View source for Altai Mountains

{{Short description|Mountain range in Central–East Asia}}
{{Other uses|Altai (disambiguation){{!}}Altai}}
{{Other uses|Altay (disambiguation){{!}}Altay}}
{{Distinguish|Alai Mountains}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=April 2025}}
{{Coord|49|N|89|E|type:mountain_dim:800km|display=title}}
[[File:Altai Mountains.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.35|Map of the Altai mountain range]]

The '''Altai Mountains''' ({{IPAc-en|ɑː|l|ˈ|t|aɪ}} {{respell|ahl|TY}}) are a [[mountain range]] in [[Central Asia]], where [[Russia]], [[China]], [[Mongolia]], and [[Kazakhstan]] converge, and where the rivers [[Irtysh]] and [[Ob River|Ob]] have their headwaters. The highest summit of the range is [[Belukha]], whose summit reaches 4,506 m (14,783 ft) above sea level. The [[massif]] merges with the [[Sayan Mountains]] in the northeast, and gradually becomes lower in the southeast, where it merges into the high plateau of the [[Gobi Desert]]. In the southwest, it is separated from the higher [[Tian Shan]] range by the [[Junggar Basin]]. It spans from about 45° to 52° N and from about 84° to 99° E. 

The region is inhabited by a sparse but ethnically diverse population, including [[Russian people|Russians]], [[Kazakh people|Kazakhs]], [[Altai people|Altais]], [[Tuvan people|Tuvans]], [[Mongol people|Mongols]], and [[Volga Germans]], though predominantly represented by indigenous ethnic minorities of semi-nomadic people.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Graeme|first=Worboys|title=Connectivity Conservation Management: A Global Guide|publisher=Earthscan|year=2010|isbn=978-1-84407-603-1|pages=247|quote=The population of the Altai frontier regions is mostly represented by indigenous ethnic minorities of semi nomadic stockbreeders: Kazakhs, Altais (Telenghets), Tuvins, Dyurbets, and Ugyurs.}}</ref> The local economy is based on [[bovine]], [[sheep]], [[horse]] [[animal husbandry|husbandry]], [[hunting]], [[agriculture]], [[forestry]], and [[mining]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Olson|first=James Stuart|title=An Ethnohistorical Dictionary of the Russian and Soviet Empires|year=1994|publisher=Greenwood Press|isbn=978-0-313-27497-8|pages=32|quote=The traditional Altai economy revolved around breeding cattle and hunting. They also bred deer and harvested the animals for their antlers, which were exported to China for use in the manufacture of folk medicines.}}</ref> The now discredited [[Altaic languages|Altaic language family]] takes its name from this mountain range.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Janhunen |first=Juha A. |date=2023-01-17 |title=The Unity and Diversity of Altaic |journal=Annual Review of Linguistics |language=en |volume=9 |issue= |pages=135–154 |doi=10.1146/annurev-linguistics-030521-042356 |issn=2333-9683|doi-access=free }}</ref>

{{Image frame|content={{MongolUnicode|ᠠᠯᠲᠠᠢ {{zwj}}ᠶ᠋ᠢᠨ <br />ᠨᠢᠷᠤᠭᠤ|font-size=1.5em}}|caption=Name in<br />[[Mongolian language|Mongolian<br />language]] and [[Mongolian script|script]],<br />''altai-yin niruɣu''|border=no|max-width=|width=|align=right}}

== Etymology and modern names ==
''Altai'' is derived from underlying form *''altañ'' "gold, golden" (compare [[Old Turkic]] 𐰞𐱃𐰆𐰣 ''altun'' "gold, golden") with coda ''-ñ'' underlying the ''-n'' & ''-y'' correspondence among cognates in different Turkic languages & dialects (e.g. ''qōñ'' ~ ''qoy'' "sheep", ''Qitan'' ~ ''Qitay'' "Khitans", etc.), as well as in Mongolian. 

The mountains are called ''Altain nuruu'' ({{lang|khk-Cyrl|Алтайн нуруу}}) in [[Khalkha Mongolian]], ''altai-yin niruɣu'' in [[Chakhar Mongolian]], and ''Altay tuular'' ({{lang|alt|Алтай туулар}}) in the [[Altay language]]. They are also called {{lang|kk|Altaı taýlary}} or {{lang|kk-Arab|التاي تاۋلارى}} in [[Kazakh language|Kazakh]]; ''Altajskije gory'' ({{lang|ru|Алтайские горы}}) in [[Russian language|Russian]]; ''Altay Taghliri'' ({{ug-textonly|ئالتاي تاغلىرى}} or {{lang|ug-Cyrl|Алтай Тағлири}}) in [[Uyghur language|Uyghur]]; ''ā'ěrtài shānmài'' in [[Chinese language|Chinese]] ({{lang|zh|阿尔泰山脉}} [[simplified Chinese characters|simplified]], {{lang|zh|阿爾泰山脈}} [[traditional Chinese characters|traditional]], or {{lang|zh-Arab|اَعَرتَىْ شًامَىْ}} in [[Xiao'erjing]]); and ''Arteː shanmeː'' ({{lang|dng|Артэ Шанмэ}}) in [[Dungan language|Dungan]].

==Geography==
{{for|the area north of the Altai|Geography of South-Central Siberia|South Siberian Mountains}}The Altai Mountains are a system of remote mountains in central Asia that cover an area of {{convert|845,000|sqkm|abbr=on}}. The mountains stretch for {{convert|2,525|km|abbr=on}} from northwest to southeast.<ref name= "McColl">{{Cite book|last=McColl|first=R.W.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DJgnebGbAB8C&pg=PA19|title=Encyclopedia of World Geography: Volume 1|year=2014|isbn=978-0-8160-7229-3|pages=19|publisher=Infobase }}</ref>  [[Image:Sunset at Kucherla lake.jpg|thumb|right|[[Lake Kucherla]] in the Altai Mountains]]
[[File:2006-07 altaj belucha.jpg|thumb|[[Belukha]] mountain]]
[[Image:GoraBeluha.jpg|thumb|right|[[Belukha]], the highest mountain in Altay]] [[Image:Kazakhstan Altay.jpg|thumb|Altay Mountains, [[Kazakhstan]]]]
[[File:Утро ясное.jpg|thumb|[[Shavlo Lake]] in Northern Chuysky Range.]]

In the north of the region is the [[Sailughem Mountains]], also known as ''Kolyvan Altai'', which stretch northeast from 49° N and 86° E towards the western extremity of the [[Sayan Mountains]] in 51° 60' N and 89° E. Their mean elevation is {{convert|1,500-1,750|m|abbr=on}}. The [[snow-line]] runs at {{convert|2,000|m|abbr=on}} on the northern side and at {{convert|2,400|m|abbr=on}} on the southern, and above it the rugged peaks tower some {{convert|1,000|m|abbr=on}} higher. [[Mountain pass]]es across the range are few and difficult, the chief being the [[Ulan-daban]] at {{convert|2,827|m|abbr=on}} (or {{convert|2,879|m|abbr=on}} according to Kozlov), and the [[Chapchan-daban]], at {{convert|3,217|m|abbr=on}}, in the south and north respectively. On the east and southeast this range is flanked by the great [[plateau]] of Mongolia, the transition being affected gradually by means of several minor plateaus, such as [[Ukok plateau|Ukok]] ({{convert|2,380|m|abbr=on}}) with Pazyryk Valley, [[Chuya Steppe|Chuya]] ({{convert|1,830|m|abbr=on}}), [[Kendykty]] ({{convert|2,500|m|abbr=on}}), [[Kak plateau|Kak]] ({{convert|2,520|m|abbr=on}}), ({{convert|2,590|m|abbr=on}}), and ({{convert|2,410|m|abbr=on}}).{{sfn|Kropotkin|1911|p=758}}

This region is studded with large lakes, e.g. [[Uvs Lake|Uvs]] {{convert|720|m|abbr=on}} above sea level, [[Khyargas Lake|Khyargas]], [[Dorgon Lake|Dorgon]] and [[Khar Lake (Khovd)|Khar]] {{convert|1,170|m|abbr=on}}, and traversed by various [[mountain range]]s, of which the principal are the [[Tannu-Ola Mountains]], running roughly parallel with the Sayan Mountains as far east as the [[Kosso-gol]], and the [[Khan Khökhii]] mountains, also stretching west and east.{{sfn|Kropotkin|1911|p=758}}

The north western and northern slopes of the Sailughem Mountains are extremely steep and difficult to access. On this side lies the highest summit of the range, the double-headed [[Belukha]], whose summits reach {{convert|4,506|m|abbr=on}} and {{convert|4,400|m|abbr=on}} respectively, and give origin to several [[glacier]]s and [[glaciokarst]] formations  ({{convert|30|sqkm|abbr=on}} in aggregate area, {{as of|1911|lc=yes}}).{{sfn|Kropotkin|1911|p=758}} Altaians call it Kadyn Bazhy, but is also called Uch-Sumer.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://eng.altai-republic.ru/modules.php?op=modload&name=Sections&file=index&req=viewarticle&artid=57&page=1 |title=Altai Republic :: official portal |publisher=Eng.altai-republic.ru |date=June 30, 1999 |access-date=August 13, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120316155209/http://eng.altai-republic.ru/modules.php?op=modload&name=Sections&file=index&req=viewarticle&artid=57&page=1 |archive-date=March 16, 2012}}</ref>
The second highest peak of the range is in Mongolian part named [[Khüiten Peak]]. This massive peak reaches {{convert|4,374|m|abbr=on}}. Numerous spurs, striking in all directions from the Sailughem mountains, fill up the space between that range and the lowlands of [[Tomsk]]. Such are the [[Chuya Belki]], having an average elevation of {{convert|2,700|m|abbr=on}}, with summits from {{convert|3,500-4,177|m|abbr=on}} and several glaciers on their northern slope; the [[Katun Belki]], which have a mean elevation of about {{convert|3,000|m|abbr=on}} and are mostly snow-clad; the [[Kholzun]] range; the [[Korgon Range|Korgon]], highest point [[Mayak Shangina]], the Talitsk and Selitsk ranges; as well as the [[Tigeretsk Range]].{{sfn|Kropotkin|1911|p=758}}

Several secondary plateaus of lower elevations are also distinguished by geographers. The Valley of the [[Katun (river)|Katun river]] begins as a wild gorge on the south-west slope of Belukha; then, after a big bend, the river ({{convert|600|km|abbr=on}} long) pierces the [[Katun Belki]], and enters a wider valley, lying at an elevation of {{convert|600-1,100|m|abbr=on}}, which it follows until it emerges from the Altai highlands to join the [[Biya River]]. Here, the two rivers merge to form the [[Ob River]].{{sfn|Kropotkin|1911|p=758}}

The next valley is that of the [[Charysh]], which has the [[Korgon Range|Korgon]] and [[Tigeretsk Range]] on one side and the [[Talitsk Range|Talitsk]] and [[Baschelaksk Range]] (Бащелакский хребет) on the other. This, too, is very fertile. The Altai, seen from this valley, presents the most romantic scenes, including the small but deep [[Kolyvan Lake]] at an altitude of {{convert|360|m|abbr=on}}, which is surrounded by fantastic [[granite dome]]s and towers.{{sfn|Kropotkin|1911|p=758}}

Farther west the valleys of the [[Uba River|Uba]], the [[Ulba]] and the [[Bukhtarma]] open south-westwards towards the Irtysh. The lower part of the first, like the lower valley of the Charysh, is thickly populated; in the valley of the Ulba is the [[Riddersk]] mine, at the foot of the [[Ivanovsk Peak]] ({{convert|2,060|m|abbr=on}}), clothed with alpine meadows. The valley of the Bukhtarma, which has a length of {{convert|320|km|abbr=on}}, also has its origin at the foot of the Belukha and the [[Katun Mountains|Kuitun]] peaks, and as it falls some {{convert|1,500|m|abbr=on}} in about {{convert|3,000|km|abbr=on}}, from an alpine plateau at an elevation of {{convert|1,900|m|abbr=on}} to the Bukhtarma fortress ({{convert|345|m|abbr=on}}), it offers the most striking contrasts of landscape and vegetation. Its upper parts abound in glaciers, the best known of which is the [[Belukha Mountain|Berel]], which descends from the [[Belukha Mountain|Belukha]]. On the northern side of the range which separates the upper Bukhtarma from the upper [[Katun River|Katun]] is the Katun glacier, which after two ice-falls widen out to {{convert|700-900|m|abbr=on}}. From a grotto in this glacier bursts tumultuously the Katun river.{{sfn|Kropotkin|1911|p=758}}

The middle and lower parts of the Bukhtarma valley have been colonized since the 18th century by runaway Russian peasants, serfs, and religious [[schism (religion)|schism]]atics ([[Raskolnik]]s), who created a free republic there on [[China|Chinese territory]]; and after this part of the valley was annexed to Russia in 1869, it was rapidly colonized. The high valleys farther north, on the same western face of the Sailughem range, are but little known, their only visitors being Kyrgyz shepherds.{{sfn|Kropotkin|1911|p=758}}

Those of [[Bashkaus River|Bashkaus]], [[Chulyshman]], and [[Chulcha]], all three leading to the alpine lake of [[Lake Teletskoye|Teletskoye]] (length, {{convert|80|km|abbr=on}}; maximum width, {{convert|5|km|abbr=on}}; elevation, {{convert|520|m|abbr=on}}; area, {{convert|230.8|sqkm|abbr=on}}; maximum depth, {{convert|310|m|abbr=on}}; mean depth, {{convert|200|m|abbr=on}}), are inhabited by [[Telengit]] people. The shores of the lake rise almost sheer to over {{convert|1,800|m|abbr=on}}. From this lake issues the Biya, which joins the Katun at [[Biysk]], and then meanders through the prairies of the north-west of the Altai.{{sfn|Kropotkin|1911|p=758}}

Farther north the Altai highlands are continued in the Kuznetsk district, which has a slightly different geological aspect, but belongs to the Altai system. But the [[Abakan River]], which rises on the western shoulder of the Sayan mountains, belongs to the system of the [[Yenisei]]. The [[Kuznetsk Ala-tau]] range, on the left bank of the Abakan, runs north-east into the government of [[Yeniseisk]], while a complexus of mountains (Chukchut, Salair, Abakan) fills up the country northwards towards the [[Trans-Siberian Railway]] and westwards towards the [[Ob River|Ob]].{{sfn|Kropotkin|1911|p=758}}

The Ek-tagh or Mongolian Altai, which separates the [[Khovd Gol|Khovd]] basin on the north from the Irtysh basin on the south, is a true border-range, in that it rises in a steep and lofty [[escarpment]] from the [[Dzungaria]]n depression ({{convert|470-900|m|abbr=on}}), but descends on the north by a relatively short slope to the plateau ({{convert|1,150-1,680|m|abbr=on}}) of north-western [[Mongolia]]. East of 94° E the range is continued by a double series of mountain chains, all of which exhibit less sharply marked [[orography|orographical]] features and are at considerably lower elevations. The slopes of the constituent chains of the system are inhabited principally by nomadic [[Kyrgyz people|Kyrgyz]].{{sfn|Kropotkin|1911|p=758}}

The five [[List of Altai mountains|highest mountains of the Altai]] are:
* [[Belukha Mountain]] (Russia), {{convert|4,506|m|abbr=on}}
* [[Khüiten Peak]] (Mongolia), {{convert|4,374|m|abbr=on}}
* [[Mönkhkhairkhan Mountain]] (Mongolia), {{convert|4,204|m|abbr=on}}
* [[Sutai Mountain]] (Mongolia), {{convert|4,220|m|abbr=on}}
* [[Tsambagarav|Tsambagarav Mountain]] (Mongolia), {{convert|4,195|m|abbr=on}}

== Fauna ==
[[File:Steinbock Schaedel Bild3.png|thumb|Skull of a Siberian ibex, found near the Belukha]]
[[File:C110.jpg|thumb|[[Wisent]] herd at a nursery of the [[Russian Academy of Sciences]] in the Russian Altai ([[Shebalinsky District]], [[Altai Republic]])]]
 
The Altai-Sayan ecoregion is located at the intersection of the Central Asian and Siberian faunal provinces.

The Altai mountains are home to a diverse fauna, because of its different habitats, like steppes, northern [[taigas]] and alpine vegetation. Steep slopes are home to the [[Siberian ibex]] (''Capra sibirica''), whereas the rare [[argali]] (''Ovis ammon'') is found on more gentle slopes. Deer are represented by five species: [[Altai wapiti]] (''Cervus elaphus sibiricus''), [[moose]] (''Alces alces''), forest [[reindeer]] (''Rangifer tarandus valentinae''), [[Siberian musk deer]] (''Moschus moschiferus''), and [[Siberian roe deer]] (''Capreolus pygargus''). Moose and reindeer however, are restricted to the northern parts of the mountain range. The [[wild boar]] (''Sus scrofa'') is found in the lower foothills and surrounding lowlands.  Until recently, the [[Mongolian gazelle]] (''Procapra gutturosa'') was found in the Russian Altai mountains, more specifically in the [[Chuya]] River steppe close to the Mongolian border. Large predators are represented by [[snow leopard]]s (''Panthera uncia'', syn. ''Uncia uncia''), [[wolf|wolves]] (''Canis lupus''), [[Eurasian lynx]] (''Lynx lynx''), and [[brown bear]]s (''Ursus arctos''), in the northern parts also by the [[wolverine]] (''Gulo gulo'').<ref>{{cite book |author=Klotz, Gerhard |title=Hochgebirge der Erde und ihre Pflanzen und Tierwelt |publisher=Urania Verlag |location=Leipzig |language=de |year=1989 |isbn=3-332-00209-0|display-authors=etal}}</ref> The [[Tien Shan dhole]] (''Cuon alpinus hesperius'') (a northwestern subspecies of the [[Asiatic wild dog]]) also lived there. Most species of the region are of Mongolian origin.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Altai Mountains|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Altai-Mountains|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150623220104/https://www.britannica.com/place/Altai-Mountains|archive-date=June 23, 2015|access-date=December 28, 2021}}</ref> The [[Eurasian eagle-owl|western Siberian eagle-owl]] can be found in the western part of the mountains.

Until the 20th century, the [[Caspian tiger]] (''Panthera tigris tigris'') was found in the southern parts of the Altai mountains, where it reached [[Lake Zaisan]] and the [[Irtysh River|Black Irtysh]]. Single individuals were also shot further north, for example close to [[Barnaul]].<ref>{{cite journal |first=Vratislav |last=Mazak |title=Der Tiger |journal=Nachdruck der 3. Auflage von 1983 |publisher=Westarp Wissenschaften |location=Hohenwarsleben |year=2004 |isbn=3-89432-759-6}}</ref> Closely related to the Caspian tiger is the extant [[Amur tiger]], which has the [[Taxonomy (biology)|taxonomic]] name ''Panthera tigris altaica''.<ref name="Nowell1996">{{cite book |author1=Nowell, K. |author2=Jackson, P. |year=1996 |title=Wild cats: Status survey and conservation action plan |publisher=IUCN/SSC Cat Specialist Group, Gland, Switzerland |url=http://www.catsg.org/index.php?id=569 |access-date=March 17, 2016 |archive-date=March 31, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230331055449/http://www.catsg.org/index.php?id=569 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

The [[wisent]] was present in the Altai mountains until the [[Middle Ages]], perhaps even until the 18th&nbsp;century. Today, there is a small herd in a nursery in the [[Altai Republic]].<ref>{{cite magazine |first=Taras P. |last=Sipko |title=European bison in Russia – past, present and future |magazine=European Bison Conservation Newsletter |volume=2 |year=2009 |pages=148–159 |url=https://pureshilajitresin.com/sipko |access-date=March 1, 2018 |archive-date=March 2, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180302135426/https://pureshilajitresin.com/sipko/ }}</ref>

[[Moor frog|Moor frogs]] are near bodies of water as high up as {{convert|2,000|m|abbr=on}} in the Altai mountains.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Roček |first1=Zbyněk |last2=Šandera |first2=Martin |date=August 2008 |title=Distribution of Rana arvalis in Europe: a historical perspective |url=http://rocek.gli.cas.cz/Publications/Rocek-Sandera_Rana%20arvalis.pdf |journal=Zeitschrift für Feldherpetologie |pages=135–150}}</ref>

==History==
The Altai mountains have retained a remarkably stable climate, changing little since the last ice age.<ref name=barras>{{cite web |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg22129533.800-iceage-animals-live-on-in-eurasian-mountain-range.html |title=Ice-age animals live on in Eurasian mountain range |work=[[New Scientist]] |author=Colin Barras |date=January 23, 2014 |access-date=March 4, 2014}}</ref> In addition the mix of mammals has remained largely the same, with a few exceptions such as extinct mammoths, making it one of the few places on earth to retain an ice age fauna.<ref name=barras/>

The Altai mountains were home to the [[Denisova hominin|Denisovan]] branch of [[hominid]]s who were contemporaries of [[Neanderthals]] and of ''[[Homo sapiens]]'' (modern humans), descended from Hominids who reached Asia earlier than modern humans.<ref name=barras/> The [[Denisova hominin]], dated to 40,000 years ago, was discovered in the [[Denisova Cave]] of the Altai mountains in southern Siberia in 2008. Knowledge of the Denisovan humans derives primarily from DNA evidence and artifacts, as no complete skeletons have yet been recovered. DNA evidence has been unusually well preserved because of the low average temperature in the Denisova caves. Neanderthal bones and tools made by ''Homo sapiens'' have also been found in the Denisova Cave, making it the only place in the world where all three hominids are known to have lived.<ref name=barras/>

A dog-like [[canidae|canid]] from 33,000 years ago was found in the [[Razboinichya Cave]].<ref name=bbc110803/><ref name=plos110728/> DNA analysis published in 2013 affirmed that it was more closely related to modern dogs than to wolves.<ref name=plosone130306/>
[[File:Reconstruction of a Scythian, found in the kurgan Olon-Kurin-Gol 10, Altai Mountains, Mongolia (reconstruction by Dimitri Pozdniakov).jpg|thumb|Reconstruction of a [[Saka]] [[Scytho-Siberian world|Scythian]], found in the kurgan Olon-Kurin-Gol 10 in [[Pazyryk culture|Pazyryk]], Altai Mountains, Mongolia]]
The [[Afanasievo culture|Afanasievans]] are considered as the earliest [[herder]]s of East Asia, who were instrumental in the establishment of the long tradition of pastoralism in Mongolia.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Honeychurch |first1=William |last2=Rogers |first2=Leland |last3=Amartuvshin |first3=Chunag |last4=Diimaajav |first4=Erdenebaatar |last5=Erdene-Ochir |first5=Nasan-Ochir |last6=Hall |first6=Mark E. |last7=Hrivnyak |first7=Michelle |title=The earliest herders of East Asia: Examining Afanasievo entry to Central Mongolia |journal=Archaeological Research in Asia |date=June 1, 2021 |volume=26 |article-number=100264 |doi=10.1016/j.ara.2021.100264 |doi-access=free }}</ref> The Afanasevan population was descended from people who migrated c.&nbsp;3700–3300 BCE across the [[Eurasian Steppe]] from the pre-[[Yamnaya culture|Yamnaya]] [[Repin culture]] of the [[Don River (Russia)|Don]]-[[Volga]] region.<ref name="Anthony2010, p=305-310">{{cite book |last=Anthony |first=David W. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0FDqf415wqgC |title=The Horse, the Wheel, and Language: How Bronze-Age Riders from the Eurasian Steppes Shaped the Modern World |date=July 26, 2010 |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |isbn=978-1-4008-3110-4 |pages=305–310 |author-link=David W. Anthony |access-date=January 18, 2015}}</ref> In the Altai Mountains and to the southeast, Afanasievans seem to have coexisted with the early period of the [[Chemurchek culture]] for some time.<ref>Kovalev, A. A., and Erdenebaatar, D. (2009). [https://dokumen.tips/documents/discovery-of-new-cultures-of-the-bronze-age-in-mongolia.html?page=1 Discovery of new cultures of the Bronze Age in Mongolia according to the data obtained by the international Central Asian archaeological expedition]. In Bemmann, J., Parzinger, H., Pohl, E., and Tseveendorzh, D. (eds.), Current Archaeological Research in Mongolia, Rheinische Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität, Bonn, p.158</ref> The Afanasevo culture was replaced by the second wave of [[Indo-European migrations]] from the [[Andronovo culture]] during late Bronze Age and early Iron Age.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Allentoft |first1=ME |date=June 11, 2015 |title=Population genomics of Bronze Age Eurasia |journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] |publisher=[[Nature Research]] |volume=522 |issue=7555 |pages=167–172 |bibcode= 2015Natur.522..167A|doi=10.1038/nature14507 |pmid=26062507 |s2cid=4399103 |url= https://depot.ceon.pl/bitstream/123456789/13155/2/nature14507.pdf}}</ref> Numerous [[Scytho-Siberian world|Eastern Scythian]] remains have been found in an excellent state of preservation in the Altai mountains, with soft tissues such as skin and hair preserved.<ref>{{cite thesis |last=Argent |first=Gala |date=2011 |title=At Home, with the Good Horses: Relationality, Roles, Identity and Ideology in Iron Age Inner Asia |chapter-url=https://www.academia.edu/8928670 |type=PhD |chapter=2 |publisher=University of Leicester |docket= |oclc= |access-date=January 1, 2023}}</ref>

The Altai Mountains have been identified as being the point of origin of a cultural enigma termed the [[Seima-Turbino Phenomenon]]<ref name=bbc0901/> which arose during the [[Bronze Age]] around the start of the [[2nd millennium BC]] and led to a rapid and massive migration of peoples from the region into distant parts of Europe and Asia.

The area was part of the [[Xiongnu]] Empire, the [[First Turkic Khaganate]], the [[Uyghur Empire]], and the [[Yenisei Kyrgyz|Yeniseian Kyrgyzs]]. It was during this time that the local population became fully [[Turkic peoples|Turkicized]] culturally and linguistically.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Encyclopedia of the World's Minorities |publisher=Routledge |year=2005 |isbn=1-57958-468-3 |editor-last=Skutsch |editor-first=Carl |volume=1 |location=New York |page=82 }}</ref> There is increasing evidence for a partial continuity from the eastern Scythians to the [[Turkic languages|Turkic]]-speakers of the Altai region.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Tikhonov |first1=Dmitrii |last2=Gurkan |first2=Cemal |last3=Peler |first3=Gökçe |last4=Dyakonov |first4=Viktor |title=On The Genetic Continuity of the Iron Age Pazyryk Culture: Geographic Distributions of the Paternal and Maternal Lineages from the Ak-Alakha-1 Burial |journal=International Journal of Human Genetics |date=2019 |volume=19 |issue=1 |doi=10.31901/24566330.2019/19.01.709 |s2cid=202015095 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/331179436|doi-access=free }}</ref>

Some historians believe that the Altai mountain region may have been the location where [[skiing]] was born, however this remains disputed. Evidence to support the claims includes several cave [[Petroglyph|petroglyphs]] within the Altai Mountains in modern China that depict human figures on skis that are chasing after an [[ibex]]. According to a study published by the Australian Rock Art Research Association (AURA) in 2016, this rock art was estimated to be from between 4,000 and 5,250 years ago, which consequently meant it may be just as old or possibly older than ancient skiing rock art and artefacts located in Scandinavia. However, dating petroglyphs accurately with current technology is very difficult. The oldest known text that describes skiing is from a Chinese text that dates to the [[Western Han dynasty|Western Han Dynasty]] (206 BC to 24 AD) and refers to skiers in the Altai Mountains.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Exploring the origins of skiing in China's Altai Mountains |url=https://canadiangeographic.ca/articles/exploring-the-origins-of-skiing-in-chinas-altai-mountains/ |access-date=February 19, 2023 |website=canadiangeographic.ca |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=December 1, 2013 |title=On the Trail with the First Skiers |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/magazine/article/first-skiers |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220209011037/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/magazine/article/first-skiers |archive-date=February 9, 2022 |access-date=February 19, 2023 |website=Magazine |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Origin Story: Where did skiing begin? {{!}} International Skiing History Association |url=https://www.skiinghistory.org/news/origin-story-where-did-skiing-begin |access-date=February 19, 2023 |website=www.skiinghistory.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Chinese or Norwegian: the History of Skiing |url=http://ultimatehistoryproject.com/history-of-skiing.html |access-date=February 19, 2023 |website=The Ultimate History Project |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Diamond |first=Chaz |date=March 18, 2014 |title=The First Skiers: Deep in Time, Deep in the Altai |url=https://snowbrains.com/first-skiers-deep-time-deep-altai/ |access-date=February 19, 2023 |website=SnowBrains |language=en-US}}</ref>

==World Heritage Site==
{{Main|Golden Mountains of Altai}}
[[File:Lake Teletskoe (10423932746).jpg|thumb|[[Lake Teletskoye]]]]
[[File:Тюнгур, алтайский край.jpg|thumb|Natural Park of Belukha]]

A vast area of {{convert|16,178|sqkm|abbr=on}}<sup>2</sup>, which incorporates the Altai and Katun Natural Reserves, [[Lake Teletskoye]], Mount [[Belukha]], and the [[Ukok Plateau]], this area is designated as a [[World Heritage Site]] (UNESCO), entitled the [[Golden Mountains of Altai]]. As stated in the UNESCO description of the site, "the region represents the most complete sequence of altitudinal vegetation zones in central Siberia, from steppe, forest-steppe, mixed forest, subalpine vegetation to alpine vegetation". While making its decision, UNESCO also cited Russian Altai's importance for preservation of the globally endangered mammals, such as [[Snow leopard]], [[Altai argali]], and [[Siberian ibex]] that live in these mountains.<ref>{{cite web 
 |url=http://www.pacificenvironment.org/article.php?id=934 
 |title=Greater Altai – Altai Krai, Republic of Altai, Tyva (Tuva), and Novosibirsk – Crossroads 
 |access-date=November 30, 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070314172727/http://www.pacificenvironment.org/article.php?id=934 
 |archive-date=March 14, 2007 |website=[[Pacific Environment]]
}}</ref> The [[Uvs Nuur basin]] is also a protected site.

Violations of the protection status of Argali sheep and other species have been alleged, together with accusations of corruption, in the [[Altaigate Scandal]]. The incident arose from the death of several Russian VIPs in a helicopter crash early in 2009, purportedly on a poaching excursion.

==Geology==
The Siberian Altai represents the northernmost region affected by the tectonic collision of India into Asia. Extensive fault systems run through the area, including the [[Kurai fault zone]] and the recently identified [[Tashanta fault zone]]. These fault systems are typically thrusts or right lateral [[strike-slip fault]]s, some of which are tectonically active. Rock types in the mountains are typically [[granite]]s and metamorphic [[schist]]s, and some are highly sheared near to fault zones.

Geologist Victor R. Baker "has discovered past cataclysmic floods in the Altai Mountains of Siberia" from "an even larger glacial lake" than Lake Missoula, which was once thought to have been "the largest ice-dammed lake in the world".<ref>John Eliot Allen, Marjorie Burns, and Scott Burns, ''Cataclysms on the Columbia:  The Great Missoula Floods'', revised 2nd edition (Portland, OR:  Ooligan Press/Portland State University, 2009), pp. 78, 108.</ref>

===Seismic activity===
Although [[earthquake]]s are generally rare occurrences, on September 27, 2003, a [[2003 Altai earthquake|large earthquake]] measuring [[Moment magnitude scale|M<sub>W</sub>]] 7.3 occurred in the [[Chuya]] Basin area to the south of the Altai region. This earthquake and its [[aftershock]]s devastated much of the region, causing $10.6&nbsp;million in damage ([[United States Geological Survey|USGS]]) and wiping out the village of [[Beltir (village)|Beltir]].

==See also==
{{Portal|Geography|China|Russia}}
* [[Altai Republic]]
* [[Altai Krai]]
* [[Altay Prefecture]]
* [[Govi-Altai Province]]
* [[Altaic languages]]
* [[Altay language]]
* [[Altai-Sayan region]]
* [[List of Altai mountains]]

==References==
{{Reflist|refs=

<ref name=bbc110803>{{cite news | url = https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-14390679 | title = Ancient dog skull unearthed in Siberia | last = Pritchard | first = Hamish |date = August 3, 2011 |work=[[BBC News]] | access-date =August 4, 2011 }}</ref>

<ref name=plos110728>{{cite journal | doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0022821 | title = A 33,000-Year-Old Incipient Dog from the Altai Mountains of Siberia: Evidence of the Earliest Domestication Disrupted by the Last Glacial Maximum | first1 = Nikolai D. | last1 = Ovodov | first2 = Susan J. | last2 =Crockford | first3=Yaroslav V. | last3= Kuzmin | first4 = Thomas F. G. | last4 = Higham | first5= Gregory W. L. | last5 = Hodgins | first6= Johannes van der | last6= Plicht |date = July 28, 2011 | journal = PLOS ONE | volume = 6 | issue = 7 | article-number = e22821 | pmid = 21829526 | pmc = 3145761 | bibcode = 2011PLoSO...622821O | doi-access = free }}</ref>

<ref name=plosone130306>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0057754 | title = Ancient DNA Analysis Affirms the Canid from Altai as a Primitive Dog | first1 = Anna S. | last1 = Druzhkova | first2 = Olaf | last2 = Thalmann | first3 = Vladimir A. | last3 = Trifonov | journal = PLOS ONE | date = March 6, 2013 | volume = 8 | issue = 3 | article-number = e57754 | pmid = 23483925 | pmc = 3590291 | bibcode = 2013PLoSO...857754D | doi-access = free }}</ref>

<ref name=bbc0901>{{Cite journal | last = Keys | first = David | author-link = David Keys (author) | title = Scholars crack the code of an ancient enigma | journal = [[BBC History (magazine)|BBC History Magazine]] | volume = 10 | issue = 1 | page = 9 | date = January 2009 }}</ref>
}}

==Sources==
*{{EB1911|wstitle=Altai|volume=1|pages=758–759|first=Peter|last=Kropotkin|author-link=Peter Kropotkin|first2=John Thomas|last2=Bealby|ref={{harvid|Kropotkin|1911}}}} 
Authorities cited:
* P. Semenov and G. N. Potanin, in supplementary vol. of Russian ed. of Ritter's ''Asien'' (1877)
* Ledebour, ''Reise durch das Altaigebirge'' (1829–1830)
* P. Chikhatchev, ''Voyage scientifique dans l'Altai oriental'' (1845)
* Gebler, ''Übersicht des katunischen Gebirges'' (1837)
* G. von Helmersen, ''Reise nach dem Altai'' (St Petersburg, 1848)
* T. W. Atkinson, ''Oriental and Western Siberia'' (1858)
* Cotta, ''Der Altai'' (1871)
* Adrianov, "Journey to the Altai", in ''Zapiski Russ. Geogr. Soc.'' xi.
* Yadrintsev, "Journey in West Siberia", in ''Zapiski West Sib. Geogr. Soc.'' ii.
* Golubev, ''Altai'' (1890, Russian)
* Schmurlo, "Passes in S. Altai" (Sailughem), in ''Izvestia Russ. Geogr. Soc.'' (1898); xxxiv. 5
* V. Saposhnikov, various articles in same periodical (1897), xxxiii. and (1899) xxxv., and, by the same, ''Katun i yeya Istoki'' (Tomsk, 1901)
* S. Turner, ''Siberia'' (1905)
* Deniker, on Kozlov's explorations, in ''La Géographie'' (1901, pp.&nbsp;41, &c.)
* P. Ignatov, in ''Izvestia Russ. Geog. Soc.'' (1902, No. 2).

== External links ==
{{Commons}}
*
<!-- DEAD LINK * [http://141.30.139.182/researchProjects/Altai Altai-Project of the Technical University of Dresden] – Institute of Cartography -->
* [http://www.nhpfund.org/nominations/altai.html Golden Mountains of Altai] at [http://www.nhpfund.org/ Natural Heritage Protection Fund]
* [https://whc.unesco.org/archive/advisory_body_evaluation/768.pdf UNESCO's evaluation of Altai] (PDF file)

{{Mountain ranges of China}}
{{Xinjiang topics}}
{{Turkic topics}}
{{authority control}}

[[Category:Altai Mountains| ]]
[[Category:Mountain ranges of China]]
[[Category:Mountain ranges of Kazakhstan]]
[[Category:Mountain ranges of Mongolia]]
[[Category:Mountain ranges of Russia]]
[[Category:Mountain ranges of Xinjiang]]
[[Category:Physiographic provinces]]
[[Category:World Heritage Sites in Russia]]