View source for Alps

{{Short description|Major mountain range in central Europe}}
{{Redirect|Alpe|the German river|Alpe (river)|‌other uses|Alps (disambiguation)}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=March 2021}}
{{Use Oxford spelling|date=October 2019}}
{{Infobox mountain
| name = Alps
| native_name = {{plainlist|
* {{native name|fr|Alpes}}
* {{native name|de|Alpen}}
* {{native name|it|Alpi}}
* {{native name|rm|Alps}}
* {{native name|sl|Alpe}}
* (not including numerous dialects)
}}
| photo = Alps 2007-03-13 10.10UTC 1px-250m.jpg
| photo_caption = Satellite view of the Alps 
| country = {{hlist|[[Austria]]|[[France]]|[[Germany]]|[[Italy]]|[[Liechtenstein]]|[[Monaco]]|[[Slovenia]]|[[Switzerland]]}}
| subdivision1_type = Region
| geology = {{hlist|[[Bündner schist]]|[[flysch]]|[[molasse]]}}
| age = [[Tertiary (period)|Tertiary]]
| orogeny = [[Alpine orogeny]]
| area_km2 = 200000
| area_ref = 
| length_km = 1200
| length_orientation = 
| length_ref = 
| width_km = 250
| width_orientation = 
| width_ref = 
| highest = [[Mont Blanc]]<!--"Mont Blanc" is the common English name-->
| elevation_m = 4808.73
| elevation_ref = <ref name="BFM4809">{{cite news |url=http://www.bfmtv.com/planete/le-mont-blanc-passe-de-4-810-metres-a-4-8087-metres-913753.html |title=Le Mont-Blanc passe de 4.810 mètres à 4.808,7 mètres |language=fr |website=bfmtv.com |access-date=2023-05-24 |archive-date=December 26, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181226080745/https://www.bfmtv.com/planete/le-mont-blanc-passe-de-4-810-metres-a-4-8087-metres-913753.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
| coordinates = {{coord|45|49|58|N|06|51|54|E|format=dms|display=inline}}
| coordinates_ref = 
| listing = [[List of mountain ranges]]
| range_coordinates = {{Coord|46.58|N|8.62|E|format=dms|display=inline,title}}
| range_coordinates_ref = <!-- Coordinates near Pizzo Centrale and Gotthard Pass -->
| map_image = Alpenrelief 01.jpg
| map_caption = Relief of the Alps. See also [[:File:Alpenrelief 02.jpg|map with international borders marked]].
| fetchwikidata = ALL
| mapframe = yes
| mapframe-stroke-width = 1
| mapframe-stroke-color = #00ff00
}}

The '''Alps''' ({{IPAc-en|æ|l|p|s}}){{efn|{{langx|fr|Alpes}} {{IPA|fr|alp|}}; {{langx|de|Alpen}} {{IPA|de|ˈalpn̩||de-Alpen.ogg}}; {{langx|it|Alpi}} {{IPA|it|ˈalpi|}}; {{langx|rm|Alps}} {{IPA|rm|alps|}}; {{langx|sl|Alpe}} {{IPA|sl|ˈáːlpɛ|}}.}} are some of the highest and most extensive [[mountain ranges]] in [[Europe]],{{efn|The [[Caucasus Mountains]] are higher, and the [[Urals]] longer.}}<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Alps |encyclopedia=The Hutchinson unabridged encyclopedia with atlas and weather guide |date=2014 |publisher=Helicon |place=Abington, United Kingdom |url=http://search.credoreference.com/content/entry/heliconhe/alps/0 |url-access=subscription |access-date=March 7, 2015 |archive-date=August 30, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180830110245/https://search.credoreference.com/content/entry/heliconhe/alps/0 |url-status=live }}</ref> stretching approximately {{cvt|1200|km|mi}} across eight [[Alpine countries]] (from west to east): [[Monaco]], [[France]], [[Switzerland]], [[Italy]], [[Liechtenstein]], [[Germany]], [[Austria]] and [[Slovenia]].{{efn|Depending on the definitions used, [[Alpokalja]], a small mountain range in western [[Hungary]] may also qualify as part of the Alps, although these are more typically classified as foothills, and Hungary is not considered to be an Alpine country.<ref>{{Cite web |last=kutka |first=petr |date=2022-02-21 |title=Víte, že jsou Alpy i v Maďarsku? Geografická zajímavost a tip na příjemný výlet |url=https://svetobeznik.info/madarsko-alpy-zajimavost-vylet/ |access-date=2022-04-12 |website=Světoběžník.info |language=cs |archive-date=December 20, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221220230955/https://svetobeznik.info/madarsko-alpy-zajimavost-vylet/ |url-status=live }}</ref>}}<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.alpconv.org/en/home/ |title=The Alpine Convention |publisher=[[Alpine Convention]] |access-date=27 July 2023 |quote=The Alps are a fascinating and spectacular mountain range spanning eight countries: Austria, France, Germany, Italy, Liechtenstein, Monaco, Slovenia, and Switzerland. |archive-date=October 22, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231022022616/https://www.alpconv.org/en/home |url-status=live }}</ref>

The Alpine arch extends from [[Nice]] on the western [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]] to [[Trieste]] on the [[Adriatic Sea|Adriatic]] and [[Vienna]] at the beginning of the [[Pannonian Basin]]. The mountains were formed over tens of millions of years as the African and Eurasian [[tectonic plate]]s collided. Extreme shortening <!-- why shortening? --> caused by the event resulted in marine [[sedimentary rock]]s rising by [[thrust fault|thrusting]] and [[Fold (geology)|folding]] into high mountain peaks such as [[Mont Blanc]] and the [[Matterhorn]].

Mont Blanc spans the [[France-Italy border|French–Italian border]], and at {{cvt|4809|m|0}} is the highest mountain in the Alps. The Alpine region area contains 82 peaks higher than [[List of Alpine four-thousanders|{{cvt|4000|m}}]].

The altitude and size of the range affect the climate in Europe; in the mountains, precipitation levels vary greatly and climatic conditions consist of distinct zones. Wildlife such as [[ibex]] live in the higher peaks to elevations of {{cvt|3400|m|0}}, and plants such as [[edelweiss]] grow in rocky areas in lower elevations as well as in higher elevations.

Evidence of human habitation in the Alps goes back to the [[Palaeolithic]] era. A [[Ötzi|mummified man ("Ötzi")]], determined to be 5,000 years old, was discovered on a glacier at the Austrian–Italian border in 1991.<ref name=otzi>{{cite web |url=https://www.iceman.it/en/the-iceman/ |title=Ötzi the Iceman |website=www.iceman.it |access-date=2023-05-24 |archive-date=October 1, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231001033128/https://www.iceman.it/en/the-iceman/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

By the 6th century BC, the Celtic [[La Tène culture]] was well established. [[Hannibal]] notably crossed the Alps with a herd of elephants, and the [[Ancient Rome|Romans]] had settlements in the region. In 1800, [[Napoleon]] crossed one of the mountain passes with an army of 40,000. The 18th and 19th centuries saw an influx of naturalists, writers, and artists, in particular, the [[Romanticism|Romanticists]], followed by the [[golden age of alpinism]] as mountaineers began to ascend the peaks of the Alps.

The Alpine region has a strong cultural identity. Traditional practices such as farming, cheesemaking, and woodworking still thrive in Alpine villages. However, the tourist industry began to grow early in the 20th century and expanded significantly after World War II, eventually becoming the dominant industry by the end of the century.

The [[Winter Olympic Games]] have been hosted in the Swiss, French, Italian, Austrian and German Alps. {{As of|2010|post=,}} the region is home to 14&nbsp;million people and has 120&nbsp;million annual visitors.<ref name = "Chatré8">Chatré, Baptiste, et al. (2010), 8</ref>

== Etymology and toponymy ==
{{See also|Albion#Etymology}}
[[File:Bildstock an der Alpe Bardughe.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|An "Alp" refers to a high elevation pasture frequented only in summer. It often includes several huts and small places of worship (here the Alpe Bardughè in [[Ticino]]).]]

The English word ''Alps'' comes from the Latin ''Alpes''.

The Latin word ''[[wikt:en:Alpes|Alpes]]'' could possibly come from the adjective ''[[wikt:en:albus|albus]]''<ref name="etymonline.com"/> ("white"), or could possibly come from the Greek goddess [[Alphito]], whose name is related to ''alphita'', the "white flour"; ''[[alphos]]'', a dull white leprosy; and finally the [[Proto-Indo-European]] word [[wikt:𒀠𒉺𒀸#Hittite|*albʰós]]. Similarly, the river god [[Alpheus (deity)|Alpheus]] is also supposed to derive from the Greek ''alphos'' and means whitish.<ref>Smith, Jennifer Nimmo (2004). The river Alpheus in Greek, Christian and Byzantine thought. ''Byzantion''</ref>

In his commentary on the ''Aeneid'' of [[Virgil]], the late fourth-century grammarian [[Maurus Servius Honoratus]] says that all high mountains are called ''Alpes'' by Celts.<ref>{{cite book |author=Maurus Servius Honoratus |title=Servii Grammatici qui feruntur in Vergilii carmina commentarii |chapter=Book 10, line 13 |chapter-url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0053%3Abook%3D10%3Acommline%3D13 |language=la |editor=Georgius Thilo |access-date=February 20, 2021 |archive-date=November 6, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211106073851/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0053%3Abook%3D10%3Acommline%3D13 |url-status=live }}</ref>

According to the ''Oxford English Dictionary'', the Latin ''Alpes'' might derive from a [[Pre-Indo-European languages|pre-Indo-European]] word *''alb'' "hill"; "Albania" is a related derivation. Albania, the name of the region known as the country of [[Albania]], has been used as a name for several mountainous areas across Europe.

In [[Ancient Rome|Roman times]], "Albania" was a name for the eastern [[Caucasus]], while in the English languages "Albania" (or "Albany") was occasionally used as a name for [[Scotland]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?allowed_in_frame=0&search=Albania&searchmode=none |title=Online Etymology Dictionary |publisher=Etymonline.com |date=May 14, 1955 |access-date=April 18, 2012 |archive-date=July 28, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170728055023/http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?allowed_in_frame=0&search=Albania&searchmode=none |url-status=live }}</ref> although it is more likely derived from the Latin word ''[[wikt:en:albus|albus]]'',<ref name="etymonline.com">{{Cite web |url=https://www.etymonline.com/word/alp |title=Alp &#124; Origin and meaning of alp by Online Etymology Dictionary |access-date=December 16, 2018 |archive-date=December 17, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181217110610/https://www.etymonline.com/word/alp |url-status=live }}</ref> the colour white.

In modern languages the term ''alp'', ''alm'', ''albe'' or ''alpe'' refers to [[Transhumance in the Alps|grazing pastures]] in the alpine regions below the glaciers, not the peaks.<ref name=Schmid93>{{cite journal |doi=10.1007/s00015-004-1113-x |title=Tectonic map and overall architecture of the Alpine orogen |journal=Eclogae Geologicae Helvetiae |volume=97 |year=2004 |last1=Schmid |first1=Stefan M. |last2=Genschuh |first2=Bernhard |last3=Kissling |first3=Eduard |last4=Schuster |first4=Ralf |issue=1 |bibcode=2004SwJG...97...93S |s2cid=22393862 |doi-access=free|page=93}}</ref>

An ''alp'' refers to a high mountain pasture, typically near or above the [[tree line]], where cows and other livestock are taken to be grazed during the summer months and where huts and hay barns can be found, sometimes constituting tiny hamlets. Therefore, the term "the Alps", as a reference to the mountains, is a misnomer.<ref name="Reynolds43ff" /><ref name="Fleming 4">Fleming (2000), 4</ref> The term for the mountain peaks varies by nation and language: words such as ''Horn'', ''Kogel'', ''Kopf'', ''Gipfel'', ''Spitze'', ''Stock'', and ''Berg'' are used in German-speaking regions; ''Mont'', ''Pic'', ''Tête'', ''Pointe'', ''Dent'', ''Roche'', and ''Aiguille'' in French-speaking regions; and ''Monte'', ''Picco'', ''Corno'', ''Punta'', ''Pizzo'', or ''Cima'' in Italian-speaking regions.<ref>Shoumatoff (2001), 117–19</ref>

== Geography ==
{{main|Geography of the Alps}}
[[File:Alps with borders.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|The Alps extend in an arc from France in the south and west to Slovenia in the east, and from Monaco in the south to Germany in the north.]]
The Alps are a crescent shaped geographic feature of central Europe that ranges in an {{cvt|800|km|-1}} arc (curved line) from east to west and is {{cvt|200|km|-1}} in width. The mean height of the mountain peaks is {{cvt|2.5|km|1}}.<ref name="Ceben 22–24"/> The range stretches from the [[Mediterranean Sea]] north above the [[Po (river)|Po]] basin, extending through France from [[Grenoble]], and stretching eastward through mid and southern Switzerland. The range continues onward toward [[Vienna]], Austria, and southeast to the [[Adriatic Sea]] and [[Slovenia]].<ref name = "Chatré9">Chatré, Baptiste, et al. (2010), 9</ref><ref>Fleming (2000), 1</ref><ref name="Beattie xii–xiii"/>

To the south it dips into northern Italy and to the north extends to the southern border of [[Bavaria]] in Germany.<ref name="Beattie xii–xiii">Beattie (2006), xii–xiii</ref> In areas like [[Chiasso]], Switzerland, and [[Allgäu]], Bavaria, the demarcation between the mountain range and the flatlands is clear; in other places such as [[Geneva]], it is less clear.

The Alps are found in the following countries: Austria (28.7% of the range's area), Italy (27.2%), France (21.4%), Switzerland (13.2%), Germany (5.8%), Slovenia (3.6%), Liechtenstein (0.08%) and Monaco (0.001%).<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.alpconv.org/en/convention/smallbites/thealps/default.html |title=Alpine Convention - the Convention - the Alpine Convention in a nutshell - the Alps - Home |access-date=March 9, 2019 |archive-date=September 25, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180925102533/http://www.alpconv.org/en/convention/smallbites/thealps/default.html }}</ref>

The highest portion of the range is divided by the glacial trough of the [[Rhône]] valley, from [[Mont Blanc]] to the [[Matterhorn]] and [[Monte Rosa]] on the southern side, and the [[Bernese Alps]] on the northern. The peaks in the easterly portion of the range, in Austria and Slovenia, are smaller than those in the central and western portions.<ref name="Beattie xii–xiii" />

The variances in nomenclature in the region spanned by the Alps make classification of the mountains and subregions difficult, but a general classification is that of the [[Eastern Alps]] and [[Western Alps]] with the divide between the two occurring in eastern Switzerland according to geologist Stefan Schmid,<ref name=Schmid93/> near the [[Splügen Pass]].
[[File:Lanersbach.jpg|thumb|A typical alpine village in the [[Tuxertal]] valley of [[Tyrol (federal state)|Tyrol]], Austria]]
The highest peaks of the Western Alps and Eastern Alps, respectively, are Mont Blanc, at {{cvt|4810|m|ft|-1}},<ref>Shoumtoff (2001), 23</ref> and [[Piz Bernina]], at {{cvt|4049|m|0}}. The second-highest major peaks are [[Monte Rosa]], at {{cvt|4634|m|0}}, and [[Ortler]],<ref>Excluding the [[Piz Zupò]] and [[Piz Roseg]] located in the Bernina range, close to Piz Bernina.</ref> at {{cvt|3905|m|-1}}, respectively.

A series of lower mountain ranges run parallel to the main chain of the Alps, including the [[French Prealps]] in France and the [[Jura Mountains]] in Switzerland and France. The secondary chain of the Alps follows the [[drainage divide|watershed]] from the Mediterranean Sea to the [[Vienna Woods|Wienerwald]], passing over many of the highest and most well-known peaks in the Alps. From the Colle di Cadibona to [[Col de Tende]] it runs westwards, before turning to the northwest and then, near the [[Maddalena Pass|Colle della Maddalena]], to the north. Upon reaching the Swiss border, the line of the main chain heads approximately east-northeast, a heading it follows until its end near Vienna.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Alps|title=Alps {{!}} Definition, Map, & Facts|website=Encyclopædia Britannica|language=en|access-date=February 4, 2019|archive-date=June 13, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150613024019/https://www.britannica.com/place/Alps|url-status=live}}</ref>

The northeast end of the Alpine arc, directly on the [[Danube]], which flows into the Black Sea, is the [[Leopoldsberg]] near Vienna. In contrast, the southeastern part of the Alps ends on the [[Adriatic Sea]] in the area around Trieste towards [[Duino]] and [[Barcola]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.alpenpaesse-wasserscheiden.at/italien/das-alpine-einzugsgebiet-der-adria-excl-po-gebiet-innerer-alpenbogen/das-triestiner-kuestengebiet/ |title=Die Alpen: Hydrologie und Verkehrsübergänge (German) |access-date=June 14, 2020 |archive-date=November 3, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211103195312/https://www.alpenpaesse-wasserscheiden.at/italien/das-alpine-einzugsgebiet-der-adria-excl-po-gebiet-innerer-alpenbogen/das-triestiner-kuestengebiet/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Passes ===
{{main|Principal passes of the Alps}}
[[File:Andermatt-Teufelsbruecke.jpg|thumb|''[[Teufelsbrücke]]'' (Devil's Bridge) on the route to the [[Gotthard Pass]]; the currently used bridge from 1958 over the first drivable bridge from 1830]]

The Alps have been crossed for war and commerce, and by pilgrims, students, and tourists. Crossing routes by road, train, or foot are known as ''passes'', and usually consist of depressions in the mountains in which a valley leads from the plains and hilly pre-mountainous zones.{{sfn|Coolidge|Lake|Knox|1911|p=740}} Merchant traffic was supported by [[pack animal]]s such as mules. In the late Middle Ages heavy carts and [[sleigh]]s were in use on the alpine passes.<ref name="The Alps: An Environmental History">{{cite book |title=The Alps: An Environmental History |author1=Jon Mathieu |date=2019 |publisher=Polity Press |isbn=978-1-5095-2774-8}}</ref>

In the medieval period [[hospices]] were established by religious orders at the summits of many of the main passes.<ref name="Fleming 4" /> The most important passes are the [[Col de l'Iseran]] (the highest), the [[Col Agnel]], the [[Brenner Pass]], the [[Mont-Cenis]], the [[Great St. Bernard Pass]], the [[Col de Tende]], the [[Gotthard Pass]], the [[Semmering Pass]], the [[Simplon Pass]], and the [[Stelvio Pass]].<ref name="Britannica">''Encyclopædia Britannica''. ''Encyclopedia Online Academic Edition''. Encyclopædia Britannica; retrieved 6 August 2012.</ref>

Crossing the Italian-Austrian border, the Brenner Pass separates the [[Ötztal Alps]] and [[Zillertal Alps]] and has been in use as a trading route since the 14th century. The lowest of the Alpine passes at {{cvt|985|m|0}} is the Semmering crossing from [[Lower Austria]] to [[Styria]]. It has been in continuous use since the 12th century when a hospice was built there. A railroad with a tunnel {{cvt|1|mi|order=flip}} long was built along the route of the pass in the mid-19th century. With a summit of {{cvt|2469|m|0}}, the Great St Bernard Pass is one of the highest in the Alps, crossing the Italian-Swiss border east of the Pennine Alps along the flanks of Mont Blanc. The pass was used by [[Napoleon Bonaparte]] to cross 40,000 troops in 1800.<ref name="switz">{{cite web |url=http://switzerland.isyours.com/e/guide/valais/grandstbernardhistory.html |title=History of the Great St Bernard pass |access-date=8 August 2007 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20121208215024/http://switzerland.isyours.com/e/guide/valais/grandstbernardhistory.html |archive-date=8 December 2012}}</ref>

The [[Mont Cenis]] pass has been a major commercial and military road between Western Europe and Italy. The pass was crossed by many troops on their way to the Italian peninsula. From [[Constantine I (emperor)|Constantine I]], [[Pepin the Short]] and [[Charlemagne]] to [[Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor|Henry IV]], Napoléon and more recently the German [[Gebirgsjäger]]s during [[World War II]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Thiers |first=Frédéric |title=Ronce, le gardien silencieux du col du Mont-Cenis |url=https://www.ledauphine.com/savoie/2016/08/09/les-forts-de-maurienne-en-topo-guide |work=[[Le Dauphiné libéré]] |date=August 10, 2016 |access-date=November 28, 2021 |archive-date=November 28, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211128121141/https://www.ledauphine.com/savoie/2016/08/09/les-forts-de-maurienne-en-topo-guide |url-status=live }}</ref>

In the 19th century, the principal passes of the Alps were modernized by engineers to speed up passenger and freight transport.<ref name="The Alps: An Environmental History"/> The Mont Cenis pass has been supplanted by the [[Fréjus Rail Tunnel]] opening in 1871, while the [[Fréjus Road Tunnel]] opened 1980.<ref>{{cite book |title=Italian Railways |first=P. M. |last=Kalla-Bishop |year=1971 |publisher=David & Charles |isbn=0-7153-5168-0 |pages=41–42}}</ref> Railway lines could not be built in the Alps without tunnels and bridges. Apart from the Mont Cenis railway tunnel the [[Semmering railway|Semmering railway tunnel]] and the [[Gotthard railway tunnel]] were built between 1854 and 1882. By the early 20th century eight trans-alpine railway lines had been put into operation.<ref name="The Alps: An Environmental History"/>

The Saint Gotthard Pass crosses from [[Central Switzerland]] to [[Ticino]]. In 1882 the {{convert|15|km|mi|abbr=on|adj=mid|-long}} [[Gotthard Tunnel|Saint Gotthard Railway Tunnel]] was opened connecting [[Lucerne]] in Switzerland, with [[Milan]] in Italy. 98 years later followed [[Gotthard Road Tunnel]] ({{cvt|16.9|km}} long) connecting the [[A2 motorway (Switzerland)|A2 motorway]] in [[Göschenen]] on the north side with [[Airolo]] on the south side, exactly like the railway tunnel.

On 1 June 2016 the world's longest railway tunnel, the [[Gotthard Base Tunnel]], was opened, which connects [[Erstfeld]] in [[canton of Uri]] with [[Bodio]] in [[canton of Ticino]] by two single tubes of {{cvt|57.1|km}}.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.tagesanzeiger.ch/wissen/technik/wer-hat-die-groesste-roehre/story/14922381 |title=Wer hat die grösste Röhre? |trans-title=Who has the longest tube? |type=graphical animation |newspaper=[[Tages-Anzeiger]] |location=Zurich |date=April 14, 2016 |language=de |access-date=11 May 2016 |archive-date=April 29, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160429131605/http://www.tagesanzeiger.ch/wissen/technik/Wer-hat-die-groesste-Roehre/story/14922381 |url-status=live }}</ref> It is the first tunnel that traverses the Alps on a flat route.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.tagesanzeiger.ch/wissen/natur/was-die-tunnelbauer-im-gotthard-antrafen/story/11796993 |title=Was die Tunnelbauer im Gotthard antrafen |type=graphical animation |newspaper=[[Tages-Anzeiger]] |location=Zurich |date=1 April 2016 |language=de |access-date=11 May 2016 |archive-date=May 11, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160511163138/http://www.tagesanzeiger.ch/wissen/natur/was-die-tunnelbauer-im-gotthard-antrafen/story/11796993? |url-status=live }}</ref> From 11 December 2016, it has been part of the regular railway timetable and used hourly as standard ride between [[Basel]]/[[Lucerne]]/[[Zurich]] and [[Bellinzona]]/[[Lugano]]/[[Milan]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fahrplanfelder.ch/en/welcome.html |title=Official Timetable |publisher=Swiss Federal Office for Transport |location=Bern |language=en, de, fr, it, rm |access-date=May 11, 2016 |archive-date=June 27, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220627184607/https://www.fahrplanfelder.ch/en/welcome.html }}</ref>

{{wide image|Stelvio Pass Bormio side 2.jpg|600px|caption=[[Stelvio Pass]] ({{cvt|2757|m}}) is the [[List of highest paved roads in the Alps|highest paved]] mountain pass in the [[Eastern Alps]], and the second highest in the Alps.}}

The highest pass in the alps is the [[Col de l'Iseran]] in [[Savoy]] (France) at {{cvt|2770|m|0}}, followed by the Stelvio Pass in northern Italy at {{cvt|2757|m|0}}; the road was built in the 1820s.<ref name="Britannica" />

=== Highest mountains ===
{{see also|List of Alpine four-thousanders}}
[[File:Männlichen.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|The [[Eiger]] (shown along with the [[Mönch]] and the [[Jungfrau]]) has the tallest north face in the Alps.]]
The [[Union Internationale des Associations d'Alpinisme]] (UIAA) has defined a list of 82 "official" Alpine summits that reach at least {{cvt|4000|m|ft|0}}.<ref>{{cite journal |title=The 4000ers of the Alps: Official UIAA List |journal=UIAA-Bulletin |issue=145 |date=March 1994 |url=http://www.club4000.it/Articoli/Boll_uiaa.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100307064135/http://www.club4000.it/Articoli/Boll_uiaa.pdf |archive-date=March 7, 2010}}</ref> The list includes not only mountains, but also subpeaks with little [[Topographic prominence|prominence]] that are considered important [[mountaineering]] objectives. Below are listed the 29 "four-thousanders" with at least {{cvt|300|m|ft|0}} of prominence.

While Mont Blanc was first climbed in 1786 and the Jungfrau in 1811, most of the Alpine four-thousanders were climbed during the second half of the 19th century, notably [[Piz Bernina]] (1850), the [[Dom (mountain)|Dom]] (1858), the [[Grand Combin]] (1859), the [[Weisshorn]] (1861) and the [[Barre des Écrins]] (1864); the ascent of the Matterhorn in 1865 marked the end of the [[golden age of alpinism]]. [[Karl Blodig]] (1859–1956) was among the first to successfully climb all the major 4,000&nbsp;m peaks. He completed his series of ascents in 1911.<ref>Michael Huxley, ''The Geographical magazine: Volume 59'', Geographical Press, 1987</ref> Many of the big Alpine three-thousanders were climbed in the early 19th century, notably the [[Grossglockner]] (1800) and the [[Ortler]] (1804), although some of them were climbed only much later, such at [[Mont Pelvoux]] (1848), [[Monte Viso]] (1861) and [[La Meije]] (1877).

The first British Mont Blanc ascent by a man was in 1788; the first ascent by a woman was in 1808. By the mid-1850s Swiss mountaineers had ascended most of the peaks and were eagerly sought as mountain guides. [[Edward Whymper]] reached the top of the Matterhorn in 1865 (after seven attempts), and in 1938 the last of the six [[great north faces of the Alps]] was climbed with the first ascent of the Eiger ''Nordwand'' (north face of the Eiger).<ref name = "Shoumatoff197ff">Shoumatoff (2001), 197–200</ref>

<!--This is only a minimalist list with link to full detailed list. It is not supposed to be detailed. In ANY case, NO country flags, per Mos:Flags-->
{| class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
|+ The 29 Alpine four-thousanders with at least 300 metres of [[topographic prominence]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bielefeldt.de/4000e.php?Sorts=height&Aufab=descending&Liste=UIAA |title=4000&nbsp;m Peaks of the Alps |publisher=Bielefeldt.de |date=July 6, 2010 |access-date=August 9, 2012 |archive-date=April 22, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210422212906/https://www.bielefeldt.de/4000e.php?Sorts=height&Aufab=descending&Liste=UIAA |url-status=live }}</ref>
! align=left | Name
! align=left | Height
! align=left | Name
! align=left | Height
! align=left | Name
! align=left | Height
|-
| [[Mont Blanc]]
| {{cvt|4810|m|ft|0}}
| [[Grandes Jorasses]]
| {{cvt|4208|m|ft|0}}
| [[Barre des Écrins]]
| {{cvt|4102|m|ft|0}}
|-
| [[Monte Rosa]]
| {{cvt|4634|m|ft|0}}
| [[Alphubel]]
| {{cvt|4206|m|ft|0}}
| [[Schreckhorn]]
| {{cvt|4078|m|ft|0}}
|-
| [[Dom (Mischabel)|Dom]]
| {{cvt|4546|m|ft|0}}
| [[Rimpfischhorn]]
| {{cvt|4199|m|ft|0}}
| [[Ober Gabelhorn]]
| {{cvt|4063|m|ft|0}}
|-
| [[Lyskamm]]
| {{cvt|4532|m|ft|0}}
| [[Aletschhorn]]
| {{cvt|4194|m|ft|0}}
| [[Gran Paradiso]]
| {{cvt|4061|m|ft|0}}
|-
| [[Weisshorn]]
| {{cvt|4505|m|ft|0}}
| [[Strahlhorn]]
| {{cvt|4190|m|ft|0}}
| [[Piz Bernina]]
| {{cvt|4048|m|ft|0}}
|-
| [[Matterhorn]]
| {{cvt|4478|m|ft|0}}
| [[Dent d'Hérens]]
| {{cvt|4173|m|ft|0}}
| [[Gross Fiescherhorn]]
| {{cvt|4049|m|ft|0}}
|-
| [[Dent Blanche]]
| {{cvt|4357|m|ft|0}}
| [[Breithorn]]
| {{cvt|4160|m|ft|0}}
| [[Gross Grünhorn]]
| {{cvt|4043|m|ft|0}}
|-
| [[Grand Combin]]
| {{cvt|4309|m|ft|0}}
| [[Jungfrau]]
| {{cvt|4158|m|ft|0}}
| [[Weissmies]]
| {{cvt|4013|m|ft|0}}
|-
| [[Finsteraarhorn]]
| {{cvt|4274|m|ft|0}}
| [[Aiguille Verte]]
| {{cvt|4122|m|ft|0}}
| [[Lagginhorn]]
| {{cvt|4010|m|ft|0}}
|-
| [[Zinalrothorn]]
| {{cvt|4221|m|ft|0}}
| [[Mönch]]
| {{cvt|4110|m|ft|0}}
| colspan="2"; style="text-align: center; | [[List of prominent mountains of the Alps above 3000 m#Alpine mountains over 3000 m high with 300 m prominence|''list continued here'']]
|}

=== Rivers and lakes ===
{{main|List of valleys of the Alps}}
[[File:Altstadt von Malcesine-2.jpg|thumb|[[Italian Lakes|Southern pre-alpine lakes]] like [[Lake Garda]] are characterised by warmer [[microclimate]]s than the surrounding areas.]]

The Alps provide lowland Europe with drinking water, irrigation, and hydroelectric power.<ref>Chatré, Baptiste, et al. (2010), 5</ref> Although the area is only about 11% of the surface area of Europe, the Alps provide up to 90% of water to lowland Europe, particularly to arid areas and during the summer months. Cities such as Milan depend on 80% of water from Alpine runoff.<ref name = "Chatré9"/><ref name="Benniston et al. 2011, 1">Benniston et al. (2011), 1</ref><ref>Price, Martin. ''Mountains: Globally Important Eco-systems''. University of Oxford</ref> Water from the rivers is used in at least 550 [[hydroelectricity]] power plants, considering only those producing at least 10MW of electricity.<ref>Alpine Convention (2010), 8</ref>

Major European rivers flow from the Alps, such as the [[Rhine]], the [[Rhône]], the [[Ticino (river)|Ticino]]->[[Po (river)|Po]], and the [[Inn (river)|Inn]]->[[Danube]], all of which have headwaters in the Alps and flow into neighbouring countries, finally emptying into the [[North Sea]], the Mediterranean Sea, the Adriatic Sea and the [[Black Sea]]. Other rivers such as the Danube have major tributaries flowing into them that originate in the Alps.<ref name = "Chatré9"/>

The Rhône is second to the [[Nile]] as a freshwater source to the Mediterranean Sea; the river begins as glacial meltwater, flows into [[Lake Geneva]], and from there to France where one of its uses is to cool nuclear power plants.<ref name="Benniston et al. 2011, 3">Benniston et al. (2011), 3</ref> The Rhine originates in a {{convert|30|km2|abbr=on|adj=on}} area in Switzerland and represents almost 60% of water exported from the country.<ref name="Benniston et al. 2011, 3"/> Tributary valleys, some of which are complicated, channel water to the main valleys which can experience flooding during the snowmelt season when rapid runoff causes debris torrents and swollen rivers.<ref name="Ceben 1998, 31">Ceben (1998), 31</ref>

The rivers form lakes, such as Lake Geneva, a crescent-shaped lake crossing the Swiss border with Lausanne on the Swiss side and the town of [[Evian-les-Bains]] on the French side. In Germany, the medieval [[St. Bartholomew's Church, Berchtesgaden|St. Bartholomew's chapel]] was built on the south side of the [[Königssee]], accessible only by boat or by climbing over the abutting peaks.<ref>Shoumatoff (2001), 24, 31</ref>

Additionally, the Alps have led to the creation of large lakes in Italy. For instance, the [[Sarca]], the [[Inflow (hydrology)|primary inflow]] of [[Lake Garda]], originates in the Italian Alps.<ref name="EnBrit">{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Lake-Garda |title=Lake Garda |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Britannica |access-date=August 27, 2018 |archive-date=August 28, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180828142322/https://www.britannica.com/place/Lake-Garda |url-status=live }}</ref> The [[Italian Lakes]] are a popular tourist destination since the Roman Era for their mild climate.

Scientists have been studying the [[effects of climate change|impact of climate change]] and water use. For example, each year more water is diverted from rivers for [[snowmaking]] in the ski resorts, the effect of which is yet unknown. Furthermore, the steady decrease of glaciated areas for about 150 years—vastly accelerated during the last 30–50 years—combined with an increasingly succession of winters with lower-than-expected precipitation (snow) due to much warmer winters will have a non-negligible future impact on the water storage in the Alps, namely glacier, and consequently on rivers in the Alps as well as an effect on the water availability to the lowlands of many European countries.<ref name="Benniston et al. 2011, 1"/><ref>Chatré, Baptiste, et al. (2010), 13</ref>

=== Climate ===
{{main|Climate of the Alps|High Alps}}

The Alps are a classic example of what happens when a [[Temperateness|temperate]] area at lower altitude gives way to higher-elevation terrain. Elevations around the world that have cold climates similar to those of the [[polar region]]s have been called [[Alpine climate|Alpine]]. A rise from sea level into the upper regions of the atmosphere causes the temperature to decrease (see [[adiabatic lapse rate]]). The effect of mountain chains on prevailing winds is to carry warm air belonging to the lower region into an upper zone, where it expands in volume at the cost of a proportionate loss of temperature, often accompanied by precipitation in the form of snow or rain.{{sfn|Coolidge|Lake|Knox|1911|p=737}} The height of the Alps is sufficient to divide the weather patterns in Europe into a wet north and dry south because moisture is sucked from the air as it flows over the high peaks.<ref>Fleming (2000), 3</ref>

[[File:Aletschgletscher mit Pinus cembra1.jpg|thumb|The [[Aletsch Glacier]] with pine trees growing on the hillside (2007; the surface is {{cvt|180|m}} lower than 150 years ago)]]

The severe weather in the Alps has been studied since the 18th century; particularly the weather patterns such as the seasonal [[foehn wind]]. Numerous weather stations were placed in the mountains early in the early 20th century, providing continuous data for climatologists.<ref name="Ceben 22–24">Ceben (1998), 22–24</ref> Some of the valleys are quite arid such as the [[Aosta Valley]] in Italy, the [[Maurienne]] in France, the [[Valais]] in Switzerland, and northern [[Tyrol (federal state)|Tyrol]].<ref name="Ceben 22–24" />

The areas that are not arid and receive high precipitation experience periodic flooding from rapid snowmelt and runoff.<ref name="Ceben 1998, 31"/> The mean precipitation in the Alps ranges from a low of {{cvt|2600|mm|in}} per year to {{cvt|3600|mm|in}} per year, with the higher levels occurring at high altitudes. At altitudes between {{cvt|1000|and|3,000|m}}, snowfall begins in November and accumulates through to April or May when the melt begins. [[Snow line]]s vary from {{cvt|2400|to|3,000|m}}, above which the snow is permanent and the temperatures hover around the freezing point even during July and August. High-water levels in streams and rivers peak in June and July when the snow is still melting at the higher altitudes.<ref>Ceben (1998), 34–36</ref>

The Alps are split into five climatic zones, each with different vegetation. The climate, plant life, and animal life vary among the different sections or zones of the mountains. The lowest zone is the colline zone, which exists between {{cvt|500|and|1000|m}}, depending on the location. The [[montane]] zone extends from {{cvt|800|to|1,700|m}}, followed by the sub-Alpine zone from {{cvt|1600|to|2,400|m}}. The Alpine zone, extending from [[tree line]] to the snow line, is followed by the glacial zone, which covers the glaciated areas of the mountain. Climatic conditions show variances within the same zones; for example, weather conditions at the head of a mountain valley, extending directly from the peaks, are colder and more severe than those at the mouth of a valley which tend to be less severe and receive less snowfall.<ref>Viazzo (1980), 17</ref>

====Climate change====
[[File:Duration of the yearly snow cover ring-width reconstruction together with modelled record for the Alps.webp|thumb|200px|Shrinkage of snow cover duration, starting ~end of the 19th century<ref name="10.1038/s41558-022-01575-3"/>]]
Various models of [[climate change]] have been projected into the 22nd century for the Alps, with an expectation that a trend toward increased temperatures will have an effect on [[Effects of climate change#Ice and snow|snowfall, snowpack, glaciation, and river runoff]].<ref>Benniston (2011), 3–4</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=IPCC regional fact sheet - Mountains |url=https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/downloads/factsheets/IPCC_AR6_WGI_Regional_Fact_Sheet_Mountains.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/downloads/factsheets/IPCC_AR6_WGI_Regional_Fact_Sheet_Mountains.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live}}</ref> Significant changes, of both natural and anthropogenic origins, have already been diagnosed from observations,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Huss |first1=Matthias |last2=Hock |first2=Regine |last3=Bauder |first3=Andreas |last4=Funk |first4=Martin |date=May 1, 2010 |title=100-year mass changes in the Swiss Alps linked to the Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation |journal=Geophysical Research Letters |language=en |volume=37 |issue=10 |pages=L10501 |doi=10.1029/2010GL042616 |issn=1944-8007 |bibcode=2010GeoRL..3710501H |url=http://doc.rero.ch/record/20213/files/hus_msc_sm.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://doc.rero.ch/record/20213/files/hus_msc_sm.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Zampieri |first1=Matteo |last2=Scoccimarro |first2=Enrico |last3=Gualdi |first3=Silvio |date=January 1, 2013 |title=Atlantic influence on spring snowfall over the Alps in the past 150 years |journal=Environmental Research Letters |language=en |volume=8 |issue=3 |article-number=034026 |doi=10.1088/1748-9326/8/3/034026 |issn=1748-9326 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2013ERL.....8c4026Z}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Zampieri |first1=Matteo |last2=Scoccimarro |first2=Enrico |last3=Gualdi |first3=Silvio |last4=Navarra |first4=Antonio |date=January 15, 2015 |title=Observed shift towards earlier spring discharge in the main Alpine rivers |journal=Science of the Total Environment |series=Towards a better understanding of the links between stressors, hazard assessment and ecosystem services under water scarcity |volume=503–504 |pages=222–232 |doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2014.06.036 |pmid=25005239 |hdl=2122/9055 |bibcode=2015ScTEn.503..222Z}}</ref> including a 5.6% reduction per decade in snow cover duration over the last 50 years, which also highlights [[climate change adaptation]] needs due to impacts on the climate and regional socio-economic activities.<ref name="10.1038/s41558-022-01575-3">{{cite journal |last1=Carrer |first1=Marco |last2=Dibona |first2=Raffaella |last3=Prendin |first3=Angela Luisa |last4=Brunetti |first4=Michele |title=Recent waning snowpack in the Alps is unprecedented in the last six centuries |journal=Nature Climate Change |date=February 2023 |volume=13 |issue=2 |pages=155–160 |doi=10.1038/s41558-022-01575-3 |bibcode=2023NatCC..13..155C |language=en |issn=1758-6798 |doi-access=free|hdl=11577/3477269 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>

== Geology ==
{{main|Alpine orogeny|Geology of the Alps}}

Important geological concepts were established as naturalists began studying the rock formations of the Alps in the 18th century. In the mid-19th century, the now-defunct idea of [[geosyncline]]s was used to explain the presence of "folded" mountain chains. This theory was replaced in the mid-20th century by the theory of [[plate tectonics]].<ref name="Graciansky1ff" />

[[File:Nante d'arpanaz.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|The geologic [[Fold (geology)|folding]] seen at the Arpenaz waterfall, shown here in a mid-18th-century drawing, was noted by 18th-century geologists.<ref name="Graciansky5">Graciansky (2011), 5</ref>]]

The formation of the Alps (the [[Alpine orogeny]]) was an episodic process that began about 300&nbsp;million years ago.<ref>Shoumatoff (2001), 35</ref> In the [[Paleozoic]] Era the [[Pangaea]]n [[supercontinent]] consisted of a single [[tectonic plate]]; it broke into separate plates during the [[Mesozoic]] Era and the [[Tethys Ocean|Tethys]] sea developed between [[Laurasia]] and [[Gondwana]] during the [[Jurassic]] Period.<ref name="Graciansky1ff">Graciansky (2011), 1–2</ref> The Tethys was later squeezed between colliding plates causing the formation of mountain ranges called the [[Alpide belt]], from [[Gibraltar]] through the [[Himalayas]] to [[Indonesia]]—a process that began at the end of the [[Mesozoic]] and continues into the present. The formation of the Alps was a segment of this orogenic process,<ref name="Graciansky1ff" /> caused by the collision between the [[African Plate|African]] and the [[Eurasian Plate|Eurasian]] plates<ref name="Gerrard9" /> that began in the late [[Cretaceous]] Period.<ref name="Gerrard16">Gerrard, (1990), 16</ref>

Under extreme [[compressive stress]]es and pressure, marine [[sedimentary rock]]s were uplifted, forming characteristic recumbent [[Fold (geology)|folds]], and [[thrust fault]]s.<ref>''Earth'' (2008), 142</ref> As the rising peaks underwent erosion, a layer of marine [[flysch]] sediments was deposited in the [[foreland basin]], and the sediments became involved in younger folds as the orogeny progressed. Coarse sediments from the continual uplift and erosion were later deposited in [[Molasse basin|foreland areas]] north of the Alps.<ref name="Gerrard9">Gerrard, (1990), 9</ref> These regions in Switzerland and Bavaria are well-developed, containing classic examples of [[flysch]], which is [[sedimentary rock]] formed during mountain building.<ref name=Schmid102>Schmid (2004), 102</ref>

The Alpine orogeny occurred in ongoing cycles through to the Paleogene causing differences in folded structures, with a late-stage orogeny causing the development of the [[Jura Mountains]].<ref name=Schmid97>Schmid (2004), 97</ref> A series of tectonic events in the Triassic, Jurassic and Cretaceous periods caused different [[Palaeogeography|paleogeographic]] regions.<ref name=Schmid97/> The Alps are subdivided by different [[lithology]] (rock composition) and nappe structures according to the orogenic events that affected them.<ref name=Schmid93/> The geological subdivision differentiates the Western, Eastern Alps, and Southern Alps: the [[Helvetic nappes|Helveticum]] in the north, the [[Penninic nappes|Penninicum]] and [[Austroalpine nappes|Austroalpine system]] in the centre and, south of the Periadriatic Seam, the [[Southern Alps (geology)|Southern Alpine system]].<ref name=Schmid99/>

[[File:Matterhorn from Domhütte - 2.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|Compressed metamorphosed Tethyan sediments and their oceanic basement are sandwiched between the tip of the [[Matterhorn]] (Italian-Swiss border), which consists of gneisses originally part of the African plate, and the base of the peak, which is part of the Eurasian plate.<ref name="Graciansky5"/>]]

According to geologist Stefan Schmid, because the Western Alps underwent a metamorphic event in the [[Cenozoic]] Era while the Austroalpine peaks underwent an event in the Cretaceous Period, the two areas show distinct differences in nappe formations.<ref name=Schmid97/> [[Flysch]] deposits in the Southern Alps of [[Lombardy]] probably occurred in the Cretaceous or later.<ref name=Schmid97/>

Peaks in France, Italy and Switzerland lie in the "Houillière zone", which consists of [[Basement (geology)|basement]] with sediments from the Mesozoic Era.<ref name=Schmid99>Schmid, 99</ref> High "massifs" with external sedimentary cover are more common in the Western Alps and were affected by [[Neogene]] Period [[Thin-skinned deformation|thin-skinned]] thrusting whereas the Eastern Alps have comparatively few high peaked massifs.<ref name=Schmid102/> Similarly the peaks in eastern Switzerland extending to western Austria (Helvetic nappes) consist of thin-skinned sedimentary folding that [[decollement|detached]] from former [[basement (geology)|basement]] rock.<ref name=Schmid103>Schmid (2004), 103</ref>

In simple terms, the structure of the Alps consists of layers of rock of European, African, and oceanic (Tethyan) origin.<ref name="Graciansky29ff">Graciansky (2011), 29</ref> The bottom nappe structure is of continental European origin, above which are stacked marine sediment nappes, topped off by nappes derived from the African plate.<ref name="Graciansky31">Graciansky (2011), 31</ref> The Matterhorn is an example of the ongoing orogeny and shows evidence of great folding. The tip of the mountain consists of [[gneiss]]es from the African plate; the base of the peak, below the glaciated area, consists of European basement rock. The sequence of Tethyan marine sediments and their oceanic basement is sandwiched between rock derived from the African and European plates.<ref name="Graciansky5"/>
{{wide image|Savine.JPG|750px|caption=[[Maurienne|Haute Maurienne]] (Ambin and Vanoise massifs) and its exposed crystalline basement made of high-pressure subduction rocks such as [[blueschist]] and [[quartzite|metaquartzite]] (picture taken at {{convert|2400|m|disp=or}})}}{{clear}}
The core regions of the Alpine orogenic belt have been folded and fractured in such a manner that erosion produced the characteristic steep vertical peaks of the [[Swiss Alps]] that rise seemingly straight out of the foreland areas.<ref name="Gerrard16"/> Peaks such as Mont Blanc, the Matterhorn, and high peaks in the Pennine Alps, the Briançonnais, and [[Hohe Tauern]] consist of layers of rock from the various orogenies including exposures of basement rock.<ref>Beattie (2006), 6–8</ref>

Due to the ever-present geologic instability, earthquakes continue in the Alps to this day.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.seismo.ethz.ch/en/knowledge/earthquake-country-switzerland/earthquakes-and-the-alps/ |title=SED &#124; Earthquakes and the Alps |access-date=February 2, 2019 |archive-date=February 3, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190203030400/http://www.seismo.ethz.ch/en/knowledge/earthquake-country-switzerland/earthquakes-and-the-alps/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Typically, the largest earthquakes in the alps have been between magnitude 6 and 7 on the Richter scale.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.seismo.ethz.ch/static/100j/snapshot05/sn05_gal3_EN.html |title=The largest earthquakes in the Alps |access-date=February 2, 2019 |archive-date=February 2, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190202212340/http://www.seismo.ethz.ch/static/100j/snapshot05/sn05_gal3_EN.html |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Geodesy|Geodetic]] measurements show ongoing topographic uplift at rates of up to about 2.5&nbsp;mm per year in the North, Western and Central Alps, and at ~1&nbsp;mm per year in the Eastern and South-Western Alps.<ref name="Sternai-2019">{{Cite journal |last1=Sternai |first1=Pietro |last2=Sue |first2=Christian |last3=Husson |first3=Laurent |last4=Serpelloni |first4=Enrico |last5=Becker |first5=Thorsten W. |last6=Willett |first6=Sean D. |last7=Faccenna |first7=Claudio |last8=Di Giulio |first8=Andrea |last9=Spada |first9=Giorgio |last10=Jolivet |first10=Laurent |last11=Valla |first11=Pierre |last12=Petit |first12=Carole |last13=Nocquet |first13=Jean-Mathieu |last14=Walpersdorf |first14=Andrea |last15=Castelltort |first15=Sébastien |date=March 2019 |title=Present-day uplift of the European Alps: Evaluating mechanisms and models of their relative contributions |journal=Earth-Science Reviews |volume=190 |pages=589–604 |doi=10.1016/j.earscirev.2019.01.005 |bibcode=2019ESRv..190..589S |hdl=10281/229017 |s2cid=96447591 |issn=0012-8252 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> The underlying mechanisms that jointly drive the present-day uplift pattern are the isostatic rebound due to the melting of the last glacial maximum ice-cap or long-term erosion, detachment of the Western Alpine subducting slab, mantle convection as well as ongoing horizontal convergence between Africa and Europe, but their relative contributions to the uplift of the Alps are difficult to quantify and likely to vary significantly in space and time.<ref name="Sternai-2019" />

=== Minerals ===
The Alps are a source of minerals that have been mined for thousands of years. In the 8th to 6th centuries, BC during the [[Hallstatt culture]], Celtic tribes mined copper; later the Romans mined gold for coins in the [[Bad Gastein]] area. [[Erzberg]] in [[Styria]] furnishes high-quality iron ore for the steel industry. Crystals, such as [[cinnabar]], [[amethyst]], and [[quartz]], are found throughout much of the Alpine region. The cinnabar deposits in Slovenia are a notable source of cinnabar pigments.<ref>Shoumatoff (2001), 49–53</ref>

Alpine crystals have been studied and collected for hundreds of years and began to be classified in the 18th century. [[Leonhard Euler]] studied the shapes of crystals, and by the 19th-century crystal hunting was common in Alpine regions. David Friedrich Wiser amassed a collection of 8000 crystals that he studied and documented. In the 20th century Robert Parker wrote a well-known work about the rock crystals of the Swiss Alps; at the same period a commission was established to control and standardize the naming of Alpine minerals.<ref>Roth, 10–17</ref>

=== Glaciers ===
{{see also|List of glaciers in Switzerland}}
[[File:Illustration_of_the_Glacier_System_of_the_Alps_by_Alexander_Keith_Johnston_1848.png|thumb|upright=1.6|right|This illustration of the glacier systems of the [[Mont Blanc massif]] by [[Alexander Keith Johnston (1804–1871)|Alexander Keith Johnston]] was first published 1848 in ''The Physical Atlas''.]]
In the [[Miocene]] Epoch the mountains underwent severe erosion because of glaciation,<ref name="Gerrard16" /> which was noted in the mid-19th century by naturalist [[Louis Agassiz]] who presented a paper proclaiming the Alps were covered in ice at various intervals—a theory he formed when studying rocks near his [[Neuchâtel]] home which he believed originated to the west in the Bernese Oberland. Because of his work he came to be known as the "father of the ice-age concept" although other naturalists before him put forth similar ideas.<ref name="Shoumatoff63ff">Shoumatoff (2001), 63–68</ref>

[[File:Aletschgebiet aus dem Flugzeug.jpg|thumb|left|[[Louis Agassiz]]'s studies of the [[Unteraar Glacier]] in the 1840s showed that it moved at {{cvt|100|m|0}} per year.<ref name="Shoumatoff63ff" />]]

Agassiz studied glacier movement in the 1840s at the [[Unteraar Glacier]] where he found the glacier moved {{cvt|100|m|0}} per year, more rapidly in the middle than at the edges. His work was continued by other scientists and now a permanent laboratory exists inside a glacier under the [[Jungfraujoch]], devoted exclusively to the study of Alpine glaciers.<ref name="Shoumatoff63ff" />

Glaciers pick up rocks and sediment with them as they flow. This causes erosion and the formation of valleys over time. The [[Inn (river)|Inn]] valley is an example of a valley carved by glaciers during the [[Quaternary glaciation|ice ages]] with a typical terraced structure caused by erosion. Eroded rocks from the most recent ice age lie at the bottom of the valley while the top of the valley consists of erosion from earlier ice ages.<ref name="Shoumatoff63ff" /> Glacial valleys have characteristically steep walls (reliefs); valleys with lower reliefs and [[Scree|talus slopes]] are remnants of glacial troughs or previously infilled valleys.<ref name="Gerrard132">Gerrard, (1990), 132</ref> [[Moraine]]s, piles of rock picked up during the movement of the glacier, accumulate at edges, centre, and the terminus of glaciers.<ref name="Shoumatoff63ff" />

[[File:Jungfraujoch img 3699.jpg|thumb|The Sphinx Tunnel connecting [[Jungfraujoch railway station]] to the [[Sphinx Observatory]], through a glacier at the [[Jungfraujoch]]]]

Alpine glaciers can be straight rivers of ice, long sweeping rivers, spread in a fan-like shape (Piedmont glaciers), and curtains of ice that hang from vertical slopes of the mountain peaks. The stress of the movement causes the ice to break and crack loudly, perhaps explaining why the mountains were believed to be home to dragons in the medieval period. The cracking creates unpredictable and dangerous [[crevasse]]s, often invisible under new snowfall, which causes the greatest danger to mountaineers.<ref name="Shoumatoff71ff"/>

Glaciers end in ice caves (the [[Rhône Glacier]]), by trailing into a lake or river, or by shedding snowmelt on a meadow. Sometimes a piece of glacier will detach or break resulting in flooding, property damage, and loss of life.<ref name="Shoumatoff71ff">Shoumatoff (2001), 71–72</ref>

High levels of precipitation cause the glaciers to descend to [[permafrost]] levels in some areas whereas in other, more arid regions, glaciers remain above about the {{cvt|3500|m|0}} level.<ref name="Gerrard78">Gerrard, (1990), 78</ref> The {{cvt|1817|km2}} of the Alps covered by glaciers in 1876 had shrunk to {{cvt|1342|km2}} by 1973, resulting in decreased river run-off levels.<ref name="Gerrard108">Gerrard, (1990), 108</ref> Forty percent of the glaciation in Austria has disappeared since 1850, and 30% of that in Switzerland.<ref>Ceben (1998), 38</ref>

Although the Alpine topography shows marked glacial morphologies,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sternai |first1=P. |last2=Herman |first2=F. |last3=Fox |first3=M. R. |last4=Castelltort |first4=S. |date=2011-07-13 |title=Hypsometric analysis to identify spatially variable glacial erosion |journal=Journal of Geophysical Research |language=en |volume=116 |issue=F3 |pages=F03001 |doi=10.1029/2010JF001823 |bibcode=2011JGRF..116.3001S |issn=0148-0227 |doi-access=free}}</ref> the mechanisms by which glacial reshaping occurs are unclear. [[Computer simulation|Numerical modeling]] suggests that glacial erosion propagates from low elevations to high elevations leading to an early increase of local relief followed by lowering of the mean orogen elevation.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sternai |first1=Pietro |last2=Herman |first2=Frédéric |last3=Valla |first3=Pierre G. |last4=Champagnac |first4=Jean-Daniel |date=2013-04-15 |title=Spatial and temporal variations of glacial erosion in the Rhône valley (Swiss Alps): Insights from numerical modeling |url=https://hal-insu.archives-ouvertes.fr/insu-00853433/file/Sternai-EPSL-2013.pdf |journal=Earth and Planetary Science Letters |language=en |volume=368 |pages=119–131 |doi=10.1016/j.epsl.2013.02.039 |bibcode=2013E&PSL.368..119S |s2cid=14687787 |issn=0012-821X}}</ref>

=== Avalanches ===
* 17th-century French-Italian border avalanche: in the 17th century about 2500 people were killed by an [[avalanche]] in a village on the French-Italian border.
* 19th century Zermatt avalanche: in the 19th century, 120 homes in a village near Zermatt were destroyed by an avalanche.<ref>Fleming (2000), 89–90</ref>
* [[White Friday (1916)|December 13, 1916 Marmolada-mountain-avalanche]]
* [[Winter of Terror|1950–1951 winter-of-terror avalanches]]
* [[Val d'Isère|February 10, 1970 Val d'Isère avalanche]]
* [[Montroc|February 9, 1999 Montroc avalanche]]
* [[Evolène avalanche|February 21, 1999 Evolène avalanche]]
* [[1999 Galtür avalanche|February 23, 1999, Galtür avalanche]], the deadliest avalanche in the Alps in 40 years
* [[Mont Blanc#Incidents involving children|July 2014 Mont-Blanc avalanche]]
* [[Les Deux Alpes#2016 Avalanche|January 13, 2016 Les-Deux-Alpes avalanche]]
* [[Valfréjus avalanche|January 18, 2016 Valfréjus avalanche]]
* [[2022 Marmolada serac collapse|July 3, 2022 Marmolada serac collapse]]

== Ecology ==
{{main|Alps conifer and mixed forests}}

=== Flora ===
{{main|Flora of the Alps}}

[[File:Gentiana clusii03.jpg|thumb|Stemless gentian (''[[Gentiana acaulis]]'')]]

Thirteen thousand species of plants have been identified in the Alpine regions.<ref name = "Chatré8"/> Alpine plants are grouped by habitat and soil type which can be [[limestone]] or non-calcareous. The habitats range from meadows, bogs, and woodland (deciduous and coniferous) areas to soil-less scree and [[moraine]]s, and rock faces and ridges.<ref name="Reynolds43ff">Reynolds, (2012), 43–45</ref> A natural vegetation limit with altitude is given by the presence of the chief [[deciduous]] trees—oak, beech, [[Ash tree|ash]] and [[sycamore maple]]. These do not reach the same elevation, nor are they often found growing together, but their upper limit corresponds accurately enough to the change from a temperate to a colder climate that is further proved by a change in the presence of wild herbaceous vegetation.{{sfn|Coolidge|Lake|Knox|1911|p=738}} This limit usually lies about {{cvt|1200|m}} above the sea on the north side of the Alps, but on the southern slopes it often rises to {{cvt|1500|m}}, sometimes even to {{cvt|1700|m}}.<ref>Shoumatoff (2001), 75</ref>
[[File:Leontopodium alpinum1.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Edelweiss (''[[Edelweiss|Leontopodium alpinum]]'')]]

Above the forestry, there is often a band of dwarf pine trees (''[[Pinus mugo]]''), which is in turn superseded by ''Alpenrosen'', dwarf shrubs, typically ''[[Rhododendron ferrugineum]]'' (on acid soils) or ''[[Rhododendron hirsutum]]'' (on alkaline soils).<ref>Beattie (2006), 17</ref> Although Alpenrose prefers acidic soil, the plants are found throughout the region.<ref name="Reynolds43ff" /> Above the [[tree line]] is the area defined as "alpine" where in the [[alpine meadow]] plants are found that have adapted well to harsh conditions of cold temperatures, aridity, and [[high-altitude adaptation|high altitudes]]. The alpine area fluctuates greatly because of regional fluctuations in tree lines.<ref>Körner (2003), 9</ref>

Alpine plants such as the [[Gentiana acaulis|Alpine gentian]] grow in abundance in areas such as the meadows above the [[Lauterbrunnental]]. Gentians are named after the [[Illyria]]n king [[Gentius]], and 40 species of the early-spring blooming flower grow in the Alps, in a range of {{cvt|1500|to|2,400|m}}.<ref>Shoumatoff (2001), 85</ref> Writing about the gentians in Switzerland [[D. H. Lawrence]] described them as "darkening the day-time, torch-like with the smoking blueness of Pluto's gloom."<ref>qtd in Beattie (2006), 17</ref> Gentians tend to "appear" repeatedly as the spring blooming takes place at progressively later dates, moving from the lower altitude to the higher altitude meadows where the snow melts much later than in the valleys. On the highest rocky ledges, the spring flowers bloom in the summer.<ref name="Reynolds43ff" />

[[File:Naturasollieres.jpg|thumb|Preserved internal alpine forest and meadow, [[Vanoise National Park]]]]

At these higher altitudes, the plants tend to form isolated cushions. In the Alps, several species of flowering plants have been recorded above {{cvt|4000|m}}, including ''[[Ranunculus glacialis]]'', ''[[Androsace alpina]]'' and ''[[Saxifraga biflora]]''. ''[[Eritrichium nanum]]'', commonly known as the King of the Alps, is the most elusive of the alpine flowers, growing on rocky ridges at {{cvt|2600|to|3,750|m}}.<ref>Shoumatoff (2001), 87</ref> Perhaps the best known of the alpine plants is [[Edelweiss]] which grows in rocky areas and can be found at altitudes as low as {{cvt|1200|m}} and as high as {{cvt|3400|m}}.<ref name="Reynolds43ff" /> The plants that grow at the highest altitudes have adapted to conditions by specialization such as growing in rock screes that give protection from winds.<ref name = "Sharp14ff">Sharp (2002), 14</ref>

The alpine meadows are also known for their distinct floral aromas during summer: the sensory landscape is often defined by the strong, spicy-sweet fragrance of [[Trifolium alpinum|Alpine clover (''Trifolium alpinum'')]], a characteristic scent of the high pastures.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Site-specific grasses and herbs |url=https://www.fao.org/4/y5576e/y5576e0q.htm |access-date=2025-08-10 |website=www.fao.org}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |last1=Lombardi |first1=Giampiero |title=Volatile compounds of Alpine vegetation as markers for the traceability of "grass-deriving" dairy products |date=2008 |url=https://iris.unito.it/handle/2318/54872 |access-date=2025-08-10 |publisher=SWE |isbn=978-91-85911-47-9 |last2=Falchero |first2=Luca |last3=Coppa |first3=Mauro |last4=Tava |first4=A.}}</ref>

The extreme and stressful climatic conditions give way to the growth of plant species with [[secondary metabolites]] important for medicinal purposes. ''[[Origanum vulgare]]'', ''[[Prunella vulgaris]]'', ''[[Solanum nigrum]]'', and ''[[Urtica dioica]]'' are some of the more useful medicinal species found in the Alps.<ref>[[Chandra Prakash Kala|Kala, C.P.]] and Ratajc, P. 2012.[https://rd.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10531-012-0246-x "High altitude biodiversity of the Alps and the Himalayas: ethnobotany, plant distribution and conservation perspective".] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171014101137/https://rd.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10531-012-0246-x |date=October 14, 2017 }} ''Biodiversity and Conservation'', 21 (4): 1115–1126.</ref> Human interference has nearly exterminated the trees in many areas, and, except for the beech forests of the Austrian Alps, forests of deciduous trees are rarely found after the extreme deforestation between the 17th and 19th centuries.<ref>Gerrard (1990), 225</ref> The vegetation has changed since the second half of the 20th century, as the high alpine meadows cease to be harvested for hay or used for grazing which eventually might result in a regrowth of the forest. In some areas, the modern practice of building ski runs by mechanical means has destroyed the underlying tundra from which the plant life cannot recover during the non-skiing months, whereas areas that still practice a natural ''piste'' type of ski slope building preserve the fragile underlayers.<ref name = "Sharp14ff"/>

=== Fauna ===
The Alps are a habitat for 30,000 species of wildlife, ranging from the tiniest [[snow flea]]s to [[brown bear]]s, many of which have made adaptations to the harsh cold conditions and high altitudes to the point that some only survive in specific micro-climates either directly above or below the [[snow line]].<ref name = "Chatré8"/><ref>Shoumatoff (2001), 90, 96, 101</ref>

[[File:Jeune bouquetin de face.jpg|thumb|upright|Young alpine ibex. When fully grown the horns of this male will be about one metre wide.]]

The largest mammal to live in the highest altitudes are the [[alpine ibex]], which have been sighted as high as {{cvt|3000|m}}. The ibex live in caves and descend to eat the succulent alpine grasses.<ref>Shoumatoff (2001), 104</ref> Classified as [[antelopes]],<ref name="Reynolds43ff" /> [[chamois]] are smaller than ibex and found throughout the Alps, living above the tree line and are common in the entire alpine range.<ref>Rupicapra rupicapra [Linnaeus, 1758] [http://www.ultimateungulate.com/Artiodactyla/Rupicapra_rupicapra.html] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140406102837/http://www.ultimateungulate.com/artiodactyla/rupicapra_rupicapra.html|date=April 6, 2014}}</ref> Areas of the eastern Alps are still home to brown bears. In Switzerland the [[canton of Bern]] was named for the bears but the last bear is recorded as having been killed in 1792 above [[Kleine Scheidegg]] by three hunters from [[Grindelwald]].<ref>Shoumatoff (2001), 101</ref>

Many rodents such as [[voles]] live underground. [[Marmots]] live almost exclusively above the tree line as high as {{cvt|2700|m}}. They hibernate in large groups to provide warmth,<ref name="Shoumatoff102ff">Shoumatoff (2001), 102–103</ref> and can be found in all areas of the Alps, in large colonies they build beneath the alpine pastures.<ref name="Reynolds43ff" /> [[Golden eagle]]s and [[bearded vulture]]s are the largest birds to be found in the Alps; they nest high on rocky ledges and can be found at altitudes of {{cvt|2400|m}}. The most common bird is the [[alpine chough]] which can be found scavenging at climber's huts or the [[Jungfraujoch]], a high-altitude tourist destination.<ref name="Shoumatoff97ff">Shoumatoff (2001), 97–98</ref>

[[File:Parnassius phoebus.jpg|thumb|left|The alpine [[Apollo butterfly]] has adapted to alpine conditions.]]

Reptiles such as [[Viperidae|adders]] and [[Viperidae|vipers]] live up to the snow line; because they cannot bear the cold temperatures they hibernate underground and soak up the warmth on rocky ledges.<ref name = "Shoumatoff95ff">Shoumatoff (2001), 96</ref> The high-altitude [[Alpine salamander]]s have adapted to living above the snow line by giving birth to fully developed young rather than laying eggs. [[Brown trout]] can be found in the streams up to the snow line.<ref name = "Shoumatoff95ff"/> Molluscs such as the [[Helicigona|wood snail]] live up the snow line. Popularly gathered as food, the [[snail]]s are now protected.<ref name="Shoumatoff88ff">Shoumatoff (2001), 88–89</ref>

Several species of [[moth]]s live in the Alps, some of which are believed to have evolved in the same habitat up to 120&nbsp;million years ago, long before the Alps were created. [[Lycaenidae|Blue butterflies]] can commonly be seen drinking from the snowmelt; some species of blues fly as high as {{cvt|1800|m}}.<ref>Shoumatoff (2001), 93</ref> The butterflies tend to be large, such as those from the swallowtail ''[[Parnassius]]'' family, with a habitat that ranges to {{cvt|1800|m}}. Twelve species of beetles have habitats up to the snow line; the most beautiful and formerly collected for its colours but now protected is ''[[Rosalia alpina]]''.<ref>Shoumatoff (2001), 91</ref> Spiders, such as the large [[wolf spider]], live above the snow line and can be seen as high as {{cvt|400|m}}. [[Scorpion]]s can be found in the Italian Alps.<ref name="Shoumatoff88ff" />

Some of the species of moths and insects show evidence of having been indigenous to the area from as long ago as the Alpine orogeny. In [[Lac d'Émosson|Émosson]] in Valais, Switzerland, dinosaur tracks were found in the 1970s, dating probably from the [[Triassic]] Period.<ref>Reynolds (2012), 75</ref>

== History ==
{{main|History of the Alps}}

=== Prehistory ===
[[File:Scena di duello R6 - Foppe - Nadro (Foto Luca Giarelli).jpg|thumb|[[Petroglyphs]], [[Rock Drawings in Valcamonica]], Italy, which was recognized by [[UNESCO]] in 1979 and was Italy's first recognized [[World Heritage Site]]]]
[[File:Otzi-Quinson.jpg|thumb|Reconstruction of [[Ötzi]] mummy as shown in [[Alpes-de-Haute-Provence]], France. The original mummy and his remains and personal belongings are on exhibit at the [[South Tyrol Museum of Archaeology]] in [[Bolzano]], [[South Tyrol]], Italy.]]

When the ice melted after the [[Würm glaciation]], [[Paleolithic]] settlements were established along the lake shores and in cave systems. Evidence of human habitation has been found in caves near the [[Vercors Cave System]], close to Grenoble and Echirolles. In [[Austria]], the [[Mondsee (lake)|Mondsee lake]] shows evidence of houses built on piles. Standing stones have been found in the Alpine areas of [[France]] and [[Italy]]. About 200,000 drawings and etchings have been documented, and are known as the [[Rock Drawings in Valcamonica]].<ref name="Beattie25ff">Beattie, (2006), 25</ref>

A mummy of a [[Neolithic]] human, known as [[Ötzi]], was discovered on the [[Similaun]]. His clothing lets modern people assume that he was an alpine farmer, while the location and manner of his death suggests that Ötzi was traveling.<ref name="Beattie21ff">Beattie, (2006), 21</ref> Analysis of the [[mitochondrial DNA]] of Ötzi, has shown that he belongs to the K1 [[subclade]].<ref>{{Cite journal |url=http://www.cell.com/current-biology/abstract/S0960-9822%2808%2901254-2 |title=Luca Ermini et al., "Complete Mitochondrial Genome Sequence of the Tyrolean Iceman," Current Biology, vol. 18, no. 21 (30 October 2008), pp. 1687–1693 |journal=Current Biology |date=November 2008 |volume=18 |issue=21 |pages=1687–1693 |doi=10.1016/j.cub.2008.09.028 |access-date=August 6, 2012 |archive-date=June 12, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120612013201/http://www.cell.com/current-biology/abstract/S0960-9822(08)01254-2 |url-status=live |last1=Ermini |first1=Luca |last2=Olivieri |first2=Cristina |last3=Rizzi |first3=Ermanno |last4=Corti |first4=Giorgio |last5=Bonnal |first5=Raoul |last6=Soares |first6=Pedro |last7=Luciani |first7=Stefania |last8=Marota |first8=Isolina |last9=De Bellis |first9=Gianluca |last10=Richards |first10=Martin B. |last11=Rollo |first11=Franco |pmid=18976917 |hdl=11581/489003 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> His remains and personal belongings are on exhibit at the [[South Tyrol Museum of Archaeology]] in [[Bolzano]], [[South Tyrol]], Italy.

From the 13th to the 6th century BC much of the Alps was settled by the [[Germanic peoples]], [[Lombards]], [[Alemanni]], [[Bavarii]], and [[Franks]].<ref>Beattie, (2006), 31, 34</ref> [[Celt]] tribes settled in modern-day [[Switzerland]] between 1500 and 1000 BC. The [[Raeti]] lived in the eastern regions, while the west was occupied by the [[Helvetii]] and the [[Allobroges]] settled in the Rhône valley and in [[Savoy]]. The [[Ligures]] and [[Adriatic Veneti]] lived in [[Northwest Italy]] and [[Triveneto]] respectively. The Celts mined [[salt]] in areas such as [[Salzburg]], where evidence was found of the [[Hallstatt culture]].<ref name="Beattie25ff" /> By the 6th century BC the [[La Tène culture]] was well established in the region,<ref>Fleming (2000), 2</ref> and became known for high quality [[Celtic art]].<ref>Shoumatoff (2001), 131</ref>

Between 430 and 400 BC prolonged warfare in the Alps resulted in the devastation of agricultural land and human settlements, ultimately triggering the [[enslavement]] of men, women, and children, goods had to be imported as a result. The [[Etruscan civilization]] responded to raids by the [[Massalia]] and acquired absolute control over the Alpine trade routes. Aggressors in modern-day Italy were dealt with and an alliance was formed with the Celts. The grip of the Etruscan settlements broke down, as the Roman political system expanded, so as to take control over Alpine trade routes that connected human settlements in the Alps with settlements in the [[Mediterranean]].<ref>{{Cite book |title=Iron Age Slaving and Enslavement in Northwest Europe |author1=Karim Mata |publisher=Archaeopress Publishing Limited |year=2019 |isbn=978-1-78969-419-2 |page=18}}</ref>

During the [[Second Punic War]] in 218 BC, the [[Carthage]] general [[Hannibal]] initiated one of the most celebrated achievements of any military force in ancient warfare, recorded as [[Hannibal crossing the Alps]].<ref name="Lancel">Lancel, Serge, (1999), 71</ref> The [[Roman people]] built roads along the Alpine mountain passes, which continued to be used through the medieval period. Roman road markers can still be found on the Alpine mountain passes.<ref>Prevas (2001), 68–69</ref>

During the [[Gallic Wars]] in 58 BC [[Julius Caesar]] defeated the [[Helvetii]]. The [[Rhaetian people|Rhaetian]] continued to resist but their territory was eventually conquered when the Romans crossed the [[Danube]] valley and defeated the [[Brigantes]].<ref name="Beattie27ff">Beattie, (2006), 27</ref> The Romans built settlements in the Alps. In towns such as [[Aosta]], [[Martigny]], [[Lausanne]], and [[Partenkirchen]] remains of villas, arenas, and temples have been discovered.<ref>Beattie, (2006), 28–31</ref>

=== Christianity, feudalism, and Napoleonic wars ===
[[File:Edouard Castres-Bonaparte au St-Bernard IMG 3221.jpg|thumb|right|Napoleon passing the Great St Bernard Pass, by [[Edouard Castres]]]]
Christianity was established in the Alps by the [[Roman people]]. Monasteries and churches were constructed, even at high Alpine altitudes. The [[Franks]] expanded their [[Carolingian Empire]], while the [[Baiuvarii]] introduced [[feudalism]] in the eastern Alps. The construction of castles in the Alps supported the growing number of dukedoms and kingdoms. Castello del Buonconsiglio in [[Trento]], still has intricate frescoes, and excellent examples of [[Gothic art]]. The [[Château de Chillon]] is preserved as an example of medieval architecture.<ref>Beattie, (2006), 32, 34, 37, 43</ref> There are several important alpine saints and one such one is [[Saint Maurice]].<ref>Mershman, Francis. "St. Maurice", The Catholic Encyclopedia, Vol. 10. New York City: Robert Appleton Company, 1911. 6 March 2013</ref> Much of the medieval period was a time of power struggles between competing dynasties such as the [[House of Savoy]], the [[Visconti of Milan]], and the [[House of Habsburg]].<ref>Beattie, (2006), 41, 46, 48</ref>

The [[Great St Bernard Hospice]], built in the 9th or 10th centuries, at the summit of the [[Great Saint Bernard Pass]] was a shelter for humans and destination for pilgrims.<ref>Beattie, (2006), 73, 75–76</ref> In 1291, to protect themselves from incursions by the House of Habsburg, four Alpine [[cantons]] drew up the [[Federal Charter of 1291]], which is considered to be a declaration of independence from neighboring kingdoms. After a series of battles fought in the 13th, 14th, and 15th centuries, more cantons joined the confederacy and by the 16th century, [[Switzerland]] was established as a [[sovereign state]].<ref>Beattie, (2006), 56, 66</ref>

In the Alps, the [[War of the Spanish Succession]] fallout resulted in a 1713 [[treaty]], part of the [[Peace of Utrecht]], which relocated the Western Alps border along the watersheds. Historically, the Alps were used to determine the borders of political and administrative gangs, but the Peace of Utrecht was the first significant body of treaty that considered geographical conditions. The Alps were carved up and borders were agreed, so that [[enclave]]s in the Alps could be eliminated.<ref>{{Cite book |title=The Alps: An Environmental History |author1=Jon Mathieu |publisher=Polity Press |year=2019 |isbn=978-1-5095-2774-8 |page=}}</ref>

During the [[Napoleonic Wars]] in the late 18th century and early 19th century, [[Napoleon]] annexed territory formerly controlled by the House of Habsburg, and the House of Savoy. In 1798, the [[Helvetic Republic]] was established, two years later an army across the [[Great St Bernard Pass]].<ref>Shoumatoff (2001), 182–183</ref> In 1799 the Russian imperial military engaged the revolutionary French army in the Alps, this episode has been recorded as significant achievement in [[mountain warfare]].<ref>{{Cite book |title=At War's Summit |author1=Alexander Statiev |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2018 |isbn=978-1-108-68417-0 |page=12}}</ref> In October 1799 the troops commanded by [[Alexander Suvorov]] were surrounded in the Alps by much larger French troops. The Russian troops broke out, mauled the French troops, and retreated through the [[Panix Pass]].<ref>{{Cite book |title=Battlefield Emotions 1500-1800: Practices, Experience, Imagination |editor1=Cornelis van der Haven |editor2=Erika Kuijpers |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan UK |year=2016 |isbn=978-1-137-56490-0 |page=96}}</ref>

After the fall of Napoleon, many alpine countries developed heavy protections to prevent further invasion. Thus, [[Savoy]] built a series of fortifications to protect the major alpine passes, such as the [[col du Mont-Cenis]], which was crossed by [[Charlemagne]] to obliterate the [[Lombards]].

In the 19th century, the monasteries built in the Alps to shelter humans became tourist destinations. The [[Benedictine]]s had built monasteries in [[Lucerne]], and [[Oberammergau]]. The [[Cistercian]]s built their temple at [[Lake Constance]]. Meanwhile, the [[Augustinians]] maintained abbeys in [[Savoy]] and one in [[Interlaken]].<ref>Beattie, (2006), 69-70</ref>

=== Exploration ===
{{main|Exploration of the High Alps}}

[[Radiocarbon dating|Radiocarbon]]-dated charcoal placed around 50,000 years ago was found in the ''Drachloch'' (Dragon's Hole) cave above the village of Vattis in the [[canton of St. Gallen]], proving that the high peaks were visited by prehistoric people. Seven bear skulls from the cave may have been buried by the same prehistoric people.<ref>Shoumatoff (2001), 108</ref> The peaks, however, were mostly ignored except for a few notable examples, and long left to the exclusive attention of the people of the adjoining valleys.{{sfn|Coolidge|Lake|Knox|1911|p=748}}<ref name="Shoumatoff188ff">Shoumatoff (2001), 188–191</ref> The mountain peaks were seen as terrifying, the abode of dragons and demons, to the point that people blindfolded themselves to cross the Alpine passes.<ref>Fleming (2000), 6</ref> The glaciers remained a mystery and many still believed the highest areas to be inhabited by dragons.<ref>Fleming (2000), 12</ref>

[[Charles VII of France]] ordered his [[chamberlain (office)|chamberlain]] to climb [[Mont Aiguille]] in 1356. The knight reached the summit of [[Rocciamelone]] where he left a bronze triptych of three crosses, a feat which he conducted with the use of ladders to traverse the ice.<ref>Fleming (2000), 5</ref> In 1492, Antoine de Ville climbed Mont Aiguille, without reaching the summit, an experience he described as "horrifying and terrifying."<ref name="Shoumatoff188ff" /> [[Leonardo da Vinci]] was fascinated by variations of light in the higher altitudes, and climbed a mountain—scholars are uncertain which one; some believe it may have been [[Monte Rosa]]. From his description of a "blue like that of a gentian" sky it is thought that he reached a significantly high altitude.<ref>qtd in Shoumatoff (2001), 193</ref> In the 18th century four [[Chamonix]] men almost made the summit of Mont Blanc but were overcome by altitude sickness and snowblindness.<ref>Shoumatoff (2001), 192–194</ref>

[[File:Descent from Mont-Blanc in 1787.jpg|thumb|[[Horace Bénédict de Saussure]] shown in, Descent from Mont-Blanc, by [[Christian von Mechel]]]]
[[Conrad Gessner]] was the first naturalist to ascend the mountains in the 16th century, to study them, writing that in the mountains he found the "theatre of the Lord".<ref>Fleming (2000), 8</ref> By the 19th century more naturalists began to arrive to explore, study and conquer the high peaks.<ref name="Fleming vii">Fleming (2000), vii</ref> Two men who first explored the regions of ice and snow were [[Horace-Bénédict de Saussure]] (1740–1799) in the Pennine Alps,<ref>Fleming (2000), 27</ref> and the Benedictine monk of [[Disentis]] [[Placidus a Spescha]] (1752–1833).<ref name="Fleming vii" /> Born in Geneva, Saussure was enamoured with the mountains from an early age; he left a law career to become a naturalist and spent many years trekking through the Bernese Oberland, the Savoy, the Piedmont and Valais, studying the glaciers and geology, as he became an early proponent of the theory of rock upheaval.<ref>Fleming (2000), 12–13, 30, 27</ref> Saussure, in 1787, was a member of the third ascent of Mont Blanc—today the summits of all the peaks have been climbed.<ref name = "Shoumatoff197ff"/>

=== The Romantics and Alpinists ===
[[File:Caspar David Friedrich 032.jpg|thumb|upright|''[[Wanderer above the Sea of Fog]]'' by [[Caspar David Friedrich]]]]
[[Albrecht von Haller]]'s poem ''Die Alpen'', published in 1732 described the mountains as an area of mythical purity.<ref>Beattie, (2006), 121–123</ref> [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]] presented the Alps as a place of allure and beauty, in his novel ''[[Julie, or the New Heloise]]'', published in 1761. Later the first wave of [[Romanticism]] such as [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe]], and [[J. M. W. Turner]] came to admire the Alpine scenery;<ref>''Goethe en Suisse et dans les Alpes: Voyages de 1775, 1779 et 1797''</ref> [[William Wordsworth|Wordsworth]] visited the area in 1790, writing of his experiences in ''[[The Prelude]]'' (1799). Schiller later wrote the play ''[[William Tell (play)|William Tell]]'' (1804), which tells the story of the legendary Swiss marksman [[William Tell]] as part of the greater Swiss struggle for independence from the [[House of Habsburg|Habsburg Empire]] in the early 14th century. At the end of the [[Napoleonic Wars]], the Alpine countries began to see an influx of poets, artists, and musicians,<ref name="Fleming 2000, 83">Fleming (2000), 83</ref> as visitors came to experience the [[Sublime (philosophy)|sublime]] effects of monumental nature.<ref>Beattie, (2006), 125–126</ref>

In 1816, [[Lord Byron|Byron]], [[Percy Bysshe Shelley]] and his wife [[Mary Shelley]] visited Geneva and all three were inspired by the scenery in their writings.<ref name="Fleming 2000, 83"/> During these visits, Shelley wrote the poem "[[Mont Blanc (poem)|Mont Blanc]]", Byron wrote "[[The Prisoner of Chillon]]" and the dramatic poem ''[[Manfred (drama)|Manfred]]'', and Mary Shelley, who found the scenery overwhelming, conceived the idea for the novel ''[[Frankenstein]]'' in her villa on the shores of Lake Geneva amid a thunderstorm. When [[Samuel Taylor Coleridge|Coleridge]] travelled to [[Chamonix]], he declaimed, in defiance of Shelley, who had signed himself "Atheos" in the guestbook of the Hotel de Londres near Montenvers,<ref>Geoffrey Hartman, [https://archive.today/20130415150259/http://litthe.oxfordjournals.org/content/24/1/4.full "Gods, Ghosts, and Shelley's 'Atheos'"], ''Literature and Theology'', Volume 24, Issue 1, pp. 4–18</ref> "Who would be, who could be an atheist in this valley of wonders".<ref>Beattie, (2006), 127–133</ref>

By the mid-19th century, scientists began to arrive en masse to study the geology and ecology of the region.<ref>Beattie, (2006), 139</ref>

The tourism and mountaineering development of the Alps began at the beginning of the 19th century. In the early years of the [[golden age of alpinism]], scientific activities were mixed with sport, for example by the physicist [[John Tyndall]], with the first ascent of the Matterhorn by [[Edward Whymper]] being the highlight. In the later years, the [[silver age of alpinism]], the focus was on mountain sports and climbing. The first president of the [[Alpine Club (UK)|Alpine Club]], [[John Ball (naturalist)|John Ball]], is considered the discoverer of the Dolomites, which for decades were the focus of climbers like [[Paul Grohmann]], [[Michael Innerkofler]] and [[Angelo Dibona]].<ref>{{cite journal |title=Cliffhanger at the top of the world |author=Fleming, Fergus |date=November 3, 2000 |journal=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/books/2000/nov/04/historybooks.books |access-date=January 3, 2021 |archive-date=April 14, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414090959/https://www.theguardian.com/books/2000/nov/04/historybooks.books |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>Gilles Modica "1865: the Golden Age of Mountaineering" (2016), pp 10.</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.dolomythos.com/de/lexikon/besteigung-berge.asp |title=Die Besteigung der Berge - Die Dolomitgipfel werden erobert (German: The ascent of the mountains - the dolomite peaks are conquered) |access-date=January 3, 2021 |archive-date=November 24, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201124230906/https://www.dolomythos.com/de/lexikon/besteigung-berge.asp |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== The Nazis ===
[[File:Ghent altarpiece at Altaussee.jpg|thumb|left|The Nazis hid looted art in salt mines at [[Altaussee]], such as the [[Early Netherlandish art|Early Netherlandish]] ''[[Ghent Altarpiece]]'' which sustained significant damage.]]

In autumn 1932, [[Adolf Hitler]] commissioned the first of a series of refurbishments, which eventually turned a mountain cottage, later named [[Berghof (residence)|Berghof]], into a fortified [[citadel]]. This domestic, but representative, fortification had two small bedrooms, and a full bathroom, planned by the Munich architect and NSDAP member [[Josef Neumaier]]. Guests, such as [[Rudolf Hess]], stayed over, sleeping in tents or over the garage.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Hitler at Home |author1=Despina Stratigakos |publisher=Yale University Press |year=2015 |isbn=978-0-300-18760-1 |page=}}</ref>

The Alps, Adolf Hitler, and improbable powerful organizations have been subject to [[crime fiction]].<ref>{{Cite book |title=Nazis on the Run: How Hitler's Henchmen Fled Justice |author1=Gerald Steinacher |publisher=OUP Oxford |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-19-165376-6 |page=xvi}}</ref> The Alps acted as a geographical barrier to [[Italy]], and the Alps for centuries were permeated with established smuggling routes, known as ''green line''. After World War II, members of the [[Schutzstaffel]] that feared prosecution as [[war criminal]]s, known in modern English only as ''SS'', disappeared into a crowd of [[refugee]]s.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Nazis on the Run: How Hitler's Henchmen Fled Justice |author1=Gerald Steinacher |publisher=OUP Oxford |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-19-165376-6 |page=3}}</ref> Massive numbers of refugees entered Italy illegally, by navigating the Alps.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Nazis on the Run: How Hitler's Henchmen Fled Justice |author1=Gerald Steinacher |publisher=OUP Oxford |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-19-165376-6 |page=15}}</ref>

There were [[Ratlines (World War II)|Ratlines]] (i.e. one through Spain and the second through Rome and Genoa) used by German Nazis and other fascists to flee Europe from 1945 onwards.

=== Undocumented migrants ===
[[Smugglers]] of humans have claimed that crossing the Alps is less dangerous, or deadly, than traveling 355&nbsp;km on water between [[Tripoli, Libya|Tripoli]] and [[Lampedusa]] with a [[tramp ship]] (''carretta del mare'') or a [[dinghy]]. Some undocumented migrants, visa overstayers, false tourists, asylum seekers, and other clandestine humans, have died crossing the Alps. Their exact number can only be estimated.<ref>{{Cite book |title=The History of Migration in Europe: Perspectives from Economics, Politics and Sociology |editor1=Francesca Fauri |publisher=Taylor & Francis |year=2014 |isbn=978-1-317-67828-1 |page=}}</ref> 
Today, people with smartphones can plan their travel routes, find their way around with Google Maps, and find information about travelling routes on social media.

==Society==
===Largest Alpine cities===
The largest city within the Alps is the city of [[Grenoble]] in [[France]]. Other larger and important cities within the Alps with over 100,000 inhabitants are in [[Tyrol]] with [[Bolzano|Bolzano/Bozen]] ([[Italy]]), [[Trento]] ([[Italy]]) and [[Innsbruck]] ([[Austria]]). Larger cities outside the Alps are [[Milan]], [[Verona]], [[Turin]] (Italy), [[Munich]] (Germany), [[Graz]], [[Vienna]], [[Salzburg]] (Austria), [[Ljubljana]], [[Maribor]], [[Kranj]] (Slovenia), [[Zurich]], [[Geneva]] (Switzerland), [[Nice]] and [[Lyon]] (France).

Cities with over 100,000 inhabitants in the Alps are:
{| class="wikitable sortable zebra"
|-
! Rank !! Municipality !! Inhabitants !! Country !! Region
|-
| align="right" | 1 || [[File:Blason ville fr Grenoble (Isere).svg|35px]] [[Grenoble]] || align="right" | 162,780 || [[France]] || [[File:Blason Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes.svg|35px]] [[Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes]]
|-
| align="right" | 2 || [[File:AUT Innsbruck COA.svg|35px]] [[Innsbruck]] || align="right" | 132,236 || [[Austria]] || [[File:AUT Tirol COA.svg|35px]] [[Tyrol (federal state)|Tyrol]]
|-
| align="right" | 3 || [[File:Trient.JPG|35px]] [[Trento]] || align="right" | 117,417 || [[Italy]] || [[File:Coat of arms of Trentino-South Tyrol.svg|35px]] [[Trentino-South Tyrol]]
|-
| align="right" | 4 || [[File:ITA Bolzano COA.svg|35px]] [[Bolzano|Bolzano/Bozen]] || align="right" | 106,951 || [[Italy]] || [[File:Coat of arms of Trentino-South Tyrol.svg|35px]] [[Trentino-South Tyrol]]
|}

=== Alpine people and culture ===
{{further|Transhumance in the Alps|Swiss folklore}}
The population of the region is 14&nbsp;million spread across eight countries.<ref name = "Chatré8"/> On the rim of the mountains, on the plateaus, and on the plains the economy consists of manufacturing and service jobs whereas in the higher altitudes and the mountains farming is still essential to the economy.<ref>Chartes et. el. (2010), 14</ref> Farming and forestry continue to be mainstays of Alpine culture, industries that provide for export to the cities and maintain the mountain ecology.<ref name="Chartes et. el. 2010, 5">Chartes et. el. (2010), 5</ref>

The Alpine regions are multicultural and linguistically diverse. Dialects are common and vary from valley to valley and region to region. In the Slavic Alps alone 19 dialects have been identified. Some of the Romance dialects spoken in the French, Swiss and Italian alps of [[Aosta Valley]] derive from [[Arpitan]], while the southern part of the western range is related to [[Occitan language|Occitan]]; the German dialects derive from Germanic tribal languages.<ref name="Shoumataff 2001, 114–166">Shoumataff (2001), 114–166</ref> [[Romansh language|Romansh]], spoken by two percent of the population in southeast Switzerland, is an ancient [[Rhaeto-Romance languages|Rhaeto-Romanic language]] derived from Latin, remnants of ancient Celtic languages and perhaps [[Etruscan language|Etruscan]].<ref name="Shoumataff 2001, 114–166"/>

[[File:Hallstatt - Nordansicht.JPG|thumb|[[Hallstatt]] is known for its production of salt, dating back to prehistoric times ([[Hallstatt culture]] ]]
Much of the Alpine culture is unchanged since hundreds of years when skills that guaranteed survival in the mountain valleys and the highest villages became mainstays, leading to strong traditions of carpentry, woodcarving, baking, pastry-making, and cheesemaking.<ref name = "Shoumatoff123ff">Shoumataff (2001), 123–126</ref>

Farming has been a traditional occupation for centuries, although it became less dominant in the 20th century with the advent of tourism. Grazing and pasture land are limited because of the steep and rocky topography of the Alps. In mid-June, cows are moved to the highest pastures close to the snowline, where they are watched by herdsmen who stay in the high altitudes often living in stone huts or wooden barns during the summers.<ref name = "Shoumatoff123ff"/> Villagers celebrate the day the cows are herded up to the pastures and again when they return in mid-September. The [[Almabtrieb|Almabtrieb, Alpabzug, Alpabfahrt, Désalpes]] ("coming down from the alps") is celebrated by decorating the cows with garlands and enormous [[cowbell]]s while the farmers dress in traditional costumes.<ref name = "Shoumatoff123ff"/>

[[File:LeMonal-fontaine-chapelle-Savoie.JPG|thumb|left|In the summers the cows are brought up to the high mountain meadows for grazing. Small summer villages such as the one shown in this photograph taken in [[Savoy]] are used.]]

Cheesemaking is an ancient tradition in most Alpine countries. A wheel of cheese from the [[Emmental]] in Switzerland can weigh up to {{cvt|45|kg|-1}}, and the [[Beaufort cheese|Beaufort]] in [[Savoy]] can weigh up to {{cvt|70|kg|lb|-1}}. Owners of the cows traditionally receive from the cheesemakers a portion about the proportion of the cows' milk from the summer months in the high alps. Haymaking is an important farming activity in mountain villages that have become somewhat mechanized in recent years, although the slopes are so steep that scythes are usually necessary to cut the grass. Hay is normally brought in twice a year, often also on festival days.<ref name = "Shoumatoff123ff"/>

In the high villages, people live in homes built according to medieval designs that withstand cold winters. The kitchen is separated from the living area (called the ''stube'', the area of the home heated by a stove), and second-floor bedrooms benefit from rising heat. The typical Swiss [[chalet]] originated in the [[Bernese Oberland]]. Chalets often face south or downhill and are built of solid wood, with a steeply gabled roof to allow accumulated snow to slide off easily. Stairs leading to upper levels are sometimes built on the outside, and balconies are sometimes enclosed.<ref name = "Shoumatoff123ff"/><ref>Shoumataff (2001), 134</ref>
[[File:Schaufschod 2009 05.JPG|thumb|Herding sheep in Austria]]

Food is passed from the kitchen to the stube, where the dining room table is placed. Some meals are communal, such as [[fondue]], where a pot is set in the middle of the table for each person to dip into. Other meals are still served traditionally on carved wooden plates. Furniture has been traditionally elaborately carved and in many Alpine countries, carpentry skills are passed from generation to generation.
[[File:Toit de Lauzes.jpg|thumb|left|Alpine chalet being built in Haute-[[Maurienne]] (Savoy). The use of thick pieces of [[orthogneiss]] (4–7&nbsp;cm) is by the strict architectural regulations in the region bordering the national parks of Vanoise-Grand Paradis.]]
Roofs are traditionally constructed from Alpine rocks such as pieces of [[schist]], gneiss, or [[slate]].<ref>Shoumataff (2001), 131, 134</ref> Such chalets are typically found in the higher parts of the valleys, as in the [[Maurienne]] valley in [[Savoy]], where the amount of snow during the cold months is important. The inclination of the roof cannot exceed 40%, allowing the snow to stay on top, thereby functioning as insulation from the cold.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cauesavoie.org/wp-content/uploads/Fascicule-haute-maurienne.pdf |title=Cahier d'architecture Haute Maurienne/Vanoise |access-date=March 15, 2014 |archive-date=November 3, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131103230446/http://www.cauesavoie.org/wp-content/uploads/Fascicule-haute-maurienne.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> In the lower areas where the forests are widespread, wooden tiles are traditionally used. Commonly made of [[Norway spruce]], they are called "tavaillon".

In the German-speaking parts of the Alps ([[Austria]], [[Bavaria]], [[South Tyrol]], [[Liechtenstein]] and [[Switzerland]]) and also [[Slovenia]], there is a strong tradition of Alpine [[folk culture]]. Old traditions are carefully maintained among inhabitants of Alpine areas, even though this is seldom obvious to the visitor: many people are members of cultural associations where the Alpine [[folk culture]] is cultivated. At cultural events, traditional [[folk costume]] (in German ''[[Tracht]]'') is expected: typically [[lederhosen]] for men and [[dirndl]]s for women. Visitors can get a glimpse of the rich customs of the Alps at public [[Volksfest]]e. Even when large events feature only a little folk culture, all participants take part with gusto. Good opportunities to see local people celebrating the traditional culture occur at the many fairs, wine festivals, and firefighting festivals which fill weekends in the countryside from spring to autumn. Alpine festivals vary from country to country. Frequently they include music (e.g. the playing of [[Alpenhorn]]s), dance (e.g. [[Schuhplattler]]), sports (e.g. wrestling marches and archery), as well as traditions with pagan roots such as the lighting of fires on [[Walpurgis Night]] and [[Saint John's Eve]]. Many areas celebrate [[Swabian-Alemannic Fastnacht|Fastnacht]] in the weeks before [[Lent]]. Folk costume also continues to be worn for most weddings and festivals.<ref>Shoumataff (2001), 129, 135</ref><ref name="marcopolo1">Anita Ericson, ''Österreich'' [Marco Polo travel guide], 13th edition, Marco Polo, Ostfildern (Germany), 2017, Pp. 21f.</ref>

=== Tourism ===
{{further|List of national parks in the Alps|Tourism in Austria|Tourism in France|Tourism in Germany|Tourism in Italy|Tourism in Switzerland|}}
[[File:Karl Schranz, Lauberhorn 1966.jpg|thumb|[[Karl Schranz]] running the [[Lauberhorn]] in 1966]]

The Alps are one of the more popular tourist destinations in the world with many resorts such as [[Oberstdorf]], in Bavaria, [[Saalbach-Hinterglemm|Saalbach]] in Austria, [[Davos]] in Switzerland, [[Chamonix]] in France, and [[Cortina d'Ampezzo]] in Italy recording more than a million annual visitors. With over 120&nbsp;million visitors a year, tourism is integral to the Alpine economy with much of it coming from winter sports, although summer visitors are also an important component.<ref name="Bart">Bartaletti, Fabrizio.[http://alpsknowhow.cipra.org/background_topics/alps_and_tourism/alps_and_tourism_chapter_introduction.html "What Role Do the Alps Play within World Tourism?"] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090427175833/http://alpsknowhow.cipra.org/background_topics/alps_and_tourism/alps_and_tourism_chapter_introduction.html |date=April 27, 2009}}. ''Commission Internationale pour la Protection des Alpes''. CIRPA.org. Retrieved August 9, 2012</ref>

The tourism industry began in the early 19th century when foreigners visited the Alps, travelled to the bases of the mountains to enjoy the scenery, and stayed at the spa-resorts. Large hotels were built during the [[Belle Époque]]; [[Rack railway|cog-railways]], built early in the 20th century, brought tourists to ever-higher elevations, with the [[Jungfraubahn]] terminating at the Jungfraujoch, well above the eternal snow-line, after going through a tunnel in Eiger. During this period winter sports were slowly introduced: in 1882 the first [[figure skating]] championship was held in [[St. Moritz]], and downhill skiing became a popular sport with English visitors early in the 20th century,<ref name="Bart" /> as the first ski-lift was installed in 1908 above Grindelwald.<ref>Beattie (2006), 198</ref>

In the first half of the 20th century the Olympic Winter Games were held three times in Alpine venues: the [[1924 Winter Olympics]] in Chamonix, France; the [[1928 Winter Olympics]] in St. Moritz, Switzerland; and the [[1936 Winter Olympics]] in [[Garmisch-Partenkirchen]], Germany. During World War II the winter games were cancelled but after that time the Winter Games have been held in [[1948 Winter Olympics|St. Moritz (1948)]], [[1956 Winter Olympics|Cortina d'Ampezzo (1956)]], [[Innsbruck]], Austria (1964 and 1976), [[Grenoble]], France, (1968), [[Albertville]], France, (1992), and [[2006 Winter Olympics|Turin (2006)]].<ref>[http://www.olympic.org/olympic-games "21 Past Olympic Games"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171031180752/https://www.olympic.org/olympic-games |date=October 31, 2017}}. Olympic.org. Retrieved August 13, 2012</ref> In 1930, the ''Lauberhorn Rennen'' (Lauberhorn Race), was run for the first time on the [[Lauberhorn]] above [[Wengen]];<ref>[http://www.lauberhorn.ch/en/about/history/history Lauberhorn History] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120813074247/http://www.lauberhorn.ch/en/about/history/history |date=August 13, 2012 }}. Retrieved August 14, 2012.</ref> the equally demanding [[Hahnenkamm, Kitzbühel|Hahnenkamm]] was first run in the same year in [[Kitzbühl]], Austria.<ref>[http://www.hahnenkamm.com/hkr-history.html "Hahenkamm Races Kitzbuhel"] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110219001756/http://www.hahnenkamm.com/hkr-history.html |date=February 19, 2011 }}. HKR.com. Retrieved August 13, 2012,</ref> Both races continue to be held each January on successive weekends. The Lauberhorn is the more strenuous downhill race at {{cvt|4.5|km}} and poses danger to racers who reach {{cvt|130|km/h}} within seconds of leaving the start gate.<ref>[http://www.lauberhorn.ch/en/Rennen/overview/downhill Lauberhorn Downhill] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304142035/http://www.lauberhorn.ch/en/Rennen/overview/downhill |date=March 4, 2016}}. Retrieved August 14, 2012.</ref>

During the post-World War I period, ski lifts were built in Swiss and Austrian towns to accommodate winter visitors, and summer tourism continued to be important. By the mid-20th century the popularity of downhill skiing increased greatly as it became more accessible and in the 1970s several new villages were built in France devoted almost exclusively to skiing, such as [[Les Menuires]]. Until this point, Austria and Switzerland had been the traditional and more popular destinations for winter sports, and by the end of the 20th century and into the early 21st century, France, Italy, and Tyrol began to see increases in winter visitors.<ref name="Bart" /> Since the 1980s tourism expansion and easy global access generate grave concerns regarding the loss of traditional Alpine culture and many uncertainties about sustainable development.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Briand |first1=F. |last2=Dubost |first2=M. |last3=Pitt |first3=D. |last4=Rambaud |first4=D. |title=The Alps - A system under pressure |date=1989 |publisher=IUCN |isbn=2-88032-983-3 |page=128 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/232298139}}</ref> As a likely result of climatic change, the number of high altitude ski resorts and piste km is in decline since 2015, with snow-making machines installed at many sites.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://marmotamaps.com/de/blog/skigebiete-der-alpen-die-entwicklung/ |title=Ski resorts of the Alps: the development, 'Marmota Maps' |date=November 15, 2019 |access-date=17 October 2021 |archive-date=October 17, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211017225402/https://marmotamaps.com/de/blog/skigebiete-der-alpen-die-entwicklung/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Transportation ===
[[File:ZB Interregio mit HGe 101 bei Niederried.jpg|thumb|[[Zentralbahn]] Interregio train following the [[Lake Brienz]] shoreline, near [[Niederried bei Interlaken|Niederried]] in Switzerland]]

The region is serviced by {{cvt|4200|km}} of roads used by six million vehicles per year.<ref name = "Chatré8"/> Train travel is well established in the Alps, with, for instance {{cvt|120|km}} of track for every {{cvt|1000|km2}} in a country such as Switzerland.<ref>[http://www.swissworld.org/en/economy/transport/rail/ "Rail".] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130527113029/http://www.swissworld.org/en/economy/transport/rail/ |date=May 27, 2013 }} Swissworld.org. Retrieved August 20, 2012,</ref> Most of [[List of highest railways in Europe|Europe's highest railways]] are located there. In 2007, the new {{convert|34.57|km|mi|abbr=on|adj=mid|-long}} [[Lötschberg Base Tunnel]] was opened, which circumvents the 100 years older [[Lötschberg Tunnel]]. With the opening of the {{convert|57.1|km|mi|abbr=on|adj=mid|-long}} [[Gotthard Base Tunnel]] on June 1, 2016, it bypasses the [[Gotthard Tunnel]] built in the 19th century and realizes the first flat route through the Alps.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.alptransit-portal.ch/en/landingpage/ |title=Welcome to the AlpTransit Portal |publisher=Swiss Federal Archives SFA |location=Bern |access-date=June 3, 2016 |archive-date=August 16, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160816144532/https://www.alptransit-portal.ch/en/landingpage/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

Some high mountain villages are [[Pedestrian zone|car-free]] either because of inaccessibility or by choice. [[Wengen]], and [[Zermatt]] (in Switzerland) are accessible only by [[Aerial lift|cable car]] or [[rack railway|cog-rail train]]s. [[Avoriaz]] (in France), is car-free, with other Alpine villages considering becoming car-free zones or limiting the number of cars for reasons of sustainability of the fragile Alpine terrain.<ref>Hudson (2000), 107</ref>

The lower regions and larger towns of the Alps are well-served by motorways and main roads, but higher mountain passes and byroads, which are amongst the [[List of highest paved roads in Europe|highest in Europe]], can be treacherous even in summer due to steep slopes. Many passes are closed in winter. Several airports around the Alps (and some within), as well as long-distance rail links from all neighbouring countries, afford large numbers of travellers easy access.<ref name = "Chatré8"/>

{{Clear}}

== Notes ==
{{notelist}}

== References ==
{{reflist|22em}}

== Works cited ==
{{refbegin|30em}}
* [[Alpine Convention]]. (2010). ''[https://issuu.com/alpconv/docs/vademecum The Alps: People and pressures in the mountains, the facts at a glance] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211128114440/https://issuu.com/alpconv/docs/vademecum |date=November 28, 2021 }}''
* Allaby, Michael et al. ''The Encyclopedia of Earth''. (2008). Berkeley: University of California Press. {{ISBN|978-0-520-25471-8}}
* Beattie, Andrew. (2006). ''The Alps: A Cultural History''. New York: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|978-0-19-530955-3}}
* Benniston, Martin, et al. (2011). "Impact of Climatic Change on Water and Natural Hazards in the Alps". ''Environmental Science and Policy''. Volume 30. 1–9
* Cebon, Peter, et al. (1998). ''Views from the Alps: Regional Perspectives on Climate Change''. Cambridge MA: MIT Press. {{ISBN|978-0-262-03252-0}}
* Chatré, Baptiste, et al. (2010). ''The Alps: People and Pressures in the Mountains, the Facts at a Glance''. Permanent Secretariat of the [[Alpine Convention]] (alpconv.org). Retrieved August 4, 2012. {{ISBN|978-88-905158-2-8}}
* {{EB1911 |wstitle=Alps |volume=1 |last1= Coolidge |first1= William Augustus Brevoort |author-link1=W. A. B. Coolidge |last2= Lake |first2= Philip |author-link2=Philip Lake |last3= Knox |first3= Howard Vincent |pages=737–754 |short=1}}
* De Graciansky, Pierre-Charles et al. (2011). ''The Western Alps, From Rift to Passive Margin to Orogenic Belt''. Amsterdam: Elsevier. {{ISBN|978-0-444-53724-9}}
* Feuer, A.B. (2006). ''Packs On!: Memoirs of the 10th Mountain Division in World War II''. Mechanicsburg, Pennsylvania: Stackpole Books. {{ISBN|978-0-8117-3289-5}}
* Fleming, Fergus. (2000). ''Killing Dragons: The Conquest of the Alps''. New York: Grove. {{ISBN|978-0-8021-3867-5}}
* Gerrard, AJ. (1990) ''Mountain Environments: An Examination of the Physical Geography of Mountains''. Boston: MIT Press. {{ISBN|978-0-262-07128-4}}
* Halbrook, Stephen P. (1998). ''Target Switzerland: Swiss Armed Neutrality in World War II''. Rockville Center, NY: Sarpedon. {{ISBN|978-1-885119-53-7}}
* Halbrook, Stephen P. (2006). ''The Swiss and the Nazis: How the Alpine Republic Survived in the Shadow of the Third Reich''. Havertown, PA: Casemate. {{ISBN|978-1-932033-42-7}}
* Hudson, Simon. (2000). ''Snow Business: A Study of the International Ski Industry''. New York: Cengage {{ISBN|978-0-304-70471-2}}
* Körner, Christian. (2003). ''Alpine Plant Life''. New York: Springer Verlag. {{ISBN|978-3-540-00347-2}}
* Lancel, Serge. (1999). ''Hannibal''. Oxford: Blackwell. {{ISBN|978-0-631-21848-7}}
* Mitchell, Arthur H. (2007). ''Hitler's Mountain''. Jefferson, NC: McFarland. {{ISBN|978-0-7864-2458-0}}
* Prevas, John. (2001). ''Hannibal Crosses The Alps: The Invasion Of Italy And The Punic Wars''. Cambridge, MA: Da Capo Press. {{ISBN|978-0-306-81070-1}}
* Reynolds, Kev. (2012) ''The Swiss Alps''. Cicerone Press. {{ISBN|978-1-85284-465-3}}
* Roth, Philipe. (2007). ''Minerals first Discovered in Switzerland''. Lausanne, CH: Museum of Geology. {{ISBN|978-3-9807561-8-1}}
* Schmid, Stefan M. (2004). "Regional tectonics: from the Rhine graben to the Po plain, a summary of the tectonic evolution of the Alps and their forelands". Basel: Geologisch-Paläontologisches Institut
* Sharp, Hilary. (2002). ''Trekking and Climbing in the Western Alps''. London: New Holland. {{ISBN|978-0-8117-2954-3}}
* Shoumatoff, Nicholas and Nina. (2001). ''The Alps: Europe's Mountain Heart''. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press. {{ISBN|978-0-472-11111-4}}
* Viazzo, Pier Paolo. (1980). ''Upland Communities: Environment, Population and Social Structure in the Alps since the Sixteenth Century''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. {{ISBN|978-0-521-30663-8}}
{{refend}}

== External links ==
* [http://modis.gsfc.nasa.gov/gallery/individual.php?db_date=September 17, 2005 Satellite photo of the Alps], taken on August 31, 2005, by [[MODIS]] aboard [[Terra (satellite)|Terra]]
* [http://www.alpine-space.eu Official website of the Alpine Space Programme] This EU-co-funded programme co-finances transnational projects in the Alpine region

{{Mountains of France}}
{{Italy topics}}
{{Subject bar|auto=1|Alps|Mountains|Geography|Europe|Austria|France|Germany|Hungary|Italy|Monaco|Slovenia|Switzerland}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Alps| ]]
[[Category:Geography of Europe]]
[[Category:Mountain ranges of Austria]]
[[Category:Mountain ranges of France]]
[[Category:Mountain ranges of Germany]]
[[Category:Mountain ranges of Hungary]]
[[Category:Mountain ranges of Italy]]
[[Category:Mountain ranges of Liechtenstein]]
[[Category:Mountain ranges of Monaco]]
[[Category:Mountain ranges of Slovenia]]
[[Category:Mountain ranges of Switzerland]]
[[Category:Physiographic provinces]]