-6wW0oC&pg=PT533|url-status=live}}</ref> However, it is notable that estrogens that are 17α-substituted (e.g., [[ethinylestradiol]] and methylestradiol) are of markedly increased estrogenic potency due to improved [[metabolic stability]],<ref name="Thieme-2009" /> and for this reason, 17α-alkylated AAS can actually have high estrogenicity and comparatively greater estrogenic effects than testosterone.<ref name="Thieme-2009" /><ref name="Llewellyn2011" />

The major effect of estrogenicity is [[gynecomastia]] (woman-like breasts).<ref name="pmid18500378" /> AAS that have a high potential for aromatization like testosterone and particularly methyltestosterone show a high risk of gynecomastia at sufficiently high dosages, while AAS that have a reduced potential for aromatization like nandrolone show a much lower risk (though still potentially significant at high dosages).<ref name="pmid18500378" /> In contrast, AAS that are 4,5α-reduced, and some other AAS (e.g., 11β-methylated 19-nortestosterone derivatives), have no risk of gynecomastia.<ref name="pmid18500378" /> In addition to gynecomastia, AAS with high estrogenicity have increased antigonadotropic activity, which results in increased potency in suppression of the [[hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis]] and [[gonad]]al testosterone production.<ref name="Suvisaari-2000">{{cite thesis | vauthors = Suvisaari J | degree = Ph.D. | title=7α-Methyl-19-nortestosterone (MENT) Pharmacokinetics and Antigonadotropic Effects in Men | publisher=University of Helsinki | location=Helsinki | year=2000 | isbn=952-91-2950-5 | page=14 | url=http://ethesis.helsinki.fi/julkaisut/laa/biola/vk/suvisaari/7alphame.pdf | quote=Androgens, estrogens and progestins exert a negative feedback effect on the secretion of GnRH and LH by their actions on the pituitary and the hypothalamus. Most of the negative feedback effect of androgens is caused by their estrogenic metabolites produced by aromatization. 5α-Reduction does not seem to be necessary for the negative feedback effect of testosterone. (Rittmaster et al, 1992; Kumar et al, 1995a; Hayes et al, 2000). | access-date=2 December 2016 | archive-date=11 August 2017 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170811172743/http://ethesis.helsinki.fi/julkaisut/laa/biola/vk/suvisaari/7alphame.pdf | url-status=dead }}</ref>

====Progestogenic activity====
Many 19-nortestosterone derivatives, including nandrolone, [[trenbolone]], [[ethylestrenol]] (ethylnandrol), [[metribolone]] (R-1881), trestolone, 11β-MNT, dimethandrolone, and others, are potent agonists of the [[progesterone receptor]] (PR) and hence are [[progestogen]]s in addition to AAS.<ref name="pmid18500378" /><ref name="pmid16497801">{{cite journal | vauthors = Attardi BJ, Hild SA, Reel JR | title = Dimethandrolone undecanoate: a new potent orally active androgen with progestational activity | journal = Endocrinology | volume = 147 | issue = 6 | pages = 3016–3026 | date = June 2006 | pmid = 16497801 | doi = 10.1210/en.2005-1524 | doi-access = free }}</ref> Similarly to the case of estrogenic activity, the progestogenic activity of these drugs serves to augment their antigonadotropic activity.<ref name="pmid16497801" /> This results in increased potency and effectiveness of these AAS as [[wikt:antispermatogenic|antispermatogenic agent]]s and [[male contraceptive]]s (or, put in another way, increased potency and effectiveness in producing [[azoospermia]] and reversible [[male infertility]]).<ref name="pmid16497801" />

====Oral activity and hepatotoxicity====
Non-17α-alkylated testosterone derivatives such as testosterone itself, DHT, and nandrolone all have poor oral [[bioavailability]] due to extensive first-pass hepatic metabolism and hence are not orally active.<ref name="pmid18500378" /> A notable exception to this are AAS that are androgen [[precursor (biochemistry)|precursor]]s or [[androgen prohormone|prohormone]]s, including [[dehydroepiandrosterone]] (DHEA), [[androstenediol]], [[androstenedione]], [[boldione]] (androstadienedione), [[bolandiol]] (norandrostenediol), [[bolandione]] (norandrostenedione), [[dienedione]], [[mentabolan]] (MENT dione, trestione), and [[methoxydienone]] (methoxygonadiene) (although these are relatively weak AAS).<ref name="Warren-2000">{{cite book| vauthors = Myhal M, Lamb DR | chapter = Hormones as Performance-Enhancing Drugs| veditors = Warren MP, Constantini NW |title=Sports Endocrinology| chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=HNJ9BwAAQBAJ&pg=PA458|date=1 May 2000|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-1-59259-016-2|pages=458–|access-date=2 December 2016|archive-date=28 September 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170928135842/https://books.google.com/books?id=HNJ9BwAAQBAJ&pg=PA458|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Haff-2015">{{cite book| vauthors = Campbell B | chapter = Performance-Enhancing Substances and Methods | veditors = Haff GG, Triplett NT |title=Essentials of Strength Training and Conditioning | edition = 4th | chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=bfuXCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA233|date=23 September 2015|publisher=Human Kinetics|isbn=978-1-4925-0162-6|pages=233–|access-date=2 December 2016|archive-date=17 February 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180217202709/https://books.google.com/books?id=bfuXCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA233|url-status=live}}</ref> AAS that are not orally active are used almost exclusively in the form of [[androgen ester|ester]]s administered by [[intramuscular injection]], which act as [[depot injection|depot]]s and function as long-acting [[prodrug]]s.<ref name="pmid18500378" /> Examples include testosterone, as [[testosterone cypionate]], [[testosterone enanthate]], and [[testosterone propionate]], and nandrolone, as [[nandrolone phenylpropionate]] and [[nandrolone decanoate]], among many others (see [[Androgen ester|here]] for a full list of testosterone and nandrolone esters).<ref name="pmid18500378" /> An exception is the very long-chain ester [[testosterone undecanoate]], which is orally active, albeit with only very low oral bioavailability (approximately 3%).<ref name="Lemke-2012">{{cite book | chapter = Men's Health | vauthors = Lemke TL, Williams DA |title=Foye's Principles of Medicinal Chemistry | edition = 7th | chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Sd6ot9ul-bUC&pg=PA1360|date=24 January 2012 |publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins |isbn=978-1-60913-345-0|pages=1360–}}</ref> In contrast to most other AAS, 17α-alkylated testosterone derivatives show resistance to metabolism due to steric hindrance and are orally active, though they may be esterified and administered via intramuscular injection as well.<ref name="pmid18500378" />

In addition to oral activity, 17α-alkylation also confers a high potential for [[hepatotoxicity]], and all 17α-alkylated AAS have been associated, albeit uncommonly and only after prolonged use (different estimates between 1 and 17%),<ref name="Karch-2001">{{cite book| vauthors = Karch SB, Drummer O | chapter = Anabolic Steroids |title=Karch's Pathology of Drug Abuse | edition= Third | chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=AUTWJwn8uOwC&pg=PA489|date=26 December 2001|publisher=CRC Press|isbn=978-1-4200-4211-5|pages=489–|access-date=2 December 2016|archive-date=9 January 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200109183415/https://books.google.com/books?id=AUTWJwn8uOwC&pg=PA489|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="pmid20153798">{{cite journal | vauthors = van Amsterdam J, Opperhuizen A, Hartgens F | title = Adverse health effects of anabolic-androgenic steroids | journal = Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology | volume = 57 | issue = 1 | pages = 117–123 | date = June 2010 | pmid = 20153798 | doi = 10.1016/j.yrtph.2010.02.001 }}</ref> with hepatotoxicity.<ref name="pmid18500378" /><ref name="pmid3042375">{{cite journal | vauthors = Wilson JD | title = Androgen abuse by athletes | journal = Endocrine Reviews | volume = 9 | issue = 2 | pages = 181–199 | date = May 1988 | pmid = 3042375 | doi = 10.1210/edrv-9-2-181 }}</ref><ref name="Jameson-2015">{{cite book | vauthors = Handelsman DJ | chapter = Androgen Physiology, Pharmacology, and Abuse| veditors = Jameson JL, De Groot LJ |title=Endocrinology: Adult and Pediatric| chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=xmLeBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA2391|date=25 February 2015|publisher=Elsevier Health Sciences|isbn=978-0-323-32195-2|pages=2391–|access-date=2 December 2016|archive-date=9 January 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200109183409/https://books.google.com/books?id=xmLeBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA2391|url-status=live}}</ref> In contrast, [[testosterone ester]]s have only extremely rarely or never been associated with hepatotoxicity,<ref name="pmid20153798" /> and other non-17α-alkylated AAS only rarely,{{Citation needed|date=September 2016}} although long-term use may reportedly still increase the risk of hepatic changes (but at a much lower rate than 17α-alkylated AAS and reportedly not at replacement dosages).<ref name="Karch-2001" /><ref name="Nieschlag-2012">{{cite book | vauthors = Handelsman DJ | chapter = Androgen therapy in non-gonadal disease | veditors = Nieschlag E, Behre HM, Nieschlag S | title = Testosterone: Action, Deficiency, Substitution | chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=MkrAPaQ4wJkC&pg=PA374 | date = 26 July 2012 | publisher = Cambridge University Press | isbn = 978-1-107-01290-5 | pages = 374– | access-date = 2 December 2016 | archive-date = 16 May 2020 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200516221803/https://books.google.com/books?id=MkrAPaQ4wJkC&pg=PA374 | url-status = live | doi = 10.1017/CBO9781139003353.018 }}</ref><ref name="Becker-2001" />{{Additional citation needed|date=September 2016}} In accordance, D-ring [[glucuronide]]s of testosterone and DHT have been found to be cholestatic.<ref name="CameronFeuer2012">{{cite book | vauthors = Watkins III JB, Klaassen CD | chapter = Mechanisms of Drug-Induced Cholestatis | veditors = Cameron R, Feuer G, de la Iglesia F | title = Drug-Induced Hepatotoxicity | chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=xZf-CAAAQBAJ&pg=PA166 | date = 6 December 2012 | publisher = Springer Science & Business Media | isbn = 978-3-642-61013-4 | pages = 166– | access-date = 2 December 2016 | archive-date = 9 January 2020 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200109183358/https://books.google.com/books?id=xZf-CAAAQBAJ&pg=PA166 | url-status = live }}</ref>

Aside from prohormones and testosterone undecanoate, almost all orally active AAS are 17α-alkylated.<ref name="pmid11589254">{{cite journal | vauthors = Shahidi NT | title = A review of the chemistry, biological action, and clinical applications of anabolic-androgenic steroids | journal = Clinical Therapeutics | volume = 23 | issue = 9 | pages = 1355–1390 | date = September 2001 | pmid = 11589254 | doi = 10.1016/s0149-2918(01)80114-4 }}</ref> A few AAS that are not 17α-alkylated are orally active.<ref name="pmid18500378" /> Some examples include the testosterone 17-ethers [[cloxotestosterone]], [[quinbolone]], and [[silandrone]],{{Citation needed|date=September 2016}} which are prodrugs (to testosterone, [[boldenone]] (Δ<sup>1</sup>-testosterone), and testosterone, respectively), the DHT 17-ethers [[mepitiostane]], [[mesabolone]], and [[prostanozol]] (which are also prodrugs), the 1-methylated DHT derivatives [[mesterolone]] and [[metenolone]] (although these are relatively weak AAS),<ref name="pmid18500378" /><ref name="Becker-2001" /> and the 19-nortestosterone derivatives dimethandrolone and 11β-MNT, which have improved resistance to first-pass hepatic metabolism due to their 11β-methyl groups (in contrast to them, the related AAS trestolone (7α-methyl-19-nortestosterone) is not orally active).<ref name="pmid18500378" /><ref name="pmid16497801" /> As these AAS are not 17α-alkylated, they show minimal potential for hepatotoxicity.<ref name="pmid18500378" />

====Neurosteroid activity====
DHT, via its metabolite [[3α-androstanediol]] (produced by [[3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase]] (3α-HSD)), is a [[neurosteroid]] that acts via [[positive allosteric modulation]] of the [[GABAA receptor|GABA<sub>A</sub> receptor]].<ref name="pmid18500378" /> Testosterone, via conversion into DHT, also produces 3α-androstanediol as a metabolite and hence has similar activity.<ref name="pmid18500378" /> Some AAS that are or can be 5α-reduced, including testosterone, DHT, [[stanozolol]], and methyltestosterone, among many others, can or may modulate the GABA<sub>A</sub> receptor, and this may contribute as an alternative or additional mechanism to their [[central nervous system]] effects in terms of mood, anxiety, aggression, and sex drive.<ref name="pmid18500378" /><ref name="pmid8294123"/><ref name="pmid7603620"/><ref name="pmid8858992">{{cite journal | vauthors = Masonis AE, McCarthy MP | title = Effects of the androgenic/anabolic steroid stanozolol on GABAA receptor function: GABA-stimulated 36Cl- influx and [35S] TBPS binding | journal = The Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics | volume = 279 | issue = 1 | pages = 186–193 | date = October 1996 | pmid = 8858992 }}</ref><ref name="pmid16814373"/><ref name="pmid17433821"/><ref name="pmid19376158"/>

==Chemistry==
{{See also|List of androgens/anabolic steroids|List of androgen esters|Structure–activity relationships of anabolic steroids}}

AAS are [[androstane]] or [[estrane]] [[steroid]]s. They include testosterone (androst-4-en-17β-ol-3-one) and [[chemical derivative|derivative]]s with various [[structural modification]]s such as:<ref name="pmid18500378" /><ref name="pmid20020376">{{cite book | vauthors = Büttner A, Thieme D | chapter = Side Effects of Anabolic Androgenic Steroids: Pathological Findings and Structure–Activity Relationships | title = Doping in Sports | s2cid = 30314430 | series = Handbook of Experimental Pharmacology | volume = 195 | pages = 459–84 | year = 2009 | issue = 195 | publisher = Springer | pmid = 20020376 | doi = 10.1007/978-3-540-79088-4_19 | isbn = 978-3-540-79087-7 }}</ref><ref name="Llewellyn2011" />

* [[17α-Alkylated anabolic steroid|17α-Alkylation]]: [[methyltestosterone]], [[metandienone]], [[fluoxymesterone]], [[oxandrolone]], [[oxymetholone]], [[stanozolol]], [[norethandrolone]], [[ethylestrenol]]
* [[19-Nortestosterone|19-Demethylation]]: [[nandrolone]], [[trenbolone]], [[norethandrolone]], [[ethylestrenol]], [[trestolone]], [[dimethandrolone]]
* [[Dihydrotestosterone|5α-Reduction]]: [[androstanolone]], [[drostanolone]], [[mestanolone]], [[mesterolone]], [[metenolone]], [[oxandrolone]], [[oxymetholone]], [[stanozolol]]
* [[Androgen ester|3β- and/or 17β-esterification]]: [[testosterone enanthate]], [[nandrolone decanoate]], [[drostanolone propionate]], [[boldenone undecylenate]], [[trenbolone acetate]]

As well as others such as [[boldenone|1-dehydrogenation]] (e.g., [[metandienone]], [[boldenone]]), [[mesterolone|1-substitution]] (e.g., [[mesterolone]], [[metenolone]]), [[drostanolone|2-substitution]] (e.g., [[drostanolone]], [[oxymetholone]], [[stanozolol]]), [[4-hydroxytestosterone|4-substitution]] (e.g., [[clostebol]], [[oxabolone]]), and various other modifications.<ref name="pmid18500378" /><ref name="pmid20020376" /><ref name="Llewellyn2011" />

{{Structural aspects of androgens and anabolic steroids}}

{{Structural properties of major testosterone esters}}

{{Structural properties of major anabolic steroid esters}}

===Structural conversions of anabolic steroids===

====Testosterone to derivatives====
Conversion to DHT,<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Roddam AW, Allen NE, Appleby P, Key TJ | title = Endogenous sex hormones and prostate cancer: a collaborative analysis of 18 prospective studies | journal = Journal of the National Cancer Institute | volume = 100 | issue = 3 | pages = 170–183 | date = February 2008 | pmid = 18230794 | pmc = 6126902 | doi = 10.1093/jnci/djm323 }}</ref> nandrolone,<ref name="pmid18500378"/> metandienone (Dianabol),<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Meystre C, Frey H, Voser W, Wettstein A |date=January 1956 |title=Gewinnung von 1;4-Bisdehydro-3-oxo-steroiden. Über Steroide, 139. Mitteilung  |journal=Helvetica Chimica Acta |volume=39 |issue=3 |pages=734–742 |doi=10.1002/hlca.19560390314 |issn=0018-019X}}</ref> chlorodehydromethyltestosterone (Turinabol),<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Kaufmann G, Schumann G, Hörhold C | title = Influence of 1-double bond and 11 beta-hydroxy group on stereospecific microbial reductions of 4-en-3-oxo-steroids | journal = Journal of Steroid Biochemistry | volume = 25 | issue = 4 | pages = 561–566 | date = October 1986 | pmid = 3773526 | doi = 10.1016/0022-4731(86)90403-6 }}</ref> fluoxymesterone (Halotestin),<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Stanley SM, Kent S, Rodgers JP | title = Biotransformation of 17-alkyl steroids in the equine: high-performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometric and gas chromatography-mass spectrometric analysis of fluoxymesterone metabolites in urine samples | journal = Journal of Chromatography. B, Biomedical Sciences and Applications | volume = 704 | issue = 1–2 | pages = 119–128 | date = December 1997 | pmid = 9518142 | doi = 10.1016/S0378-4347(97)00440-4 }}</ref> and boldenone (Equipoise):<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Alm-Eldeen A, Tousson E | title = Deterioration of glomerular endothelial surface layer and the alteration in the renal function after a growth promoter boldenone injection in rabbits | journal = Human & Experimental Toxicology | volume = 31 | issue = 5 | pages = 465–472 | date = May 2012 | pmid = 21878449 | doi = 10.1177/0960327111420745 | s2cid = 206592924 | bibcode = 2012HETox..31..465A }}</ref>

[[File:Testosterone Derivatives.jpg|class=skin-invert-image|thumb|Red arrows show molecular differences from testosterone structural conversion to six different anabolic steroids.|center|400x400px]]

====DHT to derivatives====
DHT to stanozolol (Winstrol),<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Clinton RO, Manson AJ, Stonner FW, Beyler AL, Potts GO, Arnold A |date=March 1959 |title = Steroidal [3, 2-c] pyrazoles |journal=Journal of the American Chemical Society |volume=81 |issue=6 |pages=1513–1514 |doi=10.1021/ja01515a060 |issn=0002-7863}}</ref> metenolone acetate (Primobolan),<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Bonnecaze AK, O'Connor T, Burns CA | title = Harm Reduction in Male Patients Actively Using Anabolic Androgenic Steroids (AAS) and Performance-Enhancing Drugs (PEDs): a Review | journal = Journal of General Internal Medicine | volume = 36 | issue = 7 | pages = 2055–2064 | date = July 2021 | pmid = 33948794 | pmc = 8298654 | doi = 10.1007/s11606-021-06751-3 }}</ref> oxymetholone (Anadrol),<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Ringold HJ, Batres E, Halpern O, Necoechea E |date=January 1959 |title=Steroids. CV.<sup>1</sup> 2-Methyl and 2-Hydroxymethylene-androstane Derivatives |journal=Journal of the American Chemical Society |volume=81 |issue=2 |pages=427–432 |doi=10.1021/ja01511a040 |issn=0002-7863}}</ref> and methasterone (Superdrol):<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = De Brabanter N, Van Gansbeke W, Geldof L, Van Eenoo P | title = An improved gas chromatography screening method for doping substances using triple quadrupole mass spectrometry, with an emphasis on quality assurance | journal = Biomedical Chromatography | volume = 26 | issue = 11 | pages = 1416–1435 | date = November 2012 | pmid = 22362568 | doi = 10.1002/bmc.2714 }}</ref>

[[File:DHT Derivatives.jpg|class=skin-invert-image|thumb|Red arrows show molecular differences from DHT structural conversion to four different anabolic steroids.|center|400x400px]]

====Nandrolone to derivatives====
Nandrolone to trestolone,<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Counsell RE, Klimstra PD, Colton FB |date=January 1962 |title=Anabolic Agents. Derivatives of 5α-Androst-1-ene |journal=The Journal of Organic Chemistry |language=en |volume=27 |issue=1 |pages=248–253 |doi=10.1021/jo01048a060 |issn=0022-3263}}</ref> trenbolone,<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Lu FC, Rendel J, Abou Akkada AR, ((Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations)), ((World Health Organization))  |url=https://iris.who.int/handle/10665/38137 |title=Anabolic agents in animal production: FAO/WHO Symposium on Anabolic Agents in Animal Production, Rome, March 1975 |date=1976 |location = Stuttgart | publisher = Thieme |isbn=978-3-13-536101-7 |language=en}}</ref> norboletone,<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Catlin DH, Ahrens BD, Kucherova Y | title = Detection of norbolethone, an anabolic steroid never marketed, in athletes' urine | journal = Rapid Communications in Mass Spectrometry | volume = 16 | issue = 13 | pages = 1273–1275 | date = 2002-06-05 | pmid = 12112254 | doi = 10.1002/rcm.722 | bibcode = 2002RCMS...16.1273C }}</ref> and ethylestrenol:<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Camerino B, Sciaky R | title = Structure and effects of anabolic steroids | journal = Pharmacology & Therapeutics Part B | volume = 1 | issue = 2 | pages = 233–275 | date = 1975-01-01 | pmid = 817322 | doi = 10.1016/0306-039X(75)90007-0 }}</ref>

[[File:Nandrolone Derivatives.jpg|class=skin-invert-image|thumb|Red arrows show molecular differences from nandrolone structural conversion to four different anabolic steroids.|center|400x400px]]

===Detection in body fluids===
The most commonly employed human physiological specimen for detecting AAS usage is urine, although both blood and hair have been investigated for this purpose. The AAS, whether of endogenous or exogenous origin, are subject to extensive hepatic biotransformation by a variety of enzymatic pathways. The primary urinary metabolites may be detectable for up to 30 days after the last use, depending on the specific agent, dose and route of administration. A number of the drugs have common metabolic pathways, and their excretion profiles may overlap those of the endogenous steroids, making interpretation of testing results a very significant challenge to the analytical chemist. Methods for detection of the substances or their excretion products in urine specimens usually involve [[gas chromatography–mass spectrometry]] or liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry.<ref name="pmid18570179">{{cite journal | vauthors = Mareck U, Geyer H, Opfermann G, Thevis M, Schänzer W | title = Factors influencing the steroid profile in doping control analysis | journal = Journal of Mass Spectrometry | volume = 43 | issue = 7 | pages = 877–891 | date = July 2008 | pmid = 18570179 | doi = 10.1002/jms.1457 | bibcode = 2008JMSp...43..877M }}</ref><ref name="pmid19429460">{{cite journal | vauthors = Fragkaki AG, Angelis YS, Tsantili-Kakoulidou A, Koupparis M, Georgakopoulos C | title = Schemes of metabolic patterns of anabolic androgenic steroids for the estimation of metabolites of designer steroids in human urine | journal = The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology | volume = 115 | issue = 1–2 | pages = 44–61 | date = May 2009 | pmid = 19429460 | doi = 10.1016/j.jsbmb.2009.02.016 | s2cid = 10051396 }}</ref><ref name="pmid19465014">{{cite journal | vauthors = Blackledge RD | title = Bad science: the instrumental data in the Floyd Landis case | journal = Clinica Chimica Acta; International Journal of Clinical Chemistry | volume = 406 | issue = 1–2 | pages = 8–13 | date = August 2009 | pmid = 19465014 | doi = 10.1016/j.cca.2009.05.016 }}</ref><ref name="Baselt-2008">{{cite book |first1=Randall Clint |last1=Baselt |title=Disposition of Toxic Drugs and Chemicals in Man |edition=8th |publisher=Biomedical Publications |location=Foster City, CA |year=2008 |pages=95, 393, 403, 649, 695, 952, 962, 1078, 1156, 1170, 1442, 1501, 1581 |isbn=978-0-9626523-7-0}}</ref>

==History==
{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders floatright"
|+ class="nowrap" | Introduction of various anabolic steroids
|-
! scope="col" style="width: 150px;" | Generic name
! scope="col" style="width: 75px;" | Class{{efn|group=AAShistory|1= DHT = dihydrotestosterone; 19-NT = 19-nortestosterone}}
! scope="col" style="width: 75px;" | Brand name
! scope="col" style="width: 30px;" | Route{{efn|group=AAShistory|1=IM = [[Intramuscular injection]]; PO = Oral (by mouth); TD = Transdermal}}
! scope="col" style="width: 30px;" | {{abbr|Intr.|Introduced in}}
|-
! scope="row" style="background: #f8f9fa;" | [[Androstanolone]]{{efn|group=AAShistory|Also known as dihydrotestosterone}}{{efn|group=AAShistory|name=limited|Availability limited}}
| DHT || Andractim || PO,{{efn|group=AAShistory|name=dc}} IM, TD || 1953
|-
! scope="row" style="background: #f8f9fa;" | [[Boldenone undecylenate]]{{efn|group=AAShistory|name=vet|Available for veterinary use only}}
| Ester || Equipoise{{efn|group=AAShistory|name=others|Also marketed under other brand names}} || IM || 1960s
|-
! scope="row" style="background: #f8f9fa;" | [[Danazol]]
| Alkyl || Danocrine || PO || 1971
|-
! scope="row" style="background: #f8f9fa;" | [[Drostanolone propionate]]{{efn|group=AAShistory|name=dc|No longer marketed}}
| DHT Ester || Masteron || IM || 1961
|-
! scope="row" style="background: #f8f9fa;" | [[Ethylestrenol]]{{efn|group=AAShistory|name=limited}}
| 19-NT Alkyl || Maxibolin{{efn|group=AAShistory|name=others}} || PO || 1961
|-
! scope="row" style="background: #f8f9fa;" | [[Fluoxymesterone]]{{efn|group=AAShistory|name=limited}}
| Alkyl || Halotestin{{efn|group=AAShistory|name=others}} || PO || 1957
|-
! scope="row" style="background: #f8f9fa;" | [[Mestanolone]]{{efn|group=AAShistory|name=dc}}
| DHT Alkyl || Androstalone{{efn|group=AAShistory|name=others}} || PO || 1950s
|-
! scope="row" style="background: #f8f9fa;" | [[Mesterolone]]
| DHT || Proviron || PO || 1967
|-
! scope="row" style="background: #f8f9fa;" | [[Metandienone]]{{efn|group=AAShistory|name=limited}}
| Alkyl || Dianabol || PO, IM || 1958
|-
! scope="row" style="background: #f8f9fa;" | [[Metenolone acetate]]{{efn|group=AAShistory|name=limited}}
| DHT Ester || Primobolan || PO || 1961
|-
! scope="row" style="background: #f8f9fa;" | [[Metenolone enanthate]]{{efn|group=AAShistory|name=limited}}
| DHT Ester || Primobolan Depot || IM || 1962
|-
! scope="row" style="background: #f8f9fa;" | [[Methyltestosterone]]{{efn|group=AAShistory|name=limited}}
| Alkyl || Metandren || PO || 1936
|-
! scope="row" style="background: #f8f9fa;" | [[Nandrolone decanoate]]
| 19-NT Ester || Deca-Durabolin || IM || 1962
|-
! scope="row" style="background: #f8f9fa;" | [[Nandrolone phenylpropionate]]{{efn|group=AAShistory|name=limited}}
| 19-NT Ester || Durabolin || IM || 1959
|-
! scope="row" style="background: #f8f9fa;" | [[Norethandrolone]]{{efn|group=AAShistory|name=limited}}
| 19-NT Alkyl || Nilevar{{efn|group=AAShistory|name=others}} || PO || 1956
|-
! scope="row" style="background: #f8f9fa;" | [[Oxandrolone]]{{efn|group=AAShistory|name=limited}}
| DHT Alkyl || Oxandrin{{efn|group=AAShistory|name=others}} || PO || 1964
|-
! scope="row" style="background: #f8f9fa;" | [[Oxymetholone]]{{efn|group=AAShistory|name=limited}}
| DHT Alkyl || Anadrol{{efn|group=AAShistory|name=others}} || PO || 1961
|-
! scope="row" style="background: #f8f9fa;" | [[Prasterone]]{{efn|group=AAShistory|Also known as dehydroepiandrosterone}}
| Prohormone || Intrarosa{{efn|group=AAShistory|name=others}} || PO, IM, vaginal || 1970s
|-
! scope="row" style="background: #f8f9fa;" | [[Stanozolol]]{{efn|group=AAShistory|name=dc}}
| DHT Alkyl || Winstrol{{efn|group=AAShistory|name=others}} || PO, IM || 1962
|-
! scope="row" style="background: #f8f9fa;" | [[Testosterone cypionate]]
| Ester || Depo-Testosterone || IM || 1951
|-
! scope="row" style="background: #f8f9fa;" | [[Testosterone enanthate]]
| Ester || Delatestryl || IM || 1954
|-
! scope="row" style="background: #f8f9fa;" | [[Testosterone propionate]]
| Ester || Testoviron || IM || 1937
|-
! scope="row" style="background: #f8f9fa;" | [[Testosterone undecanoate]]
| Ester || Andriol{{efn|group=AAShistory|name=others}} || PO, IM || 1970s
|-
! scope="row" style="background: #f8f9fa;" | [[Trenbolone acetate]]{{efn|group=AAShistory|name=vet}}
| 19-NT Ester || Finajet{{efn|group=AAShistory|name=others}} || IM || 1970s
|- class="sortbottom"
| colspan="7" style="width:1px; background:#eaecf0; text-align:center;"| {{notelist|group=AAShistory}}
|}

===Discovery of androgens===
The use of [[gonadal]] [[steroid]]s pre-dates their identification and isolation. Use of cow urine for treatment of ascites, heart failure, renal failure and vitiligo has been elaborately described in [[Sushruta Samhita]], suggesting that ancient Indians had some understanding of steroidal properties of cow urine around 6th century BCE.<ref name="Randhawa-2015">Randhawa, G. K., & Sharma, R. (2015). Chemotherapeutic potential of cow urine: A review. Journal of intercultural ethnopharmacology, 4(2), 180.</ref> Extraction of hormones from urines began in China around 100 BCE.{{citation needed|date=July 2019}} <!-- 1 Needham J, Lu G-D, "Proto-endocrinology: Medieval Preparations of Urinary Steroid and Protein Hormones," Science and Civilization in China, Volume 5: Chemistry and Chemical Technology, Part 5: Spagyrical Discovery and Invention; Physiological Alchemy, pp. 301–337, Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1983. -->Medical use of [[testicle]] extract began in the late 19th century while its effects on strength were still being studied.<ref name="pmid12017555" /> The isolation of gonadal steroids can be traced back to 1931, when [[Adolf Butenandt]], a chemist in [[Marburg]], purified 15 milligrams of the male hormone [[androstenone]] from tens of thousands of litres of urine. This steroid was subsequently [[chemical synthesis|synthesized]] in 1934 by [[Leopold Ružička]], a chemist in [[Zurich]].<ref name="pmid7817189"/>

In the 1930s, it was already known that the [[testes]] contain a more powerful androgen than [[androstenone]], and three groups of scientists, funded by competing [[pharmaceutical companies]] in the Netherlands, Germany, and Switzerland, raced to isolate it.<ref name="pmid7817189">{{cite journal | vauthors = Hoberman JM, Yesalis CE | title = The history of synthetic testosterone | journal = Scientific American | volume = 272 | issue = 2 | pages = 76–81 | date = February 1995 | pmid = 7817189 | doi = 10.1038/scientificamerican0295-76 | bibcode = 1995SciAm.272b..76H }}</ref><ref name="pmid11176375">{{cite journal | vauthors = Freeman ER, Bloom DA, McGuire EJ | title = A brief history of testosterone | journal = The Journal of Urology | volume = 165 | issue = 2 | pages = 371–373 | date = February 2001 | pmid = 11176375 | doi = 10.1097/00005392-200102000-00004 }}</ref> This hormone was first identified by Karoly Gyula David, E. Dingemanse, J. Freud and Ernst Laqueur in a May 1935 paper "On Crystalline Male Hormone from Testicles (Testosterone)."<ref name="David-1935">{{cite journal |vauthors=David K, Dingemanse E, Freud J, Laqueur L |title=Uber krystallinisches mannliches Hormon aus Hoden (Testosteron) wirksamer als aus harn oder aus Cholesterin bereitetes Androsteron |journal=Hoppe-Seyler's Z Physiol Chem |volume=233 |pages=281–283 |year=1935 |doi=10.1515/bchm2.1935.233.5-6.281 |issue=5–6}}</ref> They named the hormone ''[[testosterone]]'', from the [[stem (linguistics)|stems]] of ''testicle'' and ''[[sterol]]'', and the suffix of ''[[ketone]]''. The [[chemical synthesis]] of testosterone was achieved in August that year, when Butenandt and G. Hanisch published a paper describing "A Method for Preparing Testosterone from Cholesterol."<ref name="Butenandt-1935">{{cite journal |doi=10.1002/cber.19350680937 |title=Über die Umwandlung des Dehydro-androsterons in Δ4-Androsten-ol-(17)-0n-(3) (Testosteron); ein Weg zur Darstellung des Testosterons aus Cholesterin (Vorläuf. Mitteil.) |trans-title=On the conversion of dehydro-Δ4-androstene androsterons in-ol (17) 0n (3) (testosterone), a way to represent the testosterone from cholesterol (Vorläuf. msgs.) |language=de |year=1935 |vauthors=Butenandt A, Hanisch G |journal=Berichte der Deutschen Chemischen Gesellschaft (A and B Series) |volume=68 |issue=9 |pages=1859–62}}</ref> Only a week later, the third group, Ruzicka and A. Wettstein, announced a patent application in a paper "On the Artificial Preparation of the Testicular Hormone Testosterone (Androsten-3-one-17-ol)."<ref name="Ruzicka-1935">{{cite journal |vauthors=Ruzicka L, Wettstein A |title=Sexualhormone VII. Uber die kunstliche Herstellung des Testikelhormons. Testosteron (Androsten-3-one-17-ol.) |trans-title=Sex hormones VII About the artificial production of testosterone Testikelhormons (androstene-3-one-17-ol) |language=de |journal=Helvetica Chimica Acta |volume=18 |pages=1264–75 |year=1935 |doi=10.1002/hlca.193501801176}}</ref> Ruzicka and Butenandt were offered the 1939 [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry]] for their work, but the [[Nazi Germany|Nazi]] government forced Butenandt to decline the honor, although he accepted the prize after the end of World War II.<ref name="pmid7817189"/><ref name="pmid11176375"/>

Clinical trials on humans, involving either PO doses of [[methyltestosterone]] or injections of [[testosterone propionate]], began as early as 1937.<ref name="pmid7817189"/> There are often reported rumors that German soldiers were administered AAS during the Second World War, the aim being to increase their aggression and stamina, but these are, as yet, unproven.<ref name="Lenahan-2003"/>{{rp|6}} [[Adolf Hitler]] himself, according to his physician, was injected with testosterone derivatives to treat various ailments.<ref name="Taylor-2009">{{cite book | vauthors = Taylor WN |title=Anabolic Steroids and the Athlete |publisher=McFarland & Company |date=1 January 2009 |page=181 |isbn=978-0-7864-1128-3}}</ref> AAS were used in experiments conducted by the Nazis on concentration camp inmates,<ref name="Taylor-2009"/> and later by the allies attempting to treat the malnourished victims that survived Nazi camps.<ref name="Lenahan-2003"/>{{rp|6}} President [[John F. Kennedy]] was administered steroids both before and during his presidency.<ref name="Suarez-2002">{{cite web |url=https://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/health/july-dec02/jfk_11-18.html |title=President Kennedy's Health Secrets |vauthors=Suarez R, ((Senior Correspondent)), Kelman J, ((physician)) |date=18 November 2002 |work=PBS NewsHour |publisher=Public Broadcasting System |access-date=24 August 2017 |archive-date=22 January 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140122095434/http://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/health/july-dec02/jfk_11-18.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>

===Development of synthetic AAS===
The development of muscle-building properties of testosterone was pursued in the 1940s, in the Soviet Union and in [[Eastern Bloc]] countries such as East Germany, where steroid programs were used to enhance the performance of [[Olympic Games|Olympic]] and other [[amateur sports|amateur]] [[Olympic weightlifting|weight lifters]]. In response to the success of Russian weightlifters, the U.S. Olympic Team physician [[John Bosley Ziegler|John Ziegler]] worked with synthetic chemists to develop an AAS with reduced androgenic effects.<ref name="pmid16510635">{{cite journal | vauthors = Calfee R, Fadale P | title = Popular ergogenic drugs and supplements in young athletes | journal = Pediatrics | volume = 117 | issue = 3 | pages = e577–e589 | date = March 2006 | pmid = 16510635 | doi = 10.1542/peds.2005-1429 | s2cid = 6559714 | doi-access = free }}</ref> Ziegler's work resulted in the production of [[metandienone]], which Ciba Pharmaceuticals marketed as Dianabol. The new steroid was approved for use in the U.S. by the [[Food and Drug Administration]] (FDA) in 1958. It was most commonly administered to burn victims and the elderly. The drug's [[off-label use]]rs were mostly bodybuilders and weight lifters. Although Ziegler prescribed only small doses to athletes, he soon discovered that those having used metandienone developed enlarged prostates and atrophied testes.<ref name="www.slate.com">{{cite web | vauthors = Peters J | url = http://www.slate.com/id/2113752/ | title = The Man Behind the Juice | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110907192748/http://www.slate.com/id/2113752 | archive-date=7 September 2011 | work = Slate | date = 18 February 2005 | access-date = 29 April 2008 }}</ref> AAS were placed on the list of banned substances of the [[International Olympic Committee]] (IOC) in 1976, and a decade later, the committee introduced "out-of-competition" doping tests because many athletes used AAS in their training period rather than during competition.<ref name="pmid15248788"/>

Three major ideas governed modifications of testosterone into a multitude of AAS: [[Alkylation]] at C17α position with [[methyl]] or [[ethyl group]] created POly active compounds because it slows the degradation of the drug by the liver; [[esterification]] of testosterone and [[nortestosterone]] at the C17β position allows the substance to be administered parenterally and increases the duration of effectiveness because agents soluble in oily liquids may be present in the body for several months; and alterations of the ring structure were applied for both PO and parenteral agents to seeking to obtain different anabolic-to-androgenic effect ratios.<ref name="pmid15248788"/>

==Society and culture==

===Etymology===
Androgens were discovered in the 1930s and were characterized as having effects described as ''androgenic'' (i.e., virilizing) and ''anabolic'' (e.g., myotrophic, renotrophic).<ref name="Llewellyn2011" /><ref name="pmid18500378" /> The term ''anabolic steroid'' can be dated as far back as at least the mid-1940s, when it was used to describe the at-the-time hypothetical concept of a testosterone-derived steroid with anabolic effects but with minimal or no androgenic effects.<ref name="Kochakian-1946">{{cite book| vauthors = Kochakian CD | chapter = The Protein Anabolic Effects of Steroid Hormones | veditors = Harris RS, Thimann KV | title = Vitamins and Hormones |volume=4|year=1946|pages=255–310| publisher = Academic Press |issn=0083-6729|doi=10.1016/S0083-6729(08)61085-7|quote=In recent years several laboratories (Kochakian, Albright, Wilkins) have entertained the hope of finding a protein anabolic steroid without any, or with only minor, sexual effects. These studies have received special impetus and encouragement from the observation of Kochakian that certain steroids have greater renotrophic (anabolic?) than androgenic effects. |isbn=978-0-12-709804-3}}</ref> This concept was formulated based on the observation that steroids had ratios of renotrophic to androgenic potency that differed significantly, which suggested that anabolic and androgenic effects might be dissociable.<ref name="Kochakian-1946" />

In 1953, a testosterone-derived steroid known as [[norethandrolone]] (17α-ethyl-19-nortestosterone) was synthesized at [[G. D. Searle & Company]] and was studied as a [[progestin]], but was not marketed.<ref name="Kochakian2012">{{cite book| vauthors = Potts GO, Arnold A, Beyler AL | chapter = Dissociation of the Androgenic and Other Hormonal Activities from the Protein Anabolic Effects of Steroids| veditors = Kochakian CD |title=Anabolic-Androgenic Steroids| chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=3-LrCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA361|date=6 December 2012|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-3-642-66353-6|pages=370–373, 380|access-date=1 April 2019|archive-date=14 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414135445/https://books.google.com/books?id=3-LrCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA361|url-status=live}}</ref> Subsequently, in 1955, it was re-examined for testosterone-like activity in animals and was found to have similar anabolic activity to testosterone, but only one-sixteenth of its androgenic potency.<ref name="Kochakian2012" /><ref name="Sneader2005">{{cite book | vauthors = Sneader W | chapter = Hormone Analogs |title=Drug Discovery: A History | chapter-url= https://books.google.com/books?id=Cb6BOkj9fK4C&pg=PA206 |date=23 June 2005 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-0-471-89979-2 |pages=206–}}</ref> It was the first steroid with a marked and favorable separation of anabolic and androgenic effect to be discovered, and has accordingly been described as the "first anabolic steroid".<ref name="Wermuth2011">{{cite book | vauthors = Chast F | chapter = A History of Drug Discovery | veditors = Wermuth CG |title=The Practice of Medicinal Chemistry | chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=Qmt1_DQkCpEC&pg=PA34 |date=2 May 2011 |publisher=Academic Press |isbn=978-0-08-056877-5 |pages=34– |access-date=28 June 2018 |archive-date=14 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414083232/https://books.google.com/books?id=Qmt1_DQkCpEC&pg=PA34 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Wright1994">{{cite book | vauthors = Wright JE |title=Altered States: The Use and Abuse of Anabolic Steroids |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GnbZAAAAMAAJ |year=1994 |publisher=Masters Press |isbn=978-1-57028-013-9 |page=33 |access-date=28 June 2018 |archive-date=14 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414083330/https://books.google.com/books?id=GnbZAAAAMAAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> Norethandrolone was introduced for medical use in 1956, and was quickly followed by numerous similar steroids, for instance [[nandrolone phenylpropionate]] in 1959 and [[stanozolol]] in 1962.<ref name="Wermuth2011" /><ref name="Wright1994" /><ref name="Office1957">{{cite book |author=United States. Patent Office|title=Official Gazette of the United States Patent Office |url=https://archive.org/details/officialgazette722unit |year=1957 |publisher=U.S. Patent Office.}}</ref><ref name="Mozayani-2011">{{cite book | vauthors = von Deutsch DA, Abukhalaf IK, Socci RR | chapter = Anabolic doping agents| veditors = Mozayani A, Raymon L |title=Handbook of Drug Interactions: A Clinical and Forensic Guide | chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=NhBJ6kg_uP0C&pg=PA651 |date=18 September 2011 |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |isbn=978-1-61779-222-9 |pages=651– |access-date=28 June 2018 |archive-date=14 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414135237/https://books.google.com/books?id=NhBJ6kg_uP0C&pg=PA651 |url-status=live }}</ref> With these developments, ''anabolic steroid'' became the preferred term to refer to such steroids (over "androgen"), and entered widespread use.

Although ''anabolic steroid'' was originally intended to specifically describe testosterone-derived steroids with a marked dissociation of anabolic and androgenic effect, it is applied today indiscriminately to all steroids with AR agonism-based anabolic effects regardless of their androgenic potency, including even non-synthetic and non-preferentially-anabolic steroids like testosterone.<ref name="Llewellyn2011" /><ref name="pmid18500378" /><ref name="Kochakian2012" /> While many anabolic steroids have diminished androgenic potency in comparison to anabolic potency, there is no anabolic steroid that is exclusively anabolic, and hence all anabolic steroids retain at least some degree of androgenicity.<ref name="Llewellyn2011" /><ref name="pmid18500378" /><ref name="Kochakian2012" /> (Likewise, all "androgens" are inherently anabolic.)<ref name="Llewellyn2011" /><ref name="pmid18500378" /><ref name="Kochakian2012" /> Indeed, it is probably not possible to fully dissociate anabolic effects from androgenic effects, as both types of effects are mediated by the same signaling receptor, the AR.<ref name="pmid18500378" /> As such, the distinction between the terms ''anabolic steroid'' and ''androgen'' is questionable, and this is the basis for the revised and more recent term ''anabolic–androgenic steroid'' (''AAS'').<ref name="Llewellyn2011" /><ref name="pmid18500378" /><ref name="Kochakian2012" />

[[David Handelsman]] has criticized terminology and understanding surrounding AAS in many publications.<ref name="pmid21511988">{{cite journal | vauthors = Handelsman DJ | title = Commentary: androgens and "anabolic steroids": the one-headed janus | journal = Endocrinology | volume = 152 | issue = 5 | pages = 1752–4 | date = May 2011 | pmid = 21511988 | doi = 10.1210/en.2010-1501 | url = }}</ref><ref name="pmid33484556">{{cite journal | vauthors = Handelsman DJ | title = Androgen Misuse and Abuse | journal = Endocr Rev | volume = 42 | issue = 4 | pages = 457–501 | date = July 2021 | pmid = 33484556 | doi = 10.1210/endrev/bnab001 | url = | quote = However, a third major quest, for the development of a nonvirilizing androgen ("anabolic steroid") suitable for use in women and children, based on dissociating the virilizing from the anabolic effects of androgens failed comprehensively (36). This failure is now understood as being due to the discovery of a singular androgen receptor (AR) together with the misinterpretation of nonspecific whole animal androgen bioassays employed to distinguish between anabolic and virilizing effects (37). The term "androgen" is used herein for both endogenous and synthetic androgens including references to chemicals named elsewhere as "anabolic steroids," "anabolic-androgenic steroids," or "specific AR modulators" (SARM), which continue to make an obsolete and oxymoronic distinction between virilizing and anabolic effects of androgens where there is no difference (36).}}</ref><ref name="pmid35277356">{{cite journal | vauthors = Handelsman DJ | title = History of androgens and androgen action | journal = Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab | volume = 36 | issue = 4 | pages = 101629 | date = July 2022 | pmid = 35277356 | doi = 10.1016/j.beem.2022.101629 | url = }}</ref><ref name="pmid24024843">{{cite journal | vauthors = Handelsman DJ | title = Mechanisms of action of testosterone--unraveling a Gordian knot | journal = N Engl J Med | volume = 369 | issue = 11 | pages = 1058–9 | date = September 2013 | pmid = 24024843 | doi = 10.1056/NEJMe1305307 | s2cid = 44485330 | url = | quote = These findings also highlight how obsolete is the term "anabolic steroid," when falsely distinguishing from "androgen," a dichotomy devoid of physiological meaning and lingering mainly as a media piñata.10}}</ref><ref name="IyerHandelsman2017">{{cite book | last1=Iyer | first1=Rakesh | last2=Handelsman | first2=David J. | title=Testosterone | chapter=Testosterone Misuse and Abuse | publisher=Springer International Publishing | publication-place=Cham | date=2017 | isbn=978-3-319-46084-0 | doi=10.1007/978-3-319-46086-4_19 | pages=375–402 | quote = By definition, all androgens combine intrinsic anabolic and androgenic properties, which have never been meaningfully separated [67], manifest via the androgen receptor, a protein encoded by a single copy gene. Hence the singularity of androgen action means that the terms "anabolic steroid" or "androgenic-anabolic steroids" remain an obsolete terminology making a distinction between androgenic and anabolic effects where there is no real difference [67]. This obsolete yet widely used terminology represent a vestige of the unsuccessful quest by the pharmaceutical industry to dissociate the virilizing from anabolic properties and remains in the public mind mainly as a media piñata. Androgen abuse, a more appropriate term which encompasses illicit use of all available androgens, will be used in this chapter.}}</ref><ref name="IyerHandelsman2016">{{cite book | last1=Iyer | first1=Rakesh | last2=Handelsman | first2=David J. | title=Frontiers of Hormone Research | chapter=Androgens | publisher=S. Karger AG | volume=47 | date=2016 | isbn=978-3-318-05868-0 | doi=10.1159/000445159 | pages=82–100 | pmid=27347677 | quote = Following the hiatus of World War II, the pharmaceutical industry development of synthetic steroids included pursuing the goal of a nonvirilizing androgen ('anabolic steroid') potentially suitable for use to obtain pharmacological androgen effects in women and children. [...] the industrial quest for an 'anabolic steroid' based on dissociating the virilizing from the anabolic effects of androgens failed. This is now understood in the light of the later discovery of the singular AR together with the flawed interpretations of relatively nonspecific whole animal bioassays then used to screen synthetic steroids for supposedly distinct anabolic and virilizing effects. Yet, despite the industry's abandonment of this fruitless endeavor by 1980, and its recent reincarnation under the guise of developing a 'selective AR modulator' (SARM) [6], the empty concept of an 'anabolic steroid' persists as an ill-defined and misleading scientific terminology [7, 8] . In this paper, the more accurate and clearer term 'androgen' is used exclusively for both endogenous and synthetic androgens, but includes references to chemicals loosely defined elsewhere as 'anabolic steroids' or 'anabolicandrogenic steroids', which confuse by making an obsolete distinction where there is no difference.}}</ref><ref name="Handelsman2012">{{cite book | last=Handelsman | first=David J. | title=Testosterone | chapter=Androgen therapy in non-gonadal disease | publisher=Cambridge University Press | date=2012-07-26 | isbn=978-1-139-00335-3 | doi=10.1017/cbo9781139003353.018 | pages=372–407 | quote = The development of nonsteroidal androgens, marketed as "selective androgen receptor modulators" (SARMs), offers new possibilities for adjuvant pharmacological androgen therapy. In contrast to the full spectrum of androgen effects of testosterone, such SARMs would be pure androgens not subject to tissue-specific activation by aromatization to a corresponding estrogen or to amplification of androgenic potency by 5a-reduction. In this context the endogenous pure androgens nandrolone and DHT can be considered prototype SARMs. SARMs are not the modern embodiment of so-called "anabolic steroids," an outdated term referring to hypothetical but nonexistent non-virilizing androgens targeted exclusively to muscle, a failed concept lacking biological proof of principle (Handelsman 2011).}}</ref><ref name="pmid25905231">{{cite journal | vauthors = Feingold KR, Anawalt B, Blackman MR, Boyce A, Chrousos G, Corpas E, de Herder WW, Dhatariya K, Dungan K, Hofland J, Kalra S, Kaltsas G, Kapoor N, Koch C, Kopp P, Korbonits M, Kovacs CS, Kuohung W, Laferrère B, Levy M, McGee EA, McLachlan R, New M, Purnell J, Sahay R, Shah AS, Singer F, Sperling MA, Stratakis CA, Trence DL, Wilson DP, Handelsman DJ | title = Androgen Physiology, Pharmacology, Use and Misuse | journal = Endotext | volume = | issue = | pages = | date = 5 October 2020 | pmid = 25905231 | doi = | url = https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/books/NBK279000/ | quote = The identification of a single gene and protein for the androgen receptor in 1988 (584-586) explains the physiologic observation that, at equivalent doses, all androgens have essentially similar effects (587). The term "anabolic steroid" was invented during the post-WWII golden age of steroid pharmacology to define an idealized androgen lacking virilizing features but maintaining myotrophic properties so that it could be used safely in children and women. Although this quest proved illusory and was abandoned after all industry efforts failed to identify such a hypothetical synthetic androgen, the obsolete term "anabolic steroid" persists mainly as a lurid descriptor in popular media despite continuing to make a false distinction where there is no difference. Better understanding of the metabolic activation of androgens via 5α-reduction and aromatization in target tissues and the tissue-specific partial agonist/antagonist properties of some synthetic androgens may lead to more physiological concepts of tissue-specific androgen action ("specific androgen receptor modulator") governed by the physiological processes of pre-receptor androgen activation as well as post-receptor interaction with co-regulator proteins analogous to the development of synthetic estrogen partial agonists with tissue specificity ("specific estrogen receptor modulator") (588). The potential for new clinical therapeutic indications of novel tissue-selective androgens in clinical development remain to be fully evaluated (589).}}</ref> According to Handelsman, the pharmaceutical industry attempted to dissociate the so-called "androgenic" and "anabolic" effects of AAS in the mid-20th-century in order to create non-masculinizing anabolic agents that would be more suitable for use in women and children.<ref name="pmid21511988" /> However, this effort failed comprehensively and was abandoned by the 1970s.<ref name="pmid21511988" /><ref name="pmid33484556" /> This failure was due to the subsequent discovery of a singular androgen receptor (AR) mediating the effects of AAS in both muscle and reproductive tissue, along with misinterpretation of flawed animal androgen bioassays employed to distinguish between androgenic or virilizing effects and anabolic or myotrophic effects (i.e., the Hershberger assay involving the unrepresentative levator ani muscle).<ref name="pmid21511988" /><ref name="pmid33484556" /> In reality, all AAS have essentially similar AR-mediated effects,<ref name="pmid25905231" /> even if some may differ in potency to a degree in certain tissues (e.g., skin, hair follicles, prostate gland) based on susceptibility to 5α-reduction and associated metabolic amplification or inactivation or lack thereof.<ref name="pmid25905231" /><ref name="pmid12880534" /> Per Handelsman, the terms "anabolic steroid" and "anabolic–androgenic steroid" are obsolete, meaningless, and falsely distinguish these agents from androgens when there is no physiological basis for such distinction.<ref name="pmid21511988" /><ref name="pmid33484556" /> In fact, it has been noted that the use and distinction of the concepts "anabolic" and "androgenic" as well as the term "anabolic–androgenic steroid" are oxymoronic, as anabolic refers to muscle-building while androgenic refers to induction and maintenance of male secondary sexual characteristics (which in principle would include anabolic or muscle-building effects).<ref name="pmid21511988" /><ref name="pmid33484556" /><ref name="pmid36644692">{{cite journal | vauthors = Bond P, Smit DL, de Ronde W | title = Anabolic-androgenic steroids: How do they work and what are the risks? | journal = Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) | volume = 13 | issue = | pages = 1059473 | date = 2022 | pmid = 36644692 | pmc = 9837614 | doi = 10.3389/fendo.2022.1059473 | doi-access = free | url = | quote = Anabolic–androgenic steroids (AAS) are a class of natural and synthetic hormones that owe their name to their chemical structure (the steroid nucleus, see Figure 1) and the biological effects (anabolic and androgenic) they induce. Anabolic refers to the skeletal muscle-building properties of AAS, whereas androgenic refers to the induction and maintenance of male secondary sexual characteristics (which in principle includes the anabolic action, thereby rendering the term an oxymoron (1)).}}</ref> Handelsman has argued that these terms should be discarded and instead, AAS should all simply be referred to as "androgens", with him using this term exclusively to refer to these agents in his publications.<ref name="pmid21511988" /><ref name="pmid33484556" /> Although the term "anabolic–androgenic steroid" is technically valid in describing two types of actions of these agents, Handelsman considers the term unnecessary and redundant and likens it to hypothetical never-used terms like "luteal–gestational progestins" or "mammary–uterine estrogens".<ref name="pmid21511988" /> Handelsman also notes that "anabolic steroid" is easily and unnecessarily confusable with [[corticosteroid]]s.<ref name="pmid21511988" /> Aside from AAS, Handelsman has criticized the term "[[selective androgen receptor modulator]] (SARM)" and claims about these agents as well.<ref name="pmid35277356" /><ref name="pmid21511988" /><ref name="pmid33484556" /><ref name="Handelsman2012" />

===Legal status===
[[File:Compounds showing anabolic and androgenic effects.png|class=skin-invert-image|thumb|right|Various compounds with anabolic and androgenic effects, their relation with AAS]]

The legal status of AAS varies from country to country: some have stricter controls on their use or prescription than others though in many<!--most--> countries they are not illegal. In the U.S., AAS are currently listed as Schedule III [[controlled substances]] under the [[Controlled Substances Act]], which makes simple possession of such substances without a prescription a federal crime punishable by up to one year in prison for the first offense. Unlawful distribution or possession with intent to distribute AAS as a first offense is punished by up to ten years in prison.<ref name="US Department of Justice">{{cite web|url=http://www.deadiversion.usdoj.gov/21cfr/21usc/844.htm |title=Title 21 United States Code (USC) Controlled Substances Act |publisher=US Department of Justice |access-date=7 September 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090724051512/http://www.deadiversion.usdoj.gov/21cfr/21usc/844.htm |archive-date=24 July 2009 |url-status=live }}</ref> In Canada, AAS and their derivatives are part of the [[Controlled Drugs and Substances Act]] and are [[Controlled Drugs and Substances Act#Schedule IV|Schedule IV]] substances, meaning that it is illegal to obtain or sell them without a prescription; however, possession is not punishable, a consequence reserved for schedule I, II, or III substances. Those guilty of buying or selling AAS in Canada can be imprisoned for up to 18 months.<ref name="laws-lois.justice.gc.ca">{{cite canlaw |short title=Controlled Drugs and Substances Act |abbr=S.C. |year=1996 |chapter=19 |section=4 |subsection=7 |link=http://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/acts/C-38.8/page-2.html#h-4 |linkloc=Department of Justice |wikilink=Controlled Drugs and Substances Act}}</ref> Import and export also carry similar penalties.

In Canada, researchers have concluded that steroid use among student athletes is extremely widespread. A study conducted in 1993 by the Canadian Centre for Drug-Free Sport found that nearly 83,000 Canadians between the ages of 11 and 18 use steroids.<ref name="Deacon-1994">{{cite journal | vauthors = Deacon J |title=Biceps in a bottle |journal=Maclean's | volume = 107 | issue = 18 | pages = 52–53 | date= 2 May 1994}}</ref> AAS are also illegal without prescription in Australia,<ref name="Australian Institute of Criminology-2006">{{cite web |title=Steroids |publisher=Australian Institute of Criminology |year=2006 |url= http://www.aic.gov.au/research/drugs/types/steroids.html |access-date=6 May 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070405033442/http://www.aic.gov.au/research/drugs/types/steroids.html |archive-date=5 April 2007 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Argentina,{{Citation needed|date=May 2017}} Brazil,{{Citation needed|date=May 2017}} and Portugal,{{Citation needed|date=May 2017}} and are listed as Class&nbsp;C [[Controlled Drug]]s in the United Kingdom. AAS are readily available without a prescription in some countries such as Mexico and Thailand.

{| class=wikitable
|+ Legal status of anabolic substances in most western countries
! Substance  !! Example  !! Classified as hormonal substances !! Anabolic and androgenic effects || Legally sold OTC
|-
! Natural testosterone
| testosterone  || hormonal || yes || not legal
|-
! Artificially created anabolic steroids
| trenbolone, oxandrolone  || hormonal || yes || not legal
|-
! Prohormones
| 4-androstenedione  || hormonal || indirect only || not legal
|-
! Phytoandrogens
| daidzein, gutta-percha triterpenoids  || no || yes || legal
|-
! Phytosteroids
| campesterol, beta-sitosterole, stigmasterol  || no || indirect only || legal
|-
! Xenoandrogens
| modified tocopherols, modified nicotinamide  || no || yes || legal
|-
! Phytoecdysteroids
| (25S)-20, 22-O-(R-ethylidene)inokosterone  || no || yes || legal
|-
! [[Selective androgen receptor modulators]]
| [[ostarine]] ||  || anabolic<ref name="pmid30503797">{{cite journal | vauthors = Solomon ZJ, Mirabal JR, Mazur DJ, Kohn TP, Lipshultz LI, Pastuszak AW | title = Selective Androgen Receptor Modulators: Current Knowledge and Clinical Applications | journal = Sexual Medicine Reviews | volume = 7 | issue = 1 | pages = 84–94 | date = January 2019 | pmid = 30503797 | pmc = 6326857 | doi = 10.1016/j.sxmr.2018.09.006 }}</ref> || not for human consumption<ref name="pmid32852861">{{cite journal | vauthors = Sobolevsky T, Ahrens B | title = High-throughput liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry assay as initial testing procedure for analysis of total urinary fraction | journal = Drug Testing and Analysis | volume = 13 | issue = 2 | pages = 283–298 | date = February 2021 | pmid = 32852861 | doi = 10.1002/dta.2917 | s2cid = 221347916 }}</ref><ref name="Turnock-2023">{{cite journal | vauthors = Turnock L, Gibbs N |title=Click, click, buy: The market for novel synthetic peptide hormones on mainstream e-commerce platforms in the UK |journal=Performance Enhancement & Health |date=2023 |volume=11 |issue=2 |pages=100251 |doi=10.1016/j.peh.2023.100251 |issn=2211-2669|doi-access=free }}</ref>
|}

====United States====
[[File:SteroidpillsDEA.jpg|thumb|right |200px| Steroid pills intercepted by the US Drug Enforcement Administration during the Operation Raw Deal bust in September 2007]]
The history of the U.S. legislation on AAS goes back to the late 1980s, when the [[U.S. Congress]] considered placing AAS under the Controlled Substances Act following the controversy over [[Ben Johnson (Canadian sprinter)|Ben Johnson's]] victory at the [[1988 Summer Olympics]] in [[Seoul]]. AAS were added to Schedule III of the Controlled Substances Act in the [[Anabolic Steroids Control Act of 1990]].<ref name="congress">{{USBill|101|HR|4658}}</ref>

The same act also introduced more stringent controls with higher criminal penalties for offenses involving the illegal distribution of AAS and human growth hormone. By the early 1990s, after AAS were scheduled in the U.S., several pharmaceutical companies stopped manufacturing or marketing the products in the U.S., including [[Ciba Specialty Chemicals|Ciba]], [[G. D. Searle & Company|Searle]], [[Syntex]], and others. In the Controlled Substances Act, AAS are defined to be any drug or hormonal substance chemically and pharmacologically related to testosterone (other than [[estrogen (medication)|estrogen]]s, [[progestin]]s, and [[corticosteroid]]s) that promote muscle growth. The act was amended by the Anabolic Steroid Control Act of 2004, which added [[prohormone]]s to the list of [[controlled substance]]s, with effect from 20 January 2005.<ref name="usdoj">{{cite web |url=http://www.usdoj.gov/dea/pubs/cngrtest/ct031604.html |title=News from DEA, Congressional Testimony, 03/16/04 |access-date=24 April 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070206195542/http://www.usdoj.gov/dea/pubs/cngrtest/ct031604.html |archive-date=6 February 2007}}</ref>

Even though they can still be prescribed by a medical doctor in the U.S., the use of anabolic steroids for injury recovery purposes has been a taboo subject, even amongst the majority of sports medicine doctors and endocrinologists.

====United Kingdom====
In the United Kingdom, AAS are classified as class C drugs, which puts them in the same class as [[benzodiazepines]]. AAS are in Schedule 4, which is divided in 2 parts; Part 1 contains most of the benzodiazepines and Part 2 contains the AAS.

Part 1 drugs are subject to full import and export controls with possession being an offence without an appropriate prescription. There is no restriction on the possession when it is part of a medicinal product. Part 2 drugs require a Home Office licence for importation and export unless the substance is in the form of a medicinal product and is for self-administration by a person.<ref name="Egton Medical Information Systems Limited">{{cite web |title=Patient.info Controlled Drugs |url=http://patient.info/doctor/controlled-drugs |publisher=Egton Medical Information Systems Limited |access-date=8 August 2013 |archive-date=13 June 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150613004854/http://patient.info/doctor/controlled-drugs |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Status in sports===
{{See also|Doping in sport}}
[[File:Anabolic substances and their legal status in most Western countries.png|thumb|right|Legal status of AAS and other drugs with anabolic effects in Western countries]]
AAS are banned by all major sports bodies including [[Association of Tennis Professionals]], [[Major League Baseball]], [[Fédération Internationale de Football Association]],<ref name="FIFA">{{cite web |url=http://es.fifa.com/mm/document/afdeveloping/medical/50/29/56/fifadocregulations_09.01.09_e.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120121065936/http://es.fifa.com/mm/document/afdeveloping/medical/50/29/56/fifadocregulations_09.01.09_e.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=21 January 2012 |title=FIFA Anit-Doping Regulations |publisher=FIFA |access-date=1 December 2013}}</ref> the [[Olympics]],<ref name="International Olympic Committee-1999">{{cite web |title=Olympic movement anti-doping code |publisher=International Olympic Committee |year=1999 |url=http://www.medycynasportowa.pl/download/doping_code_e.pdf |access-date=6 May 2007 |archive-date=3 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181003090413/http://www.medycynasportowa.pl/download/doping_code_e.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> the [[National Basketball Association]],<ref name="NBA Policy-1999">{{cite web |title=The NVA and NBPA anti-drug program |work=NBA Policy |publisher=findlaw.com |year=1999 |url=http://news.findlaw.com/legalnews/sports/drugs/policy/basketball/index.html |access-date=6 May 2007 |archive-date=22 November 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071122235020/http://news.findlaw.com/legalnews/sports/drugs/policy/basketball/index.html |url-status=live }}</ref> the [[National Hockey League]],<ref name="nhlpa.com">{{cite web |title=NHL/NHLPA performance-enhancing substances program summary |publisher=nhlpa.com |url=http://www.nhlpa.com/PerformanceEnhancing/index.asp |access-date=6 May 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070602113854/http://www.nhlpa.com/PerformanceEnhancing/index.asp |archive-date=2 June 2007 |url-status=dead }}</ref> [[World Wrestling Entertainment]] and the [[National Football League]].<ref name="nflpa.com-2006">{{cite web |title=List of Prohibited Substances |publisher=nflpa.com |year=2006 |url=http://www.nflpa.org/pdfs/RulesAndRegs/ProhibitedSubstances.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070620160852/http://www.nflpa.org/pdfs/RulesAndRegs/ProhibitedSubstances.pdf |archive-date=20 June 2007 |url-status=dead |access-date=6 May 2007}}</ref> The [[World Anti-Doping Agency]] (WADA) maintains the list of performance-enhancing substances used by many major sports bodies and includes all anabolic agents, which includes all AAS and precursors as well as all hormones and related substances.<ref name="WADA-2003">{{cite web |title=World anti-doping code |publisher=WADA |year=2003 |url=http://www.wada-ama.org/rtecontent/document/code_v3.pdf |access-date=10 July 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070807192944/http://www.wada-ama.org/rtecontent/document/code_v3.pdf |archive-date=7 August 2007 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="WADA-2005">{{cite web |title=Prohibited list of 2005 |publisher=WADA |year=2005 |url=http://www.wada-ama.org/rtecontent/document/summary_2005.pdf |access-date=6 May 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070620160855/http://www.wada-ama.org/rtecontent/document/summary_2005.pdf |archive-date=20 June 2007 }}</ref>

===Usage===

====Law enforcement====
United States federal law enforcement officials have expressed concern about AAS use by police officers. "It's a big problem, and from the number of cases, it's something we shouldn't ignore. It's not that we set out to target cops, but when we're in the middle of an active investigation into [[steroid]]s, there have been quite a few cases that have led back to police officers," says Lawrence Payne, a spokesman for the United States [[Drug Enforcement Administration]].<ref name="Keeping-2010">{{cite news |url=http://www.annarbor.com/health/steroid-abuse-among-law-enforcement-a-problem-nationwide/ |title=Steroid abuse among law enforcement a problem nationwide | vauthors = Keeping J |work=The Ann Arbor News |date=27 December 2010 |access-date=1 December 2013 |archive-date=4 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304060706/http://www.annarbor.com/health/steroid-abuse-among-law-enforcement-a-problem-nationwide/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin stated that "Anabolic steroid abuse by police officers is a serious problem that merits greater awareness by departments across the country".<ref name="The Police Chief-2008">{{cite news |url=http://www.policechiefmagazine.org/magazine/index.cfm?fuseaction=display_arch&article_id=1512&issue_id=62008 |title=Anabolic Steroid Use and Abuse by Police Officers: Policy & Prevention |work=The Police Chief |date=June 2008 |access-date=1 December 2013 |archive-date=3 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203001518/http://www.policechiefmagazine.org/magazine/index.cfm?fuseaction=display_arch&article_id=1512&issue_id=62008 |url-status=live }}</ref> It is also believed that police officers across the United Kingdom "are using criminals to buy steroids" which he claims to be a top risk factor for [[police corruption]].

====Professional wrestling====
{{main|WWE#Wellness Program}}

Following the [[Chris Benoit double-murder and suicide]] in 2007, the [[Oversight and Government Reform Committee]] investigated steroid usage in the wrestling industry.<ref name="Lockhart-2010">{{cite web |url=http://www.greenwichtime.com/news/article/Sunday-subscriber-advantage-WWE-steroid-385857.php#page-1 |title=WWE steroid investigation: A controversy McMahon 'doesn't need' | vauthors = Brian L |publisher=Greenwich Time |date=1 March 2010 |access-date=1 March 2010 |archive-date=31 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210131104702/https://www.greenwichtime.com/news/article/Sunday-subscriber-advantage-WWE-steroid-385857.php#page-1 |url-status=live }}</ref> The Committee investigated [[WWE]] and [[Total Nonstop Action Wrestling]], asking for documentation of their companies' drug policies. WWE CEO and chairman, [[Linda McMahon|Linda]] and [[Vince McMahon]] respectively, both testified. The documents stated that 75 wrestlers—roughly 40 percent—had tested positive for drug use since 2006, most commonly for steroids.<ref name="oversight.house.gov">{{cite web | work = World Wrestling Entertainment, Inc. | title = Talent Wellness Program Program Summary Report 1 July 2007 31 March 2008| url = http://oversight.house.gov/images/stories/documents/20081231141129.pdf | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20101224020122/http://oversight.house.gov/images/stories/documents/20081231141129.pdf | archive-date=24 December 2010 }}</ref><ref name="The Day-2007">{{cite web |url=http://www.theday.com/article/20100609/NWS12/306099933/1019&town= |title=Deposition details McMahon steroid testimony | work = News from southeastern Connecticut |publisher=The Day |date=13 December 2007 |access-date=14 August 2010 |archive-date=12 June 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100612182249/http://theday.com/article/20100609/NWS12/306099933/1019%26town%3D |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Economics===
{{Main|Illegal trade in anabolic steroids}}
[[File:Rd17.jpg|thumb|Several large buckets containing tens of thousands of AAS vials confiscated by the [[DEA]] during Operation Raw Deal in 2007]]

AAS are frequently produced in pharmaceutical laboratories, but, in nations where stricter laws are present, they are also produced in small home-made underground laboratories, usually from raw substances imported from abroad.<ref name="Assael-2007">{{cite news|author-link1=Shaun Assael | vauthors = Assael S |title='Raw Deal' busts labs across U.S., many supplied by China |date=24 September 2007 |url=https://www.espn.com/espn/news/story?id=3033532 |work=ESPN The Magazine |access-date=24 September 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071014050947/http://sports.espn.go.com/espn/news/story?id=3033532 |archive-date=14 October 2007 |url-status=live}}</ref> In these countries, the majority of steroids are obtained illegally through [[black market]] trade.<ref name="Yesalis-2000">{{cite book |vauthors=Yesalis C |year=2000 |title=Anabolic Steroids in Sport and Exercise |isbn=978-0-88011-786-9 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=I7-D2jH-OJ4C&pg=PA3 |chapter=Source of Anabolic Steroids |publisher=Human Kinetics |location=Champaign, Ill. |access-date=3 June 2020 |archive-date=14 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414083024/https://books.google.com/books?id=I7-D2jH-OJ4C&pg=PA3 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Black-1996">{{cite journal | vauthors = Black T |title=Does the Ban on Drugs in Sport Improve Societal Welfare? |journal=International Review for the Sociology of Sport |volume=31 |issue=4 |pages=367–381 |publisher=Faculty of Business, Queensland University of Technology |year=1996 |doi=10.1177/101269029603100402 |s2cid=143442371 }}</ref> These steroids are usually manufactured in other countries, and therefore must be [[smuggled]] across international borders. As with most significant smuggling operations, [[organized crime]] is involved.<ref name="Pound-2006">{{cite book |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2w-oAl42t5cC&pg=PT183 |page=[https://archive.org/details/insidedopehowdru0000poun/page/175 175] |isbn=978-0-470-83733-7 |chapter=Organized Crime | vauthors = Pound RW |year=2006 |publisher=Wiley |location=Mississauga, Ontario |title=Inside dope: how drugs are the biggest threat to sports, why you should care, and what can be done about them |url=https://archive.org/details/insidedopehowdru0000poun/page/175 }}</ref>

In the late 2000s, the worldwide trade in illicit AAS increased significantly, and authorities announced record captures on three continents. In 2006, Finnish authorities announced a record seizure of 11.8 million AAS tablets. A year later, the [[DEA]] seized 11.4 million units of AAS in the largest U.S. seizure ever. In the first three months of 2008, Australian customs reported a record 300 seizures of AAS shipments.<ref name="pmid18599224">{{cite journal | vauthors = Kanayama G, Hudson JI, Pope HG | title = Long-term psychiatric and medical consequences of anabolic-androgenic steroid abuse: a looming public health concern? | journal = Drug and Alcohol Dependence | volume = 98 | issue = 1–2 | pages = 1–12 | date = November 2008 | pmid = 18599224 | pmc = 2646607 | doi = 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2008.05.004 }}</ref>

In the U.S., Canada, and Europe, illegal steroids are sometimes purchased just as any other illegal drug, through dealers who are able to obtain the drugs from a number of sources. Illegal AAS are sometimes sold at gyms and competitions, and through the mail, but may also be obtained through pharmacists, veterinarians, and physicians.<ref name="National Institute on Drug Abuse">{{cite web|url=http://www.gdcada.org/statistics/steroids.htm |title=Steroids |access-date=13 September 2007 |work=National Institute on Drug Abuse |publisher=GDCADA |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070911222757/http://www.gdcada.org/statistics/steroids.htm |archive-date=11 September 2007 |url-status=live }}</ref> In addition, a significant number of counterfeit products are sold as AAS, in particular via mail order from websites posing as overseas pharmacies. In the U.S., black-market importation continues from Mexico, Thailand, and other countries where steroids are more easily available, as they are legal.<ref name="Office of the Inspector General-2007">{{cite web |url=https://www.justice.gov/oig/reports/DEA/a0719/app2.htm |title=The Drug Enforcement Administration's International Operations (Redacted) |date=February 2007 |access-date=2 January 2014 |work=Office of the Inspector General |publisher=USDOJ |archive-date=30 October 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131030213251/http://www.justice.gov/oig/reports/DEA/a0719/app2.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Research==
AAS, alone and in combination with [[progestogen]]s, have been studied as potential [[male hormonal contraceptive]]s.<ref name="pmid20933120" /> Dual AAS and [[progestin]]s such as [[trestolone]] and [[dimethandrolone undecanoate]] have also been studied as male contraceptives, with the latter under active investigation as of 2018.<ref name="pmid23063338">{{cite journal | vauthors = Nieschlag E, Kumar N, Sitruk-Ware R | title = 7α-methyl-19-nortestosterone (MENTR): the population council's contribution to research on male contraception and treatment of hypogonadism | journal = Contraception | volume = 87 | issue = 3 | pages = 288–295 | date = March 2013 | pmid = 23063338 | doi = 10.1016/j.contraception.2012.08.036 }}</ref><ref name="pmid16497801" /><ref name="EndocrineSociety2018">{{cite web | url=https://www.endocrine.org/news-room/2018/dimethandrolone-undecanoate-shows-promise-as-a-male-birth-control-pill | title=Dimethandrolone undecanoate shows promise as a male birth control pill | work = Endocrine Society | access-date=20 March 2018 | archive-date=21 March 2018 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180321042307/https://www.endocrine.org/news-room/2018/dimethandrolone-undecanoate-shows-promise-as-a-male-birth-control-pill | url-status=live }}</ref>

Topical androgens have been used and studied in the treatment of [[cellulite]] in women.<ref name="pmid12626029">{{cite journal | vauthors = Gruber CJ, Wieser F, Gruber IM, Ferlitsch K, Gruber DM, Huber JC | title = Current concepts in aesthetic endocrinology | journal = Gynecological Endocrinology | volume = 16 | issue = 6 | pages = 431–441 | date = December 2002 | pmid = 12626029 | doi = 10.1080/gye.16.6.431.441 | s2cid = 37424524 }}</ref> Topical androstanolone on the abdomen has been found to significantly decrease subcutaneous abdominal fat in women, and hence may be useful for improving body silhouette.<ref name="pmid12626029" /> However, men and [[hyperandrogenic]] women have higher amounts of abdominal fat than healthy women, and androgens have been found to increase abdominal fat in [[postmenopausal]] women and [[transgender men]] as well.<ref name="pmid25781555">{{cite journal | vauthors = Sam S | title = Adiposity and metabolic dysfunction in polycystic ovary syndrome | journal = Hormone Molecular Biology and Clinical Investigation | volume = 21 | issue = 2 | pages = 107–116 | date = February 2015 | pmid = 25781555 | doi = 10.1515/hmbci-2015-0008 | s2cid = 23592351 }}</ref>

== See also ==
{{col div|colwidth=30em}}
* [[Selective androgen receptor modulator]]
* [[Antiandrogen]]
* [[Mossman-Pacey paradox]]
* [[Steroid rosacea]]
* [[Steroid use in Bollywood]]
* [[List of androgens/anabolic steroids available in the United States]]
* ''[[Juiced (book)|Juiced]]'', 2005 book
* ''[[Bigger, Stronger, Faster*]]'', 2008 documentary film
{{colend}}

== References ==
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}

== Further reading ==
{{Refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite book | vauthors = Daniels RC |title=The Anabolic Steroid Handbook |publisher=RCD Books |date=1 February 2003 |page=80 |isbn=0-9548227-0-6}}
* {{cite book | vauthors = Gallaway S |title=The Steroid Bible |publisher=Belle Intl |edition=3rd Sprl |date=15 January 1997 |page=125 |isbn=1-890342-00-9}}
* {{cite book | vauthors = Llewellyn W |title=Anabolics 2007: Anabolic Steroid Reference Manual |edition=6th |publisher=Body of Science |date=28 January 2007 |page=988 |isbn=978-0-9679304-6-6}}
* {{cite book | vauthors = Roberts A, Clapp B |title=Anabolic Steroids: Ultimate Research Guide |publisher=Anabolic Books, LLC |date=January 2006 |page=394 |isbn=1-59975-100-3}}
* {{cite book | vauthors = Yesalis CE |title=Anabolic Steroids in Sport and Exercise |publisher=Human Kinetics |year=2000 |isbn=0-88011-786-9}}
* {{cite journal | vauthors = Fragkaki AG, Angelis YS, Koupparis M, Tsantili-Kakoulidou A, Kokotos G, Georgakopoulos C | title = Structural characteristics of anabolic androgenic steroids contributing to binding to the androgen receptor and to their anabolic and androgenic activities. Applied modifications in the steroidal structure | journal = Steroids | volume = 74 | issue = 2 | pages = 172–197 | date = February 2009 | pmid = 19028512 | doi = 10.1016/j.steroids.2008.10.016 | s2cid = 41356223 }}
* {{cite journal | vauthors = McRobb L, Handelsman DJ, Kazlauskas R, Wilkinson S, McLeod MD, Heather AK | title = Structure-activity relationships of synthetic progestins in a yeast-based in vitro androgen bioassay | journal = The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology | volume = 110 | issue = 1–2 | pages = 39–47 | date = May 2008 | pmid = 18395441 | doi = 10.1016/j.jsbmb.2007.10.008 | s2cid = 5612000 }}<!--Has relative AR and PR affinities/potencies for a series of AAS and progestogens-->
* {{cite journal | vauthors = Schänzer W | title = Metabolism of anabolic androgenic steroids | journal = Clinical Chemistry | volume = 42 | issue = 7 | pages = 1001–1020 | date = July 1996 | pmid = 8674183 | doi = 10.1093/clinchem/42.7.1001 | doi-access = free }}
* {{cite journal |vauthors=Tygart TT |title=Steroids, the Media, and Youth |journal=Prevention Researcher Integrated Research Services, Inc. |volume=16 |issue=7–9 |date=December 2009 |publisher=SIRS Researcher |url=http://www.tpronline.org/download-free-article.cfm?id=548 |access-date=24 November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141129012954/http://www.tpronline.org/download-free-article.cfm?id=548 |archive-date=29 November 2014 |url-status=dead }}
* {{cite web |url=http://business.highbeam.com/435553/article-1G1-138418723/do-look-ok-question-many-teens-struggle-every-day-and |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131202223132/http://business.highbeam.com/435553/article-1G1-138418723/do-look-ok-question-many-teens-struggle-every-day-and |url-status=dead |archive-date=2 December 2013 |vauthors=Eisenhauer L |title=Do I Look OK? |publisher=St. Louis Post-Dispatch | location = St. Louis, MO |date=7 November 2005 |access-date=25 October 2010 }}
{{Refend}}

== External links ==
* {{Commons category-inline|Anabolic-androgenic steroids}}

{{Androgens and antiandrogens}}
{{Androgen receptor modulators}}
{{Portal bar|Medicine}}

[[Category:Anabolic–androgenic steroids| ]]
[[Category:Contraception for males]]
[[Category:Endocrine system]]
[[Category:Exercise physiology]]
[[Category:Doping in sport]]
[[Category:Hepatotoxins]]
[[Category:Hormonal antineoplastic drugs]]
[[Category:IARC Group 2A carcinogens]]