View source for Amitābha

{{short description|Celestial Buddha of Buddhism}}
{{about|the Buddha||Amitabha (disambiguation)}}
{{Infobox Buddha
| name = Amitābha
| image = Kamakura Budda Daibutsu front 1885.jpg
| caption = The Great Buddha of Kamakura in the [[Kōtoku-in]] temple
| sanskrit_name = <div style="margin-bottom:0.5em;">{{plainlist|
* {{lang|sa|अमिताभः}}
* [[International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration|IAST]]: Amitābhaḥ
}}</div> {{plainlist|
* {{lang|sa|अमितायुः}}
* IAST: Amitāyuḥ
}}
| sinhala_name =
| bengali_name = {{plainlist|
* {{lang|bn|অমিতাভ}}
* {{transl|bn|Amitābha}}
}}
| pali_name =
| burmese_name =အမိတာဘ
| vietnamese_name = A Di Đà Phật
| chinese_name = {{plainlist|
* 阿弥陀佛, 阿彌陀佛
* [[Pinyin]]: Āmítuó Fó<ref>{{cite web|title=阿彌陀佛
| date= 25 June 2023| url= https://en.m.wiktionary.org/wiki/阿彌陀佛#Chinese}}</ref>
}}
| japanese_name = {{ruby-ja|阿弥陀仏|あみだぶつ}}, {{ruby-ja|阿弥陀如来|あみだにょらい}}<br/>([[romaji]]: Amida Butsu, Amida Nyorai)
| korean_name = 아미타불<br>[[Revised Romanization of Korean|RR]]: Amitabul
| mongolian_name  = Аюуш<br/>Ayush<br/>ᠠᠶᠤᠱᠢ 
|Gandhari Prakrit=*Amidā'a}}'''Amitābha''' ({{IPA|sa|ɐmɪˈtaːbʱɐ|sa}}, "Measureless" or "Limitless" Light), also known as '''Amituofo''' in [[Chinese language|Chinese]], '''Amida Butsu''' in [[Japanese language|Japanese]], '''Amita-bul''' in [[Korean language|Korean]], '''A Di Đà Phật''' in [[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]], and '''Öpakmé''' in [[Tibetan script|Tibetan]], is one of the main [[Buddhahood|Buddhas]] of [[Mahayana|Mahayana Buddhism]] and the most widely venerated [[Buddhist deities|Buddhist figure]] in East Asian Buddhism.<ref>Lévi, Sylvain; Takakusu, Junjir; Demiéville, Paul; Watanabe, Kaigyoku (1929). [[iarchive:hbgirindictionna0103lvuoft|Hobogirin]]: Dictionnaire encyclopédique de bouddhisme d'après les sources chinoises et japonaises, Paris: Maisonneuve, vols. 1–3, pp. 24–29</ref><ref>Williams (2008), p. 238.</ref><ref name=":18">[http://www.buddhism-dict.net/cgi-bin/xpr-ddb.pl?96.xml+id(%27b963f-5f4c-9640%27) 阿彌陀 Amitâbha], Digital Dictionary of Buddhism</ref> Amitābha is also known by the name '''Amitāyus''' ("Measureless Life").<ref name=":1" /> 

Amitābha is the main figure in two influential Indian Buddhist [[Mahayana sutras|Mahayana Scriptures]]: the ''[[The Amitāyus Sutra|Sutra of Measureless Life]]'' and the ''[[Amitābha Sūtra]]''.<ref>Williams (2008), p. 239.</ref> According to the ''Sutra of Measureless Life'', Amitābha established a [[Pure Land|pure land]] of perfect peace and happiness, called [[Sukhavati|Sukhāvatī]] ("Blissful"), where beings who [[Buddhānusmṛti|mindfully remember him]] with [[Shinjin|faith]] may be [[Rebirth (Buddhism)|reborn]] and then quickly attain [[Enlightenment in Buddhism|enlightenment]]. The pure land is the result of a [[Primal Vow|set of vows]] Amitābha made long ago. As his name means Limitless Light, Amitābha's light is said to radiate throughout the cosmos and shine on all beings. Because of this, Amitābha is often depicted radiating light, a symbol for his [[Prajñā (Buddhism)|wisdom]].<ref name=":1">Williams (2008), p. 240.</ref> As per the name Amitāyus, this Buddha is also associated with infinite life, since his lifespan is said to be immeasurable. Amitābha's measureless life is seen as being related to his infinite [[Karuṇā|compassion]].<ref name=":1" />

Amitābha devotion is particularly prominent in [[East Asian Buddhism]], where the practice of mindfulness of Amitābha Buddha (known as ''[[nianfo]]'' in Chinese, ''nembutsu'' in Japanese) is seen as a path to liberation open to everyone. Amitābha is also the principal [[Buddhahood|Buddha]] in [[Pure Land Buddhism]], which is a tradition focused on attaining birth in the pure land by relying on the power of Amitābha (also known as "[[Other power|Other Power]]") and faithfully reciting Amitabha's name. Amitābha is also a major deity in [[Tibetan Buddhism]], where he is associated with pure land practices, as well as [[phowa]] (the transference of consciousness at the time of death).

The names Amitāyus and Amitābha (in various Chinese transliterations and translations) are used interchangeably in [[East Asian Buddhism]].<ref name=":1" /> In [[Tibetan Buddhism]] however, Amitāyus is distinguished from Amitābha, and they are depicted differently in [[Tibetan art|Himalayan art]].<ref name=":4">{{Cite web |title=Buddha Amitabha and Amitayus: The Distinctive Differences in Iconography |url=https://enlightenmentthangka.com/blogs/thangka/buddha-amitabha-amitayus |access-date=2023-08-24 |website=Enlightenment Thangka |language=en}}</ref> Amitāyus is also known as a Buddha of long life in Tibetan Buddhism. In East Asian Buddhism, Amitābha is most often depicted as part of a triad with the two bodhisattvas [[Avalokiteśvara]] and [[Mahasthamaprapta|Mahāsthāmaprāpta]]. In Tibetan Buddhism, the triad includes Avalokiteśvara and [[Vajrapani]] (or [[Padmasambhava]]) instead.

== Indian Mahayana sources ==
[[file:096-Amitabha-Dhyana-Mudra-Original.jpg|thumb|Amitabha statue in [[Borobudur]], [[Indonesia]]]]
[[file:Amitabha Triad Koryo.jpg|thumb|Korean Amitabha triad with Avalokiteśvara and Mahāsthāmaprāpta, the standard Amitabha triad according to the ''Larger Sukhāvatīvyūha.<ref name=":14">Katsumi Tanabe. [https://kanazawa-u.repo.nii.ac.jp/record/55361/files/H-I_2020-1-31.pdf Origin of the Amida Triad（阿弥陀三尊）in Gandhāra.] ヘレニズム〜イスラーム考古学研究 2020</ref>'' ]]
[[File:华严寺大雄宝殿殿内明代南方宝生佛造像组.jpg|thumb|[[Ming dynasty]] (1368–1644) statue of Amituo as one of the [[Five Tathāgatas|Five Tathagathas]] at  [[Huayan Temple (Datong)|Huayan Temple]] in [[Datong]], [[Shanxi]], China]]

=== In the ''Sukhāvatīvyūha Sūtras'' ===
The most influential Amitābha focused Mahayana sutras are two sutras known by the Sanskrit title ''Sukhāvatī-vyūha'' (''Blissful Array,'' or the ''Array of [[Sukhavati|Sukhāvatī]]'')''.'' These two are the ''[[Shorter Sukhāvatīvyūha Sūtra|Short Sukhāvatīvyūha Sūtra]]'' (also known as the ''Amitābha Sutra'') and the [[The Amitāyus Sutra|''Larger Sukhāvatīvyūha Sūtra'']] (also known as the ''Sutra of Infinite Life''). These sutras are the main Indian Mahayana sources for the teachings on Amitābha and his [[Pure Land|pure land]].<ref>Williams (2008), p. 239</ref> In these sutras, Amitābha is a transcendent and immortal Buddha who resides in a pure [[Pure Land|buddhafield]] that he created. This pure land is located billions of worlds away in the western direction and all beings can attain rebirth there, where they can swiftly become Buddhas themselves.<ref>Tanaka, Kenneth K. 1990. ''The Dawn of Chinese Pure Land Buddhist Doctrine: Ching-ying Hui-yüanʼs Commentary on the Visualization Sutra,'' p. 1. Albany: State University of New York Press.</ref>

According to the ''[[Infinite Life Sutra|Sūtra of Limitless Life]]'', eons ago, Amitābha was a bodhisattva monk named Dharmākara. In some versions of the [[sutra|sūtra]], Dharmākara is described as a former king who, having come into contact with Buddhist teachings through the buddha [[Lokeśvararāja]], renounced his throne and became a monk. For five eons ([[Kalpa (time)|kalpas]]), Dharmākara contemplated all the qualities of all the pure [[Pure Land|buddhafields]] (realms created by a Buddha existing outside of [[Trailokya|ordinary reality]]) throughout the cosmos. He then resolved to become a Buddha and to create the best of all pure [[Pure Land|buddha-fields]] possessed of many supreme qualities.<ref name=":2">Williams (2008), pp. 240-242</ref><ref name=":19">Jones (2021), pp. 4-6.</ref>   

The sutra then recounts how Dharmākara made a series of [[Bodhisattva vow|bodhisattva vows]] (''praṇidhāna''), pledging that unless these vows were fulfilled, he would not attain Buddhahood. Different versions of the text list varying numbers of these vows (the most common sutra contains [[wikisource:Amitabha's forty-eight vows|forty eight vows]]), which serves as the foundation for Pure Land doctrine. These solemn resolutions set out the type of pure land Dharmākara aspired to create, the conditions under which beings might be born into that world, and what kind of beings they would be. After many eons of bodhisattva practice, Dharmākara became Amitābha Buddha (his enlightenment having occurred ten kalpas ago). Since he now presides over the Pure Land of Sukhāvatī ("Utmost Bliss") in the western direction, it is understood that his vows were indeed fulfilled.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":19" />    

Among these "[[Primal Vow|past vows]]", Dharmākara promised that all beings born in his land would never fall into lower realms, and would possess golden divine bodies with many [[Iddhi|superpowers]]. He also vowed that they would be firmly established on the path to [[Buddhahood]] and could enjoy profound peace, happiness and an unlimited lifespan there.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":19" /> 

The central aspect of these vows is the ones which discuss how to attain birth in the pure land. In Pure Land Buddhism, one of the most influential passages has been the eighteenth vow, which states:<blockquote>If, when I attain Buddhahood, sentient beings in the lands of the ten directions who sincerely and joyfully entrust themselves to me, desire to be born in my land, and think of me even ten times should not be born there, may I not attain perfect enlightenment. Excluded however, are those who commit the five grave offenses and abuse the Right Dharma.<ref>Jones (2021), p. 6.</ref></blockquote>This vow is also called the [[Original Vow|"original" or "fundamental" vow]] in East Asian Pure Land Buddhism, indicating its special status in this tradition. This vow, along with some other passages, made it possible to argue that all kinds of people would attain birth in the pure land, even very wicked, deluded and [[Kleshas (Buddhism)|defiled]] persons.<ref name=":22">Jones (2021), p. 7.</ref>  Barring that one did not commit the five grave acts (patricide, matricide, the murder of an [[arhat]], harming a Buddha, causing schism in the [[sangha]]), this scripture seems to open up the possibility of birth in the pure land to everyone who faithfully thinks of the Amitābha even just ten times.<ref name=":22" /> A modified version of this universalist teaching (which even removes the exclusion of beings who commit the five grave acts) would become a central doctrine of Pure Land Buddhism and remains part of its lasting appeal.<ref>Jones (2019)'','' p. 31. </ref> 

The sutra also explains how, at the moment of death, Amitābha, will appear to those who have aspired to be born in Sukhāvatī.<ref name=":2" /> Bodhisattvas who arrive in Sukhāvatī enter the state of [[Bodhisattva#Avaivartika (non-retrogression)|non-retrogression]] (from which there is no falling back into lower states of rebirth), and the state of "one more birth," meaning they require only one additional lifetime before attaining Buddhahood. Once in Sukhāvatī, all beings can also easily visit other pure lands to make offerings to innumerable Buddhas.<ref name=":2" /> In Sukhāvatī, beings are born asexually, appearing fully formed upon lotus flowers in Amitābha's presence.<ref name=":2" /> Some lotuses remain closed, signifying individuals who still harbor doubts about Amitābha. Such beings remain enclosed for 500 years, experiencing their lotus as a palace, yet deprived of the Buddha's presence. Eventually, as they dispel their doubts, they emerge from this period of purification and witness the splendor of Amitābha.<ref name=":2" />[[File:Chion-in - various - 20150621 - 05.jpg|thumb|The main Amitabha image at [[Chion-in]] temple, [[Kyoto]], Japan]]

Both versions of the ''Sukhāvatīvyūha Sūtra'' provide various descriptions which may have served as a guide for meditating on Amitābha within his Pure Land.<ref name=":2" /> According to the sutras, those aspiring to be reborn there should cultivate [[bodhicitta]], listen to Amitābha's name, contemplate him, pray for rebirth in his land, and accumulate merit as a basis for their future birth.<ref name=":2" /> Given these conditions, rebirth in Sukhāvatī and eventual enlightenment are significantly more accessible than striving for Buddhahood under the harsh conditions of this world, which is Amitābha Buddha's ultimate intent for creating the pure land.<ref name=":2" /> This teaching about an easily accessible afterlife made Amitābha a popular Buddha in [[Gandhara]], from where it spread [[Central Asia]] and [[East Asian cultural sphere|East Asia]].  

Regarding the ''Smaller Sukhāvatīvyūha Sūtra'', this text primarily describes the various features of Sukhāvatī and further clarifies the methods of attaining rebirth there. It describes, for example, how the birds and trees of Sukhāvatī, themselves manifestations of Amitābha, continuously sing song of the Dharma. According to this sūtra, rebirth in Sukhāvatī is achieved by sincerely holding Amitābha's name in mind with undistracted focus for one to seven days—an application of the ancient meditation known as ''[[buddhānusmṛti]]'' (recollection of the Buddha).<ref name=":2" />

==== The nature of Amitābha ====
[[File:水陆画宝宁寺 阿弥陀佛.jpg|thumb|[[Ming dynasty]] (1368–1644) [[Shuilu ritual paintings|''Shuilu'' ritual painting]] of Amituo from [[Baoning Temple (Shuozhou)|Baoning Temple]]<sup>[[:zh:宝宁寺_(朔州市)|[zh]]]</sup>,  [[Shanxi]], [[China]]]]

The [[The Amitāyus Sutra|Larger ''Sukhāvatīvyūha Sūtra'']] describes the Buddha Amitābha as having a body that radiates limitless light throughout the ten directions. The sutra states:<blockquote>The majestic radiance of the Buddha of Immeasurable Life is exalted and supreme; the radiance of other Buddhas cannot compare with it. Some Buddhas’ light shines upon a hundred Buddha-lands, and other Buddhas’ light shines upon a thousand Buddha-lands. Briefly stated, the light of the Buddha of Immeasurable Life illuminates all the Buddha-lands.....Sentient beings who encounter this light have the three defilements swept away, and they become soft and gentle in body and mind. They leap and dance with joy, and the good mind arises in them. When those suffering pain and travail in the three evil realms see this light, they all find respite and become free of afflictions. After their lives have ended, they will all gain emancipation. The light of the Buddha of Immeasurable Life is resplendent and brilliantly illuminates the lands of the Buddhas throughout the ten quarters; there is no place where it is not heard. It is not I alone who praise this light now; all Buddhas, sravakas, pratyekabuddhas, and bodhisattvas together praise it just as I do.<ref name=":23">{{Cite web |last=Jōdo Shinshū Translation Group |first= |date=2020-11-20 |title=The Sutra on the Buddha of Immeasurable Life - Part 1 |url=https://jodoshinshu.faith/the-sutra-on-the-buddha-of-immeasurable-life-part-1/ |access-date=2025-03-04 |website=jodoshinshu.faith |language=en-US}}</ref> </blockquote>In the Larger ''Sukhāvatīvyūha,'' Shakyamuni also describes the Buddha Amitābha's light as inconceivable and ultimate indescribable, saying that he "could never describe it completely", even if he spent eons trying.<ref name=":23" />  

Regarding the lifespan of Amitābha, the Larger ''Sukhāvatīvyūha Sūtra'' states that it is "everlasting and beyond reckoning", totally beyond any calculation or thought.<ref name=":23" />  

Both ''Sukhāvatīvyūha'' sūtras also proclaim Buddha Amitābha's special status, by stating that he is praised and revered by all the Buddhas of the ten quarters and that all Buddhas teach their retinues about birth in Amitābha's Pure Land.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Jōdo Shinshū Translation Group |first= |date=2020-11-20 |title=The Sutra on the Buddha of Immeasurable Life - Part 2 |url=https://jodoshinshu.faith/the-sutra-on-the-buddha-of-immeasurable-life-part-2/ |access-date=2025-03-04 |website=jodoshinshu.faith |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Jōdo Shinshū Translation Group |first= |date=2020-11-23 |title=The Sutra on Amida Buddha |url=https://jodoshinshu.faith/the-sutra-on-amida-buddha/ |access-date=2025-03-04 |website=jodoshinshu.faith |language=en-US}}</ref>

===References in other sutras===
Amitābha is also mentioned in numerous other Buddhist sources. [[Kenneth K. Tanaka|Kenneth Tanaka]] notes that "Thirty one Sanskrit texts and over one hundred Chinese and Tibetan translations refer to Amitābha* and/or Sukhavati.*"<ref name="Tanaka">Tanaka, Kenneth K. 1990. ''The Dawn of Chinese Pure Land Buddhist Doctrine: Ching-ying Hui-yüanʼs Commentary on the Visualization Sutra,'' p. 12. Albany: State University of New York Press.</ref>[[File:方便法身尊影-Amida_Manifesting_in_the_Dharma-body_of_Expedient_Means_MET_18_146_1_O3_sf.jpg|thumb|"Amida Manifesting in the Dharma-body of [[Upaya|Expedient Means]]", Japanese painting, at the [[Metropolitan Museum of Art|Met]].]]The earliest Buddhist [[sutra]] mentioning Amitābha is the translation into Chinese of the ''[[Pratyutpanna Samādhi Sūtra]]'' (般舟三昧經; ''Bozhōu Sānmèi Jīng'') by the [[Kushan Empire|Kushan]] monk [[Lokaksema (Buddhist monk)|{{IAST|Lokakṣema}}]]. This text has been dated to between the 1st century BCE and 2nd century CE by modern buddhologists and may have been translated from the [[Gandhari language]] (a fragment of which was discovered in 2018).<ref>{{cite book |title=Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism |date=2013 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=9780691157863 |editor1-last=Buswell |editor1-first=Robert Jr |editor1-link=Robert Buswell Jr. |location=Princeton, NJ |page=674 |editor2-last=Lopez |editor2-first=Donald S. Jr. |editor2-link=Donald S. Lopez, Jr.}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Harrison |first1=Paul |last2=Lenz |first2=Timothy |last3=Salomon |first3=Richard |date=2018 |title=Fragments of a Gāndhārī Manuscript of the Pratyutpannabuddhasaṃmukhāvasthitasamādhisūtra |journal=Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies |volume=41 |pages=117–143 |doi=10.2143/JIABS.41.0.3285740}}</ref> Other important Mahayana texts which mention Amitabha and his pure land of [[Sukhavati]] include the ''[[Ajitasena Sutra]]'', the ''[[Lotus Sutra]]'', the ''[[Mahāyāna Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra|Nirvana Sutra]]'', the ''[[Mahāmegha Sūtra|Mahāmegha Sutra]],'' and the ''[[Samadhiraja Sutra|Samādhirāja Sūtra]].<ref name=":0">Schopen, Gregory. "The Inscription on the Kuṣān Image of Amitābha and the Character of Early Mahāyāna in India". Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies, 10 (1987): 99–137</ref>''<ref>Gomez, Luis, trans. (1996), ''The Land of Bliss: The Paradise of the Buddha of Measureless Light: Sanskrit and Chinese Versions of the Sukhavativyuha Sutras'',  p. 127. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. Gomez calls this edition a "more "free" translation" in the preface</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=The Great Cloud (1) / 84000 Reading Room |url=https://84000.co/translation/toh232 |access-date=2024-11-11 |website=84000 Translating The Words of The Buddha |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=The King of Samādhis Sūtra / 84000 Reading Room |url=https://84000.co/translation/toh127 |access-date=2024-11-11 |website=84000 Translating The Words of The Buddha |language=en}}</ref> There are also several Indian [[Dharani|''Dhāraṇī sutras'']] (sutras focused on specific magical chants) which are focused on Amitābha including various editions of the ''[[Amitabha Pure Land Rebirth Dharani|Amitabha Pure Land Rebirth Dhāraṇī]],'' as well as the ''Sūtra of the Dhāraṇī of the King of the Sound of Amitābha's Drum,'' the ''Anantamukhanirhāra-dhāraṇī'' and the ''Fundamental Dhāraṇī of Immeasurable Life Tathagata'' (T.930)''.''<ref>''[https://mbingenheimer.net/tools/bibls/shaku.2022.t370.pdf The Sūtra of the Dhāraṇī of the King of]'' ''[https://mbingenheimer.net/tools/bibls/shaku.2022.t370.pdf the Sound of Amitābha's Drum.]'' Translator's Name Unknown; Liang Dynasty (502–57). English Translation by Shaku Shingan.</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Foard |first=James Harlan |url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/The_Pure_Land_Tradition/tztMqPBReAYC?hl=en&gbpv=1 |title=The Pure Land Tradition: History and Development |last2=Solomon |first2=Michael |last3=Payne |first3=Richard Karl |date=1996 |publisher=Jain Publishing Company |isbn=978-0-89581-092-2 |pages=36 |language=en}}</ref>

Jeff Wilson writes that over a fifth of the sutras in the [[Taishō Tripiṭaka]] reference Amitābha,<ref>{{cite web |last1=Wilson |first1=Jeff |title=Pure Land Sūtras |url=https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/display/document/obo-9780195393521/obo-9780195393521-0132.xml |website=Oxford Bibliographies Online |access-date=26 February 2024 |language=en}}</ref> but three sutras in particular have become seen as canonical in East Asian Buddhism: the two ''Sukhāvatīvyūha Sūtras'' discussed above and the ''[[Amitāyus Contemplation Sūtra]].''<ref>{{Citation|translator-last1=Inagaki |translator-first1=Hisao |title=The Three Pure Land Sutras |date=2003 |publisher=Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research |location=Berkeley |url=http://www.bdk.or.jp/pdf/bdk/digitaldl/dBET_ThreePureLandSutras_2003.pdf |isbn=1-886439-18-4 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140512124959/http://www.bdk.or.jp/pdf/bdk/digitaldl/dBET_ThreePureLandSutras_2003.pdf |archive-date=May 12, 2014 }}</ref> The [[Amitāyus Contemplation Sūtra|''Contemplation Sūtra'']] is believed to have been translated into Chinese by Kalayāśas in the early fifth century and belongs to [[Visualization sutras|a group of texts focused on the visualization of Buddhas]].<ref name=":3">Williams (2008), pp. 242-243</ref> Unlike other Pure Land sūtras, the ''Contemplation Sūtra'' emphasizes meditative practices to have a vision of Amitābha, including thirteen stages of visualization. These include meditating on the setting sun, pure water turning into beryl, and eventually visualizing the entire Pure Land with its jeweled pavilions, lotus throne, Amitāyus (Amitābha), and his attendant Bodhisattvas, Avalokiteśvara and Mahāsthāmaprāpta.<ref name=":3" />[[file:Welcoming descent of Amida Buddha and twenty-five bodhisattvas.jpg|thumb|A scroll depicting the "Welcoming Descent" (Ch: laiying, Jp: raigo) of Amida Buddha and Twenty-five Bodhisattvas coming to guide a dying person to the pure land, 1668, Japan, Edo period. [[Metropolitan Museum of Art|MET]].]]The sūtra also explains that even those guilty of the five gravest transgressions may, just before death, encounter a virtuous teacher who instructs them in the Buddha's Dharma. If such a person sincerely calls upon Amitāyus’ name ten times, their accumulated negative karma will be purified, and they will be reborn within a lotus bud in Sukhāvatī. After twelve eons, the lotus will bloom, and the individual will behold Avalokiteśvara and Mahāsthāmaprāpta, who will preach the Dharma and inspire them to cultivate bodhicitta.<ref name=":3" /> This sūtra became a cornerstone of the Pure Land tradition, as it offers hope to all people. Its emphasis on salvation through Amitābha's boundless compassion extends even to the most evil individuals.<ref name=":3" /> 

=== In Mahayana treatises ===
Some Mahāyāna [[Shastra|treatises]] mention Amitābha. The ''[[Dasabhumika-vibhāsā|Dasabhumikavibhāsā]]'' (十住毘婆沙論, T.1521), which is traditionally ascribed to [[Nagarjuna|Nāgārjuna]] and survives only in a Chinese translation by [[Kumārajīva]]  (344-413), teaches the "easy" practice of maintaining constant mindfulness of Amitābha Buddha as a way to attain birth in the pure land.<ref>Williams (2008)'','' p. 244. </ref><ref name="Jones 2019b2">Jones 2019, pp. 25, 37.</ref> The authorship of this text has been disputed by some scholars, including Akira Hirakawa.<ref>Williams Tribe and Wynne (2002). ''Buddhist Thought: A Complete Introduction to the Indian Tradition'', p. 270. Routledge.</ref><ref>Ruegg, David Seyfort, ''<nowiki>''The Literature of the Madhyamaka School of Philosophy in India,''</nowiki>'' Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, 1981, p. 29.</ref> 

[[Vasubandhu]] ([[Floruit|fl.]] 4th to 5th century CE) is traditionally credited with composing the ''Discourse on the Pure Land'' (T.1524), a commentary on the ''Shorter Sukhāvatīvyūha Sūtra,'' which only survives in Chinese translation by the Indian translator [[Bodhiruci]] (6th century). This work outlines a five-part practice that may have functioned as a visualization meditation.<ref name="Jones 2019b">Jones 2019, p. 37.</ref> Amitābha and his pure are also briefly discussed by Vasubandhu's brother [[Asanga]] in his ''[[Mahāyānasaṃgraha]].''<ref>Williams (2008), p. 244</ref>

The author of the ''[[Ratnagotravibhāga]]'' concludes the text with the following dedication to Amitāyus: "By the merit I have acquired through [writing] this [treatise], may all living beings come to perceive the Lord Amitāyus* endowed with infinite light."<ref name="Tanaka" />

=== History and archeology ===
[[file:Buddha Chandigarh Museum.jpg|thumb|280px|Gandharan sculpture depicting “Amitabha preaching in Sukhavati,” 2nd century CE, from the site of [[Muhammad Nari]] (present-day northwestern [[Pakistan]]). [[Government Museum and Art Gallery, Chandigarh]].]]
According to [[Kenneth K. Tanaka|Kenneth Tanaka]], Amitābha Buddha emerged as a central figure in the [[Gandharan Buddhism]] of the first century CE.<ref name=":11">Tanaka (1990''),'' pp. 3-4. </ref><ref name=":13">Marchman, Kendall R. ''Huaigan and the Growth of Pure Land Buddhism During the Tang Era'', pp. 39-44. Phd Diss. 2015.</ref> Numerous Amitābha [[Buddhist art|Buddha images]] have been discovered in the Greater [[Gandhara|Gandhāra]] region (in modern [[Pakistan]] and [[Afghanistan]]) from about the first century CE onwards during the Kushan era (30–375 CE). This, along with evidence which suggests that the two main Pure Land sutras were written in [[Gandhari language|the Gandhari language]], indicates that Amitābha rose to prominence in [[Gandharan Buddhism]] (and in the greater [[Kushan Empire|Kushana Empire]]) during the first century CE.<ref>{{cite web |title=Gandharan Sculptural Style: The Buddha Image |url=http://huntingtonarchive.osu.edu/studypages/internal/dl/SouthAsia/Buddhist/pgs/u5/DL0230m.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141218045231/http://huntingtonarchive.osu.edu/studypages/internal/dl/SouthAsia/Buddhist/pgs/u5/DL0230m.htm |archive-date=2014-12-18 |access-date=2013-05-12}}</ref><ref name=":11" />

Regarding the main historical source of the figure of Amitābha, some Western scholars have proposed possible influences on Buddhism from [[Zoroastrianism|Zoroastrian]] deities ([[Ahura Mazda]] or [[Zurvanism|Zurvan]]) or from [[Historical Vedic religion|Brahmanical]] deities or concepts (such as the sun god [[Surya]] or the immortality nectar [[Amrita|Amritā]]).<ref name=":13" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Foard |first=James Harlan |url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/The_Pure_Land_Tradition/tztMqPBReAYC?hl=en&gbpv=0 |title=The Pure Land Tradition: History and Development |last2=Solomon |first2=Michael |last3=Payne |first3=Richard Karl |date=1996 |publisher=Jain Publishing Company |isbn=978-0-89581-092-2 |pages=13-14 |language=en}}</ref> Japanese scholars like Kōtatsu Fujita meanwhile tend to place the origin of Amitābha Buddha squarely within Buddhist tradition.<ref name=":12">Tanaka (1990''),'' p. 8.</ref><ref name=":13" />[[file:Chinesischer Maler des 8. Jahrhunderts 001.jpg|thumb|330x330px|A painting of Amitabha discovered at [[Dunhuang]]]]Other scholars, especially Japanese authors, cite various passages from [[Early Buddhist texts|earlier Buddhist sources]] which mention [[The Buddha|Shakyamuni]] Buddha radiating light rays and which state that his lifespan is immeasurable. Such ideas seem to have been most common in the early Buddhist [[Mahāsāṃghika]] tradition, who promoted the [[Docetism|docetic]] idea that the Buddha was ultimately a transcendent (lokottara) being who nevertheless manifested a magical body on earth.<ref name=":12" /><ref name=":16">Pas, Julian F. (1995). ''Visions of Sukhavati: Shan-Tao's Commentary on the Kuan Wu-liang- Shou-Fo Ching'', pp. 14-16. Albany, State University of New York Press,  {{ISBN|0-7914-2520-7}}</ref> One of their sutras is cited by [[Vasumitra (Buddhism)|Vasumitra]] (in a passage that was translated three times by different Chinese figures) as stating that "the form body (''rupakaya''), supernatural power (''prabhāva'') and lifespan (''ayus'') of a Buddha is unlimited (''ananta'')."<ref name=":12" /><ref>Andre Bareau, ''Les sectes bouddhiques du Petit Véhicule'' (Ecole Fransaise d'Extreme-Orient, 1955), Chapitre I 'Les Mahasanghika', pp. 55-74.</ref><ref name=":62">Willemen, Charles; Tsukamoto Keisho (2004). ''[https://www.bdkamerica.org/product/the-treatise-on-the-elucidation-of-the-knowable-and-the-cycle-of-the-formation-of-the-schismatic-doctrines/ Treatise on the Elucidation of the Knowable, The Cycle of the Formation of the Schismatic Doctrines]'', pp. 97-101. Bukkyo Dendo Kyokai and Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research.</ref><ref name=":16" /> Julian Pas also notes that, in the version translated by [[Kumārajīva]], Vasumitra's passage speaks of the limitless light of the Buddha ("kuan-ming-wu-liang"), which could be a translation of ''abha amita.<ref name=":16" />''  

Another Mahāsāṃghika ([[Lokottaravāda]]) source, the ''[[Mahāvastu]],'' states: "the purity of the Buddha is so great that the worship of the Exalted One is sufficient for the attainment of [[Nirvana (Buddhism)|Nirvāna]]" and "from the Buddha's smile, there radiate beams which illuminate all buddhafields."<ref name=":17" /> Pas sees the Mahāsāṃghika as promoting a kind of Buddhist [[bhakti]] (devotional) movement. These connections with early [[Mahāsāṃghika]] doctrines indicate the possibility that Amitābha may have initially signified the limitless lifespan and radiance of the Buddha, pointing to the transcendent dimensions of the historical Buddha Shakyamuni.<ref name=":12" /><ref name=":13" /> Since the Mahāsāṃghika school was also active in the northwest of India and as far north as [[Bamyan|Bamiyan]] ([[Afghanistan]]), Pas argues that they are a likely source for the ideas that influenced the rise of the devotional [[Cult (religious practice)|cultus]] of Amitābha in northwest India, Gandhara, and [[Bactria]].<ref name=":17">Pas, Julian F. (1995). ''Visions of Sukhavati: Shan-Tao's Commentary on the Kuan Wu-liang- Shou-Fo Ching'', pp. 26-30. Albany, State University of New York Press,  {{ISBN|0-7914-2520-7}}</ref>   

{{multiple image
| perrow            = 2
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| caption_align     = center
| align             = right
| direction         = vertical
| header            = Earliest "Amitābha" inscription
| image1            = Amitabha Buddha inscription in the year 26 of Huvishka.jpg
| image2            = Amitabha Buddha inscription in the year 26 of Huvishka Inscription Buddhasya Amitabhasya.jpg
| footer_align      = center
| footer            = Inscribed pedestal with the first known occurrence of the name of "Amitābha Buddha" in "the year 26 of 
[[Huvishka]]" (153 CE, first year of Huvishka)<ref name="MMR">{{cite book |last1=Rhie |first1=Marylin M. |title=Early Buddhist Art of China and Central Asia, Volume 3: The Western Ch'in in Kansu in the Sixteen Kingdoms Period and Inter-relationships with the Buddhist Art of Gandh?ra |date=2010 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-04-18400-8 |page=xxxvii, Fig 6.17a |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ivE2mpfbNR0C&pg=PR37 |language=en}}</ref> In [[Brahmi script]] in the inscription:<br><sub>[[File:Gupta allahabad bu.jpg|12px]]</sub>[[File:Gupta ashoka ddh.jpg|10px]]<sub>[[File:Gupta ashoka sya.svg|19px]]</sub>  <sub>[[File:Gupta ashoka a.svg|19px]]</sub>[[File:Gupta ashoka mi.jpg|12px]] [[File:Gupta ashoka t.svg|12px]] [[File:Gupta allahabad bh.svg|12px]]<sub>[[File:Gupta ashoka sya.svg|19px]]</sub><br>"''[[wikt:𑀩𑀼𑀤𑁆𑀥𑀲𑁆𑀬|𑀩𑀼𑀤𑁆𑀥𑀲𑁆𑀬]] [[wikt:𑀅𑀫𑀺𑀢𑀸𑀪𑀲𑁆𑀬|𑀅𑀫𑀺𑀢𑀸𑀪𑀲𑁆𑀬]]''"<br>"''Bu-ddha-sya A-mi-tā-bha-sya''"<br>"Of the Buddha Amitabha"<ref name="GS99">{{cite journal |last1=Schopen |first1=Gregory |title=The Inscription on the Kuṣān Image of Amitābha and the Charakter of the Early Mahāyāna in India |journal=The Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies |date=1987 |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=99–138 |url=http://www.ahandfulofleaves.org/documents/Articles/The-Inscription-on-the-Kusan-Image-of-Amitabha-and-and-the-Character-of-Early-Mahayana-in-India_Schopen.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191207114137/http://www.ahandfulofleaves.org/documents/Articles/The-Inscription-on-the-Kusan-Image-of-Amitabha-and-and-the-Character-of-Early-Mahayana-in-India_Schopen.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=December 7, 2019}}</ref><br>[[Art of Mathura]], [[Mathura Museum]]
}}

The first known [[Epigraphy|epigraphic]] evidence for Amitābha is the bottom part of a statue found in Govindnagar, [[Pakistan]] and now located at [[Government Museum, Mathura]]. The statue is dated to "the 26th year of the reign of [[Huvishka|{{IAST|Huviṣka}}]]" i.e., 104 CE.<ref name=":0" /> It is a work of [[Kushan art]], made during the [[Kushan Empire]] (30–375 CE), and was dedicated to "Amitābha Buddha" by a family of merchants.<ref name="Murakami2010">{{cite journal |last1=Murakami |first1=Shinkan |title=大乘佛教的起源 (On the origins of Mahayana Buddhism) |journal=Yuanguang Buddhist Journal |date=2010 |volume=16 |pages=1-51 |url=http://old.ykbi.edu.tw/htm/ykbi16/ykbi16_1.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130612150915/http://old.ykbi.edu.tw/htm/ykbi16/ykbi16_1.pdf|archive-date=2013-06-12 |access-date=2013-06-14}}</ref><ref name="MMR" /><ref name="GS99" />  

[[Gregory Schopen]] translates the inscription as follows:<ref name=":0" /> <blockquote>The 26th year of the Great King Huveṣka, the 2nd month, the 26th day. On this day by Nāgarakṣita, the (father) of the trader (Sax-caka), the grandson of the merchant Balakatta, the (son of Buddhapila), an image of the Blessed One, the Buddha Amitābha was set up for the worship of all buddhas. Through this root of merit (may) all living things (obtain) the unexcelled knowledge of a buddha.<ref name=":0" />  </blockquote>Another early epigraphic mention of Amitabha (c. 610 CE) is found in [[Lalitpur, Nepal|Patan (Lalitpur)]]. It is a verse which states: "I praise Amitabha, the best, dispeller of illusion by the light of great [[Prajñā (Buddhism)|prajña]]. The light, victor who lives in [[Sukhavati]] with [[Avalokiteśvara|Lokesvara]], the destroyer of the fear arising in the world, bearer of the lotus, and [[Mahasthamaprapta]], the affectionate-hearted one."<ref>Lewis, T. T. (1996). [https://college.holycross.edu/faculty/tlewis/PDFs/Sukhavati_Traditions_in_Newar_Buddhism.pdf Sukhavati Traditions in Newar Buddhism.] South Asia Research, 16(1), 1-30. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1177/026272809601600101</nowiki></ref> One of the last Indian sculptures of Amitābha can be found in the trademark black stone of the [[Pala Empire]] (c. 750–1161 CE), which was the last Buddhist empire of India.

The appearance of sculptural remains dating to the end of the second century suggests that Amitābha was becoming popular in the first and second centuries CE in Gandhara and Central Asia. Apart from the Gandhara region, not much evidence has been found for extensive Amitabha worship in the rest of the [[Indian subcontinent]] before the 8th century.<ref name=":11" /> During the 8th century, the Chinese monk [[Cimin Huiri]] visited India and learned about Pure Land Amitabha devotion there.<ref name=":11" /> 

From its initial home in Greater Gandhāra, Amitābha worship and its images quickly [[Silk Road transmission of Buddhism|spread via the Silk road]] to [[Central Asia|Central Asian]] kingdoms like [[Kingdom of Khotan|Khotan]], and then to [[China]] as well as Southeast Asian regions like [[Indonesia]]. The earliest dated Amitābha image in China is from the [[Longmen Grottoes]] and is dated to 519 CE.<ref>Williams (2008)'','' p. 247.</ref> During the [[Sui dynasty|Sui Dynasty]] (581–618) and the succeeding [[Tang dynasty]], China saw a growth in the creation of Amitabha images and paintings. Some exemplary Amitabha art from this period can be found in [[Dunhuang]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Tucker |first=Jonathan |url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/The_Silk_Road_China_and_the_Karakorum_Hi/DaWmDwAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=amitabha+dunhuang&pg=PT93&printsec=frontcover |title=The Silk Road - China and the Karakorum Highway: A Travel Companion |date=2015-03-12 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |isbn=978-0-85773-933-9 |pages=chapter 1 |language=en}}</ref>

==In East Asian Buddhism==
=== Chinese Buddhism ===
[[File:Western_Paradise_of_the_Buddha_Amitabha,_Hebei_province,_Fengfeng,_southern_Xiangtangshan_Cave_Temples,_Cave_2,_Northern_Qi_dynasty,_550-577_AD,_limestone_with_traces_of_pigment_-_Freer_Gallery_of_Art_-_DSC05703.JPG|thumb|Western Paradise of the Buddha Amituo, [[Hebei|Hebei province]], c. 550-577 CE]]Amitābha is one of the most important Buddhas in [[Chinese Buddhism]]. Some of the earliest evidence for Amitābha devotion is found in the works of [[Zhi Dun]] (314–366), a [[Xuanxue|Neo-Daoist]] convert to Buddhism.<ref name="Tanaka-1990">{{cite book |last=Tanaka |first=Kenneth K. |title=The Dawn of Chinese Pure Land Buddhist Doctrine: Ching-ying Hui-yüanʼs Commentary on the Visualization Sutra |publisher=State University of New York Press |year=1990 |place=Albany |page=14}}</ref> The Chinese translations of [[Kumārajīva]] (344–413 CE), [[Buddhabhadra (translator)|Buddhabhadra]] (359–429 CE), and others introduced the main Pure Land Sutras to Chinese Buddhists.<ref name="Buswell-2013">{{cite book |title=Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism |date=2013 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-15786-3 |editor1-last=Buswell |editor1-first=Robert Jr |editor1-link=Robert Buswell Jr. |location=Princeton, NJ |page=867 |editor2-last=Lopez |editor2-first=Donald S. Jr. |editor2-link=Donald S. Lopez, Jr.}}</ref>
[[File:善化寺大雄宝殿殿内金代北方不空成就佛和右侧胁侍菩萨造像.jpg|thumb|[[Jin dynasty (1115–1234)|Jin Dynasty]] statue of Amituo as one of the [[Five Tathāgatas|Five Tathagathas]] at [[Shanhua Temple]], [[Shanxi]], [[China]]]]
In China, "Buddha recollection" (Skt: [[buddhānusmṛti]], Ch: [[nianfo]]) based on Amitābha became the central practice of [[Pure Land Buddhism]], a tradition which developed gradually through the writings and teachings of several key Chinese monks that lived from the [[Northern Wei]] (386–534) period to the [[Tang dynasty]] (618 to 907). Key figures in this tradition include [[Tan-luan|Tanluan]] (476–554), [[Daochuo]] (562–645), [[Shandao]] (613–681), [[Huaigan]] (c. 7th century) and [[Fazhao]] (746–838).<ref name="Chen-2018">{{Cite journal |last=Chen |first=Chien-huang (著)=陳劍鍠 (au ) |last2=Jones |first2=Charles B. |date=2018 |title=The Process of Establishing and Justifying the Thirteen Patriarchs of the Lotus School |url=https://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/en/search/search_detail.jsp?seq=605833 |journal=Pacific World: Journal of the Institute of Buddhist Studies |language=en |issue=20 |pages=129–147}}</ref><ref>Williams (2008)'','' pp. 246–247.</ref> These Pure Land masters promoted and defended the view that any type of person could reach Amitābha's Pure Land (and immediately attain the state of [[Bodhisattva#Avaivartika (non-retrogression)|non-retrogression]]) through relatively easy and accessible practices like reciting or chanting Amitābha's name. They argued that this practice was effective due to Amitābha's compassionate [[Other power|Other Power]], which was the dominant cause for one's birth in the pure land (where one could attain Buddhahood much more swiftly and easily). This made Amitābha centered Pure Land Buddhism a very popular practice among laypeople and commoners who did not have the time for extensive meditation or other Buddhist practices.<ref>Jones (2019)  pp. 17, 188–198</ref>

Regarding the nature of Amitābha Buddha himself, Pure Land masters like Daochuo and Shandao argued that Amitābha was a [[Trikaya#Saṃbhogakāya|''saṃbhogakāya'']] (self-enjoyment body) Buddha. This view ran counter to the previously popular idea which saw Amitābha as a ''[[nirmāṇakāya]]'' (transformation body) Buddha, like Shakyamuni Buddha.<ref name=":52">Cheung, Tak-ching Neky. and 張德貞. “[https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/A-comparative-study-of-the-pure-land-teachings-of-Cheung-%E5%BC%B5%E5%BE%B7%E8%B2%9E./5aed79e7ffb88e0037e71ba7d40d20278633993b A comparative study of the pure land teachings of Shandao (613-681) and Shinran (1173-1262).”] (2001).</ref><ref>Tanaka, Kenneth K. 1990. ''The Dawn of Chinese Pure Land Buddhist Doctrine: Ching-ying Hui-yüanʼs Commentary on the Visualization Sutra,'' p. 103. Albany: State University of New York Press.</ref>
[[File:佛光寺五尊主像之一-阿弥陀佛.jpg|thumb|[[Tang dynasty]] (618-907) statues of Amituo surrounded by attendant bodhisattvas at [[Foguang Temple]] in [[Wutai County|Wutai]], [[Shanxi]], [[China]].]]
A ''saṃbhogakāya'' is a divine body associated with more transcendent Buddhas which are beyond the [[Trailokya|triple world]] and have unlimited lifespans.<ref>Gadjin, Nagao, and Hirano Umeyo. “On the Theory of Buddha-Body (Buddha-Kāya).” ''The Eastern Buddhist'', vol. 6, no. 1, 1973, pp. 25–53. ''JSTOR'', <nowiki>http://www.jstor.org/stable/44361355</nowiki>. Accessed 29 Sept. 2024.</ref><ref>Williams (2009), p. 180.</ref> A ''[[nirmāṇakāya]]'' meanwhile is a form body which is more contingent and human-like (though still supramundane), and also has a limited lifespan and manifests a [[Nirvana (Buddhism)|nirvana]] which appears as death or cessation.<ref>Williams (2009), pp. 181-182</ref> As such, saṃbhogakāyas have a higher ontological status in the classic Mahayana schema of the triple body ([[trikaya]]). Some Indian Mahayana works state that saṃbhogakāyas are only visible and accessible to bodhisattvas who have entered the [[Bhūmi (Buddhism)|bodhisattva stages.]] In spite of this, Shandao and other Pure Land masters affirmed that Amitābha and his pure land were a saṃbhogakāya ''and'' also that it was accessible to all kinds of beings. According to Shandao, this is only possible because of the great compassionate Other Power of Amitābha Buddha.<ref name=":52" /> 

Amitābha devotion also became an important current within other [[Chinese Buddhism|Chinese Buddhist]] traditions, like the [[Tiantai]], [[East Asian Mādhyamaka|Sanlun]], and [[Vinaya]] schools. During the [[Song dynasty]] (960–1279), Tiantai monks such as Shengchang, Ciyun Zunshi, and [[Siming Zhili]], founded Pure Land societies which focused on the recitation of Amitābha's name.<ref name="Jones 2019, p. 110">Jones (2019), p. 110.</ref> Later eras saw further doctrinal refinements of Chinese Amitābha devotion, with the writings of scholars like [[Yuan Hongdao]] (1568–1610) and [[Ouyi Zhixu]] (1599–1655).<ref name="Jones 2019, p. 87">Jones (2019), p. 68, 87.</ref><ref name="Williams-2008l">Williams (2008)'','' p. 253. </ref> During the [[Qing dynasty]] (1644–1912), scholars of the Huayan school like [[Peng Shaosheng]] (1740–1796) also adopted and wrote on Amitābha devotion, identifying Amitābha Buddha with [[Vairocana]], the cosmic Buddha of the ''[[Avatamsaka Sutra]]''.<ref name="Liu2">{{cite journal |last=Liu |first=Kuei-Chieh |title=On the Synthesis of Huayan Thought and Pure Land Practice by Early Qing Dynasty Buddhist Scholars (清初華嚴念佛思想試析——以續法與彭紹升為例) |url=https://chinesebuddhiststudies.org/article/%E6%B8%85%E5%88%9D%E8%8F%AF%E5%9A%B4%E5%BF%B5%E4%BD%9B%E6%80%9D%E6%83%B3%E8%A9%A6%E6%9E%90-%E4%BB%A5%E7%BA%8C%E6%B3%95%E8%88%87%E5%BD%AD%E7%B4%B9%E5%8D%87%E7%82%BA%E4%BE%8B-on-the-syn/ |journal=Journal of Chinese Buddhist Studies |volume=20}}</ref> 

The recitation of Amitābha's name is a widespread practice among contemporary Chinese Buddhists (and other Buddhists in the East Asian mainland).<ref name=":9">Jones (2021), pp. 96-107</ref> This practice known as ''[[nianfo]]'' ({{lang|zh|念佛}}) in Chinese and ''nembutsu'' in Japanese and entails the recitation or chanting (melodic or monotone) of the phrase 南無阿彌陀佛 ([[Chinese language|Chinese]]: ''Namo Amituofo'', [[Japanese language|Japanese]]: ''Namu Amida Butsu'') which means "Homage to Amitābha Buddha". Aside from being a popular chant and meditation, this phrase is also seen as [[Auspiciousness|auspicious]] and is reproduced in many ways including [[Hanging scroll|calligraphy scrolls]], public [[Epigraphy|inscriptions]], charms, [[Amulet|amulets]], altarpieces and electronic devices.<ref>Harvard  Heller, N. (2014). Buddha in a box: The materiality of recitation in contemporary Chinese buddhism. Material Religion, 10(3), 294–314. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.2752/175183414X14101642921384</nowiki></ref>

=== Japanese Buddhism ===

[[file:Uji Byodo-in Phönixhalle Innen Amida-Buddha 3.jpg|thumb|Amida Buddha at the Phoenix Hall of [[Byōdō-in]], [[Uji]], Japan]]
Amitābha also became a central figure for [[Buddhism in Japan|Japanese Buddhism]]. His worship became established on the island during the [[Nara period]] (710–794) and was it one of the main practices taught in the [[Tendai]] school during the [[Heian period]] (794–1185).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Buswell |first=Robert E. |title=Encyclopedia of Buddhism |publisher=Macmillan Reference USA |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-02-865718-9 |location=New York |pages=249–250}}</ref><ref name="Jones-2021b">Jones, Charles B. (2021). ''Pure Land: History, Tradition, and Practice'', pp. 107–118. Shambhala Publications, {{ISBN|978-1-61180-890-2}}.</ref> 

The popularity of Amitābha centered practices eventually led to the formation of independent Pure Land schools which focused on Amitābha exclusively. The Tendai monk [[Hōnen]] (1133–1212) was the most influential figure who led this Pure Land movement during the [[Kamakura period]]. Hōnen was converted to the Pure Land path through his reading of Shandao and the other Chinese masters and became a popular author and preacher, bringing many people to the Pure Land teaching. He argued that people should set aside other practices and focus on the simple recitation of Amitābha's name to gain birth in the pure land. Compared to the complex teachings of the other traditions of the time, this simpler approach to Buddhism was much more appealing to common laypeople. This led to an increase in Amitābha devotion among commoners.<ref name="Jones-2021c">Jones, Charles B. (2021). ''Pure Land: History, Tradition, and Practice'', pp. 123–135. Shambhala Publications, {{ISBN|978-1-61180-890-2}}.</ref> 

Over time, these new Amitābha focused traditions established by [[Hōnen|Hōnen's]] followers (mainly [[Jōdo-shū]], and [[Shinran|Shinran's]] {{lang|ja-latn|[[Jōdo Shinshū]]|italic=no}}) became the largest Buddhist tradition in Japan and remain so to this day.<ref name="Jones-2021d">Jones, Charles B. (2021). ''Pure Land: History, Tradition, and Practice'', pp. 136–150. Shambhala Publications, {{ISBN|978-1-61180-890-2}}.</ref>

==In Vajrayāna Buddhism==
[[File:Buddha Amithaba.jpg|thumb|Buddha Amitābha in [[Tibetan Buddhism]], traditional [[thangka]] painting]]

Amitābha remained an influential Buddha in the [[Vajrayana|Vajrayāna]] Buddhist pantheon. He is considered one of the [[Five Tathagatas]], together with [[Akshobhya]], [[Amoghasiddhi]], [[Ratnasambhava]], and [[Vairocana]]. In this esoteric  buddhological schema, Amitābha is seen as part of the Lotus Buddha Family, which is associated with the color red, the Western direction, the aggregate of perception ([[Samjna (concept)|saṃjñā]]), the [[Kleshas (Buddhism)|defilement]] of [[Taṇhā|craving]] and the [[bījamantra]] "Hrih". In [[Buddhist tantric literature|Buddhist esoteric scriptures]], Amitābha is also said to have a wisdom consort, the female Buddha [[Pāṇḍaravāsinī]].<ref>Buddha Weekly, ''Five Female Buddhas or Mothers: Their Roles as Prajnas or Enlightened Wisdom — Inseparable Co-Equals Rather Than Consorts'', https://buddhaweekly.com/five-female-buddhas-or-mothers-their-roles-as-prajnas-or-enlightened-wisdom-inseparable-co-equals-rather-than-consorts/</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=The Great Compassion Mantra – Namo Amitabha <!-- BOT GENERATED TITLE --> |url=http://www.geocities.com/amitabha48vows/d.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090221114240/http://www.geocities.com/amitabha48vows/d.htm |archive-date=2009-02-21}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=2005-02-07 |title=Bardo: Fourth Day |url=http://kaykeys.net/spirit/buddhism/bardo/4thday.html |access-date=2012-11-07 |publisher=Kaykeys.net}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Symbolism of the five Dhyani Buddhas |url=http://buddhism.kalachakranet.org/5_dhyani_buddhas.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090308030758/http://buddhism.kalachakranet.org/5_dhyani_buddhas.html |archive-date=March 8, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=2011-06-04 |title=Guan Yin – Bodhisattva/ Goddess of Compassion |url=http://www.nationsonline.org/oneworld/Chinese_Customs/Guan_Yin.htm |access-date=2012-11-07 |publisher=Nationsonline.org}}</ref> 

Amitābha is an important figure in [[Tibet]], [[Mongolia]], [[Nepal]], [[India]] and other regions where [[Tibetan Buddhism]] is practiced. In Tibetan Buddhist depictions, Amitābha appears with [[bodhisattva]]s [[Vajrapani]] and [[Avalokiteśvara]], the former to his left and the latter to his right. There are numerous Tibetan Buddhist teachings and practice lineages which focus on attaining rebirth in the buddhafield of Amitābha.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Chen |first1=Shu-Chen |last2=Groner |first2=Paul |date=2007 |title=Cultural Change of Indian Pure Land Buddhist Teaching in Chinese and Tibetan Buddhism |url=http://search.lib.virginia.edu/catalog/libra-oa:4284 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201025225210/https://search.lib.virginia.edu/catalog/libra-oa:4284 |archive-date=October 25, 2020 |access-date=2017-08-06 |website=UVA Library {{!}} Virgo |language=en}} An extensive comparison of Pure Land Buddhism in India, China, and Tibet.</ref><ref name="Halkias-2012">Halkias, Georgios T. (2012). ''Luminous Bliss: A Religious History of Pure Land Literature in Tibet'', pp. xxv–xxvii University of Hawaii Press.</ref> These include exoteric (or sutra) and esoteric (or tantric) practices''.<ref name="Halkias-2012" />'' The composition of Amitābha focused  works was popular among major Tibetan Buddhist figures such as [[Sakya Pandita]], [[Dolpopa Sherab Gyaltsen|Dolpopa]], [[Je Tsongkhapa|Tsongkhapa]] and [[Karma Chagme]].<ref name="Halkias-2012c">Halkias, Georgios T. (2012). ''Luminous Bliss: A Religious History of Pure Land Literature in Tibet'', p. 109. University of Hawaii Press.</ref><ref>Halkias, Georgios T. (2012). ''Luminous Bliss: A Religious History of Pure Land Literature in Tibet'', p. xxx University of Hawaii Press.</ref>

In Tibetan Buddhism, Amitābha is clearly distinguished from Amitāyus (Measureless Life), while both names are used interchangeably in East Asian Buddhism.<ref name=":1" /> [[Tibetan Buddhism]] sees Amitāyus as an enjoyment body (''[[saṃbhogakāya]]'') while Amitābha is seen as a [[Nirmāṇakāya|manifestation body]].<ref name=":4" /> 
[[File:種字阿弥陀三尊像-Amida_Triad_in_the_Form_of_Sacred_Sanskrit_Syllables_MET_DP221030_(cropped).jpg|thumb|Japanese depiction of the Amida Triad in Seed Syllable form ([[Siddhaṃ script|Siddham Script]]).]]
Birth in Amitābha's Sukhavati remains an important goal for many Tibetan Buddhists, especially laypersons who commonly revere Amitabha, [[Avalokiteśvara|Avalokiteshvara]] and [[Padmasambhava]] as [[Trikaya|three bodies]] of a single Buddha.<ref name="Payne-2004">Payne, Richard Karl; Tanaka, Kenneth Kazuo (2004). ''Approaching the Land of Bliss: Religious Praxis in the Cult of Amitabha'', p. 17. University of Hawaii Press.</ref> Amitābha is invoked during the yogic death practice called [[phowa]] ("transference of consciousness at the time of death"). Furthermore, Amitāyus is also commonly invoked in practices relating to longevity and preventing an untimely death.<ref>Payne, Richard Karl; Tanaka, Kenneth Kazuo (2004). ''Approaching the Land of Bliss: Religious Praxis in the Cult of Amitabha'', p. 25. University of Hawaii Press.</ref> In Tibetan Buddhism, Amitāyus is also one of the three deities of long life (Amitāyus, [[Tara (Buddhism)|White Tara]] and [[Usnisavijaya|Uṣṇīṣavijayā]]). ''Amitāyus'' being a compound of ''amita'' ("infinite") and ''āyus'' ("life"), and so means "he whose life is boundless".

The [[Panchen Lama]]s<ref>''Tibet is My Country: Autobiography of Thubten Jigme Norbu, Brother of the Dalai Lama as told to Heinrich Harrer'', p. 121. First published in German in 1960. English translation by Edward Fitzgerald, published 1960. Reprint, with updated new chapter, (1986): Wisdom Publications, London. {{ISBN|0-86171-045-2}}.</ref> and the [[Shamarpa]]s<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.diamondway.org/whitewater/new-teachers.html|title=Teachers: Shamar Rinpoche|access-date=2007-10-21|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071030191810/http://www.diamondway.org/whitewater/new-teachers.html|archive-date=2007-10-30|url-status=dead}}</ref> are considered to be [[Emanationism|emanations]] of Amitābha.

In Japanese [[Shingon Buddhism]], Amitābha is included as part of the [[thirteen Buddhas]]. Amitābha is associated with the [[Diamond Realm]] (''vajradhātu''), whereas Amitāyus is associated with the [[Womb Realm]] (''garbhakoṣadhātu'').<ref>Charles Muller, "Buddha of Immeasurable Life 無量壽佛" Digital Dictionary of Buddhism, http://www.buddhism-dict.net/cgi-bin/xpr-ddb.pl?71.xml+id(%27b7121-91cf-58fd-4f5b%27).</ref> Shingon, like Tibetan Buddhism, also uses [[Mandala of the Two Realms|special devotional mantras]] for Amitābha, though the mantras used differ. Amitābha is also one of the Buddhas featured in the [[Womb Realm]] Mandala used in [[Abhisheka|Shingon practices]], and sits to the west, which is where the Pure Land of Amitābha is said to dwell. 

===Mantras===
[[file:OM AMI DEWA HRIH (Lanydza scrpt).jpg|thumb|Om ami dewa hri mantra in the [[Lantsa script|Lantza script]]]]
In Esoteric Buddhism, Amitābha Buddha has various [[mantra]]s associated with him. His main seed syllable mantra is [[Hrī (Buddhism)|hrīḥ]].<ref name=":18" />

In [[Chinese Buddhism]], Amitābha is popularly associated with two mantras: the [[Amitabha Pure Land Rebirth Dharani]] and the [[Ten Small Mantras#Dhāraṇī of the Holy Tathāgata of Immeasurable Lifespan, King of Determined Radiance|Dhāraṇī of the Holy Tathāgata of Immeasurable Lifespan, King of Determined Radiance]], both of which are part of a grouping of mantras called the [[Ten Small Mantras]] that are commonly chanted during morning and evening liturgical sessions in Chinese Buddhist monasteries.   

In [[Tibetan Buddhism]], the main mantra of Amitābha is ''Om ami dewa hri''  (Sanskrit: {{lang|sa-Latn|oṃ amideva hrīḥ}}). This is an alternative form of {{IAST|''[[oṃ]] amitābha hrīḥ''}}.

Amitabha's main mantra in [[Shingon Buddhism|Shingon]] Buddhism is ''{{lang|sa-Latn|Om amirita teizei kara um}}'' (Japanese: {{lang|ja|オン・アミリタ・テイゼイ・カラ・ウン}}), which represents the underlying Sanskrit form: ''{{IAST|oṃ amṛta-teje hara hūṃ}}''.

== Names==
[[File:Nembutsu (Manpukuji Osaka).jpg|thumb|Six-character Name (Jp: "Namo Amida Butsu") with Images of Sakyamuni and Amida, [[Manpuku-ji]], [[Osaka]], Japan]]
[[File:Amitayus Mandala.jpeg|thumb|[[Mandala]] of Amitāyus, [[Tibet]], 19th century, [[Rubin Museum of Art]]]]
[[file:Mandala of Amitayus, the Buddha of Eternal Life LACMA M.84.220.2.jpg|thumb|Mandala of Amitayus, in union with tantric consort]]
The proper form of Amitābha's name in [[Sanskrit]] is ''{{IAST|Amitābha}}'', masculine, and the [[nominative case|nominative]] singular is ''{{IAST|Amitābhaḥ}}''. This is a compound of the Sanskrit words ''amita'' ("without bound, without limit") and ''ābhā'' ("light, splendor"). Consequently, the name literally means boundless light or limitless light.<ref name=":5">Nattier, Jan. “The names of Amitābha/Amitāyus in early Chinese Buddhist translation” (1). ARIRIAB Vol IX (March 2006): 183-199.</ref> The name ''Amitāyus'' (nominative form ''{{IAST|Amitāyuḥ}}'') means limitless life, from the Sanskrit ''ayus''.<ref name=":5" />  

In [[Chinese language|Chinese]], the most common name is {{Lang|zh-hant|阿彌陀佛}}, which is pronounced "Ēmítuófó" or "Amítuófó" in modern Chinese. The Chinese 阿彌陀佛 is either a transliteration of the Sanskrit "Amitābha" or possibly the [[Prakrit]] form "Amidā'a". It is not, according to [[Jan Nattier]], a transliteration of "Amita" ("Limitless") alone.<ref name=":5" /> "Fo" (佛) is the Chinese word for "Buddha".<ref>{{cite web|title=Buddhist Charms|url=http://primaltrek.com/buddhist.html|access-date=22 May 2014}}</ref><ref name=":5" /> This transliteration goes back to the early translations of [[Lokaksema (Buddhist monk)|Lokaksema]].<ref name=":5" /> [[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]], [[Korean language|Korean]], and Japanese traditionally use the same Chinese characters, though they are pronounced differently (Japanese: ''Amida Butsu'', Korean: ''Amita Bul'', Vietnamese: ''A Di Đà Phật'').

In addition to [[transliteration]], the name Amitābha was also been [[Translation|translated]] into Chinese using [[Chinese characters|characters]]. One of the earliest such translations was 無量 Wúliàng ("Limitless").<ref>Nattier, Jan. “The names of Amitābha/Amitāyus in early Chinese Buddhist translation” (2). ARIRIAB Vol X (March 2007): 359-394</ref> This was also used in longer names like "Infinite Light" (Wúliàngguāng 無量光) and "Infinite Purity" (Wúliàng Qīngjìng 无量清净, possibly from the Prakrit *Amidā'a-viśuha).<ref name=":5" /> In the same fashion, the name Amitāyus ("Infinite Life") has been translated as 無量壽 (Wúliàngshòu), though this appears at a later date than the Amitābha derived names.<ref name=":5" /> These translated names are not, however, very commonly used.

In Japanese, Amitābha is also called {{nihongo|Amida Nyorai|阿弥陀如来||lead=yes|"the [[Tathāgata]] Amitābha"}}. 

In esoteric Buddhist texts, Amitābha is often called [[Amṛta]] (甘露, or 甘露王, lit. sweet-dew king).<ref name=":18" />  

In Tibetan, Amitābha is called {{bo-textonly|འོད་དཔག་མེད་}} {{bo|w='od dpag med|s=Öpakmé}} and Amitāyus is translated as {{bo-textonly|ཚེ་དཔག་མེད་}} {{bo|w=tshe dpag med|s=Tsépakmé}}.

Apart from these standard names, numerous other sources contain other names of Amitāyus. Alternative names include: 

• Aparimitāyus (Unlimited Life),

• Aparimitāyur-[[jñāna]] (Unlimited Life and Wisdom), 

• Vajraāyuṣa ([[Vajra]] Life), 

• [[Amrita|Amṛta]]-dundubhisvararāja (King of the Drum of Immortality),

• Aparimitāyurjñānasuviniścitatejorāja (The Blazing King Who Is Completely Certain of Immeasurable Longevity and Wisdom).<ref name=":20">[https://read.84000.co/translation/UT22084-091-072.html#introduction The Aparimitāyurjñāna Sūtra (1), 84000.co]</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=The Aparimitāyurjñāna Sūtra (2) / 84000 Reading Room |url=https://read.84000.co/translation/UT22084-091-073.html#introduction |access-date=2024-08-19 |website=84000 Translating The Words of The Buddha |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":21">{{Cite web |title=The Essence of Aparimitāyus / 84000 Reading Room |url=https://read.84000.co/translation/toh673a.html#introduction |access-date=2024-08-19 |website=84000 Translating The Words of The Buddha |language=en}}</ref>

=== Significance of the Name ===
[[File:Kuya_Portrait.JPG|thumb|A sculpture of the Japanese itinerant monk [[Kūya]] reciting the nembutsu. Each Chinese characters of the Name is represented by a small [[Amida Nyorai|Amida]] figure emerging from his mouth]]
Pure Land Buddhism places profound significance on "the Name" (Ch: 名号 mínghào, Jp: myōgō) of Amitābha, which is central to Pure Land doctrine and practice. According to patriarch [[Daochuo]], the Name is the essence of Amitābha Buddha's Vow to save all sentient beings.<ref name=":72">Conway, Michael. [https://epa.oszk.hu/04500/04539/00026/pdf/EPA04539_tavol-keleti_tanulmanyok_2023_2_001-029.pdf Practice and Other Power in Daochuo's Pure Land Buddhism.] ''Journal of East Asian Cultures'' 2023/2: 1–29 <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.38144/TKT.2023.2.2</nowiki></ref> According to the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Vows in the ''Infinite Life Sutra'', Amida vowed that his Name would be praised by all Buddhas and that anyone who recites it with faith will be assured of birth in the Pure Land. Also, according to Pure Land figures like [[Tan-luan|Tanluan]] and [[Shinran]], the Name is not merely a conventional label or word, but embodies the totality of Amida's virtue, wisdom, and compassion. Since the Buddha infused the Name with all of his power and virtues, it is the most accessible means for ordinary beings to tap into Buddha's [[Other power|other-power]] and attain liberation.<ref name=":8">{{Cite web |last=Fujiwara |first=Ryosetsu |title=A Standard of Shinshu Faith |url=http://www.nembutsu.info/standard/name_function.htm |access-date=2025-02-26 |website=www.nembutsu.info}}</ref><ref name=":15">{{Cite journal |last=Tanaka |first=Muryo |date=2015 |title=Wisdom and Amituo's Name in Tanluan's Thought: |url=https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/ibk/63/2/63_KJ00009870706/_article/-char/en |journal=Journal of Indian and Buddhist Studies (Indogaku Bukkyogaku Kenkyu) |volume=63 |issue=2 |pages=792–797 |doi=10.4259/ibk.63.2_792|doi-access=free }}</ref>  

The Name is also seen as an expression of [[Tathātā|Thusness]] ([[Dharmakāya|Dharmakaya]]), serving as a bridge between the ultimate reality of Buddhahood and the limited experience of ordinary beings. Tanluan and Shinran emphasized that the Name is not an empty linguistic [[Signified and signifier|signifier]] but the very manifestation of Amida's Wisdom and Compassion. It is Amitābha himself in the form of sound. Through the Name, Amida communicates with sentient beings, making his presence tangible and accessible. Shinran also argues that the Name is inseparable from the Dharma-nature itself, meaning that reciting "Namu-Amida-Butsu" is not merely an act of devotion, but a direct engagement with the ultimate truth.<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":15" />  

The Name also plays a crucial role in the awakening of faith ([[shinjin]]) in practitioners. Pure Land teachers like Shinran taught that faith is not something generated by the individual but is received through the Name. The Name acts as the medium through which Amida's compassion is transferred to the practitioner, transforming their mind and aligning it with the Dharma. This process underscores the Name's dual function, being the means of salvation and the expression of Amida's Vow.<ref name=":8" /> To illustrate the power of the name, the Chinese patriarch Tanluan compares the Buddha's name to a bright light which can instantly illuminate a pitch black room, even if that room has been dark for eons.<ref name=":10">Jones (2019), p. 17.</ref>    

Tanluan also writes: <blockquote>If all who hear the meritorious Name of Amitabha but have faith in, and take joy in what they have heard, and if for one instant of thought they have utmost sincerity, and if they transfer these merits and desire rebirth, then they shall attain rebirth [in the pure land].<ref name=":7">Shinkō Mochizuki (2000), p. 162</ref></blockquote>

=== The Lights of Amitābha ===
The ''[[Longer Sukhāvatīvyūha Sūtra]]'' contains twelve or more epithets of Amitābha Buddha which are also called "Buddha's lights".<ref name=":02">Atone, Joji; Hayashi, Yoko. ''The Promise of Amida Buddha: Honen's Path to Bliss'', p. 12. Simon and Schuster, May 1, 2011</ref><ref name=":6">Shibata, Yasushi (柴田 泰). [https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/ibk1952/15/2/15_2_690/_pdf/-char/en <nowiki>"On the Twelve Light Buddhas in the Larger Sutra of Immeasurable Life [無量壽経十二光佛について]."</nowiki>]</ref> Vasubandhu's ''[[Discourse on the Pure Land|Treatise on Birth in the Pure Land]]'' references these "lights of Amitābha".<ref name=":02" /> These "Buddha lights" were seen as manifestations of Amitābha Buddha in Chinese Buddhism.<ref name=":6" /> The recitation of these names were also taught by Chinese Pure Land figures like [[Shandao]].<ref>Jōji Atone. ''Shan-tao: His Life and Thought,'' p. 83. University of Wisconsin, 1989.</ref> 

There are various sets of these names found in different sources, which include ''Infinite Life Sutra'', the ''[[Mahāratnakūṭa Sūtra]]'' (''Dà bǎo jī jīng''), and the ''Tathāgatācintyaguhyanirdeśa Sūtra''.<ref name=":6" /> 

The ''[[The Amitāyus Sutra|Infinite Life sutra]]'' lists twelve names of Amitābha:<ref name=":6" /><ref name=":18" />     

# 無量光 (Wúliàng guāng) - '''Boundless light'''
# 無邊光 (Wúbiān guāng) - '''Unlimited Light'''
# 無礙光 (Wú'ài guāng) - '''Unobstructed Light''' or '''Irresistible Light'''
# 無對光 (Wúduì guāng) - '''Incomparable Light'''
# 燄王光 (Yànwáng guāng) - '''King of Blazing Light''' (or '''Flame-king light''')
# 清浄光 (Qīngjìng guāng) - '''Pure Light'''
# 歡喜光 (Huānxǐ guāng) - '''Joyful Light'''
# 智慧光 (Zhìhuì guāng) - '''Light of Wisdom'''
# 不断光 (Bùduàn guāng) - '''Uninterrupted Light''' or '''Unending Light'''
# 難思光 (Nánsī guāng) - '''Inconceivable Light'''
# 無構光 (Wúgòu guāng) - '''Indescribable light'''
# 超日月光 (Chāo rìyuè guāng) - '''Light Surpassing the Sun and Moon''' 
The surviving [[Sanskrit]] edition of the ''Sutra of Infinite Life'' meanwhile has a different list with eighteen names:<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sukhavativyuha, Vistaramatrika [longer version] |url=https://gretil.sub.uni-goettingen.de/gretil/1_sanskr/4_rellit/buddh/bsu033_u.htm |access-date=2024-08-09 |website=gretil.sub.uni-goettingen.de. |series=Based on the ed. by P.L. Vaidya: Mahāyāna-sūtra-saṃgrahaḥ, Part 1) Darbhanga : The Mithila Institute, 1961, pp. 221-253. (Buddhist Sanskrit Texts, 17)}}</ref>

# Tathāgato Amitābha - The [[Tathāgata]] of Infinite Light
# Amitaprabha - Immeasurable Radiance
# Amitaprabhāso - Unbounded Radiance
# Asamāptaprabha - Unending Radiance
# Asaṃgataprabha - Inconceivable Radiance
# Prabhāśikhotsṛṣṭaprabha - [The one with a] splendorous crest which emits radiance
# Sādivyamaṇiprabha - [The one with] Divine Jewel Splendor
# Apratihataraśmirāgaprabha - [The one with] light rays that are unobstructed and radiant
# Rājanīyaprabha - King Radiance
# Premaṇīyaprabha - Lovable Radiance
# Pramodanīyaprabha - Joyful Radiance
# Saṃgamanīyaprabha - Harmonious Radiance
# Upoṣaṇīyaprabha - Worshipful Radiance
# Nibandhanīyaprabha - Unbreakable Radiance
# Ativīryaprabha - Supremely vigorous radiance
# Atulyaprabha - Incomparable Radiance
# Abhibhūyanarendrāmūnnayendraprabha - Surpassing the splendor kings and gods
# Śrāntasaṃcayendusūryajihmīkaraṇaprabha - Surpassing the splendor of the moon and stars

== Iconography ==
[[File:Giappone - Js 014 c.jpg|thumb|Standing Amida with light rays (48 in number, symbolizing his [[Original Vow|past vows]]), haloes and welcoming mudra, Museo d'arte orientale ([[Turin]])]]

When depicted in the standing position (upon a lotus pedestal), Amitābha is often shown with left arm bare and extended downward with thumb and forefinger touching, with the right hand facing outward also with thumb and forefinger touching. This [[mudra|mudrā]] is called the "welcoming mudrā" (Jp: ''raigō''), and it is a gesture welcoming all beings to Amida's Pure Land.<ref>{{Cite web |last=National Institutes for Cultural Heritage (Japan) |first= |title=e-Museum - Amitabha Buddha |url=https://emuseum.nich.go.jp/detail?langId=en&webView=&content_base_id=100015&content_part_id=0&content_pict_id=0 |access-date=2025-02-26 |website=emuseum.nich.go.jp}}</ref> It signifies that wisdom (symbolized by the raised hand) is accessible to even the lowest beings, while the outstretched hand shows that Amitābha's compassion is directed at the lowest beings, who cannot save themselves.

When depicted in the sitting posture, Amitābha is often shown displaying the meditation mudrā (thumbs touching and fingers together as in the Great Buddha of Kamakura at [[Kōtoku-in]] or welcoming mudrā. The earth-touching mudrā (right hand pointed downward over the right leg, palm inward) is reserved for a seated [[The Buddha|Shakyamuni Buddha]] alone.

Amitābha is said to display 84,000 auspicious and distinguishing marks reflecting his many virtues.<ref name="olson">{{cite book |last1=Olson |first1=Carl |url=https://archive.org/details/differentpathsof0000olso |title=The Different Paths of Buddhism: A Narrative-Historical Introduction |date=2005 |publisher=Rutgers University Press |isbn=0813535611 |location=New Brunswick, NJ |page=[https://archive.org/details/differentpathsof0000olso/page/185 185] |access-date=9 June 2016 |url-access=registration}}</ref> Some common marks seen in art include rays of light (vyāmaprabhā), an aureole or large halo (prabhāvalī), his [[urna]] (spiral or circle in between his eyebrows), and a circular symbol (sometimes a swastika) on his chest (this is called [[Shrivatsa|Śrīvatsa]]).<ref name=":14" />

In the artistic traditions of [[Vajrayana|Vajrayana Buddhism]], a distinction is made between Amitāyus (Buddha of Infinite Life) and Amitābha (Buddha of Infinite Light). These two figures are seen as identical in East Asian Buddhism and some sutras use both names interchangeably. However, in Tibetan Buddhism, they are iconographically distinct. Amitāyus is depicted in fine clothes, an ornate crown, and jewels. Amitābha is depicted in simple monk's clothing ([[Kasaya (clothing)|kasaya]]).<ref name="Landaw">{{cite book |author=Landaw, Jonathan |title=Images of Enlightenment: Tibetan Art in Practice |year=1993 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i0I1K4tEuVwC |publisher=Snow Lion Publications |isbn=978-1-55939-832-9 |pages=75, 80, 96}}</ref> 

== Triads and bodhisattva retinues ==
[[File:崇福寺弥陀殿西方三圣.jpg|thumb|[[Ming dynasty]] (1368 - 1644) statues of the "Amitābha triad", consisting of Amituo, [[Guanyin]] and [[Mahasthamaprapta|Dashizi]], in [[Chongfu Temple]]<sup>[https://zh.wikipedia.org/zh-sg/%E5%B4%87%E7%A6%8F%E5%AF%BA_(%E6%9C%94%E5%B7%9E) <nowiki>[zh]</nowiki>]</sup> in [[Shanxi]], [[China]].]]
[[file:Buddyjski drzeworyt na papierze.jpg|thumb|Tibetan Amitabha triad with [[Chenrezig]] and [[Padmasambhava]]]]
[[file:Amitabha with Eight Great Bodhisattvas (Asian Art Museum, San Francisco).jpg|thumb|Goryeo (late 14th c.) Amitabha with Eight Great Bodhisattvas (Asian Art Museum, San Francisco)]]

Amitābha is often portrayed with two assistant [[Bodhisattva|bodhisattvas]]. In [[East Asian Buddhism]], they are usually [[Avalokiteśvara]] on the right and [[Mahasthamaprapta|Mahāsthāmaprāpta]] on the left. This convention is known as an "Amitābha triad". The Amitābha triad likely originated in [[Gandhara]], and is especially common in [[Chinese art|Chinese]], [[Japanese art|Japanese]], and [[Korean art]].<ref>[https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/39882 "Amitabha triad"], Metropolitan Museum </ref><ref name=":14" /> Famous Japanese examples include the [[Yamada-den Amida Triad]], [[Tachibana Shrine]]''',''' and the [[Seiryō-ji|Seiryō-ji Triad]], all [[National Treasures of Japan|national treasures.]] 

According to Katsumi Tanabe, [[Gandharan Buddhist art|Gandhāran Buddhist art]] also depicted Amitābha in four other lesser known triads:<ref name=":14" />

* [[Maitreya]]/Amida/Avalokitasvara (the most numerous triad)
* Avalokitasvara/Amida/Maitreya
* [[Manjushri|Mañjuśrī]]/Amida/Avalokitasvara
* Mahāsthāmaprāpta/Amida/Maitreya

In [[Tibetan Buddhism]], Mahāsthāmaprāpta is commonly replaced with [[Vajrapani]] or [[Padmasambhava]]. 

Some East Asian depictions also show Amitābha with a larger group of bodhisattvas, either the eight great [[Bodhisattva#Eight main Bodhisattvas|bodhisattvas]] or a host of twenty five bodhisattvas.<ref>Elikhina, Julia. "[https://www.kci.go.kr/kciportal/ci/sereArticleSearch/ciSereArtiView.kci?sereArticleSearchBean.artiId=ART001526896 Cults of the Main Bodhisattvas in Tibet and China (the Collection of the Hermitage Museum) in Comparison with Korean Materials.]" ''International Journal of Buddhist Thought & Culture'' February 2011, vol. 16, pp. 69-92.</ref> 

The names of the twenty five bodhisattvas are given in the ''Sūtra On Ten Methods Of Rebirth In Amitābha Buddha's Land'' (十往生阿弥陀佛国经) which states:<blockquote>If [there] are sentient beings, [with] profound faith [in] this sūtra, [who are] mindful [of] Amitā[bha] Buddha (Āmítuófó), aspiring [to be] reborn, [in] his Land [Of] Ultimate Bliss, Amitā[bha] Buddha, [will] immediately send Contemplator [Of The] World's Sounds [Avalokiteśvara] Bodhisattva, Great Power Arrived [Mahāsthāmaprāpta] Bodhisattva, Medicine King [Bhaişajyarāja] Bodhisattva, Medicine Supreme [Bhaiṣajyasamudgata] Bodhisattva, Universal Virtue [Samantabhadra] Bodhisattva, Dharma Ease Bodhisattva, Lion's Roar Bodhisattva, Dhāraṇī Bodhisattva, Empty Space Treasury [Ākāśagarbha] Bodhisattva, Virtues’ Treasury Bodhisattva, Treasures’ Treasury Bodhisattva, Gold Treasury Bodhisattva, Vajra Bodhisattva, Mountain Ocean Wisdom Bodhisattva, Bright Light King Bodhisattva, Flower Adornment King Bodhisattva, All Treasures’ King Bodhisattva, Moonlight King Bodhisattva, Sun Illumination King Bodhisattva, Samādhi King Bodhisattva, Ease King Bodhisattva, Great Ease King Bodhisattva, White Elephant King Bodhisattva, Great Majestic Virtues’ King Bodhisattva, [and] Boundless Body Bodhisattva...<ref>{{Cite web |title=How Mindfulness Of Āmítuófó Protects From Evil Unseen Beings 念佛如何免受鬼难 Twenty-Five Bodhisattvas Who Support And Protect Those Mindful Of Āmítuófó 二十五尊拥护念佛者的菩萨 – Purelanders |url=https://purelanders.com/2018/06/11/how-mindfulness-of-amituofo-protects-from-evil-unseen-beings/ |access-date=2025-12-15 |website=purelanders.com}}</ref> </blockquote>Descent paintings (known as "[[Raigō]]" in Japanese) showing Amitabha with a host of bodhisattvas coming to lead the dying to the pure land often show twenty five bodhisattvas playing music. One classic example is the national treasure [[Raigō of Amida and Twenty-five Attendants|Raigō of Amida and Twenty-Five Attendants]]. 

== Goddesses associated with Amitābha ==
Numerous sources mention several feminine deities which are associated with Amitābha. These goddesses serve various roles as consorts, emanations, or personifications of the Buddha's qualities, and are invoked for protection, purification, and rebirth in the Pure Land of Sukhāvatī.

==== Pāṇḍaravāsinī ====
[[File:Amitabha-Dhyani Buddha.jpg|thumb|An esoteric depiction of Amitābha in union with his female consort Pāṇḍaravāsinī]]

Pāṇḍaravāsinī (Sanskrit; "She Who is Clad in White" or "She Who Dwells in White"), also known as simply Pāṇḍara, is the primary wisdom consort (prajñā) of Amitābha Buddha in esoteric Buddhist traditions. She is also known as Sitavāsinī, with ''[[sita]]'' also meaning "white" and symbolizing purity. In esoteric sources such as the ''[[Mañjuśrī-mūla-kalpa|Mañjuśrīmūlakalpa]]'', Pāṇḍaravāsinī is described as the Śakti or wisdom queen (mahāvidyārājñī) of Amitābha.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Root Manual of the Rites of Mañjuśrī / 84000 Reading Room |url=https://84000.co/translation/toh543 |access-date=2025-12-26 |website=84000 Translating The Words of The Buddha |language=en}}</ref><ref>John C. Huntington, Dina Bangdel. ''The Circle of Bliss: Buddhist Meditational Art,'' pp. 226, 404. Serindia Publications, Inc., 2003</ref><ref>''Journey Without Goal: The Tantric Wisdom of the Buddha'', The Collected Works of Chögyam Trungpa, Volume Four (Boston & London: Shambhala, 2003), Ch. 9 'The Five Buddha Families'.</ref> She is considered non-dual with Amitābha and represents his wisdom aspect. There are various mantras associated with this deity. For example, the ''Sovereign Ritual of Amoghapāśa'' gives the following [[mantra]]: oṁ padme pāṇḍaravāsini kuṇḍa kuṇḍa svāhā.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Sovereign Ritual of Amoghapāśa / 84000 Reading Room |url=https://84000.co/translation/toh686 |access-date=2025-12-26 |website=84000 Translating The Words of The Buddha |language=en}}</ref>

The ''[[Vajrasekhara Sutra]]'' explicitly identifies Pāṇḍaravāsinī as "[[Avalokiteśvara]]-Mother," establishing her maternal relationship to the bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara. As the mother of the Lotus Family (Padmakula), she holds a significant position in the [[Five Tathāgatas|Five Buddha Family system]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=www.wisdomlib.org |date=2017-12-12 |title=Pandaravasini, Pandara-vasini, Pāṇḍaravāsinī: 5 definitions |url=https://www.wisdomlib.org/definition/pandaravasini |access-date=2025-12-26 |website=www.wisdomlib.org |language=en}}</ref> Pāṇḍaravāsinī is most commonly depicted with reddish skin and white garments, as red is the color traditionally assigned to the Lotus Family. Her seed syllable is Pāṃ. She is counted among the Five Buddha Mothers or Five Ḍākinīs—five female Buddhas partnered with the Five Tathāgatas. Pāṇḍaravāsinī appears in numerous esoteric Buddhist texts, including: the ''[[Mantra of Light|Amoghapāśakalparāja]], Mañjuśrīmūlakalpa, [[Susiddhikara Sūtra|Susiddhikāra Sūtra]]'' and the ''Vajrasekhara Sutra.''

==== Avalokiteśvara-mātā ====
The ''Āryāvalokiteśvara-mātā-nāma-dhāraṇī Sutra'' also mentions a [[Dharani|dhāraṇī]] and a goddess named Mother of Avalokiteśvara (Sanskrit: Avalokiteśvara-mātā). This text was translated into Tibetan and also into Chinese by Fǎxián (法賢, 973-1001) as the ''Fo shuo guanzizai pusa mu tuoluoni jing'' (觀自在菩薩母陀羅尼經, Taishō 1117).<ref name=":110">{{Cite web |title=The Dhāraṇī “The Mother of Avalokiteśvara” / 84000 Reading Room |url=https://84000.co/translation/toh725 |access-date=2025-12-26 |website=84000 Translating The Words of The Buddha |language=en}}</ref> According to the sutra, this dhāraṇī was originally taught in Sukhāvatī by a bodhisattva and brought to the human realm by [[Samantabhadra (Bodhisattva)|Samantabhadra]]. The text promises that practitioners who recite the dhāraṇī during the three periods of the day will see Samantabhadra within seven days, and those who recite it mentally with single-pointed focus will see both the goddess herself and Amitābha Buddha within one month. The practice is said to grant irreversible progress toward awakening, memory of past lives, retention of teachings, and prosperity.<ref name=":110" /> While some Tibetan traditions identified Avalokiteśvara-mātā with [[Tara (Buddhism)|Tārā]], this interpretation conflicts with Tārā's own origin myth as being born from Avalokiteśvara's tears. The goddess is more likely connected to Pāṇḍaravāsinī, who is also called "Avalokiteśvara's Mother" in the ''Vajrasekhara Sutra.''

==== Viśuddhaprabhā ====
Viśuddhaprabhā (Sanskrit; "Pure Radiance") is a feminine deity invoked in the ''[[Viśuddhaprabhā Dhāraṇī]]'', found in the ''Sūtra of the Great Dhāraṇī of Pure Stainless Light Rays'' (Chinese: 無垢淨光大陀羅尼經, Taishō 1024). This text was translated into Chinese by the Indian monk Mitrasena in 704 CE. Viśuddhaprabhā is invoked in all seven dhāraṇīs contained in the Chinese version of the sutra (six in the Tibetan version) with feminine vocatives such as "āyur-viśodhanī" (purifier of life). She is described as the personification of Amitābha's light rays (''raśmi-prabhā''), representing the sun-like radiance emanating from the Buddha's body. The deity is characterized as immaculately pure, capable of redeeming all sins and removing physical ailments and mental afflictions. She is invoked in the vocative and imperative moods, with phrases like "sara-sara" (hasten, hasten) requesting her blessing and intervention.<ref name=":03">Chandra, Lokesh. [https://www.totetu.org/assets/media/paper/j032_162.pdf "Dhāraṇī of Pure Radiance (Viśuddha-Prabhā)."] ''The Journal of Oriental Studies''. Volume, v.32. Date, 2023. Pages, 162 - 192.</ref>

Viśuddhaprabhā is understood as the manifestation of Amitāyus (Amitābha). The motif of light rays connects to ancient Indian solar symbolism, with the number seven in the dhāraṇī system possibly referencing [[Epithet|epithets]] of the [[Solar deity|sun god]] (Sanskrit: Saptāśva, Saptasapti). In Buddhist context, this solar imagery signifies Amitābha's salvific light. The root dhāraṇī explicitly invokes Amitāyus Tathāgata and requests purification of life, protection, and enlightenment. The deity's function centers on karmic purification, life extension, protection from death, and facilitating rebirth in Sukhāvatī, which is mentioned four times in the sutra.<ref name=":03" />

==== Mahāśītavatī ====
[[file:Pages from the prayer dedicated to the Goddess Mahasitavati, from a Pancharaksha Sutra (Sacred Text of Five Protections), view 2, Krishnagupta Temple, Katmandu, Nepal, dated 1136 - San Diego Museum of Art - DSC06400.JPG|thumb|Pages from the prayer dedicated to the Goddess Mahasitavati, from a Pancharaksha Sutra]]
Mahāśītavatī (Sanskrit; "Great Cool One" or "Greatly Peaceful One") is one of the Five Protector Goddesses ([[Pañcarakṣā]]). Each of these goddesses is linked with one of the five Buddhas, and she is the one who emanates from Amitābha. She is mentioned in several important texts including the 5th-century ''[[Sādhanamālā]]'', and the 11th-century ''Niṣpannayogāvalī'' of [[Abhayakaragupta|Abhayākara]]. According to the ''Sādhanamālā'', she is red with four arms and has an image of Amitābha on her crown. She sits on a solar orb and glows like the sun.<ref name=":24">{{Cite web |last=www.wisdomlib.org |date=2018-10-04 |title=Mahashitavati, Mahāśītavatī, Maha-shitavati: 6 definitions |url=https://www.wisdomlib.org/definition/mahashitavati |access-date=2025-12-26 |website=www.wisdomlib.org |language=en}}</ref>

As a Rakṣā (protector) goddess affiliated with Amitābha, Mahāśītavatī functions as a guardian deity invoked for protection and spiritual assistance. Her lotus symbol connects her to the Lotus Family of Amitābha. She is widely represented in Buddhist iconography across various Asian Buddhist countries and is known in Chinese collections under the title Śītavatī.<ref name=":24" />

==See also==
* [[Pure land]] 
* [[Pure Land Buddhism]] 
* [[Chan Buddhism]]
* [[Chinese Buddhism]]
* [[Hōnen]]
* {{Lang|ja-latn|[[Jōdo Shinshū]]|italic=no}}
* [[Jōdo-shū]]
* [[Neo-Confucianism]]
* [[Shinran]]
* [[Yuzu Nembutsu]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist|2}}

==Bibliography==
* Jones, Charles B. (2019). ''Chinese Pure Land Buddhism, Understanding a Tradition of Practice.'' Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press. 
* Jones, Charles B. (2021). ''Pure Land: History, Tradition, and Practice''. Shambhala Publications. {{ISBN|978-1-61180-890-2}} 
* Karashima, Seishi (2009), {{JSTOR|24049429}} On Amitābha, Amitāyu(s), Sukhāvatī and the Amitābhavyūha], Bulletin of the Asia Institute, New Series, 23, 121–130
* Tanaka, Kenneth K. (1990). ''The Dawn of Chinese Pure Land Buddhist Doctrine: Ching-ying Hui-yüanʼs Commentary on the Visualization Sutra''. Albany: State University of New York Press. 
* Williams, Paul (2008). ''Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations,'' Routledge. 

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
{{Wikisource|Amitabha's forty-eight vows}}
{{Wiktionary|Amitābha}}
* [http://lienhuutinhdo.org/SutraOfBuddha.aspx The Buddha Speaks of Amitabha Sutra (Pure Land)]
* [http://www.shingon.org/deities/jusanbutsu/amida.html Shingon Buddhism: Amida Nyorai/Buddha of Infinite light and Life]

{{Chinese Buddhist Pantheon}}
{{Japanese Buddhist Pantheon}}
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[[Category:Pure Land Buddhism]]