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{{short description|Mughal emperor from 1556 to 1605}}
{{about|the third Mughal emperor}}
{{pp-extended|small=yes}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2023}}
{{Use Indian English|date=May 2023}}
{{Infobox royalty
| image        = Govardhan. Akbar With Lion and Calf ca. 1630, Metmuseum (cropped).jpg
| caption      = Akbar with a lion and a calf, by [[Govardhan (Mughal painter)|Govardhan]], {{Circa|1630}}
| name         = Akbar
| title        = [[Padishah]]<br />[[Ghazi (warrior)|Ghazi]]<ref>{{harvnb|Lal|1999|p=67|ps=: "It may be recalled that as an adolescent, Akbar had earned the title of Ghazi by beheading the defenseless infidel Himu. Under Akbar and Jahangir 'five or six hundred thousand human beings were killed,' says emperor Jahangir"}}</ref> <br /> [[Shahenshah-e-Hind]]<br />(King of Kings of India)
| succession   = [[List of emperors of the Mughal Empire|Emperor of Hindustan]]
| reign        = 11 February 1556&nbsp;– 27 October 1605<ref name="Eraly2000p117">{{harvnb|Eraly|2000|pp=114, 117}}</ref><ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Akbar (Mughal emperor) |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/11421/Akbar |access-date=18 January 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130127124428/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/11421/Akbar |archive-date=27 January 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref>
| coronation   = 14 February 1556<ref name="Eraly2000p117" />
| predecessor  = [[Humayun]]<br />[[Hemu]] (as ruler of Delhi)
| successor    = [[Jahangir]]
| regent       = [[Bairam Khan]] (1556–1560)<ref>{{harvnb|Chandra|2005|p=95}}</ref>
| spouse       = {{unbulleted list|
{{Marriage|[[Ruqaiya Sultan Begum]]|1556}}<ref name="Thackston1999p437">{{harvnb|Jahangir|1999|p=437|ps=: "Ruqayya-Sultan Begam, the daughter of Mirza Hindal and wife of His Majesty Arsh-Ashyani [Akbar], had passed away in Akbarabad. She was His Majesty's chief wife. Since she did not have children, when Shahjahan was born His Majesty Arsh-Ashyani entrusted that 'unique pearl of the caliphate' to the begam's care, and she undertook to raise the prince. She departed this life at the age of eighty-four."}}</ref>
|{{Marriage|[[Salima Sultan Begum]]|1561}}
|{{Marriage|[[Mariam-uz-Zamani]]|1562}}<ref name="farishta">{{harvnb|Hindu Shah|1595–1612|p=223|ps=: "Akbur, after this conquest, made pilgrimage to Khwaja Moyin-ood-Deen Chishty at Ajmere and returned to Agra; from whence he proceeded to visit the venerable Sheikh Sulim Chishty, in the village of Seekry. As all the king's children had hitherto died, he solicited the Sheikh's prayers, who consoled him, by assuring him he would soon have a son, who would live to a good old age. Shortly after, the favourite sooltana, being then pregnant, on Wednesday the 17th of Rubbee-ool-Awul, in the year 997 was delivered of a son, who was called Sulim."}}</ref><ref name="jlmehta">{{harvnb|Mehta|1984|p=222|ps=: "Bihari Mal gave rich dowry to his daughter and sent his son Bhagwan Das with a contingent of Rajput soldiers to escort his newly married sister to Agra as per Hindu custom. Akbar was deeply impressed by the highly dignified, sincere and princely conduct of his Rajput relations. He took Man Singh, the youthful son of Bhagwant Das into the royal service. Akbar was fascinated by the charm and accomplishments of his Rajput wife; he developed real love for her and raised her to the status of chief queen. She came to exercise profound impact on socio-cultural environment of the entire royal household and changed the lifestyle of Akbar. Salim (later Jahangir), heir to the throne, was born of this wedlock on 30th August, 1569."}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Ahloowalia|2009|p=130}}</ref> }}
| spouse-type  = Consorts
| spouses-type = Wives
| spouses      = {{unbulleted list|
|{{Marriage|Raj Kunwari|1570}}
|{{Marriage|Nathi Bai|1570}}
|{{Marriage|Bhakkari Begum|1572}}
|{{Marriage|Qasima Banu Begum|1575}}
|Gauhar-un-Nissa Begum
|Bibi Daulat Shad
|Rukmavati
|''[[#Consorts and concubines|several others]]''}}
| issue        = {{Unbulleted list|
|[[Mariam-uz-Zamani#Birth of twins|Hassan Mirza]]
|[[Mariam-uz-Zamani#Birth of twins|Hussain Mirza]]
|[[Jahangir]]
|[[Shahzada Khanam]]
|[[Murad Mirza (son of Akbar)|Murad Mirza]]
|[[Shakr-un-Nissa Begum]]
|[[Daniyal Mirza]]
|[[Aram Banu Begum]]}}
| issue-link   = #Issue
| full name    = Abu'l-Fath Jalal-ud-din Muhammad Akbar<ref name="Britannica" />
| dynasty      = [[Timurid dynasty|Timurid]]
| posthumous name = Arsh-Ashyani ({{lit|One who nests on the divine throne}})
| house        = [[House of Babur]]
| father       = [[Humayun]]
| mother       = [[Hamida Banu Begum]]
| signature    = Official seal of Mughal emperor Akbar, from Or 14982-1, dating to 978 A.H. (1570–71 C.E.).jpg
| birth_name   = Jalal-ud-din Muhammad Akbar
| birth_date   = 15 October 1542{{efn|name=birth}}
| birth_place  = [[Umarkot Fort|Amarkot]], [[Sodha dynasty of Amarkot|Amarkot Kingdom]], [[Rajputana]]  <br />(modern-day [[Umerkot]], [[Sindh]], Pakistan)
| death_date   = {{death date and age|1605|10|27|1542|10|25|df=y}}
| death_place  = [[Fatehpur Sikri]], [[Agra Subah]], [[Mughal Empire]] <br /> (modern-day [[Uttar Pradesh]], India)
| burial_date  = November 1605
| burial_place = [[Akbar's tomb|Akbar's Tomb, Sikandra]], [[Agra]], India
| signature_type = Seal
| religion     = [[Sunni Islam]]<ref>{{harvnb|Black|2011|p=245}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Eraly|2000|p=189}}</ref> <br /> [[Din-i-Ilahi]]
| module       = {{Infobox military person | embed=yes
  | allegiance = {{flagicon image|Flag of the Mughal Empire.png|border=}} [[Mughal Empire]]
  | branch     = {{flagicon image|Flag of the Mughal Empire.png|border=}} [[Mughal Army]]
  | commands      = 
  | battles_label =
  | battles       = {{collapsible list|title = {{nobold|''See list''}}|{{tree list}}

* [[Second Battle of Panipat|Panipat (1556)]]
* [[Siege of Mankot (1557)|Mankot (1557)]]
* [[Battle of Thanesar (1567)|Thanesar (1567)]]
* [[Mughal–Rajput Wars]]
** Merta (1562)
** Mughal invasion of Marwar (1562–1583)
** [[Siege of Chittorgarh (1567–1568)|Chittorgarh (1567–1568)]]
** [[Siege of Ranthambore (1568)|Ranthambore (1568)]]
* [[Mughal conquest of Gujarat|Gujarat (1572–73)]]
* [[Mughal conquest of Bengal|Bengal (1572–76)]]
** [[Battle of Tukaroi|Tukaroi (1575)]]
** [[Battle of Rajmahal|Rajmahal (1576)]]
{{tree list/end}}
}}
}}
}}

'''Akbar'''{{efn|{{IPA|fa|ak.baɾ}}<ref name=time />}} (Jalal-ud-din Muhammad Akbar,<ref name="Britannica">{{Cite web |last=Ballhatchet |first=Kenneth A. |date=31 March 2023 |title=Akbar |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Akbar |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230525120830/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Akbar |archive-date=25 May 2023 |access-date=28 May 2023 |website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |language=en}}</ref> {{Birth date|1542|10|15|df=y}}{{efn|name=birth}} – {{Death date|1605|10|27|df=y}}),<ref>{{blist|{{Encyclopædia Iranica|volume=online|title=Akbar I|year=2014|last=Lehmann|first=F.|url=https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/akbar-i-mughal-india|access-date=29 May 2023|ref=none}}|{{harvnb|Beveridge Volume I|1907|pp=139–140|ref=none}}|{{Cite encyclopedia |year=2014 |title=Akbar I |encyclopedia=World Encyclopedia |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/acref/9780199546091.001.0001/acref-9780199546091-e-209 |access-date=29 May 2023 |orig-date=2004 |edition=online |doi=10.1093/acref/9780199546091.001.0001 |isbn=978-0-19-954609-1 |oclc=150655825 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230922030109/https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/acref/9780199546091.001.0001/acref-9780199546091-e-209 |archive-date=22 September 2023 |url-status=live|url-access=subscription }}}}</ref> popularly known as '''Akbar the Great''',<ref>{{harvnb|Syed|2011|p=404}}</ref> was the third [[Mughal emperors|Mughal emperor]], who reigned from 1556 to 1605. Akbar succeeded his father, [[Humayun]], under a regent, [[Bairam Khan]], who helped the young emperor expand and consolidate Mughal domains in the [[Indian subcontinent]]. He is generally considered one of the greatest emperors in Indian history and led a successful campaign to unify the various kingdoms of ''[[Hindūstān]]'' or [[Names for India#Historical definitions of a Greater India|India proper]].<ref name="Britanica">{{Citation |last=Britanica |first=Encyclopaedia |title=Akbar |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Akbar |page=2 |year=2024 |publisher=Encyclopaedia of britanica |isbn=978-0-521-56603-2 |access-date=9 August 2017 }} Quote: "Akbar, The greatest Mughal emperor of India."</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/TheMughalThrone/page/n41/mode/1up?view=theater&q=Akbar |title=The Saga of the Great Mughals |isbn=9781932705546 |access-date=19 May 2024 |last1=Early |first1=Abraham |date=2000|publisher=Sterling Publishers Pvt. }}</ref>

Akbar gradually enlarged the [[Mughal Empire]] to include much of the Indian subcontinent through Mughal military, political, cultural, and economic dominance. To unify the vast Mughal state, Akbar established a centralised system of administration and adopted a policy of conciliating conquered rulers through marriage and diplomacy. To preserve peace and order in a religiously and culturally diverse empire, he adopted policies that won him the support of his non-Muslim subjects, including abolishing the [[Jizya|sectarian tax]] and appointing them to high civil and military posts.

Under Akbar, Mughal India developed a strong and stable economy, which tripled in size and wealth, leading to commercial expansion and greater patronage of an [[Indo-Persian culture]]. Akbar's courts at [[Delhi]], [[Agra]], and [[Fatehpur Sikri]] attracted holy men of many faiths, poets, architects, and artisans, and became known as centres of the arts, letters, and learning. [[Timurid Renaissance|Timurid]] and Perso-Islamic culture began to merge and blend with indigenous Indian elements into a distinct style of Mughal arts, including [[Mughal painting|painting]] and [[Mughal architecture|architecture]]. Disillusioned with orthodox Islam and perhaps hoping to bring about religious unity within his empire, Akbar promulgated [[Din-i Ilahi]], a [[Religious syncretism|syncretic creed]] derived mainly from [[Islam]] and [[Hinduism]] as well as elements of [[Zoroastrianism]] and [[Christianity]].

Akbar was succeeded as emperor by his son, Prince Salim, later known as [[Jahangir]].

== Early years ==
[[File:Akbar_and_Humayun_portrait_in_Kabul_(1550-56).jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.8|Contemporary portrait of Akbar as a boy, offering a painting to his father [[Humayun]] while in [[Kabul]]. Painted in 1550-56]]
After Mughal Emperor [[Humayun]] was defeated at [[Battle of Chausa|Chausa]] (1539) and [[Battle of Kannauj|Kannauj]] (1540) by the forces of [[Sher Shah Suri]], Humayun fled westward to modern-day [[Sindh]].<ref name="Multiple5">{{harvnb|Banerji|1938|pp=253–254}}</ref> There, he met and married the 14-year-old [[Hamida Banu Begum]], daughter of Shaikh Ali Akbar Jami, a [[Persians|Persian]] teacher of Humayun's younger brother [[Hindal Mirza]]. Jalal ud-din Muhammad Akbar was born to them the next year on 25 October 1542{{efn|name=birth|Official sources, such as contemporary biographer [[Abu'l-Fazl]], record Akbar's birth name and date as Jalal ud-din Muhammad Akbar and 15 October 1542. However, based on recollections of Humayun's personal attendant Jauhar, historian [[Vincent Arthur Smith]] holds that Akbar was born on 23 November 1542 (the fourteenth day of [[Sha'aban]], which had a full moon) and was originally named Badr ud-din ("The full moon of religion"). According to Smith, the recorded date of birth was changed at the time of Akbar's circumcision ceremony in March 1546 to throw off astrologers and sorcerers, and his name was accordingly changed to Jalal ud-din ("Splendour of Religion")<ref>{{harvnb|Smith|1917|pp=18–19}}</ref>}} (the fifth day of [[Rajab]], 949 [[Hijri year|AH]])<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |year=2014 |title=Akbar I |encyclopedia=World Encyclopedia |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/acref/9780199546091.001.0001/acref-9780199546091-e-209 |access-date=29 May 2023 |orig-date=2004 |edition=online |doi=10.1093/acref/9780199546091.001.0001 |isbn=978-0-19-954609-1 |oclc=150655825 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230922030109/https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/acref/9780199546091.001.0001/acref-9780199546091-e-209 |archive-date=22 September 2023 |url-status=live|url-access=subscription }}</ref> at the [[Umarkot Fort|Rajput Fortress]] of [[Amarkot]] in [[Rajputana]] (in modern-day Sindh), where his parents had been given refuge by the local Hindu ruler Rana Prasad.<ref>{{harvnb|Smith|1917|pp=12–19}}</ref>

During the extended period of Humayun's exile, Akbar was brought up in [[Kabul]] by his paternal uncles, [[Kamran Mirza]] and [[Askari Mirza]], and aunts, in particular, Kamran Mirza's wife. He spent his youth learning to hunt, run, and fight, and although he never learned to read or write, when he retired in the evening, he would have someone read to him.<ref name="AknamaVolI">{{harvnb|Abul Fazl 'Allami|1873|p=}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Smith|1917|p=22}}</ref> On 20 November 1551, Humayun's youngest brother, Hindal Mirza, died in a battle against Kamran Mirza's forces. Upon hearing the news of his brother's death, Humayun was overwhelmed with grief.<ref name="Erskine">{{harvnb|Erskine|1854|pp=403, 404}}</ref>

About the time of nine-year-old Akbar's first appointment as governor of [[Ghazni Province|Ghazni]], he married Hindal's daughter, [[Ruqaiya Sultan Begum]], his first wife.<ref name="Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd">{{harvnb|Mehta|1984|p=189}}</ref> Humayun gave Akbar command of Hindal's troops and conferred on the imperial couple all of Hindal's wealth.<ref name="Ferishta1909">{{harvnb|Ferishta|1909|p=169}}</ref> Akbar's marriage to Ruqaiya was solemnised in [[Jalandhar]], Punjab, when they were both 14 years old.<ref name="Eraly 2000 123, 272">{{harvnb|Eraly|2000|pp=123, 272}}</ref>

Following chaos over the succession of Sher Shah Suri's son [[Islam Shah]], Humayun reconquered Delhi in 1555,<ref>{{harvnb|Nature|1942|pp=600–601}}</ref> leading an army partly provided by his Persian ally [[Tahmasp I]]. A few months later, Humayun died. Akbar's guardian, [[Bairam Khan]], concealed his death to prepare for Akbar's succession. Akbar succeeded Humayun on 14 February 1556,<ref name="India Today">{{Cite news |date=27 October 2016 |title=Remembering Akbar the Great: Facts about the most liberal Mughal emperor |language=en |work=India Today |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/education-today/gk-current-affairs/story/akbar-the-great-348793-2016-10-27 |url-status=live |access-date=31 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200606174809/https://www.indiatoday.in/education-today/gk-current-affairs/story/akbar-the-great-348793-2016-10-27 |archive-date=6 June 2020}}</ref> while in the midst of a war against [[Sikandar Shah Suri|Sikandar Shah]] to reclaim the Mughal throne. In [[Kalanaur, Punjab]], the 14-year-old Akbar was enthroned by Bairam Khan on a newly constructed platform (which still stands<ref>{{Cite web |title=Gurdas |url=http://punjabgovt.nic.in/government/gurdas1.GIF |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080527210721/http://punjabgovt.nic.in/government/gurdas1.GIF |archive-date=27 May 2008 |access-date=30 May 2008 |publisher=[[Government of Punjab (India)|Government of Punjab]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=About District |url=https://gurdaspur.nic.in/html/profile.htm#history |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050802074716/http://gurdaspur.nic.in/html/profile.htm#history |archive-date=2 August 2005 |access-date=28 May 2023 |website=Gurdaspur District}}</ref>) and was proclaimed ''Shahanshah'' ([[Persian language|Persian]] for "King of Kings").<ref name="India Today" /> Bairam Khan ruled on his behalf until he came of age.<ref>{{harvnb|Smith|2002|p=337}}</ref>

== Ancestry ==
{{ahnentafel|1. '''Akbar I'''|2. [[Humayun]]|3. [[Hamida Banu Begum]]|4. [[Babur]]|5. [[Maham Begum]]|6.Shaikh Ali Akbar Jami|7. Mah Afroz Begum<ref name="Thackeray">{{harvnb|Thackeray|Findling|2012|p=254}}</ref>|8. [[Umar Shaikh Mirza II]]|9. [[Qutlugh Nigar Khanum]]|collapsed=yes|align=center|boxstyle_1=background-color: #fcc;|boxstyle_2=background-color: #fb9;|boxstyle_3=background-color: #ffc;|boxstyle_4=background-color: #bfc;}}

== Military campaigns ==
[[File:Mughal Empire, 1605.png|thumb|[[Mughal Empire]] under Akbar, 1605. Areas that were only partially integrated are indicated by lighter shading and dotted lines.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Schwatzberg |first=Joseph E. |url=http://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/schwartzberg/ |title=A Historical Atlas of South Asia |date=1992 |pages=Plate VI.A (p.44–46) and XIV.4 (p.148)}}</ref>|270x270px]]

=== Military innovations ===
Akbar's military campaigns consolidated Mughal rule in the [[Indian subcontinent]].<ref name="India Today" /><ref name="Lal">{{harvnb|Lal|2005|p=140}}</ref> Akbar introduced organisational changes to the ''[[mansabdar]]i'' system, establishing a hierarchical scale of military and civil ranks.<ref name="Kulke">{{harvnb|Kulke|2004|p=205}}</ref>

Organisational reforms were accompanied by innovations in [[cannons]], [[fortifications]], and the [[War elephant|use of elephants]].<ref name="Lal" /> Akbar also took an interest in [[matchlock]]s and effectively employed them during various conflicts. He sought the help of the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottomans]], as well as Europeans, especially the [[Portuguese Empire|Portuguese]] and Italians, in procuring advanced firearms and artillery.<ref name="Schimmel">{{harvnb|Schimmel|2004|p=88}}</ref><ref name="Richards1">{{harvnb|Richards|1996|p=288}}</ref> Akbar's [[vizier]] [[Abu'l-Fazl ibn Mubarak|Abul Fazl]] once declared that "with the exception of Turkey, there is perhaps no country in which its guns has more means of securing the Government than [India]."<ref name="Elgood">{{harvnb|Elgood|1995|p=135}}</ref> Scholars and historians have used the term "[[Gunpowder empires|gunpowder empire]]" to analyse the success of the Mughals in India.<ref name="Gommans">{{harvnb|Gommans|2002|p=134}}</ref>

=== North India ===
[[File:Nach_der_Belagerung_von_Mankot_1557.jpg|250px|thumb|Afghan troops of the [[Sur Empire]] surrendering to the Mughal forces of Akbar at the [[Siege of Mankot (1557)]]. ''Akbarnama'' (1590-95)]]
Akbar's father Humayun had regained control of the [[Punjab]], [[Delhi]], and [[Agra]] with [[Safavid dynasty|Safavid]] support, but Mughal rule was still precarious when Akbar took the throne. When the Surs reconquered Agra and Delhi following the death of Humayun, Akbar's young age and the lack of military assistance from the Mughal stronghold of [[Kabul]]{{Emdash}}which was in the midst of an invasion by the ruler of [[Badakhshan]], Prince Mirza Suleiman{{Emdash}}aggravated the situation.<ref name="Eraly1">{{harvnb|Eraly|2000|pp=118–124}}</ref> When his regent, [[Bairam Khan]], called a council of war to marshall the Mughal forces, none of Akbar's chieftains approved. Bairam Khan was ultimately able to prevail over the nobles and it was decided that the Mughals would march against the strongest of the Sur rulers, [[Sikandar Shah Suri]], in Punjab. Delhi was left under the regency of [[Tardi Baig Khan]].<ref name="Eraly1" /> Sikandar Shah Suri, his army weakened by earlier lost battles, withdrew to avoid combat as the Mughal army approached.<ref>{{Harvnb|Majumdar|1974|p=104|ps=: "But the arch-enemy was neither Sikandar, who had become a spent force after Māchīwārā and Sirhind"}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Muzaffar|Kumar|Usmani|Gupta|2022|p=119}}</ref>

Akbar also faced [[Hemu]], a minister and general of one of the Sur rulers, who had proclaimed himself Hindu emperor and expelled the Mughals from the [[Indo-Gangetic Plain]]s.<ref name="Eraly1" /> Urged by Bairam Khan, who re-marshalled the Mughal army before Hemu could consolidate his position, Akbar marched on Delhi to reclaim it.<ref>{{Harvnb|Chandra|2007|pp=226–227}}</ref> His army, led by Bairam Khan, defeated Hemu and the Sur army on 5 November 1556 at the [[Second Battle of Panipat]], {{convert|50|mi|km}} north of Delhi.<ref name="Panipat">{{harvnb|Chandra|2007|p=227}}</ref> Soon after the battle, Mughal forces occupied Delhi and then Agra. Akbar made a triumphant entry into Delhi, where he stayed for a month. Then, he and Bairam Khan returned to Punjab to deal with Sikandar Shah Suri, who had become active again.<ref name="Richards2">{{harvnb|Richards|1996|pp=9–13}}</ref> In the next six months, the Mughals won another major battle against Sikander, who fled east to [[Bengal]]. Akbar and his forces occupied [[Lahore]] and then seized [[Multan]] in the Punjab. In 1558, Akbar took possession of [[Ajmer]], the aperture to [[Rajputana]], after the defeat and flight of its Muslim ruler.<ref name="Richards2" /> The Mughals also besieged and defeated the Sur forces in control of [[Gwalior Fort]], a stronghold north of the [[Narmada]] river.<ref name="Richards2" />

Royal begums (ladies), along with the families of Mughal amirs, were brought from Kabul to India at the time, "so that men might become settled and be restrained in some measure from departing to a country to which they were accustomed", according to Fazl.<ref name="Eraly1" /> Akbar made clear that he would stay in India, reintroducing the historical legacy of the [[Timurid Renaissance]], in contrast to his grandfather and father, who reigned as transient rulers.<ref name="Eraly1" /><ref name="Richards2" /><ref>{{New Cambridge History of Islam|volume=3}}</ref>

=== Central India ===
{{See also|Mughal conquest of Malwa}}
[[File:Prince Akbar and Noblemen Hawking, Probably Accompanied by His Guardian Bairam Khan.jpg|thumb|upright|Akbar [[Falconry|hawking]] with Mughal chieftains and nobleman, accompanied by his guardian Bairam Khan]]

By 1559, the Mughals had launched a drive to the south into Rajputana and [[Malwa Sultanate|Malwa]].<ref name="Richards3">{{harvnb|Richards|1996|pp=14–15}}</ref> However, Akbar's disputes with his regent, Bairam Khan, temporarily put an end to the expansion.<ref name="Richards3" /> The young emperor, at the age of eighteen, wanted to take a more active part in managing the Empire's affairs. Urged on by his foster mother, [[Maham Anga]], and other relatives, Akbar dismissed Bairam Khan following a dispute at court in the spring of 1560 and ordered him to leave on [[Hajj]] to [[Mecca]].<ref name="expansion">{{harvnb|Smith|2002|p=339}}</ref> Bairam Khan was prepared to comply, but people who resented him and hoped for his downfall goaded him into rebellion against Akbar.<ref name="Panipat" /> Bairam Khan was defeated by the Mughal army in the Punjab and forced to submit. Akbar forgave him and gave him the option of either continuing in his court or resuming his pilgrimage; Bairam Khan chose the latter.<ref>{{harvnb|Chandra|2007|p=228}}</ref> Bairam Khan was assassinated on his way to Mecca, by a group of Afghans led by Mubarak Khan Lohani, whose father had been killed while fighting with the Mughals at the [[Battle of Machhiwara]] in 1555.<ref name="Richards3" /><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Collier |first1=Dirk |title=The Great Mughals and their India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=40ywDAAAQBAJ |year=2016 |publisher=Hay House |isbn=9789384544980 |page=149}}</ref>

In 1560, Akbar resumed military operations.<ref name="Richards3" /> A Mughal army under the command of his foster brother, [[Adham Khan]], and a Mughal commander, Pir Muhammad Khan, began the Mughal conquest of Malwa. The Afghan ruler, [[Baz Bahadur]], was defeated at the Battle of Sarangpur and fled to [[Sultanate of Khandesh|Khandesh]] for refuge, leaving behind his harem, treasure, and war elephants.<ref name="Richards3" /> Despite initial success, Akbar was ultimately displeased with the aftermath of the campaign; his foster brother retained all of the spoils and followed through with the Central Asian practice of slaughtering the surrendered garrison, their wives and children, and many Muslim theologians and Sayyids, who were descendants of [[Muhammad]].<ref name="Richards3" /> Akbar personally rode to Malwa to confront Adham Khan and relieve him of command. Pir Muhammad Khan was then sent in pursuit of Baz Bahadur, but was beaten back by the alliance of the rulers of Khandesh and [[Berar Sultanate|Berar]].<ref name="Richards3" /> Baz Bahadur temporarily regained control of Malwa until, in the next year, Akbar sent another Mughal army to invade and annexe the kingdom.<ref name="Richards3" /> Malwa became a province of the nascent imperial administration of Akbar's regime. Baz Bahadur survived as a refugee at various courts until, eight years later in 1570, he took service under Akbar.<ref name="Richards3" /> When Adham Khan confronted Akbar following another dispute in late 1561, the emperor threw him from a terrace into the palace courtyard at Agra. Still alive, Adham Khan was dragged up and thrown to the courtyard once again by Akbar to ensure his death.<ref name="Richards3" />

[[File:Young Abdul Rahim Khan-I-Khana being received by Akbar, Akbarnama.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Young [[Abdul Rahim Khan-i-Khanan]], son of Bairam Khan, being received by Akbar]]

After Adham Khan's death, Akbar distributed authority among specialised ministerial posts relating to different aspects of imperial governance to prevent any one noble from becoming too powerful.<ref name="Richards3" /> When a powerful clan of Uzbek chiefs broke out in rebellion in 1564, Akbar routed them in Malwa and then [[Bihar]].<ref name="Eraly2">{{harvnb|Eraly|2000|pp=140–141}}</ref> He pardoned the rebellious leaders, hoping to conciliate them, but they rebelled again; Akbar quelled their second uprising. Following a third revolt, with the proclamation of [[Mirza Muhammad Hakim]]{{Clarify|date=May 2023|reason=What proclamation?}}{{emdash}}Akbar's brother and the Mughal ruler of Kabul{{emdash}}several Uzbek chieftains were slain and the rebel leaders trampled to death under elephants.<ref name="Eraly2" /> Simultaneously, the Mirzas, a group of Akbar's distant cousins who held important fiefs near Agra, rebelled and were defeated by Akbar.<ref name="Eraly2" /> In 1566, Akbar moved to meet the forces of his brother, Muhammad Hakim, who had marched into the Punjab with the intention of seizing the imperial throne. Following a brief confrontation, Muhammad Hakim accepted Akbar's supremacy and retreated back to Kabul.<ref name="Eraly2" />

In 1564, Mughal forces began the [[Mughal conquest of Garha|conquest of Garha]], a thinly populated, hilly area in central India that was of interest to the Mughals because of its herd of wild elephants.<ref name="Richards4">{{harvnb|Richards|1996|pp=17–21}}</ref> The territory was ruled over by Raja Vir Narayan, a minor, and his mother, [[Rani Durgavati|Durgavati]], a [[Rajput]] warrior queen of the Gonds.<ref name="Eraly2" /> Akbar did not personally lead the campaign because he was preoccupied with the Uzbek rebellion, leaving the expedition in the hands of Asaf Khan, the Mughal governor of Kara.<ref name="Eraly2" /><ref name="Chandra">{{harvnb|Chandra|2005|pp=105–106}}</ref> Durgavati committed suicide after her defeat at the Battle of Damoh, while Raja Vir Narayan was slain at the Fall of Chauragarh, the mountain fortress of the Gonds.<ref name="Chandra" /> The Mughals seized immense wealth, including an uncalculated amount of gold and silver, jewels, and 1,000 elephants. Kamala Devi, a younger sister of Durgavati, was sent to the Mughal harem.<ref name="Chandra" /> The brother of Durgavati's deceased husband was installed as the Mughal administrator of the region.<ref name="Chandra" />

As with Malwa, Akbar entered into a dispute with his vassals over the conquest of Gondwana.<ref name="Chandra" /> Asaf Khan was accused of keeping most of the treasures and sending back only 200 elephants to Akbar. When summoned to give accounts, he fled Gondwana. He went first to the Uzbeks, then returned to Gondwana where he was pursued by Mughal forces. Finally, he submitted and Akbar restored him to his previous position.<ref name="Chandra" />

==== Assassination attempt ====
In January 1564, an assassin shot an arrow at Akbar, which pierced his right shoulder, as he was returning from a visit to the Dargah of Hazrat Nizamuddin near Delhi. The Emperor ordered the apprehended assassin, a slave of Mirza Sharfuddin—a noble in Akbar's court whose recent rebellion had been suppressed—to be beheaded.<ref>{{harvnb|Sharma|2023|pp=99–100}}</ref>

=== Rajputana ===
[[File:Akbar shoots Jaimal at the siege of Chitor.jpg|thumb|upright|Mughal Emperor Akbar shoots the Rajput warrior Jaimal during the Siege of Chittorgarh in 1568.]]
[[File:Bullocks dragging siege-guns up hill during the attack on Ranthambhor Fort.jpg|thumb|upright|Bullocks dragging siege-guns uphill during Akbar's attack on Ranthambhor Fort in 1568]]

Having established Mughal rule over northern India, Akbar turned his attention to the conquest of [[Rajputana]], which was strategically important as it was a rival centre of power that flanked the Indo-Gangetic plains.<ref name="Chandra" /> The Mughals had already established domination over parts of northern Rajputana in [[Mewar|Mewat]], [[Ajmer]], and Nagor.<ref name="Richards2" /><ref name="Eraly2" /> Akbar sought to conquer Rajputana's heartlands, which had rarely previously submitted to the Muslim rulers of the [[Delhi Sultanate]]. Beginning in 1561, the Mughals actively engaged the Rajputs in warfare and diplomacy.<ref name="Richards4" /> Most Rajput states accepted Akbar's suzerainty; however, the rulers of Mewar and Marwar—[[Udai Singh II]] and [[Chandrasen Rathore]]—remained outside the imperial fold.<ref name="Eraly2" />

Udai Singh was descended from the Sisodia ruler, [[Rana Sanga]], who had fought Babur at the [[Battle of Khanwa]] in 1527.<ref name="Eraly2" /> As the head of the [[Sisodia clan]], he possessed the highest ritual status of all the Rajput kings and chieftains in India.{{Citation needed|date=April 2022}} The Mughals viewed defeating Udai Singh as essential to asserting their imperial authority among the Rajputs.<ref name="Eraly2" /> During this period of his reign, Akbar was still devoted to Islam and sought to impress the superiority of his faith over what were regarded by contemporaries as the most prestigious warriors in Hinduism.<ref name="Eraly2" />

In 1567, Akbar attacked the [[Chittor Fort]] in Mewar. The fortress-capital of Mewar was of strategic importance as it lay on the shortest route from Agra to [[Gujarat Sultanate|Gujarat]] and was also considered a key to holding the interior parts of Rajputana. Udai Singh retreated to the hills of Mewar, leaving two Rajput warriors, [[Jaimal Rathore|Jaimal]] and [[Patta Sisodia|Patta]], in charge of the defence of his capital.<ref name="earlyconquest">{{harvnb|Chandra|2007|p=231}}</ref> Chittorgarh fell in February 1568 after a [[Siege of Chittorgarh (1567–1568)|siege of four months]]. The fall of Chittor was proclaimed by Akbar as "the victory of Islam over infidels [''i.e.'', non-Muslims]."<ref name="Khan 1968">{{harvnb|Khan|1968|p=32}}</ref> In his Fathnama (dispatches announcing victory) issued on 9 March 1575 conveying his news of victory, Akbar wrote: "With the help of our blood-thirsty sword we have erased the signs of infidelity in their minds and destroyed the temples in those places and all over Hindustan."<ref name="Khan 1968" />

Akbar had the surviving defenders and 30,000 non-combatants massacred and their heads displayed upon towers erected throughout the region to demonstrate his authority.<ref name="chittor">{{harvnb|Smith|2002|p=342}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Chandra|2001|p=107}}</ref> Thereafter, Udai Singh never ventured out of his mountain refuge in Mewar.<ref name="Eraly4">{{harvnb|Eraly|2000|pp=143–147}}</ref>

A legend, oft repeated by historians, has grown up that Akbar set up statues of Jaimal and Patta mounted on elephants at a gate of his fort in Agra to commemorate his victory. There are records from his time of two statues of elephants with their riders outside the eastern gate of his fort in Agra, but these may have had nothing to do with the Rajputs of Chittor, they may have been purely decorative. Indologist [[Eugenia Vanina]] found no account that connects the statues to Jaimal and Patta until a 1629 chronicle by Dutch merchants. She believes that the narrative that the statues were monuments grew up to "provide ideological, social and psychological substantiation" of the alliance between the Mughals and the Rajputs.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Vanina |first1=Eugenia |author-link=Eugenia Vanina |title=Monuments to Enemies? 'Rajput' Statues in Mughal Capitals |journal=Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society |date=October 2019 |volume=29 |issue=4 |pages=683–704 |doi=10.1017/S1356186319000415}}</ref>

The fall of Chittorgarh was followed up by a Mughal attack on the [[Ranthambore Fort]] in 1568. Ranthambore was held by the [[Hada (clan)|Hada]] Rajputs and reputed to be the most powerful fortress in India.<ref name="Eraly4" /> However, it fell only after a couple of months.<ref name="Eraly4" /> At that point, most of the Rajput kings had submitted to the Mughals; only the clans of Mewar continued to resist.<ref name="Eraly4" /> Udai Singh's son and successor, [[Maharana Pratap]], was later defeated by the Mughals at the [[Battle of Haldighati]] in 1576.<ref name="Eraly4" /> Akbar would celebrate his conquest of Rajputana by laying the foundation of a new capital, {{convert|23|mi|km}} west-southwest of Agra, in 1569. It was called [[Fatehpur Sikri]], or the "City of Victory".<ref>{{harvnb|Crooke|1912|p=796}}</ref> Pratap Singh continued to attack the Mughals and was able to retain most of his kingdom during Akbar's reign.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Rana Pratap Singh &#124; Indian ruler |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Rana-Pratap-Singh |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180616003537/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Rana-Pratap-Singh |archive-date=16 June 2018 |access-date=15 August 2020 |website=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref>

=== Western and Eastern India ===
{{See also|Mughal conquest of Gujarat}}
[[File:Court of Akbar from Akbarnama.jpg|thumb|upright|The court of young Akbar, aged 13, showing his first imperial act: the arrest of an unruly courtier, who was once a favourite of Akbar's father. Illustration from a manuscript of the Akbarnama.|left]]

Akbar's next military objectives were the conquest of Gujarat and Bengal, which connected India with the trading centres of Asia, Africa, and Europe through the [[Arabian Sea]] and the [[Bay of Bengal]].<ref name="Eraly4" /> Gujarat had also been a haven for rebellious Mughal nobles. In Bengal, the Afghans still held considerable influence under their ruler, [[Sulaiman Khan Karrani]]. Akbar first moved against Gujarat, which lay in the crook of the Mughal provinces of Rajputana and Malwa.<ref name="Eraly4" /> Gujarat possessed areas of rich agricultural production in its central plain, an impressive output of textiles and other industrial goods, and the busiest seaports of India.<ref name="Eraly4" /><ref name="Gujarat1">{{harvnb|Chandra|2007|p=232}}</ref> Akbar intended to link the maritime state with the massive resources of the Indo-Gangetic plains.<ref name="Richards5">{{harvnb|Richards|1996|p=32}}</ref>

Akbar's ostensible ''[[casus belli]]'' for warring with Gujarat was that the rebel Mirzas, who had previously been driven out of India, were now operating out of a base in southern Gujarat. Moreover, Akbar had received invitations from cliques in Gujarat to oust the reigning king, which further served as justification for his military expedition.<ref name="Eraly4" /> In 1572, Akbar moved to occupy [[Ahmedabad]], the capital, and other northern cities, and was proclaimed the lawful sovereign of Gujarat. By 1573, he had driven out the Mirzas who, after offering token resistance, fled for refuge in the [[Deccan Plateau|Deccan]]. [[Surat]], the commercial capital of the region, and other coastal cities soon capitulated to the Mughals.<ref name="Eraly4" /> The king, [[Muzaffar Shah III]], was caught hiding in a corn field; he was pensioned off by Akbar with a small allowance.<ref name="Eraly4" />

Akbar then returned to Fatehpur Sikiri, where he built the [[Buland Darwaza]] to commemorate his victories.{{citation needed|date=April 2025}} But, a rebellion by Afghan nobles supported by the Rajput ruler of [[Idar State|Idar]], as well a resurgence of the Mirzas (who retook Cambay, Broach, and Surat), forced his return to Gujarat.<ref name="Richards5" /> Akbar crossed Rajputana and reached Ahmedabad in 11 days—a journey that normally took six weeks. The outnumbered Mughal army won a decisive victory on 2 September 1573. Akbar slew the rebel leaders and erected a tower out of their severed heads.<ref name="Eraly4" /> The conquest and subjugation of Gujarat proved highly profitable for the Mughals; after expenses, the territory yielded a revenue of more than five million rupees annually to Akbar's treasury.<ref name="Eraly4" />

After conquering Gujarat, the remaining centre of Afghan power was Bengal. In 1572, Sulaiman Khan's son, [[Daud Khan Karrani|Daud Khan]], succeeded him. Daud Khan defined Mughal rule, assuming the insignia of royalty and ordering that the [[khutbah]] be proclaimed in his name, rather than Akbar's. [[Munim Khan]], the Mughal governor of Bihar, was ordered to chastise Daud Khan. Eventually, Akbar himself set out to Bengal, and in 1574, the Mughals seized [[Patna]] from Daud Khan, who fled to Bengal.<ref name="Eraly5">{{harvnb|Eraly|2000|pp=148–154}}</ref><ref name="Pletcher">{{harvnb|Pletcher|2010|p=170}}</ref> Akbar then returned to Fatehpur Sikri and left his generals to finish the campaign. The Mughal army was subsequently victorious at the [[Battle of Tukaroi]] in 1575, which led to the annexation of Bengal and parts of Bihar that had been under the dominion of Daud Khan. Only [[Orissa, India|Orissa]] was left in the hands of the [[Karrani dynasty]], albeit as a fief of the Mughal Empire. A year later, however, Daud Khan rebelled and attempted to regain Bengal. He was defeated by the Mughal general [[Khan Jahan I|Khan Jahan Quli]] and fled into exile. Daud Khan was later captured and executed by Mughal forces. His severed head was sent to Akbar, while his limbs were gibbeted at Tandah, the Mughal capital in Bengal.<ref name="Eraly5" />

=== Afghanistan and Central Asia ===
[[File:Akbar's amrour.jpg|thumb|Plate and helmet of the personal armour of Akbar]]
Following his conquests of Gujarat and Bengal, Akbar was preoccupied with domestic concerns.{{Clarify|date=May 2023}}{{Citation needed|date=May 2023}} He did not leave Fatehpur Sikri on a military campaign until 1581, when Punjab was again invaded by his brother, Mirza Muhammad Hakim. Akbar expelled his brother to Kabul and waged a campaign to remove him from power. At the same time, Akbar's nobles were resisting leaving India to administer the Empire's holdings in Afghanistan; they were, according to Abul Fazl "afraid of the cold of Afghanistan".{{Citation needed|date=May 2023}} Likewise, Hindu officers in the Mughal army were inhibited by the traditional [[Kala pani (taboo)|taboo against crossing the Indus]]. To encourage them, Akbar provided them with pay eight months in advance.

In August 1581, Akbar seized Kabul and took up residence at [[Bala Hissar, Kabul|Babur's old citadel]]. He stayed there for three weeks and his brother fled into the mountains. Akbar left Kabul in the hands of his sister, [[Bakht-un-Nissa Begum]], and returned to India. He then pardoned his brother, who took up de facto control of the Mughal administration in Kabul; Bakht-un-Nissa continued to be the official governor. In 1585, after Muhammad Hakim died, Kabul passed into the hands of Akbar and was officially incorporated as a province of the Mughal Empire.<ref name="Eraly5" />

The Kabul expedition was the beginning of a long period of activity over the northern frontiers of the empire.<ref name="The Age of Akbar">{{harvnb|Ikram|1964|p=145}}</ref> For thirteen years, beginning in 1585, Akbar remained in the north, shifting his capital to Lahore while he dealt with challenges from [[Uzbeks|Uzbek]] tribes, which had driven his grandfather, Babur, out of Central Asia.<ref name="Eraly5" /><ref name="The Age of Akbar" /> The Uzbeks were organised under [[Abdullah Khan II|Abdullah Khan Shaybanid]], a military chieftain who had seized Badakhshan and Balkh from Akbar's distant Timurid relatives, and whose troops challenged the northwestern frontiers of the Mughal Empire.<ref name="Eraly5" /><ref name="Shah2003">{{Cite book |last1=Shah |first1=Mir Hussain |editor1-last=Adle |editor1-first=Chahryar |editor2-last=Habib |editor2-first=Irfan |editor3-last=Baipakov |editor3-first=Karl M. |chapter=Afghanistan |title=History of Civilizations of Central Asia |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000130205?posInSet=4&queryId=a6dad7c3-cad4-47e1-a5ef-49a1cd6d31f9 |year=2003 |volume=V |publisher=UNESCO |isbn=978-92-3-103876-1 |pages=276–277}}</ref> The Uzbeks also subsidised Afghan tribes on the border that were hostile to the Mughals. The tribes felt challenged by the [[Yusufzai]] of [[Bajaur District|Bajaur]] and [[Swat District|Swat]] and were motivated by a new religious leader, Bayazid, the founder of the [[Roshaniyya]] sect.<ref name="The Age of Akbar" /><ref name="Richards6">{{harvnb|Richards|1996|pp=49–51}}</ref>

In 1586, Akbar negotiated a pact with Abdullah Khan in which the Mughals agreed to remain neutral during the Uzbek invasion of Safavid-held [[Greater Khorasan|Khorasan]]. In return, Abdullah Khan agreed to refrain from supporting, subsidising, or offering refuge to the Afghan tribes hostile to the Mughals. Akbar, in turn, began a series of campaigns to pacify the Yusufzais and other rebels. Akbar ordered Zain Khan to lead an expedition against the Afghan tribes. [[Raja Birbal]], a renowned minister in Akbar's court, was also given military command. The expedition failed, and on their retreat from the mountains, Birbal and his entourage were ambushed and killed by Afghans at the Malandarai Pass in February 1586. Akbar immediately fielded new armies to reinvade the Yusufzai lands under the command of [[Raja Todar Mal]]. Over the next six years, the Mughals contained the Yusufzai in the mountain valleys, forcing the submission of many chiefs in Swat and Bajaur. Dozens of forts were built and occupied to secure the region.<ref name="Richards6" />

Despite his pact with the Uzbeks, Akbar nurtured a secret hope of reconquering Central Asia, but Badakshan and Balkh remained firmly part of the Uzbek dominion.<ref name="Markovitz">{{Cite book |last=Markovitz |first=Claude |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uzOmy2y0Zh4C&pg=PA93 |title=A History of Modern India: 1480–1950 |publisher=Anthem |year=2002 |isbn=978-1-84331-004-4 |page=93}}</ref> Abdullah Khan died in 1598 and the last of the rebellious Afghan tribes were subdued by 1600. The Roshaniyya movement was suppressed, its leaders were captured or driven into exile, and the [[Afridi]] and [[Orakzai]] tribes which had risen up under them were subjugated. Jalaluddin, the son of the Roshaniyya movement's founder, Bayazid, was killed in 1601 in a fight with Mughal troops near [[Ghazni]].<ref name="Shah2003" /><ref name="Richards6" />

=== Indus Valley ===
{{Main|Mughal conquest of Kashmir}}
While Akbar was in Lahore dealing with the Uzbeks, he sought to subjugate the [[Indus valley]] to secure the frontier provinces.<ref name="Richards6" /> In 1585, he sent an army to conquer [[Kashmir Sultanate|Kashmir]] in the upper Indus basin after [[Yousuf Shah Chak|Yousuf Shah]], the reigning king of the Shia [[Chak dynasty]], refused to send his son as a hostage to the Mughal court. Yousuf Shah surrendered immediately to the Mughals, but another of his sons, [[Yakub Shah Chak|Yaqub Shah]], crowned himself as king, leading a resistance against the Mughal armies. In June 1589, Akbar travelled from Lahore to Srinagar to receive the surrender of Yaqub and his rebel forces.<ref name="Richards6" /> [[Baltistan]] and [[Ladakh]], which were Tibetan provinces adjacent to Kashmir, pledged their allegiance to Akbar.<ref name="Eraly6">{{harvnb|Eraly|2000|pp=156–157}}</ref> The Mughals also moved to conquer [[Sindh]] in the lower Indus valley.

Since 1574, the northern fortress of [[Bhakkar]] had remained under imperial control. In 1586, the Mughal governor of Multan tried and failed to secure the capitulation of [[Mirza Jani Beg Tarkhan|Mirza Jani Beg]], the independent ruler of [[Thatta]] in southern Sindh.<ref name="Richards6" /> Akbar responded by sending a Mughal army to besiege [[Sehwan]], the river capital of the region. Jani Beg mustered a large army to meet the Mughals.<ref name="Richards6" /> The outnumbered Mughal forces defeated the Sindhi forces at the Battle of Sehwan. After suffering further defeats, Jani Beg surrendered to the Mughals in 1591, and in 1593, paid homage to Akbar in Lahore.<ref name="Eraly6" />

=== Baluchistan ===
As early as 1586, about half a dozen [[Baluch people|Baluchi]] chiefs, under nominal Pani Afghan rule, had been persuaded to subordinate themselves to Akbar. In preparation for taking [[Kandahar]] from the Safavids, Akbar ordered the Mughal forces to conquer the rest of the Afghan-held parts of [[Baluchistan]] in 1595.<ref name="Eraly6" /><ref name="Mehta">{{harvnb|Mehta|1984|p=258}}</ref> The Mughal general [[Masum Shah|Mir Masum]] led an attack on the stronghold of Sibi, which was northeast of [[Quetta]], and defeated a coalition of local chieftains in battle.<ref name="Mehta" /> They were required to acknowledge Mughal supremacy and attend Akbar's court. As a result, the modern-day Pakistani and Afghan parts of Baluchistan, including the [[Makran]] coast, became a part of the Mughal Empire.<ref name="Mehta" />

=== Safavids and Kandahar ===
Kandahar (also known as the ancient Indian kingdom of [[Gandhara]])<ref name="Houtsma">{{harvnb|Houtsma|1993|p=711}}</ref> had connections with the Mughals from the time of the Empire's ancestor, [[Timur]], the warlord who had conquered much of Western, Central, and parts of South Asia in the 14th century. However, the Safavids considered it to be an appanage of the Persian-ruled territory of [[Greater Khorasan|Khorasan]], and declared its association with the Mughal emperors to be a usurpation. In 1558, while Akbar was consolidating his rule over northern India, Safavid Shah [[Tahmasp I]] seized Kandahar and expelled its Mughal governor. The recovery of Kandahar had not been a priority for Akbar, but after his military activity in the northern frontiers, he moved to restore Mughal control. At the time, the region was also under threat from the Uzbeks, but the Emperor of Persia, himself beleaguered by the Ottoman Turks, was unable to send reinforcements.<ref name="Eraly6" />

In 1593, Akbar received the exiled Safavid prince, Rostam Mirza.<ref name="Floor">{{Cite book |publisher=I.B. Tauris |page=136 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2S_DxLGKw6IC&pg=PA136 |isbn=978-1-85043-930-1 |last=Floor |first=Willem |author2=Edmund Herzig |title=Iran and the World in the Safavid Age |year=2012}}</ref> Rostam Mirza pledged allegiance to the Mughals; he was granted a rank (mansab) of command over 5,000 men and received Multan as a [[jagir]].<ref name="Floor" /> The Safavid prince and governor of Kandahar, Mozaffar Hosayn, also agreed to defect to the Mughals. Hosayn, who was in an adversary relationship with his overlord, [[Abbas the Great|Shah Abbas]], was granted a rank of 5,000 men, and his daughter [[Kandahari Begum]] was married to Akbar's grandson, the Mughal prince [[Shah Jahan|Khurram]].<ref name="Eraly6" /><ref name="Floor" /> Kandahar was secured in 1595 with the arrival of a garrison headed by the Mughal general, Shah Bayg Khan.<ref name="Floor" /> The reconquest of Kandahar did not overtly disturb Mughal-Persian relations.<ref name="Eraly6" /> Akbar and the Persian Shah continued to exchange ambassadors and presents. However, the power equation between the two had now changed in favour of the Mughals.<ref name="Eraly6" />

=== Deccan Sultans ===
[[File:Jalal al-Din Muhammad Akbar. AH 963-1014 AD 1556-1605. AV Mohur Falcon type. Asir mint. Dated Khurdad Ilahi year 45 (20 February – 20 March AD 1600).jpg|thumb|upright=1.4|Falcon [[Mohur]] of Akbar, minted in Asir, issued in the name of Akbar to commemorate the capture of Asirgarh Fort of the on 17 January 1601. Legend: ''"Allah is great, [[Khordad]] Ilahi 45, struck at Asir"''.<ref>{{harvnb|Smith|1917|p=274}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Gibbs|1883|pp=4–5}}</ref>]]
{{Main|Deccan sultanates}}
In 1593, Akbar began military operations against the Deccan Sultans, who had not submitted to his authority. He besieged [[Ahmednagar Fort]] in 1595, forcing [[Chand Bibi]] to cede [[Berar Subah|Berar]].{{citation needed|date=July 2023}} A subsequent revolt forced Akbar to take the fort in August 1600. Akbar occupied [[Burhanpur]] and besieged [[Asirgarh Fort]] in 1599, and took it on 17 January 1601, when Miran Bahadur Shah of the [[Farooqui dynasty|Khandesh Sultanate]] refused to relinquish [[Khandesh]]. Akbar then established the [[Subah]]s of Ahmadnagar, Berar, and Khandesh under Prince Daniyal. "By the time of his death in 1605, Akbar controlled a broad sweep of territory from the Bay of Bengal to Qandahar and Badakshan. He touched the western sea in Sind and at [[Surat]] and was well astride central India."<ref name="sen2">{{harvnb|Sen|2013|pp=164, 188}}</ref>

== Administration ==
=== Political structure ===
Akbar's system of central government was based on the system that had evolved since the [[Delhi Sultanate]]. Akbar reorganised the sections with a detailed set of regulations. The revenue department was headed by a ''wazir'', responsible for finances and management of ''jagir'' and ''inam'' land. The head of the military was called the ''[[mir bakshi]]'', appointed from among the leading nobles of the court. The ''mir bakshi'' was in charge of intelligence gathering, and made recommendations to the emperor for military appointments and promotion. The ''mir saman'' was in charge of the imperial household, including the harems, and supervised the functioning of the court and royal bodyguard. The judiciary was a separate organisation headed by a chief ''[[Qadi|qazi]]'', who was also responsible for religious beliefs and practices.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/qadi |title=Qadi &#124; Definition, Islam, & Facts &#124; Britannica |website=www.britannica.com}}</ref>

=== Taxation ===
Akbar reformed the administration land revenues by adopting a system that had been used by [[Sher Shah Suri]]. The village continued to remain the primary unit of revenue assessment.<ref>{{Harvnb|Moosvi|2008|pp=164–165}}</ref> Cultivated areas were measured and taxed through fixed rates—on the basis of prices prevailing the imperial court—based on the type of crop and productivity. This system burdened the peasantry because prices at the imperial court were often higher than those in the countryside.<ref>{{harvnb|Chandra|2007|p=233}}</ref> Akbar also introduced a decentralised system of annual assessment, which resulted in corruption among local officials. The system was abandoned in 1580 and replaced with the ''{{transliteration|bn|dahsala}}'' (also known as ''{{transliteration|bn|zabti}}''), under which revenue was calculated as one-third of the average produce of the previous ten years, to be paid to the state in cash.<ref name="dahsala">{{harvnb|Chandra|2007|p=234}}</ref> This system was later refined, taking into account local prices and grouping areas with similar productivity into assessment circles. Remission was given to peasants when the harvest failed during times of flood or drought.<ref name="dahsala" /> The ''{{transliteration|bn|dahsala}}'' system was set out by [[Raja Todar Mal]], who also served as a revenue officer under Sher Shah Suri, in a detailed memorandum submitted to the emperor in 1582–1583.<ref>{{Harvnb|Moosvi|2008|p=160}}</ref><ref name="Chandra 2007 236">{{harvnb|Chandra|2007|p=236}}</ref> Other local methods of assessment continued in some areas. Lands which were fallow or uncultivated were assessed at concessional rates.<ref name="localassessment">{{harvnb|Chandra|2007|p=235}}</ref>

Akbar also encouraged the improvement and extension of agriculture. [[Zamindar]]s were required to provide loans and agricultural implements in times of need, and to encourage farmers to plough as much land as possible and sow high-quality seeds. In turn, the zamindars were given a hereditary right to collect a share of the produce. Peasants had a hereditary right to cultivate the land as long as they paid the land revenue.<ref name="localassessment" /> Revenue officials were guaranteed only three-quarters of their salary, with the remaining quarter dependent on their full realisation of the revenue assessed.<ref>{{Harvnb|Moosvi|2008|p=165}}</ref>

=== Military organisation ===
{{Main|Mansabdari}}
Akbar organised his army and the nobility by means of a system called the ''mansabdari''. Under this system, each officer in the army was assigned a rank (a ''mansabdar'') and assigned a number of [[cavalry]], which he was required to supply to the imperial army.<ref name="Chandra 2007 236" /> The ''mansabdars'' were divided into 33 classes. The top three commanding ranks, ranging from 7,000 to 10,000 troops, were normally reserved for princes. Ranks between 10 and 5,000 were assigned to other members of the nobility. The empire's permanent [[standing army]] was small and the imperial forces mostly consisted of contingents maintained by the ''mansabdars''.<ref>{{harvnb|Smith|2002|p=359}}</ref> Persons were normally appointed to a low ''mansab'' and then promoted based on merit and the favour of the emperor.<ref name="mansabdari">{{harvnb|Chandra|2007|p=238}}</ref> Each ''mansabdar'' was required to maintain a certain number of cavalrymen and twice that number of horses. The number of horses was greater because they had to be rested and rapidly replaced in times of war. Akbar employed strict measures to ensure that the quality of the armed forces was maintained at a high level; horses were regularly inspected and usually only [[Arabian horse]]s were employed.<ref>{{harvnb|Chandra|2007|p=237}}</ref> The ''mansabdars'' were the highest paid military service in the world at the time.<ref name="mansabdari" />

=== Capitals ===
[[File:Audienzhalle.jpg|thumb|''Diwan-i-Khas'' (Hall of Private Audience) in Fatehpur Sikri]]

Akbar was a follower of [[Salim Chishti]], a [[Asceticism|holy man]] who lived in the region of Sikri near Agra. Believing the area to be lucky, Akbar had a mosque constructed there for the use of the priest. Subsequently, he celebrated the victories over Chittor and Ranthambore by laying the foundations of a new walled capital, {{convert|23|mi|km}} west of Agra in 1569, which was named Fatehpur ("Town of Victory") after the conquest of Gujarat in 1573, and subsequently came to be known as [[Fatehpur Sikri]] to distinguish it from other similarly named towns.<ref name="earlyconquest" /> The city was soon abandoned and the capital was moved to [[Lahore]] in 1585. Historians have advanced several reasons for the move, including an insufficient or poor quality water supply at Fatehpur Sikri, Akbar's campaigns in the northwest areas of the Empire or loss of interest.<ref>{{harvnb|Petersen|1996|pp=82–83}}</ref> In 1599, Akbar moved his capital back to Agra, where he ruled until his death.<ref>{{harvnb|Muzaffar|Kumar|Usmani|Gupta|2022|p=126}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Ahloowalia|2009|p=129}}</ref>

=== Culture ===
Akbar was a patron of the arts and culture. He had [[Sanskrit literature]] translated and participated in native festivals.{{Citation needed|date=May 2023}} Akbar established the library of Fatehpur Sikri exclusively for women,<ref>{{harvnb|Wiegand|Davis|1994|p=273}}</ref> and he decreed the establishment of schools for the education of both Muslims and Hindus throughout the realm. He also encouraged [[bookbinding]] to become a high art.<ref name="Murray, Stuart 2009">{{harvnb|Murray|2009|p=104}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Richards|1996|p=35}}</ref>

== Economy ==
=== Trade ===
Akbar's government prioritised commercial expansion,<ref name="Economy">{{harvnb|Ikram|1964|p=223}}</ref> encouraging traders, providing protection and security for transactions, and levying a low custom duty to stimulate foreign trade.{{citation needed|date=June 2023}} It also required that local administrators provide restitution to traders for goods stolen while in their territories. To minimise such incidents, bands of highway police called ''{{transliteration|bn|rahdars}}'' were enlisted to patrol roads and ensure the safety of traders.<ref>{{harvnb|Levi|2002|p=44}}</ref> Other active measures taken included the construction and protection of routes of commerce and communications.<ref name="Levi">{{harvnb|Levi|2002|p=39}}</ref> Akbar made concerted efforts to improve roads to facilitate the use of wheeled vehicles through the Khyber Pass, the most popular route frequented by traders and travellers journeying from [[Kabul]] into Mughal India.<ref name="Levi" /> He also strategically occupied the northwestern cities of Multan and Lahore in Punjab and constructed forts, such as the one at [[Attock Fort|Attock]] near the crossing of the [[Grand Trunk Road]] and the [[Indus river]]. He also constructed a network of smaller forts called ''thanas'' throughout the frontier to secure the overland trade route with Persia and Central Asia.<ref>{{harvnb|Levi|2002|p=40}}</ref> He also established an international trading business for his chief consort, [[Mariam-uz-Zamani]], who ran an extensive trade of indigo, spices, and cotton to Gulf nations through merchant's vessels.<ref name=DirkCollier>{{harvnb|Collier|2011|p=326}}</ref>

=== Coins ===
[[File:Silver Rupee Akbar.jpg|thumb|An ornamental silver Rupee of Akbar with inscriptions of the [[shahada|Islamic declaration of faith]]; the declaration reads: ''There is no god except Allah, and [[Muhammad]] is the messenger of Allah.'']]
[[File:Silver Rupee struck in the name of Mughal emperor Jalaluddin Muhammad Akbar, minted in Ahmadabad, Ilahi Type coin with having the Regnal Year 47, photographed from a personal collection, by Yogabrata Chakraborty.jpg|thumb|upright=0.7|Silver Rupee struck in the name of Mughal emperor Jalaluddin Muhammad Akbar, minted in Ahmadabad, Ilahi type coin with having the regnal year 47.]]

Akbar introduced coins with decorative features, including floral motifs, dotted borders, and [[quatrefoil]]. The coins were issued in both round and square shapes, including a unique 'mehrab' (lozenge) shaped coin.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.mintageworld.com/blog/coins-of-akbar/ |title=Coins of Akbar &#124; Mintage World |date=29 July 2016 |access-date=20 July 2020 |archive-date=5 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200805072722/https://www.mintageworld.com/blog/coins-of-akbar/ |url-status=live}}</ref> Akbar's portrait type gold coin (Mohur) is generally attributed to his son, Prince Salim (later Emperor Jahangir), who had rebelled and then sought reconciliation by minting and presenting his father with gold Mohurs bearing Akbar's portrait.{{Citation needed|date=May 2023}} During the latter part of Akbar's reign, coins portrayed the concept of Akbar's newly promoted religion, with the Ilahi type and Jalla Jalal-Hu types.{{Citation needed|date=March 2023}}

== Diplomacy ==
=== Matrimonial alliances ===
Prior to Akbar's reign, marriages between Hindu princesses and Muslim kings failed to produce stable relations between the families involved; the women were lost to their families and did not return after marriage.<ref name="Eraly">{{harvnb|Eraly|2000|p=136}}</ref><ref name="Chandra 243" /><ref name="Sarkar 37">{{harvnb|Sarkar|1984|p=37}}</ref> Akbar departed from that practice, providing that the Hindu Rajputs who married their daughters or sisters to him would be treated equally to his Muslim fathers- and brothers-in-law, except that they would not be allowed to dine or pray with him or take Muslim wives. Akbar also made those Rajputs members of his court. Some Rajputs considered marriage to Akbar a sign of humiliation.<ref name="Sarkar 37" />

[[File:Birth of jahangir.jpg|thumb|Portrait of [[Mariam-uz-Zamani|Empress Mariam-uz-Zamani]], commonly known as Jodha Bai, giving birth to Prince Salim, the future emperor Jahangir]]

The [[Kacchwaha]] Rajput, Raja [[Bharmal]], of the small kingdom of [[Amer, India|Amer]], and an early member of Akbar's court, allied with Akbar by giving his daughter, Mariam-uz-Zamani{{emdash}}who would go on to be Akbar's favorite wife{{emdash}}in marriage to Akbar. Bharmal was made a noble of high rank in the imperial court, and subsequently, his son [[Bhagwant Das]] and grandson [[Man Singh]] also rose to high ranks in the nobility.<ref name="Chandra 243">{{Harvnb|Chandra|2007|p=243}}</ref>

Other Rajput kingdoms also established matrimonial alliances with Akbar, but Akbar did not insist upon matrimony as a precondition for forming alliances. When Akbar met with the Hada leader, Surjan Hada, to effect an alliance, Surjan accepted on the condition that Akbar could not marry any of his daughters. Consequently, no matrimonial alliance was entered into, but Surjan was made a noble and placed in charge of Garh-Katanga.<ref name="Chandra 243" /> Two major Rajput clans remained aloof{{emdash}}the [[Sisodia Dynasty|Sisodiya]]s of [[Mewar]] and [[Hada (clan)|Hadas]] of Ranthambore.{{clarify|date=May 2023|reason=Not clear what this means.}}

The political effect of these alliances was significant. While some Rajput women who entered Akbar's harem converted to Islam, they were generally provided full religious freedom; their relatives, who continued to remain Hindu, formed a significant part of the nobility and served to articulate the opinions of the majority of commoners in the imperial court.<ref name="Chandra 243" /> The interaction between Hindu and Muslim nobles in the imperial court resulted in an exchange of thoughts and a blending of the two cultures. Newer generations of the Mughal line also represented a merger of Mughal and Rajput blood, thereby strengthening ties between the two. As a result, the Rajputs became the strongest allies of the Mughals, and Rajput soldiers and generals fought for the Mughal army under Akbar, leading it in several campaigns, including the conquest of Gujarat in 1572.<ref>{{Harvnb|Sarkar|1984|pp=38–40}}</ref> Akbar's policy of religious tolerance ensured that employment in the imperial administration was open to all on merit, irrespective of creed, strengthening his imperial rule.<ref>{{Harvnb|Sarkar|1984|p=38}}</ref>

Akbar's daughter Meherunnissa was rumoured to be enamored of [[Tansen]] and might have played a role in his coming to Akbar's court.<ref name="dawn">{{cite news |author=Kherulla |first=Maryam Juzer |date=12 October 2002 |title=Profile: Tansen – the mesmerizing maestro |url=http://dawn.com/weekly/yworld/archive/021012/yworld5.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071121000709/http://dawn.com/weekly/yworld/archive/021012/yworld5.htm |archive-date=21 November 2007 |access-date=2 October 2007 |work=[[Dawn (newspaper)|Dawn]]}}</ref> Tansen converted to [[Islam]] from [[Hinduism]], apparently on the eve of his marriage with Akbar's daughter.<ref>{{harvnb|Prasad|2017|p=80}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Keay|1920|p=36}}</ref>

== Foreign relations ==
=== Relations with the Portuguese ===
{{quote box
| width = 29%
| quote = A monarch should be ever intent on conquest, otherwise his neighbours rise in arms against him.
| source = &nbsp;– Akbar, quoted in Abu'l Fazl (c. 1590). ''[[Ain-i-Akbari]]''. Translated by Jarrett.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Royle |first1=Trevor |title=A Dictionary of Military Quotations |year=2021 |orig-year=First published 1990 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-00-037061-4}}</ref>
}}

At the time of Akbar's ascension in 1556, the Portuguese had established several fortresses and factories on the western coast of the subcontinent, and largely controlled navigation and sea trade in that region. As a consequence, all other trading entities were subject to the terms and conditions of the Portuguese, which was resented by rulers and traders, including [[Bahadur Shah of Gujarat]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Habib|1997|p=256}}</ref>

[[File:Death of Sultan Bahadur in front of Diu against the Portuguese 1537 Akbar Nama end of 16th century.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Death of Bahadur Shah of Gujarat at [[Diu Island|Diu]], in front of the [[Portuguese Empire|Portuguese]] in 1537<ref>{{cite book |editor-last=Dodwell |editor-first=Henry H. |date=1929 |title=The Cambridge history of the British Empire |volume=IV |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Y-08AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA14 |location=Cambridge |publisher=The University Press |page=14 |oclc=1473561 |access-date=15 November 2015 |archive-date=17 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230817154536/https://books.google.com/books?id=Y-08AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA14 |url-status=live}}</ref>]]

In 1572, the [[Mughal Empire]] annexed [[Gujarat]] and acquired its first access to the sea, but local officials informed Akbar that the Portuguese had begun to exert control in the Indian Ocean. Akbar obtained a ''[[cartaz]]'' (permit) from the Portuguese to sail in the [[Persian Gulf]] region.<ref>{{Harvnb|Habib|1997|pp=256–257}}</ref> At the initial meeting of the Mughals and the Portuguese during the [[Siege of Surat]] in 1572, the Portuguese, recognising the superior strength of the Mughal army, chose to adopt diplomacy instead of war. The Portuguese Governor, upon the request of Akbar, sent him an ambassador to establish friendly relations.<ref>{{Harvnb|Habib|1997|p=259}}</ref>

Akbar accepted the offer of diplomacy, but the Portuguese continually asserted their authority and power in the Indian Ocean; Akbar expressed concern when he was required to request a permit from the Portuguese before any ships from the Mughal Empire could depart for the [[Hajj]] to [[Mecca]] and [[Medina]].<ref>{{harvnb|Ikram|1964|p=274}}</ref> In 1573, Akbar issued a ''[[firman]]'' directing Mughal administrative officials in Gujarat not to provoke the Portuguese in the territory they held in [[Daman District, India|Daman]]. The Portuguese, in turn, issued passes for members of Akbar's family to go on Hajj to Mecca. The Portuguese made mention of the extraordinary status of the vessel and the special status to be accorded to its occupants.<ref>{{Harvnb|Habib|1997|p=260}}</ref>

Akbar was unsuccessful in purchasing compact [[artillery]] pieces from the Portuguese, hindering his efforts to establish a Mughal navy along the Gujarat coast.<ref>{{harvnb|Ikram|1964|p=218}}</ref>

In September 1579, [[Society of Jesus|Jesuits]] from [[Goa]] were invited to visit the court of Akbar.<ref>Akbar's letter of invitation in John Correia-Afonso, ''Letters from the Mughal Court'', Bombay, 1980.</ref> The emperor had his scribes translate the [[New Testament]] and granted the Jesuits freedom to preach the Gospel.<ref name=org>{{harvnb|Gómez|2013|p=58}}</ref> One of his sons, [[Sultan Murad Mirza]], was entrusted to [[Antoni de Montserrat]] for his education.<ref>{{harvnb|Jarric|1926}}</ref><ref name="Durant2011">{{harvnb|Durant |2011|p=738}}</ref> While debating at court, the Jesuits denigrated Islam and Muhammad. Their comments enraged the [[Imam]]s and [[Ulama]], who objected to the remarks, but Akbar ordered their comments to be recorded. This event was followed by a rebellion of Muslim clerics in 1581 led by Mullah Muhammad Yazdi and Muiz-ul-Mulk, the chief [[Qadi]] of [[Bengal]]; the rebels sought to overthrow Akbar and put his brother Mirza Muhammad Hakim on the Mughal throne. Akbar successfully defeated the rebels, but he became more cautious about inviting guests to his court, seeking advice from his counselors.<ref>{{harvnb|Ikram|1964|p=160}}</ref>

=== Relations with the Ottoman Empire ===
[[File:Seydi Ali-Ambush.png|thumb|[[Portuguese Empire|Portuguese]] ambush against the galleys of Seydi Ali Reis (Akbar's allies) in the Indian Ocean]]

In 1555, while Akbar was still a child, the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] Admiral [[Seydi Ali Reis]] visited the [[Mughal Emperor]] [[Humayun]]. In 1569, during the early years of Akbar's rule, Ottoman Admiral [[Kurtoğlu Hızır Reis]] visited the Empire. These Ottoman admirals sought to end the growing threats of the Portuguese Empire during their [[Ottoman naval expeditions in the Indian Ocean|Indian Ocean campaigns]]. During his reign, Akbar six documents addressing the Ottoman [[Sultan]] [[Suleiman the Magnificent]].<ref>{{harvnb|Farooqi|1996|pp=32–48}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Subrahmanyam|1994|p=249}}</ref>

In 1576, Akbar sent a contingent of pilgrims on Hajj, led by Khwaja Sultan Naqshbandi, with 600,000 rupees and 12,000 ''[[khalat]]s'' (honorific robes) for the needy of Mecca and Medina.<ref>{{harvnb|Farooqi|1989|p=114}}</ref> In October 1576, Akbar sent a delegation, which included his aunt Gulbadan Begum and his consort Salima, on Hajj by two ships, including an Ottoman vessel, from [[Surat]], which reached the port of [[Jeddah]] in 1577 and then proceeded to Mecca and Medina.<ref>{{Harvnb|Moosvi|2008|p=246}}</ref> Four more caravans were sent from 1577 to 1580, with gifts for the authorities of Mecca and Medina.<ref>{{harvnb|Khan|1999|p=217}}</ref>

During this period, Akbar financed the pilgrimages of many poor [[Muslim]]s from the Mughal Empire and also funded the foundations of the [[Qadiriyya]] [[Sufi]] Order's dervish lodge in the Hijaz.<ref name="Faroqhi2006">{{Harvnb|Faroqhi|2006|p=88}}</ref> Akbar's attempts to build Mughal presence in Mecca and Medina reassured the local Sharifs of the Mughal Empire's ability to provide financial support, lessening their dependency upon Ottoman bounties.<ref name="Faroqhi2006" /> Mughal-Ottoman trade also flourished during this period; merchants loyal to Akbar are known to have reached [[Aleppo]] after journeying upriver through the port of [[Basra]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Faroqhi|2006|p=138}}</ref>

The imperial Mughal entourage stayed in Mecca and Medina for nearly four years and attended the Hajj four times.<ref>{{harvnb|Farooqi|2017|pp=192–229}}</ref> In 1582, the Ottoman authorities forced them to return to India. Historian Naimur Rahman Farooqi has suggested that their expulsion may explain why Akbar broke relations with the Hijaz and stopped sending Hajj caravans after 1581.<ref>{{harvnb|Farooqi|1989|pp=118–119}}</ref>

According to some accounts, Akbar expressed a desire to form an alliance with the Portuguese against the Ottomans, but nothing came of the idea.<ref>{{harvnb|Farooqi|1989|pp=20–21}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Majumdar|1974|p=158}}</ref>

=== Relations with the Safavid dynasty ===
[[File:AkbariMosqueOverlookingGanges-Sita-Ram1804.jpg|thumb|The Akbari Mosque, overlooking the [[Ganges]]]]

Before Akbar's rule, the [[Safavid Empire|Safavids]] and the Mughals had a long history of diplomatic relations. The Safavid ruler Tahmasp I provided refuge to Humayun when he was forced to flee the Indian subcontinent following his defeat by Sher Shah Suri. However, the Safavids differed from the Sunni Mughals and Ottomans in following the [[Shia Islam|Shia]] branch of Islam.<ref>{{Harvnb|Ali|2006|p=94}}</ref>

One of the longest-standing disputes between the Safavids and the Mughals pertained to control of the city of [[Qandahar]] in the [[Hindukush]] region, which formed the border between the two empires.<ref name="Majumdar 153">{{Harvnb|Majumdar|1974|p=153}}</ref> Military strategists of the time considered the region to be militarily significant due to its geography.<ref>{{Harvnb|Ali|2006|pp=327–328}}</ref> The city, which was administered by Bairam Khan at the time of Akbar's accession, was invaded and captured by the Persian ruler Husain Mirza, a [[Ismail I#Issue|cousin of Tahmasp I]], in 1558.<ref name="Majumdar 153" /> Shortly afterwards, Akbar's army completed its annexation of Kabul, and to further secure the north-western boundaries of his empire, it proceeded to Qandahar. The city capitulated without resistance on 18 April 1595, and the ruler Muzaffar Hussain joined Akbar's court.<ref>{{Harvnb|Majumdar|1974|pp=153–154}}</ref> Subsequent to this, Bairam Khan sent an envoy to the court of Tahmasp I in an effort to maintain peaceful relations with the Safavids. This gesture was reciprocated and a cordial relationship prevailed between the two empires during the remainder of the first two decades of Akbar's reign.<ref>{{Harvnb|Majumdar|1974|p=154}}</ref> The death of Tahmasp I in 1576 resulted in civil war and instability in the Safavid empire, and diplomatic relations between the two empires ceased for more than a decade. They were restored only in 1587 following the accession of [[Abbas I of Persia|Shah Abbas]] to the Safavid throne.<ref>{{Harvnb|Majumdar|1974|pp=154–155}}</ref> Diplomatic relations continued to be maintained between the Safavid and Mughal courts until the end of Akbar's reign.<ref>{{Harvnb|Majumdar|1974|p=155}}</ref> Qandahar continued to remain in Mughal possession, and the Hindukush was the empire's western frontier for several decades until [[Shah Jahan]]'s expedition into [[Badakhshan]] in 1646.<ref>{{Harvnb|Ali|2006|p=327}}</ref>

=== Relations with other contemporary kingdoms ===
[[Vincent Arthur Smith]] has observed that the merchant Mildenhall was employed in 1600 to bear a letter from [[Queen Elizabeth I|Queen Elizabeth]] to Akbar requesting liberty to trade in his dominions on terms as good as those enjoyed by the Portuguese.<ref>{{harvnb|Smith|1917|p=292}}</ref>

Akbar was also visited by the French explorer [[Pierre Malherbe]].<ref>{{harvnb|Lach|Van Kley|1965|p=393}}</ref>

== Religious policy ==
[[File:Portrait of Emperor Akbar Praying.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Portrait of the Mughal Emperor Akbar invocation of a [[Dua]] prayer]]

Akbar, as well as his mother and other members of his family, are believed to have been [[Sunni]] [[Hanafi]] Muslims.<ref>{{harvnb|Habib|1997|p=80}}</ref> His early days were spent in the backdrop of an atmosphere in which liberal sentiments were encouraged and [[fundamentalism|religious narrow-mindedness]] was frowned upon.<ref name="religion1">{{harvnb|Chandra|2007|p=253}}</ref> From the 15th century, a number of rulers in various parts of the country adopted a more liberal policy of [[Religious toleration|religious tolerance]], attempting to foster [[Communalism (South Asia)|communal harmony]] between Hindus and Muslims.<ref name="religion2">{{harvnb|Chandra|2007|p=252}}</ref> These sentiments were earlier encouraged by the teachings of popular saints like [[Guru Nanak]], [[Kabir]], and [[Chaitanya Mahaprabhu|Chaitanya]],<ref name="religion1" /> and the verses of the Persian poet [[Hafez]], which advocated human sympathy and a liberal outlook.<ref>{{Harvnb|Hasan|2007|p=72}}</ref> The Timurid ethos of religious tolerance persisted from the times of [[Timur]] to [[Humayun]], and influenced Akbar's policy of tolerance in matters of religion.<ref name="religion3">{{harvnb|Habib|1997|p=81}}</ref> Akbar's childhood tutors, including two Irani Shias, were largely above [[sectarianism|sectarian]] prejudices, and made a significant contribution to Akbar's later inclination towards religious tolerance.<ref name="religion3" />

Akbar sponsored religious debates between different Muslim groups ([[Sunni Islam|Sunni]], [[Shia Islam|Shia]], [[Isma'ilism|Ismaili]], and [[Sufism|Sufis]]), [[Parsis]], [[Hindus]] ([[Shaivite]] and [[Vaishnavism|Vaishnava]]), [[Sikhs]], [[Jainism|Jains]], Jews, [[Jesuits]], and [[Materialism|Materialists]]. He was also partial to Sufism; he proclaimed that "the wisdom of Vedanta is the wisdom of Sufism".<ref>{{Cite book |title=On Hinduism |last=Doniger |first=Wendy |isbn=978-0-19-936007-9 |location=Oxford |oclc=858660095 |date=March 2014 |publisher=Oxford University Press}}</ref>

=== Association with the Muslim aristocracy ===
[[File:1573-Akbar receiving his sons at Fathpur-Akbarnama.jpg|thumb|upright|The [[Mughal Emperor]] Akbar welcomes his son [[Jahangir|Prince Salim]] at Fatehpur Sikri ([[Akbarnameh]]).]]

During the early part of his reign, Akbar adopted an attitude of suppression towards Muslim sects that were condemned by the orthodoxy as [[heresy|heretical]].<ref name="religion4">{{harvnb|Habib|1997|p=85}}</ref> In 1567, on the advice of Shaikh Abdu'n Nabi, he ordered the exhumation of Mir Murtaza Sharifi Shirazi – a [[Shia]] buried in Delhi – because of the grave's proximity to that of [[Amir Khusrau]], arguing that a "heretic" could not be buried so close to the grave of a [[Sunni]] saint. This reflected a restrictive attitude towards the Shia, which continued to persist until the early 1570s.<ref name="religion5">{{harvnb|Habib|1997|p=86}}</ref> He suppressed [[Mahdavia|Mahdavism]] in 1573 during his campaign in Gujarat, in the course of which the Mahdavi leader Bandagi Miyan Sheik Mustafa was arrested and brought in chains to the court for debate and released after eighteen months.<ref name="religion5" /> Akbar was reportedly angered by acts of embezzlement by many high level Muslim clerics.<ref>{{harvnb|Smith|2002|p=348}}</ref> As Akbar increasingly came under the influence of pantheistic Sufi mysticism from the early 1570s, his outlook shifted from orthodox Islam as traditionally professed, to a new concept of Islam that transcended the limits of Islam.<ref name="religion5" /> Consequently, during the latter half of his reign, he adopted a policy of tolerance towards the Shias and declared a prohibition on Shia-Sunni conflict, and the empire remained neutral in matters of internal sectarian conflict.<ref>{{harvnb|Ali|2006|pp=165–166}}</ref> In 1579, the Mughal Emperor Akbar referred to himself as:<ref>{{harvnb|Eaton|2019|p=235}}</ref>
{{blockquote|Emperor of Islam, Emir of the Faithful, Shadow of God on earth, Abul Fath Jalal-ud-din Muhammad Akbar Badshah Ghazi (whose empire Allah perpetuate), is a most just, most wise, and a most God-fearing ruler.}}

In 1580, a rebellion broke out in the eastern part of Akbar's empire, and a number of ''[[fatwa]]s'', declaring Akbar to be a heretic, were issued by [[Qadi|Qazis]]. Akbar suppressed the rebellion and handed out severe punishments to the Qazis. To further strengthen his position in dealing with the Qazis, Akbar issued a ''[[mazhar]]'', or declaration, that was signed by all major ''[[ulema]]s'' in 1579.<ref name="religion6">{{harvnb|Chandra|2007|p=254}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Ali|2006|p=159}}</ref> The ''mahzar'' asserted that Akbar was the ''[[Caliph|Khalifa]]'' of the age, a higher rank than that of a ''[[Mujtahid]]''; in case of a difference of opinion among the Mujtahids, Akbar could select any one opinion and could also issue decrees that did not go against the ''[[Nass (Islam)|nass]]''.<ref>{{harvnb|Hasan|2007|p=79}}</ref> Given the prevailing Islamic sectarian conflicts in various parts of the country at that time, it is believed that the ''Mazhar'' helped stabilise the religious situation in the empire.<ref name="religion6" /> It also helped him eliminate the religious and political influence of the Ottoman ''Khalifa'' over his subjects, thus ensuring their loyalty to him.<ref>{{harvnb|Hasan|2007|pp=82–83}}</ref>

Throughout his reign, Akbar was a patron of influential Muslim scholars such as [[Mir Ahmed Nasrallah Thattvi]] and [[Tahir Muhammad Thattvi]].{{citation needed|date=October 2013}}

=== Din-i Ilahi ===
{{Main|Din-i Ilahi}}
[[File:Jesuits at Akbar's court.jpg|thumb|upright|Akbar holds a religious assembly of different faiths in the [[Ibadat Khana]] in Fatehpur Sikri.]]

Akbar was deeply interested in religious and philosophical matters. An orthodox Muslim at the outset, he later came to be influenced by the [[Sufi]] mysticism that was being preached in the country at that time. He moved away from orthodoxy, appointing to his court several people with liberal religious philosophies, including Abul Fazl, [[Faizi]], and [[Birbal]]. In 1575, he built a hall called the [[Ibadat Khana]] (''"House of Worship"'') at Fatehpur Sikri, to which he invited theologians, mystics, and selected courtiers renowned for their intellectual achievements to discuss matters of [[spirituality]] with them.<ref name="religion1" /> These discussions, initially restricted to Muslims, were acrimonious and resulted in the participants shouting at and abusing each other. Upset by this, Akbar opened the Ibadat Khana to people of all religions as well as atheists, resulting in the scope of the discussions broadening, even extending into areas such as the validity of the [[Quran]] and the nature of God. This shocked orthodox theologians, who sought to discredit Akbar by circulating rumours of his desire to forsake Islam.<ref name="religion6" />

Akbar's effort to evolve a meeting point among the representatives of various religions was not successful, as each of them attempted to assert the superiority of their respective religions by denouncing other religions. The debates at the Ibadat Khana grew more acrimonious and, contrary to their purpose of leading to a better understanding among religions, instead led to greater bitterness among them, resulting in the discontinuance of the debates by Akbar in 1582.<ref name="Chandra 2007 255">{{harvnb|Chandra|2007|p=255}}</ref>

Akbar's interaction with various religious theologians had convinced him that despite their differences, all religions had several good practices, which he sought to combine into a new religious movement known as [[Din-i-Ilahi]].<ref>{{harvnb|Chandra|2007|p=256}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9030480/Din-i-Ilahi |title=Din-i Ilahi&nbsp;– Britannica Online Encyclopedia |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=18 July 2009 |archive-date=14 May 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080514090902/http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9030480/Din-i-Ilahi |url-status=live}}</ref> Virtues in Din-i-Ilahi included generosity, forgiveness, abstinence, prudence, wisdom, kindness, and piety.<ref>{{cite book |last=Roychoudhury |first=Makhanlal |url=https://archive.org/details/diniilahiorthere031361mbp/page/n340/mode/1up |title=The Din-i-Ilahi, or, The Religion of Akbar |publisher=University of Calcutta |year=1941 |page=279 |oclc=3312929}}</ref> Celibacy was respected, chastity enforced, the slaughter of animals was discouraged, and there were no sacred scriptures or a priestly hierarchy.<ref>{{Harvnb|Majumdar|1974|p=138}}</ref> A leading noble of Akbar's court, Aziz Koka, wrote a letter to him from Mecca in 1594 arguing that the discipleship promoted by Akbar amounted to nothing more than a desire on Akbar's part to portray his superiority regarding religious matters.<ref>{{cite book |author=Koka, Aziz |title=King's College Collection, MS 194 |publisher=This letter is preserved in Cambridge University Library |year=1594 |page=ff.5b–8b}}</ref> To commemorate Din-e-Ilahi, Akbar changed the name of [[Allahabad|Prayag]] to [[Allahabad]] (pronounced as ''ilahabad'') in 1583.<ref>{{harvnb|Conder|1828|p=282}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Deefholts|Deefholts|Acharya|2006|p=87}}</ref>

[[File:Silver rupee coin of Akbar, from Lahore mint.jpg|thumb|left|Silver square rupee of Akbar, Lahore mint, struck in Aban month of Ilahi]]

Some modern scholars claim that Akbar did not initiate a new religion, instead introducing what [[Oscar R. Gómez]] has called a transtheistic outlook, derived from tantric [[Tibetan Buddhism]],<ref>{{harvnb|Gómez|2013|p=51}}</ref> and that Akbar did not use the word ''Din-i-Ilahi''.<ref>{{harvnb|Sharma|1988|p=42}}</ref>

Scholars have also argued that the theory that Din-i-Ilahi was a new religion is a misconception that arose because of erroneous translations of Abul Fazl's work by later British historians.<ref>{{harvnb|Ali|2006|pp=163–164}}</ref> It has been accepted{{According to whom|date=May 2023}} that the policy of ''sulh-e-kul'', which formed the essence of Din-i-Ilahi, was adopted by Akbar not merely for religious purposes, but as a part of general imperial administrative policy. This also formed the basis for Akbar's policy of religious tolerance.<ref>{{Harvnb|Ali|2006|p=164}}</ref> At the time of Akbar's death in 1605, there were no signs of discontent among his Muslim subjects, and even theologians like Abdu'l Haq accepted that close ties remained.<ref name="Habib 1997 96">{{harvnb|Habib|1997|p=96}}</ref>{{Clarify|date=May 2023}}

=== Relation with Hindus ===
[[File:The great Mogul discoursing with a Humble Fakir.jpg|thumb|upright=.8|The great Mogul discoursing with a Humble Fakir]]

Akbar decreed that Hindus who had been forced to convert to Islam could reconvert to Hinduism without facing the death penalty.<ref>{{harvnb|Chua|2007|p=187}}</ref> Akbar was well-liked by Hindus, who sang religious hymns to him and his eulogies.<ref>{{harvnb|Chua|2007|p=126}}</ref>

Akbar practised several Hindu customs. He celebrated [[Diwali]] and allowed Brahman priests to tie jewelled strings around his wrists by way of blessing. Following his lead, many nobles took to wearing ''rakhi'' (protection charms).<ref name="Collingham2006p30">{{harvnb|Collingham|2006|p=30}}</ref> He renounced beef and forbade the sale of all meats on certain days.<ref name="Collingham2006p30" />

His son Jahangir and grandson Shahjahan maintained many of Akbar's concessions, such as the ban on cow slaughter, having only vegetarian dishes on certain days of the week, and drinking only Ganges water.<ref name="Collingham2006p31">{{harvnb|Collingham|2006|p=31}}</ref> When Akbar was in Punjab, 200 miles away from the Ganges, water was sealed in large jars and transported to him. He referred to the Ganges water as the "water of immortality".<ref name="Collingham2006p31" />

=== Relation with Jains ===
[[File:Farrukh Beg. Akbar's Triumphal Entry into Surat. Akbarnama, 1590-95, Victoria and Albert Museum, London.jpg|thumb|upright=.8|Akbar enters [[Surat]] triumphantly.]]

Akbar regularly held discussions with [[Jain]] scholars and was impacted by their teachings. His first encounter with Jain rituals was when he saw a procession of a Jain [[Śrāvaka|Shravaka]] named Champa after a six-month-long fast. Impressed by her power and devotion, he invited her [[guru]], [[Hiravijaya]], to Fatehpur Sikri. Hiravijaya accepted the invitation and travelled to the Mughal capital from [[Gujarat]].<ref name=Sanghmitra>{{harvnb|Sanghmitra}}</ref>

Akbar was impressed with his scholarly approach. He held several inter-faith dialogues among philosophers of different religions. The arguments of Jains against eating meat persuaded him to become a vegetarian.<ref>{{harvnb|Sen|2005|pp=288–289|ps=: "Akbar arranged for discussions&nbsp;... involving not only mainstream Hindu and Muslim philosophers [but Jains and others]&nbsp;... Arguing with Jains, Akbar would remain sceptical of their rituals, and yet become convinced by their argument for vegetarianism and end up deploring the eating of all flesh"}}</ref> Akbar also issued many imperial orders that were favourable for Jain interests, such as banning animal slaughter.<ref>{{cite web |last=Truschke |first=Audrey |title=Jains and the Mughals |date=29 October 2020 |url=http://www.jainpedia.org/themes/places/jainism-and-islam/jains-and-the-mughals.html |publisher=JAINpedia |access-date=3 November 2015 |archive-date=8 March 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180308013841/http://www.jainpedia.org/themes/places/jainism-and-islam/jains-and-the-mughals.html |url-status=live}}</ref> Jain authors also wrote about their experience at the Mughal court in Sanskrit texts that are still largely unknown to Mughal historians.<ref>{{harvnb|Truschke|2012|p=373}}</ref>

In 1584, 1592, and 1598, Akbar declared "Amari Ghosana", which prohibited animal slaughter during [[Paryushan]] and [[Mahavir Janma Kalyanak|Mahavira Janma Kalyanak]]. He removed the jizya tax from Jain pilgrim places like [[Palitana]].<ref name=toi>{{cite news |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/ahmedabad/Ahmedabad-turned-Akbar-veggie/articleshow/5259184.cms |title=Ahmedabad turned Akbar veggie |work=The Times of India |date=23 November 2009 |access-date=23 November 2009 |archive-date=20 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180920170016/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/ahmedabad/Ahmedabad-turned-Akbar-veggie/articleshow/5259184.cms |url-status=live}}</ref> Santichandra, disciple of Suri, was sent to the Emperor, who in turn left his disciples Bhanuchandra and Siddhichandra in the court. Akbar invited Hiravijaya Suri's successor Vijayasena Suri to his court who visited him between 1593 and 1595.{{Citation needed|date=July 2013}} Akbar's religious tolerance was not followed by his son [[Jahangir]], who later threatened Bhanuchandra.<ref>{{harvnb|Busch|2011|p=137}}</ref>

== Historical accounts ==
=== Personality ===
[[File:AkbarHunt.jpg|thumb|upright|Akbar hunting with [[Asiatic Cheetah|cheetahs]], {{Circa|1602}}]]

Akbar's reign was chronicled extensively by his court historian [[Abu'l-Fazl ibn Mubarak|Abul Fazl]] in the books ''[[Akbarnama]]'' and ''Ain-i-akbari''. Other contemporary sources of Akbar's reign include the works of Badayuni, Shaikhzada Rashidi, and Shaikh Ahmed Sirhindi.{{Citation needed|date=March 2023}}

Akbar was a warrior, emperor, general, [[animal trainer]] (reputedly keeping thousands of hunting cheetahs during his reign and training many himself), and theologian.<ref name=Habib>{{harvnb|Habib|1992|pp=3–15}}</ref> Believed to be [[dyslexic]], he was read to every day and had a remarkable memory.{{citation needed|date=August 2023}} He created a library of over 24,000 volumes<ref name="Murray, Stuart 2009" /> written in [[Sanskrit]], [[Urdu]], [[Persian language|Persian]], [[Greek language|Greek]], [[Latin language|Latin]], Arabic, and [[Kashmiri language|Kashmiri]]; the library was staffed by many scholars, translators, artists, [[calligraphers]], scribes, bookbinders, and readers,{{citation needed|date=August 2023}} and he did much of the cataloguing himself.<ref name="Murray, Stuart 2009" />

Akbar was said to have been a wise emperor and a sound judge of character. His son and heir, Jahangir, wrote effusive praise of Akbar's character in his memoirs, and dozens of anecdotes to illustrate his virtues.<ref name=Jahangir>{{harvnb|Jahangir|1999|p=}}</ref> According to Jahangir, Akbar was "of the hue of wheat; his eyes and eyebrows were black, and his complexion rather dark than fair".<ref>{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WSjGDwAAQBAJ&dq=%22of+the+hue+of+wheat%3B+his+eyes+and+eyebrows+were+black,+and+his+complexion+rather+dark+than+fair%22&pg=PA82 | title=Medieval India from Contemporary Sources: Extracts from Arabic and Persian annals and European travels | date=January 1901 | publisher=Dalcassian Publishing Company }}</ref> Antoni de Montserrat, the [[Catalan people|Catalan]] [[Jesuit]] who visited his court, described him as follows:<ref name="Portraits of Akbar">{{harvnb|Codrington|1943|pp=64–67}}</ref>

{{Blockquote|text=One could easily recognize even at first glance that he is King. He has broad shoulders, somewhat bandy legs well-suited for horsemanship, and a light brown complexion. He carries his head bent towards the right shoulder. His forehead is broad and open, his eyes so bright and flashing that they seem like a sea shimmering in the sunlight. His eyelashes are very long. His eyebrows are not strongly marked. His nose is straight and small though not insignificant. His nostrils are widely open as though in derision. Between the left nostril and the upper lip there is a mole. He shaves his beard but wears a moustache. He limps in his left leg though he has never received an injury there.}}

Akbar was not tall, but powerfully built and very agile. He was also noted for various acts of courage. One such incident occurred on his way back from Malwa to Agra when Akbar was 19 years old. Akbar rode alone in advance of his escort and was confronted by a tigress who, along with her cubs, came out from the shrubbery across his path. When the tigress charged the emperor, he was alleged to have dispatched the animal with his sword in a solitary blow. His approaching attendants found the emperor standing quietly by the side of the dead animal.<ref name="chicago">{{harvnb|von Garbe|1909|p=8}}</ref>

Abul Fazl, as well as Akbar's critic Badayuni, described him as having a commanding personality. He was notable for his command in battle, and, "like [[Alexander III of Macedon|Alexander of Macedon]], was always ready to risk his life, regardless of political consequences".{{Citation needed|date=May 2023}} He often plunged on his horse into flooded rivers during the rainy seasons and safely crossed them. He rarely indulged in cruelty and is said to have been affectionate towards his relatives. He pardoned his brother Hakim, who had rebelled. On rare occasions, he dealt cruelly with offenders, such as his maternal uncle Muazzam and his foster-brother Adham Khan, who was twice [[Defenestration|defenestrated]] for drawing Akbar's wrath.<ref>{{harvnb|Richards|1996|p=15}}</ref>

He is said to have been extremely moderate in his diet. ''[[Ain-e-Akbari]]'' mentions that during his travels and while at home, Akbar drank water from the [[Ganges]] river, which he called "the water of immortality".{{Citation needed|date=May 2023}} Servants were stationed at Sorun, and later [[Haridwar]], to dispatch water, in sealed jars, to wherever he was stationed.<ref>{{harvnb|Abul Fazl 'Allami|1873|p=55}}</ref>{{Better source needed|date=January 2010}} According to [[Jahangir]]'s memoirs, he was fond of fruits and had little liking for meat, which he stopped eating in his later years.{{Citation needed|date=March 2023}}
In 1570, Akbar visited [[Vrindavan]], regarded as the birthplace of [[Krishna]], and gave permission for four temples to be built by the [[Gaudiya Vaishnavism|Gaudiya Vaishnavas]], which were Madana-mohana, Govindaji, Gopinatha, and Jugal Kisore.{{Citation needed|date=March 2023}}

To defend his stance that speech arose from hearing, he carried out a [[Language deprivation experiments|language deprivation experiment]], and had children raised in isolation, not allowed to be spoken to, and pointed out that as they grew older, they remained mute.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sign-lang.uni-hamburg.de/bibweb/Miles/1200-1750.html |title=1200–1750 |publisher=[[University of Hamburg]] |access-date=30 May 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080222020147/http://www.sign-lang.uni-hamburg.de/bibweb/Miles/1200-1750.html |archive-date=22 February 2008}}</ref>

=== Hagiography ===
During Akbar's reign, the ongoing process of inter-religious discourse and [[syncretism]] resulted in a series of religious attributions to him in terms of positions of assimilation, doubt, or uncertainty, which he either assisted himself or left unchallenged.<ref name="hagiography">{{harvnb|Sangari|2007|p=497}}</ref> Such [[hagiographical]] accounts of Akbar traversed a wide range of denominational and sectarian spaces, including several accounts by [[Parsi]]s, [[Jain]]s, and Jesuit missionaries, apart from contemporary accounts by Brahminical and Muslim orthodoxy.<ref>{{harvnb|Sangari|2007|p=475}}</ref> Existing sects and denominations, as well as various religious figures who represented popular worship felt they had a claim to him. The diversity of these accounts is attributed to the fact that his reign resulted in the formation of a flexible centralised state accompanied by personal authority and cultural heterogeneity.<ref name="hagiography" />

=== Akbarnāma, the ''Book of Akbar'' ===
{{Main|Akbarnama }}
[[File:AbulFazlPresentingAkbarnama.jpg|upright|thumb|[[Abu'l-Fazl ibn Mubarak]] presenting ''[[Akbarnama]]'' to Akbar, Mughal miniature]]
The {{IAST|Akbarnāma}} ({{langx|fa|اکبر نامہ}}), which literally means ''Book of Akbar'', is an official biographical account of Akbar written in Persian. It includes vivid and detailed descriptions of his life and times.<ref name=art>{{cite web |url=http://www.artic.edu/artaccess/AA_India/pages/India_12.shtml |title=Art Access: Indian, Himalayan, and Southeast Asian |website=artic.edu |publisher=The Art Institute of Chicago |access-date=20 February 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090919035749/http://www.artic.edu/artaccess/AA_India/pages/India_12.shtml |archive-date=19 September 2009 |url-status=dead}}</ref> The work was commissioned by Akbar, and written by [[Abu'l-Fazl ibn Mubarak|Abul Fazl]], one of the ''Nine Jewels'' ([[Hindi]]: [[Navaratnas]]) of Akbar's royal court. The book reportedly took seven years to complete and the original manuscripts contained a number of paintings supporting the texts. The paintings are in the [[Mughal painting|Mughal school of painting]], and included works of masters of the imperial workshop, including [[Basawan]], whose use of portraiture in its illustrations was an innovation in [[Indian art]].<ref name="art" />

== Consorts and concubines ==
Akbar's first wife and one of the chief consorts was his cousin, Princess [[Ruqaiya Sultan Begum]],<ref name="Sang-E-Meel Pub">{{harvnb|Schimmel|2004|p=149}}</ref><ref name="Thackston1999p437" /> the only daughter of his paternal uncle, Prince [[Hindal Mirza]],<ref>{{harvnb|Jahangir|1999|p=40}}</ref> and his wife Sultanam Begum. In 1551, Hindal Mirza died fighting in a battle against Kamran Mirza's forces. Upon hearing the news of his brother's death, Humayun was overwhelmed with grief.<ref name="Erskine" /> Hindal's daughter Ruqaiya married Akbar about the time of his first appointment, at age nine, as governor of [[Ghazni Province]].<ref name="Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd" /> Akbar was also given the command of his uncle's army.<ref name="Ferishta1909" /> Akbar's marriage with Ruqaiya was solemnised near [[Jalandhar]], Punjab, when both of them were 14 years old.<ref name="Eraly 2000 123, 272" /> She was a senior-ranking wife of Akbar. She died childless in January 1626 and was buried next to her father's grave.<ref>{{cite book|last=Ruggles|first=Fairchild |author-link=D. Fairchild Ruggles|title=Islamic Gardens and Landscapes|year=2011|publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press|isbn=978-0-8122-0728-6|pages=194}}</ref>

His second wife was the daughter of Abdullah Khan Mughal.<ref name="Burke1989p143" /> The marriage took place in 1557 during the [[Siege of Mankot (1557)|Siege of Mankot]]. [[Bairam Khan]] did not approve of this marriage because Abdullah's sister was married to Akbar's uncle, Prince [[Kamran Mirza]], and so he regarded Abdullah as a partisan of Kamran. Bairam Khan opposed the match until Nasir-al-Mulk persuaded him that he could not oppose it. Nasir-al-Mulk organised a joyful gathering and a grand feast.<ref>{{harvnb|Beveridge Volume II|1907|p=88}}</ref>

His third wife and one of his three chief consorts was his cousin, [[Salima Sultan Begum]],<ref name="Burke1989p143">{{harvnb|Burke|1989|p=143}}</ref> the daughter of Nur-ud-din Muhammad Mirza and his wife Gulrukh Begum, also known as Gulrang, the daughter of Emperor [[Babur]]. She was at first betrothed to Bairam Khan by Humayun. After Bairam Khan died in 1561, Akbar married her in the same year. She was the foster mother of Akbar's second son, [[Murad Mirza]]. She was a poet and actively played a role in the politics of the Mughal court during Akbar's and Jahangir's reigns. She is regarded as the senior-most wife of Akbar. She died childless on 2 January 1613.<ref>{{harvnb|Jahangir|1999|p=140}}</ref>

Akbar's fourth and favourite wife, [[Mariam-uz-Zamani]],<ref name="farishta" /><ref>{{harvnb|Chaudhary|2011|p=77|ps=: "The mother of Jahangir was a pious Hindu princess, the most favourite queen of Akbar"}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Lal|1980|p=322}}</ref><ref name="Safdar2021">{{harvnb|Safdar|Khan|2021|p=186|ps=: "The most influential queen of the Mughal Emperor Akbar (1542–1605), and mother of Emperor Jahangir, was the beautiful Empress Mariam-uz- Zamani, commonly known as Jodha Bai ... Akbar allowed his favourite and most loved wife to build ships for trade and Haj pilgrims at the Khizri Darwaza on the River Ravi."}}</ref> commonly known by the misnomer Jodha Bai, was the daughter of the ruler of Amer, [[Raja Bharmal]], and by birth, was of [[Rajput clans|Rajput caste]]. They got married on 6 February 1562 at the imperial military camp in [[Sambhar, Rajasthan]], near [[Amber, India|Amer]], and became one of Akbar's chief consorts.<ref name="jlmehta" /> She gradually became one of his influential wives<ref name="Safdar2021" /> and was said to possess uncommon beauty.<ref>{{cite book|title=Tarikh-i-Salim Shahi|date=1829|editor-first=Mahor David|editor-last=Price}}</ref> Shortly after marriage, Akbar named her 'Wali Nimat Begum' (Blessings/Gift of God). Their marriage took place when Akbar was on his way back from [[Ajmer]] after offering prayers to the tomb of [[Moinuddin Chishti]]. Raja Bharmal had conveyed to Akbar that he was being harassed by his brother-in-law Sharif-ud-din Mirza (the Mughal ''[[hakim (title)|hakim]]'' of [[Mewat]]). Akbar insisted that the Raja should submit to him personally; it was also suggested that his daughter should be married to him as a sign of complete submission.<ref>{{harvnb|Beveridge Volume II|1907|pp=240–243}}</ref> Her marriage is considered one of the most important events in the history of the Mughal Empire.<ref name="Prasad1930">{{harvnb|Prasad|1930|p=2}}</ref> She became his first wife to have given birth to Akbar's sons. In 1564, she delivered twins named Mirza Hassan and Mirza Hussain and in 1569, she was honoured with the title of 'Mariam-uz-Zamani' after giving birth to their third and first surviving son, Prince Salim (the future emperor [[Jahangir]]), the heir to the throne. She was also the foster mother of Akbar's favourite son, [[Daniyal Mirza]].<ref>{{harvnb|Beveridge Volume II|1907|p=543|ps=: "An order was issued that when this celestial star should be a month old, his cradle should be conveyed to the town of Amber and the care of him committed to the Rani, the wife of Rajah Bara Mal ... The making over Daniel to this Rani would seem to imply that the mother of Daniel was related to her; it might also strengthen the tradition that the Rani's daughter was Jahangir's mother."}}</ref>

[[File:AkbarMariamuzZamani.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|Portrait of Jalaluddin Muhammad Akbar with [[Mariam-uz-Zamani|Mariam Zamani Begum]], commonly known as [[Mariam-uz-Zamani#The misnomer of Jodha Bai|Jodha Bai]]]]

She commanded a high rank in the imperial harem and was a recipient of many privileges.<ref>{{harvnb|Beveridge Volume III|1907|p=49|ps=: "When the world-conquering armies had been deputed, the Shāhinshāh proceeded stage by stage. On the day that he reached Sirohī, Mādhū* Singh and a number of men were sent to fetch that nursling of fortune's garden, Shahzāda Sultān Daniel, who had been conveyed from Ajmīr to Amber, so that he might be brought back to Ajmīr, and might come under the shadow of the Presence. In order to do honour to Rajah Bhagwān Das, his auspicious sister, who held high rank in the imperial harem, was sent off in order so that she might be present at the mourning for her brother Bhūpat, who had fallen in the battle of Sarnāl."}}</ref> She was an intellectual woman<ref>{{harvnb|Beveridge Volume II|1907|p=242|ps=:"The Rajah from right thinking and elevated fortune considered that he should bring himself of the ruck of landholders and make himself one of the distinguished ones of the Court. In order to effect this purpose he thought of a special alliance, to wit that he should by means of those who had the right of entree introduce his eldest daughter, in whose forehead shone the lights of chastity and intellect, among the attendants on the glorious pavilion."}}</ref> who held a considerable influence in Akbar's court and is known as the prime driving force for Akbar's promotion of secularism and religious neutrality.<ref name=lal9>{{harvnb|Lal|1980|p=222}}</ref> She was also a great female patron of the architecture of her time.<ref>{{harvnb|Koch|1990|p=90}}</ref> She died on 19 May 1623 in Agra and was buried in a grave close to her husband, Akbar, in Sikandra, Agra.<ref>{{harvnb|Jahangir|1999|p=397}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Findly|first=Ellison B.|title=Nur Jahan|date=1993|pages=177–178|quote=About this time, Jahangir's own immediate family experienced some changes. His mother, the charismatic and adventurous Hindu widow of Akbar, Maryamuzzamani, died early in the summer of 1623 in Agra and was buried in a tomb in Sikandra near her husband, Akbar. Maryamuzzamani had played an important social role in Jahangir's life by hosting most of his family celebrations at her own home, and she had, in the larger arena, helped chart the role of Mughal women in the newly expanding business of foreign trade. Though Jahangir must have grieved immensely at her death, his notice of it in his memoirs was very short, saying only that “I trust that Almighty God will envelop her in the ocean of His mercy.” She was the last in the illustrious series of parents to die in this period, and her death came, strangely, only four years before Jahangir's own.}}</ref>

In 1562, Akbar married the former wife of Abdul Wasi, the son of Shaikh Bada, lord of Agra. Akbar was enamored with her beauty and ordered Abdul Wasi to divorce her.<ref>{{harvnb|Badayuni|1884|pp=59–60}}</ref> Another of his wives was Gauhar-un-Nissa Begum, the daughter of Shaikh Muhammad Bakhtiyar and the sister of Shaikh Jamal Bakhtiyar. Their dynasty was called Din Laqab they lived in Chandwar and Jalesar near Agra.<ref>{{cite book |author=Rahim |first=Maulavi Abdur |title=Ma'asir al-Umara by Nawab Shams-ud-Daulah Shahnawaz Khan – Volume II (Persian) |publisher=Asiatic Society of Bengal |location=Calcutta, India |pages=564, 566}}</ref> He married the daughter of Jagmal Rathore, son of Rao Viramde of [[Merta City|Merta]] in 1562.<ref>{{harvnb|Saran|Ziegler|2001b|pp=366–367}}</ref>

His next marriage took place in 1564 to the daughter of Miran Mubarak Shah, the ruler of [[Khandesh]]. In 1564, he sent presents to the court with a request that his daughter be married to Akbar. Miran's request acceded and an order was issued. Itimad Khan was sent with Miran's ambassadors. Miran welcomed Itimad with honour and despatched his daughter with him. A large number of nobles accompanied her. The marriage took place in September 1564 when she reached Akbar's court.<ref>{{harvnb|Beveridge Volume II|1907|p=352}}</ref> As a dowry, Mubarak Shah ceded Bijagarh and Handia to his imperial son-in-law.<ref>{{cite book|first=Mohd. Ilyas|last=Quddusi|title=Khandesh under the Mughals, 1601–1724 A.D.: mainly based on Persian sources|publisher=Islamic Wonders Bureau|year=2002|pages=4}}</ref>

He married another Rajput princess in 1570, Raj Kunwari, daughter of Kanha, the brother of Rai Kalyan Mal, the ruler of [[Bikaner State|Bikanir]].<ref name="Waseem-2003">{{harvnb|Waseem|2003|pp=78–79}}</ref> The marriage took place in 1570 when Akbar came to this part of the country. Kalyan made a homage to Akbar and requested that his brother's daughter be married to him. Akbar accepted his proposal, and the marriage was arranged.<ref name="BeveridgeIIp518">{{harvnb|Beveridge Volume II|1907|p=518}}</ref> He also married Bhanmati, daughter of Bhim Raj, another brother of Rai Kalyan Mal.<ref name="Waseem-2003" /> He also married Nathi Bai, daughter of Rawal Har Rai, the ruler of [[Jaisalmer State|Jaisalmer]] in 1570.<ref name="BeveridgeIIp518" /><ref>{{harvnb|Manchanda|2001|p=24}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Somani|1990|p=55}}</ref> Rawal had sent a request that his daughter be married to Akbar. The proposal was accepted by Akbar. Raja Bhagwan Das was despatched on this service. The marriage ceremony took place after Akbar's return from [[Nagor]].<ref>{{harvnb|Beveridge Volume II|1907|pp=518–519}}</ref> She was the mother of Princess Mahi Begum, who died on 8 April 1577.<ref>{{harvnb|Beveridge Volume II|1907|p=283}}</ref> In 1570, Narhardas, a grandson of Rao Viramde of [[Merta City|Merta]], married his sister, Puram Bai, to Akbar in return for Akbar's support of Keshodas's claims on Merta.<ref>{{harvnb|Saran|Ziegler|2001a|p=4}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Saran|Ziegler|2001b|p=362}}</ref>

Another of his wives was Bhakkari Begum, the daughter of Sultan Mahmud of Bhakkar.<ref>{{harvnb|Hasan Siddiqi|1972|p=166}}</ref> On 2 July 1572, Akbar's envoy Itimad Khan reached Mahmud's court to escort his daughter to Akbar. Itimad Khan brought a dress, a bejewelled scimitar belt, a horse with a saddle and reins, and four elephants. Mahmud celebrated the occasion by holding extravagant feasts for fifteen days. On the day of the wedding, the ulema, saints, and nobles were honoured with rewards. Mahmud offered 30,000 rupees in cash and kind to Itimad Khan and sent his daughter with a grand dowry and an entourage.<ref>{{harvnb|Ahsan|2005|p=}}</ref> She came to Ajmer and waited upon Akbar. The gifts of Sultan Mahmud, carried by the delegation, were presented to the ladies of the imperial harem.<ref>{{harvnb|Akhtar|1983|pp=78, 79, 81}}</ref>

His eleventh wife was Qasima Banu Begum,<ref name="Burke1989p144">{{harvnb|Burke|1989|p=144}}</ref> the daughter of Arab Shah. The marriage took place in 1575. A fest was held, at which the high officers and other pillars of the state were present.<ref>{{harvnb|Beveridge Volume III|1907|pp=167–168}}</ref> In 1577, the Rawal Askaran of [[Dungarpur State]] requested that his daughter be married to Akbar. Akbar granted his request.<ref>{{harvnb|Beveridge Volume III|1907|p=278}}</ref> Rai Loukaran and Rajah Birbar, servants of the Rajah, were sent from Dihalpur to do the honour of conveying his daughter. The two delivered her to Akbar's court where the marriage took place on 12 July 1577.<ref>{{harvnb|Beveridge Volume III|1907|p=295}}</ref>

His twelfth wife was Bibi Daulat Shad.<ref name="Burke1989p144" /> She was the mother of Princess Shakr-un-Nissa Begum, and Princess [[Aram Banu Begum]]<ref>{{harvnb|Jahangir|1999|p=39}}</ref> born on 22 December 1584.<ref>{{harvnb|Beveridge Volume III|1907|p=661|ps=: "One of the occurrences was the birth of Ārām Bānū Begam.* On 12 Dai, 22 December 1584, divine month, and the 19th degree of Sagittarius, and according to the calculation of the Indians, one degree and 54 minutes, that night-gleaming jewel of fortune appeared and glorified the harem of the Shāhinshāh."}}</ref> His next wife was the daughter of Shams Chak, a Kashmiri. The marriage took place on 3 November 1592.<ref>{{harvnb|Beveridge Volume III|1907|p=958}}</ref> In 1593, he married the daughter of Qazi Isa and the cousin of Najib Khan. Najib told Akbar that his uncle had made his daughter a present for him. Akbar accepted his representation and on 3 July 1593, he visited Najib Khan's house and married Qazi Isa's daughter.<ref>{{harvnb|Beveridge Volume III|1907|p=985}}</ref>

At some point, Akbar took into his harem Rukmavati, a daughter [[Maldeo Rathore]], Rao of [[Jodhpur State|Marwar]], by his mistress, Tipu Gudi. This was a ''dolo'' union as opposed to a formal marriage, representing the bride's lower status in her father's household, and serving as an expression of vassalage to an overlord. The dating of this event is not recorded.<ref name="Sreenivasan2006">{{harvnb|Sreenivasan|2006|pp=152, 159}}</ref><ref name="Chandra1993">{{harvnb|Chandra|1993|pp=17–18}}</ref>

== Death ==
[[File:Gate of the Tomb of Akbar at Sikandra, Agra, India, 1795.jpg|thumb|Gate of [[Akbar's tomb|Akbar's mausoleum]] at Sikandra, Agra, 1795]]

On 3 October 1605, Akbar fell ill from an attack of [[dysentery]],<ref name="India Today" /> from which he never recovered. He is believed to have died on 26 October 1605. He was buried at [[Akbar's tomb|his mausoleum]] in Sikandra, Agra,<ref>{{Harvnb|Majumdar|1974|pp=168–169}}</ref> which lies a kilometer next to the [[tomb of Mariam-uz-Zamani]], his favourite consort.<ref name="farishta" /><ref name="jlmehta" />

== Legacy ==
Akbar firmly entrenched the authority of the Mughal Empire in India and beyond, after it had been threatened by the Afghans during his father's reign,<ref>{{Harvnb|Habib|1997|p=79}}</ref> establishing its military and diplomatic superiority.<ref>{{Harvnb|Majumdar|1974|p=170}}</ref>

[[Folklore|Folk tales]] revolving around him and [[Birbal]], one of his ''navratnas'', are popular in India. He and his Hindu wife, Mariam-uz-Zamani are widely popular, as the latter is believed to have been the prime inspiration and driving force for Akbar's promotion of secularism and universal benevolence.<ref name=lal9 />

Citing Akbar's melding of the disparate "fiefdoms" of India into the [[Mughal Empire]], as well as the lasting legacy of "pluralism and tolerance" that "underlies the values of the modern republic of India", [[Time (magazine)|''Time'']] included him in its list of top 25 world leaders.<ref name="time">{{cite magazine |last=Tharoor |first=Ishaan |date=4 February 2011 |title=Top 25 Political Icons: Akbar the Great |url=http://www.time.com/time/specials/packages/article/0,28804,2046285_2045996_2046303,00.html |url-status=dead |magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110207230652/http://www.time.com/time/specials/packages/article/0,28804,2046285_2045996_2046303,00.html |archive-date=7 February 2011}}</ref>

Akbar's legacy is largely negative in [[Pakistan]]. Historian [[Mubarak Ali]], in a study of the image of Akbar in Pakistani textbooks, has observed that Akbar "is conveniently ignored and not mentioned in any school textbook from class one to matriculation",<ref name="Ali1992" /> as opposed to the omnipresence of [[emperor Aurangzeb]]. He quotes historian [[Ishtiaq Hussain Qureshi]], who said that, due to his religious tolerance, "Akbar had so weakened Islam through his policies that it could not be restored to its dominant position in the affairs".<ref name="Ali1992" /> A common thread among Pakistani historians is criticism of Akbar's [[Rajput]] policy. Ali has stated that "Akbar is criticized for bringing Muslims and Hindus together as one nation and putting the separate identity of the Muslims in danger. This policy of Akbar contradicts the [[Two-nation theory|theory of Two-Nation]] and therefore makes him an unpopular figure in Pakistan."<ref name="Ali1992">{{harvnb|Ali|1992|pp=73–76}}</ref>

== Issue ==

=== Sons ===
Akbar's sons were:
* [[Mariam-uz-Zamani#Birth of twins|Hassan Mirza]] (19 October 1564 &ndash; 5 November 1564) (twin with Hussain Mirza)—with [[Mariam-uz-Zamani]]<ref name="Lal1980p133">{{harvnb|Lal|1980|p=133}}</ref>
* [[Mariam-uz-Zamani#Birth of twins|Hussain Mirza]] (19 October 1564 &ndash; 29 October 1564) (twin with Hassan Mirza)—with Mariam-uz-Zamani<ref name="Lal1980p133" />
* [[Jahangir]] (31 August 1569 &ndash; 28 October 1627)—with Mariam-uz-Zamani —Born Salim Mirza, he succeeded Akbar to the throne.
* [[Murad Mirza (son of Akbar)|Murad Mirza]] (15 June 1570 &ndash; 12 May 1599)—with a concubine—Entrusted to [[Salima Sultan Begum]] for the first few years, he returned to his mother's care before 1575.
* [[Daniyal Mirza]] (11 September 1572 &ndash; 19 March 1605)—with a concubine—Fostered by Mariam-uz-Zamani

=== Daughters ===
His daughters were:
* Fatima Banu Begum ({{circa|1562}}; {{Abbr|d.|death}} infancy)<ref name="Prasad1930" /><ref>{{harvnb|Eraly|2000|p=171|ps=: "His first child was a daughter, Fatima Banu Begum, but she died in infancy, and so did the first sons born to him, twins named Hasan and Husain, born in 1564; they lived only a month."}}</ref>
* [[Shahzadi Khanum]] (born 21 November 1569)—with Bibi Salima. Fostered by [[Mariam Makani]]. Married to Muzaffar Hussain Mirza, [[Timurid dynasty|Timurid Prince]] 
* Mahi Begum (died 7 April 1577)—with Nathi Bai
* [[Shakr-un-Nissa Begum]] (died 1 January 1653)—with Bibi Daulat Shad. Married to Shahrukh Mirza
* [[Aram Banu Begum]] (22 December 1584 &ndash; 17 June 1624)—with Bibi Daulat Shad

He had also adopted several children including:
* Kishnavati Bai (died August 1609)—daughter of Sekhavat Kachvahi Durjan Sal. Akbar took her as his own and had her married to [[Sur Singh|Sawai Raja Sur Singh]] of [[Jodhpur State|Marwar]]; she became the mother of [[Gaj Singh of Marwar|Maharaja Gaj Singh]] of Marwar and Manbhavati Bai, wife of [[Parviz Mirza]]<ref>{{harvnb|Saran|Ziegler|2001b|p=51}}</ref>

== In popular culture ==
=== Films and television ===
* ''[[Shahenshah Akbar]]'' is a 1943 Indian [[Hindi]]-language film about the emperor.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopaediaofi0000raja/page/642/mode/2up?q=%22Shahenshah+Akbar%22 |title=Encyclopaedia of Indian cinema |first=Ashish |last=Rajadhyaksha |date=1 January 1999 |publisher=London : British Film Institute |via=Internet Archive}}</ref>
* Akbar was portrayed in the award-winning 1960 [[Bollywood|Hindi movie]] ''[[Mughal-e-Azam]]'' (The Great Mughal), in which his character was played by [[Prithviraj Kapoor]].<ref name="cell">{{Cite news |last=Vijayakar, Rajiv |date=6 August 2010 |title=Celluloid Monument |work=[[The Indian Express]] |url=http://www.indianexpress.com/news/celluloid-monument/656505/0 |url-status=dead |access-date=12 June 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130703045336/http://www.indianexpress.com/news/celluloid-monument/656505/0 |archive-date=3 July 2013}}</ref>
* In the 1958 Urdu film ''[[Anarkali (1958 film)|Anarkali]]'', he was portrayed by Himalyawala.<ref name="TNI">{{Cite news |author=Gul |first=Aijaz |date=8 May 2016 |title='Anarkali' screened at Mandwa |url=https://www.thenews.com.pk/print/118242-Anarkali-screened-at-Mandwa |access-date=11 June 2022 |newspaper=The News International (newspaper)}}</ref>
* The [[Government of India]]'s [[Films Division of India|Films Division]] produced ''Akbar'', a documentary film about the emperor, in 1967, directed by Shanti S. Varma. It won the [[National Film Award for Best Educational/Motivational/Instructional Film]].
* [[Om Shivpuri]] played Akbar in the 1978 movie ''[[Bhakti Mein Shakti]]''.
* [[Akbar Salim Anarkali|Akbar Saleem Anarkali]] is a 1979 Indian [[Telugu language|Telugu]]-language film about the [[Anarkali]] legend directed by [[N. T. Rama Rao]], with Rao also portraying the role of Akbar.
* Akbar was portrayed by [[Amjad Khan (actor)|Amjad Khan]] in the 1979 movie ''[[Meera]]''.
* Akbar was portrayed by [[Hrithik Roshan]] in the 2008 Bollywood film ''[[Jodhaa Akbar]]''.
* Akbar and Birbal were portrayed in the Hindi series ''Akbar-Birbal'' aired on [[Zee TV]] in the late 1990s where Akbar's role was played by [[Vikram Gokhale]].
* A television series, called ''Akbar the Great'', directed by [[Akbar Khan (director)|Akbar Khan]] was aired on [[DD National]] in the 1990s.
* In 2013–2015, a television series, called ''[[Jodha Akbar]]'' aired on Zee TV, in which the role of Akbar was played by actor [[Rajat Tokas]].
* In the Motu Patlu episode "Motu Akbar The Great", John fools Motu into believing that he is playing Akbar in a Hit Film.
* Akbar was portrayed by [[Uday Tikekar]] in [[EPIC (TV channel)|EPIC]] channel's critically acclaimed historical drama ''[[Siyaasat]]'' (based on the novel ''The Twentieth Wife'').
* In [[Sony Entertainment Television|Sony TV]]'s historical drama ''[[Bharat Ka Veer Putra – Maharana Pratap]]'', Akbar was at first portrayed by [[Krip Suri]] and later by [[Avinesh Rekhi]].
* Akbar is portrayed by [[Kiku Sharda]] in [[BIG Magic]]'s sitcom ''[[Akbar Birbal]]''.
* [[Mohammed Iqbal Khan]] played the role of Akbar in ABP News' documentary series, [[Bharatvarsh (TV series)|Bharatvarsh]].
* ''Akbar Rakht Se Takht Ka Safar'' is a 2017 Indian drama television series tracing Akbar's journey to the Mughal throne.
* [[Shahbaz Khan (actor)|Shahbaz Khan]] played the role of Akbar in the Colors television show [[Dastaan-E-Mohabbat Salim Anarkali]].
* [[Ali Asgar (actor)|Ali Asgar]] portrayed the emperor in the 2020 Indian comedy television series, ''[[Akbar Ka Bal Birbal]]''.
* [[Naseeruddin Shah]] portrayed him in [[ZEE5]]'s web series [[Taj: Divided by Blood]].<ref>{{Citation |title=Taj – Divided By Blood: Naseeruddin Shah All Set To Play Emperor Akbar In New Web Series! |date=14 February 2023 |url=https://www.koimoi.com/television/taj-divided-by-blood-naseeruddin-shah-all-set-to-play-emperor-akbar-in-new-web-series/ |access-date=17 February 2023}}</ref>

=== Fiction ===
* Akbar is a principal character in [[Indu Sundaresan]]'s award-winning novel ''The Twentieth Wife'' (2002) as well as in its sequel ''The Feast of Roses'' (2003).<ref>{{cite book |last=Sundaresan |first=Indu |title=The Twentieth Wife |date=2003 |publisher=Simon & Schuster |isbn=0743428188}}</ref>
* A fictionalised Akbar plays an important supporting role in [[Kim Stanley Robinson]]'s 2002 novel, ''[[The Years of Rice and Salt]]''.<ref>{{cite book |last=Robinson |first=Kim Stanley |title=The Years of Rice and Salt |date=2002 |publisher=Bantam Books |isbn=0-553-10920-0}}</ref>
* Akbar is also a major character in [[Salman Rushdie]]'s 2008 novel ''[[The Enchantress of Florence]]''.<ref>{{cite book |last=Rushdie |first=Salman |title=The Enchantress of Florence |date=2008 |publisher=Random House |isbn=9780099421924}}</ref>
* In [[Kunal Basu]]'s ''[[The Miniaturist (Kunal Basu novel)|The Miniaturist]]'', the story revolves around a young painter during Akbar's time who paints his own version of the ''Akbarnamu''.
* Akbar is mentioned as 'Raja Baadshah' in the [[Chhattisgarhi]] [[Folklore|folktale]] of "[[Mohna de gori kayina]]".
* Akbar is the main character in ''[[Empire of the Moghul]]: Ruler of the World'' by [[Alex Rutherford]], the third book in a sextet based on the six great Mughal Emperors of the Mughal Dynasty.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ruler of the World (Empire of the Moghul, #3) |url=https://www.goodreads.com/work/best_book/14546479-ruler-of-the-world-empire-of-the-moghul-3 |access-date=14 August 2021 |website=www.goodreads.com}}</ref>

=== Video games ===
* Akbar is featured in the video game [[Sid Meier]]'s ''[[Civilization IV: Beyond the Sword]]'' as a "great general" available in the game.
* Akbar is the AI Personality of India in ''[[Age of Empires III: The Asian Dynasties]]''.

== See also ==
* [[Akbar II]]
* [[Ashoka]]
* [[List of people known as the Great]]

== Notes ==
{{notelist}}

== References ==
{{Reflist|23em}}

== Bibliography ==
{{Refbegin|30em}}
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* {{cite book |last1=Abul Fazl 'Allami |author-link=Abu'l-Fazl ibn Mubarak |translator-last=Beveridge |translator-first=Henry |translator-link=Henry Beveridge (orientalist) |year=1907 |title=The Akbar Nama of Abu-l-Fazl |volume=II |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.55649/page/n3/mode/2up |location=Calcutta, India |publisher=Asiatic Society |ref={{harvid|Beveridge Volume II|1907}}}}
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* {{cite book |last1=Chandra |first1=Satish |author-link=Satish Chandra (historian) |year=1993 |title=Mughal Religious Policies, the Rajputs & the Deccan |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.119462/page/n24/mode/1up |publisher=Vikas Publishing House |location=New Delhi, India |isbn=978-0-7069-6385-4}}
* {{cite book |last1=Chaudhary |first1=S. N. Roy |year=2011 |title=Restoration of Split Milk |publisher=Gyan Publishing House |isbn=978-81-212-1046-1}}
* {{cite book |last=Chua |first=Amy |date=2007 |title=Day of Empire: How Hyperpowers Rise to Global Dominance – and Why They Fall |publisher=Doubleday |isbn=978-0-385-51284-8 |url=https://archive.org/details/dayofempirehowhy00chua_0}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Codrington |first1=K. de B. |date=March 1943 |title=Portraits of Akbar, the Great Mughal (1542–1605) |journal=[[The Burlington Magazine for Connoisseurs]] |volume=82 |issue=480 |pages=64–67 |jstor=868499}}
* {{cite book |last=Collier |first=Dirk |year=2011 |title=The Emperor's writings: Memories of Akbar the great |publisher=Amaryllis |isbn=978-81-910673-6-1}}
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{{Refend}}

== Further reading ==
{{Refbegin|30em}}
* [[Abu'l-Fazl ibn Mubarak]] ''Akbar-namah'' Edited with commentary by Muhammad [[Sadiq Ali]] (Kanpur-Lucknow: Nawal Kishore) 1881–83 Three Vols. ([[Persian Language|Persian]])
* Abu al-Fazl ibn Mubarak ''Akbarnamah'' Edited by Maulavi [[Abd Al-Rahim]]. Bibliotheca Indica Series (Calcutta: Asiatic Society of Bengal) 1877–1887 Three Vols. ([[Persian Language|Persian]])
* Haji Muhammad 'Arif Qandahari ''Tarikh-i-Akbari (Better known as Tarikh-i-Qandahari)'' edited & Annotated by Haji Mu'in'd-Din Nadwi, Dr. Azhar 'Ali Dihlawi & Imtiyaz 'Ali 'Arshi ([[Rampur Raza Library]]) 1962 ([[Persian Language|Persian]])
* Martí Escayol, Maria Antònia. "Antoni de Montserrat in the Mughal Garden of good government European construction of Indian nature", ''Word, Image, Text: Studies in Literary and Visual Culture'', ed. Shormistha Panja et al., Orient Blackswan, New Delhi, 2009. {{ISBN|978-81-250-3735-4}}
* Satyananda Giri, ''Akbar'', Trafford Publishing, 2009, {{ISBN|978-1-4269-1561-1}}
* John Correia-Afonso, ''Letters from the Mughal court'', Bombay, 1980.
* {{cite book |last=Augustus |first=Frederick |location=Calcutta, India |translator=Annette Susannah Beveridge |title=The Emperor Akbar, a contribution towards the history of India in the 16th century (Vol. 1) |url=https://archive.org/stream/emperorakbaraco00buchgoog#page/n8/mode/1up |year=1890 |publisher=Thacker, Spink and Company}}
* {{cite book |last=Augustus |first=Frederick |location=Calcutta, India |translator=Annette Susannah Beveridge |editor=Gustav von Buchwald |title=The Emperor Akbar, a contribution towards the history of India in the 16th century (Vol. 2) |url=https://archive.org/stream/emperorakbaraco00augugoog#page/n4/mode/1up |year=1890 |publisher=Thacker, Spink and Company}}
* {{cite book |last=Malleson |first=Colonel G. B. |title=Akbar and the Rise of the Mughal Empire |series=[[Rulers of India series]] |url=https://archive.org/stream/rulersofindiaakb009177mbp#page/n7/mode/2up |year=1899 |publisher=Oxford at the Clarendon Press}}
* [https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/18307 ''The Adventures of Akbar'' by Flora Annie Steel, 1847–1929 (ebook)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200902044145/http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/18307 |date=2 September 2020 }}
* {{cite book |last=Havell |first=Ernest Binfield |author-link=Ernest Binfield Havell |title=The History of Aryan Rule in India from the earliest times to the death of Akbar |url=https://archive.org/stream/historyofaryanru00have#page/n9/mode/2up |year=1918 |location=New York |publisher=Frederick A. Stokes Company}}
* {{cite book |last=Moreland |first=W. H. |title=India at the death of Akbar: An economic study |url=https://archive.org/stream/cu31924022895001#page/n5/mode/2up |year=1920 |location=London, England |publisher=Macmillan & Company}}
* {{cite book |last=Monserrate |first=Father Antonio |title=The commentary of Father Monserrate, S. J., on his journey to the court of Akbar |url=https://archive.org/stream/commentaryoffath00monsuoft#page/n7/mode/2up |year=1922 |publisher=Oxford University Press}}
* {{cite book |last=Shrivastava |first=A. L. |title=A short history of Akbar the Great. |year=1957 |publisher=Shiva Lal Agarwala |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.131063}}
{{Refend}}

== External links ==
{{Wikiquote}}
{{EB1911 poster|Akbar, Jellaladin Mahommed}}
* {{Commons category-inline}}
* [https://www.loc.gov/item/2021666203/ ''The Drama of Akbar''] by [[Muhammad Husain Azad]] from 1922

{{S-start}}
{{s-hou|[[Timurid dynasty]]||14 October 1542||27 October 1605}}
{{s-reg|}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Humayun]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Mughal Emperor]]|years=1556–1605}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Jahangir]]}}
{{end}}
{{Mughal Empire}}
{{Agra district}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Akbar| ]]
[[Category:1542 births]]
[[Category:1605 deaths]]
[[Category:16th-century Indian monarchs]]
[[Category:17th-century Indian monarchs]]
[[Category:Child monarchs from Asia]]
[[Category:Deaths from dysentery]]
[[Category:Founders of religions]]
[[Category:Indian people of Iranian descent]]
[[Category:Indian Sunni Muslims]]
[[Category:Indian warriors]]
[[Category:Emperors of the Mughal Empire]]
[[Category:Muslim monarchs]]
[[Category:People from Agra]]
[[Category:People from Umerkot]]
[[Category:16th-century Mughal Empire people]]